ECE 5984: Power Distribution System Analysis

Lecture 3: Approximate Analysis

Reference: Textbook, Chapter 3
Instructor: V. Kekatos

1
Approximate analysis

•  Develop approximate methods for determining voltage drops and power losses

•  Balanced three-phase operation is assumed

§  balanced three-phase loads
§  transposed three-phase lines

•  Single-phase (line-to-neutral) equivalent

VS = ZI + VL

Voltage drop: V := |VS | |VL |

Power losses: P` := 3R|I|2

2
Line impedance

•  Due to transposition and balanced loads, positive-sequence impedance suffices

✓ ◆
D̄
z1 = r + j! · 2 · 10 7 · ln ⌦/m
R̄
✓ ◆
D̄
= r + j · 0.1213 · ln ⌦/mile
R̄

1/3
GMD: D̄ := (Dab Dbc Dca )

GMR: R̄

3
Voltage drop

•  Because is small, approximate V ' Re(ZI) [Why?]

Example: VS = 2400 V, Z = 0.284 + j0.568 ⌦, I = 43\ 25 A

=) VL = 2378.41\ 0.40 V

exact voltage drop: V = 21.59 V = 0.9%

approx. voltage drop: V = 21.65 V = 0.9%

4
‘Voltage-square law’

Both relative voltage drop and power losses are (approximately) inversely proportional to the
LL voltage level

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
S⇤ V ZS ⇤
V ' Re(ZI) ' Re Z p ) = Re 2
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3VLL VLN VLL

2
S 2 R|S|2
P` = 3R|I| ' 3R p ) P` = 2
3VLL
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VLL

If you double the voltage level, you can transfer four times more power for the
same relative voltage drop

5
Kdrop factor

•  Factors used for fast and approximate voltage drop calculations

Definition: Voltage drop relative to nominal phase voltage for serving 1 kVA load with
given power factor located 1 mile away

V [%]
Kdrop :=
kVA · mile

•  From previous approximation V ' Re(ZI)

•  Use per-mile impedance z [Ohm/mile]

1, 000 typical assumption:

•  From previous approximation I=p expj✓ PF 0.9 lagging
3VLL
✓ = 25.84
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<latexit sha1_base64="qMdy7TkdDW9/FwTHZjbVwmZzHDQ=">AAAB+HicZVDLagIxFM3Yl7Uv+9h1M1QKXViZEUvdFIRuurRQH+AMkolXDWYyQ3KnoOK/uCt22f/oB/RvmlEXtR4I9+Tc3Nx7TxALrtFxfqzMzu7e/kH2MHd0fHJ6lj+/aOooUQwaLBKRagdUg+ASGshRQDtWQMNAQCsYPaf51jsozSP5huMY/JAOJO9zRtFI3fyVh0NA+nRffihVK14PBgqgmy84JWcJe5u4a1Iga9S7+W+vF7EkBIlMUK07rhOjP6UKORMwy3mJhpiyER1Ax1BJQ9D+dDn9zL41Ss/uR8ocifZS/VsxpaEOKQ6LJupxGKQRh2FxADK9mg/SrN5sgv2qP+UyThAkW/XoJ8LGyE5dsHtcAUMxNoQyxc2YNhtSRRkar3Jmf/f/ttukWS65Tsl9rRRq7tqJLLkmN+SOuOSR1MgLqZMGYWRC5mRBPq2JNbc+rMXqacZa11ySDVhfv0PmkhM=</latexit>

V Re(z · ej✓ )
•  Simplified expression Kdrop = ⇥ 100 = 2 ⇥ 105
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VLN VLL

6
Kdrop factor (cont’d)
Re(z · ej✓ )
•  Simplified expression Kdrop = 2 ⇥ 105 [% voltage drop (LN)/mile/kVA]
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VLL

•  Utilities compute K factors for all combinations of voltage levels and line types

Example: For a line with z = 0.306 + j0.627 ⌦/mile , compute Kdrop assuming lagging
PF 0.9 and nominal voltage of 12.47 kV
Kdrop = 3.53 · 10 4 <latexit sha1_base64="BPrScnoM4MuY6IMmxZwVMmWoiJ0=">AAACA3icZVBNSwMxEM36bf2qevRgsAgetOzail6EghfBSwWrgq0lm522odlkSWbFsvTor+lN6tGf4A/w35itPfgxEOblzUwm74WJFBZ9/9ObmZ2bX1hcWi6srK6tbxQ3t26tTg2HBtdSm/uQWZBCQQMFSrhPDLA4lHAX9i/y+t0TGCu0usFBAq2YdZXoCM7QUe3i7lW7ifCMWWR0MjyvlE8qTR5ppIH/mB1Vh+1iyS/7k6D/QTAFJTKNerv40Yw0T2NQyCWz9iHwE2xlzKDgEoaFZmohYbzPuvDgoGIx2FY2ETKk+46JaEcbdxTSCftzImOxjRn2Dl22gzjMM/biwy6o/OoeyKv29xLsnLUyoZIUQfHvHZ1UUtQ0N4RGwgBHOXCAcSPcNynvMcM4OtsKTn/wV+1/cHtcDvxycF0t1YKpE0tkh+yRAxKQU1Ijl6ROGoSTFzIiY/LmvXgj79Ubf7fOeNOZbfIrvPcvaF+WmA==</latexit>

