ADVANCED ELECTRONICS-II

CODE : PHY-431
NOTES PREPARED BY : USAMA TARIQ

Tunnel Diode: Definition, Characteristics & Applications

What is a Tunnel Diode?
A tunnel diode (also known as a Esaki diode) is a type of semiconductor diode that has
effectively “negative resistance” due to the quantum mechanical effect called tunneling.
Tunnel diodes have a heavily doped pn junction that is about 10 nm wide. The heavy
doping results in a broken band gap, where conduction band electron states on the N-side
are more or less aligned with valence band hole states on the P-side.
The application of transistors in a very high in frequency range are hampered due to the
transit time and other effects. Many devices use the negative conductance property of
semiconductors for these high frequency applications. A tunnel diode is one of the most
commonly used negative conductance devices. It is also known as Esaki diode after L.
Esaki for his work on this effect.
The concentration of dopants in both p and n region is very high, at around 10 24 – 1025 m-3.
The pn junction is also abrupt. For this reasons, the depletion layer width is very small. In
the current voltage characteristics of tunnel diode, we can find a negative slope region
when a forward bias is applied.
The name “tunnel diode” is due to the quantum mechanical tunneling is responsible for
the phenomenon that occurs within the diode. The doping is very high so at absolute zero
temperature the Fermi levels lies within the bias of the semiconductors.

Characteristics of Tunnel Diode

When reverse bias is applied the Fermi level of the p-side becomes higher than the Fermi
level of n-side. Hence, the tunneling of electrons from the balance band of p-side to the
conduction band of n-side takes place. With the interments of the reverse bias the tunnel
current also increases.
When forward bias is applied the Fermi level of n-side becomes higher that the Fermi
level of p-side, thus the tunneling of electrons from the n-side to p-side takes place. The
amount of the tunnel current is very large than the normal junction current. When the
forward bias is increased, the tunnel current is increased up to certain limit.

When the band edge of n-side is the same as the Fermi level in p-side, the tunnel current is
maximum with the further increment in the forward bias the tunnel current decreases and
we get the desired negative conduction region. When the forward bias is raised further,
normal pn junction current is obtained which is exponentially proportional to the applied
voltage. The V-I characteristics of the tunnel diode is given,

The negative resistance is used to achieve oscillation and often Ck+ function is of very
high frequency frequencies.

Tunnel Diode Symbol

The symbol for a tunnel diode is shown below.

Tunnel Diode Applications

Tunnel diode is a type of sc diode which is capable of very fast and in microwave
frequency range. It was the quantum mechanical effect which is known as tunneling. It is
ideal for fast oscillators and receivers for its negative slope characteristics. But it cannot be
used in large integrated circuits – that’s why it’s an applications are limited.
When the voltage is first applied current stars flowing through it. The current increases
with the increase of voltage. Once the voltage rises high enough suddenly the current
again starts increasing and tunnel diode stars behaving like a normal diode. Because of
this unusual behavior, it can be used in number of special applications started below.

Oscillator Circuits:
Tunnel diodes can be used as high frequency oscillators as the transition between the high
electrical conductivity is very rapid. They can be used to create oscillation as high as 5Gz.
Even they are capable of creativity oscillation up to 100 GHz in a appropriate digital
circuits.
Used in Microwave Circuits:
Normal diode transistors do not perform well in microwave operation. So, for microwave
generators and amplifiers tunnel diode are used. In microwave waves and satellite
communication equipments they were used widely, but lately their usage is decreasing
rapidly, as transistors which operate in this frequency range are becoming available.
Resistant to Nuclear Radiation:
Tunnel diodes are resistant to the effects of magnetic fields, high temperature and
radioactivity. That’s why these can be used in modern military equipment. These are used
in nuclear magnetic resource machine also. But the most important field of its use satellite
communication equipments.
Tunnel Diode Oscillator
Tunnel diode can make a very stable oscillator circuit when they are coupled to a tuned
circuit or cavity, biased at the centre point of negative resistance region. Here is an
example of tunnel diode oscillatory circuit.

The tunnel diode is losing coupled to a tunable cavity. By using a short, antenna feed
probe placed in the cavity off center loose coupling is achieved. To increase the stability of
oscillation and achieve o/p power over wider bandwidth loose coupling is used. The
range of the output power produced is few hundred micro-watts.

This is useful for many microwave application. The physical position of the tuner
determining the frequency of operation. If the frequency of operation is changed by this
method, that is called mechanical tuning. Tunnel diode oscillators can be tuned
electronically also.

Tunnel diode oscillators which are meant to be operated at microwave frequencies,

generally used some form of transmission lines as tunnel circuit. These oscillators are
useful in application that requires a few millwatts of power, example- local oscillators for
microwave super electrodyne receiver.

IMPATT Diode:
IMPATT is an abbreviation used for IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time.
IMPATT diode is a very high power semiconductor device that is utilized for microwave
applications.
It is basically used as oscillator and amplifier at microwave frequencies. The operating
range of the IMPATT diode lies in the range of 3 to 100 GHz.
Basically it possesses negative resistance characteristic thus acts as an oscillator to
generate signals at microwave frequencies. It is a reverse-biased diode and Avalanche
condition