•  Questions that can be easily answered with K factors:

How far can I serve a 7500 kVA load within the 3% voltage drop?
Kdrop · 7, 500 · d = 3 ) d = 1.13 miles
<latexit sha1_base64="PMVaTUy6/yyIP1hLTczk5XyMS/M=">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</latexit>

What is the maximum load I can serve within 1.5 miles from the substation?
Kdrop · L · 1.5 = 3 ) L = 5, 668 kVA
<latexit sha1_base64="BAFl0nr3g+AbDj1ME7Pa6aysfn4=">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</latexit>

7
Line segments in series

•  Voltage drops calculated through K factors apply additively

Example

|V0 | |V1 |
V01 = % = Kdrop · (300 + 750 + 500) · 1.5 = 0.82
<latexit sha1_base64="2DgdGVVCoegf4eCeETLR/n2XeEY=">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</latexit>
VLN

|V1 | |V2 |
V12 = % = Kdrop · (750 + 500) · 0.75 = 0.33
<latexit sha1_base64="PZfrj8pPG1lDLsQGK7EzOkEKsvg=">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</latexit>
VLN

<latexit sha1_base64="8FRND/Cbd2fC/aOmmJstXfBiIYE=">AAACEXicZVDbSgMxEM16t95WffQlWATBWjai6ItQ0AcfK9haaEvJptM2NJtdklmhLP0Kv6Zvoo/iB/g3ZtuCt4Ew55zJZHImTJS0GASf3sLi0vLK6tp6YWNza3vH392r2zg1AmoiVrFphNyCkhpqKFFBIzHAo1DBYzi8yeuPT2CsjPUDjhJoR7yvZU8Kjk7q+KetW1DIab2TnY2vv0nAxiffjLkaK7OLjl8MysE06H/A5qBI5lHt+B+tbizSCDQKxa1tsiDBdsYNSqFgXGilFhIuhrwPTQc1j8C2s6mtMT1ySpf2YuOORjpVf3ZkPLIRx0HJZTuKwjzjICr1QefUPZBX7e8h2LtqZ1InKYIWsxm9VFGMab4e2pUGBKqRA1wY6b5JxYAbLtAtseD8s79u/4P6WZkFZXZ/Xqyw+SbWyAE5JMeEkUtSIXekSmpEkGcyIa/kzXv2Jt6L9zq7uuDNe/bJr/DevwDhKZsB</latexit>
V2 = V01 + V12 = 1.15

8
Krise factor

•  Factors for approximately calculating voltage rise incurred by capacitors

Vrise [%]
Krise :=
kVAR · mile

Definition: Voltage rise relative to nominal phase voltage by 1 kVAR capacitor located
1 mile away

x
Vrise ' |Re(ZIc )| = X|Ic | Krise = 2 ⇥ 105
<latexit sha1_base64="GdKHd02AnZTRxjenG7aq6fsfCNE=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="i9GUzqnPWMVwePKh7Zj+nmd5AIc=">AAACFHicZVBNSwMxEM36WetX1aOXYBE8SNkVRS+C4EXQg4KtBbeWbDrbBrPZJZkVy7J/w1/jTepN7/4bs+0erB0I8/JmJpP3gkQKg67748zNLywuLVdWqqtr6xubta3tlolTzaHJYxnrdsAMSKGgiQIltBMNLAokPATPl0X94QW0EbG6x2ECnYj1lQgFZ2ipbs297voIr5hpYSA/90PNePaaZ62SvrnJn45yH0UEhnru00m3Vncb7jjoLPBKUCdl3HZrX34v5mkECrlkxjx6boKdjGkUXEJe9VMDCePPrA+PFipmN3WysbKc7lumR8NY26OQjtm/ExmLTMRwcGizGUZBkXEQHfZBFVf7QFE100swPOtkQiUpguKTHWEqKca0cIj2hAaOcmgB41rYb1I+YNYXtD5WrX7vv9pZ0DpqeG7DuzuuX3ilExWyS/bIAfHIKbkgV+SWNAknb+SdjMin8+a8Ox/OaNI655QzO2QqnO9fyLCfIQ==</latexit>
VLL

Example: For the previous line, find the Krise and the capacitor rating needed to fix a
voltage drop of 3.5% to 2.5% located 1.5 miles away

4
<latexit sha1_base64="t6pRYhYSpMfGPiqYf7ttgcMUt2E=">AAACA3icZVBNSwMxEM36WetX1aMHg0XwUMuuFvQiCF4ELwpWC91asum0Dc1ml2RWLMse+2u8iR79Cf4A/43Zuge1A2Fe3sxk8l4QS2HQdb+cufmFxaXl0kp5dW19Y7OytX1vokRzaPJIRroVMANSKGiiQAmtWAMLAwkPwegyrz88gTYiUnc4jqETsoESfcEZWqpb2bvu+gjPmGphIDtv1N0Tn/cipJ77mB41sm6l6tbdadBZ4BWgSoq46VY+/V7EkxAUcsmMaXtujJ2UaRRcQlb2EwMx4yM2gLaFioVgOulUSEYPLNOj/Ujbo5BO2d8TKQtNyHBYs9mMwyDPOAxrA1D51T6QV83fJdg/66RCxQmC4j87+omkGNHcENoTGjjKsQWMa2G/SfmQacbR2la2+r3/amfB/XHdc+vebaN64RVOlMgu2SeHxCOn5IJckRvSJJxMyAt5I+/OxHlxXp23n9Y5p5jZIX/C+fgGXyWWkg==</latexit>
Krise = 4.03 · 10 Krise · Qc · 1.5 = 1 ) Qc = 1, 653 kVAR
<latexit sha1_base64="pCQGFcWsaPUPnNY4xujDgDo6isM=">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</latexit>

9
Uniformly distributed discrete loads
l
L
IT
dx 1 dx 2 dx 3 dx 4 dx 5
n
N
S

di di di di di di

•  N loads uniformly distributed over a line segment of length L

•  Current loads drawing equal current

•  Analyze voltage drop at end of segment and total power losses

10
Uniformly distributed discrete loads (cont’d)

Voltage drop

⇢ ✓ ◆
1 1
V = Re ZI 1 +
2 N
⇢
N !1 1
= Re ZI
2

Power losses


1 1 1
P` = 3R|I|2 + +
3 2N 6N 2
N !1 R 2
= 3 |I|
3

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Uniformly distributed discrete loads (cont’d)

Can you replace all loads with two loads rather than one that agrees both in voltage
drop and power losses?

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Loads uniformly distributed over areas
•  Assume constant-current loads uniformly distributed over a geographic area

•  A primary distribution line runs across and serves the area

•  Given
§  load density D [kVA/mile2]
§  area shape and dimensions
§  geographical area A [mile2]
§  load PF (assumed constant)
§  per-mile impedance of main line
§  nominal voltage VLL

•  Wanted: Find voltage drop at the end of the primary and total power losses

•  Total current at the substation entering the primary

D·A
I=p \ cos 1
(PF)
3 · VLL

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Square area

⇢
1
Voltage drop V = Re ZI
2
✓ ◆
1
Power losses P` = 3 R|I|2
3

•  Compare to uniformly distributed loads

Example: Find power losses and choose voltage level between 4.16 and 12.47 kV for
rectangular area with

` = 10, 000 ft; w = 6, 000 ft; D = 2500 kVA/mile2 ; PF = 0.9; z = 0.306 + j0.627 ⌦/mile

1 mile = 5280 feet

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Triangular area

⇢
2
Voltage drop V = Re ZI
3
✓ ◆
8
Power losses P` = 3 R|I|2
15

•  K factors can be combined with formulas derived from distributed loads

Example: Find voltage drop in triangular area and placement of a 1,800 kVAR
capacitor to bring voltage within 3%
` = 15, 000 ft; w = 6, 000 ft; D = 3500 kVA/mile2 ; PF = 0.9
V [%] V [%]
Kdrop = 0.00035291 ; Krise = 0.00040331
kVA · mile kVAR · mile

why triangles and squares?

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Trapezoidal area

w1 + 2w2
Voltage drop V = Re {ZI}
3(w1 + w2 )

2
2 8w2+ 9w1 w2 + 3w12
Power losses P` = 3R|I|
15(w1 + w2 )2

•  Square area as special case w1 = w2 = w

•  Triangular area as special case w1 = 0; w2 = w

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Summary

•  Approximated voltage drop as |V1 |<latexit sha1_base64="jijE98Hu+wnV0vKt3UsyJHZ/Q3I=">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</latexit>

|V2 | ' Re{ZI12 }

•  Introduced Kdrop/Krise for fast calculations of voltage drops

•  Replaced uniformly distributed with discrete loads to match

losses and/or voltage drop

•  Derived formulas for voltage drop and power losses for basic area shapes

•  Aforementioned tools are useful for planning/design purposes

–  sizing transformers and capacitors
–  deciding voltage levels
–  assigning customers to feeders

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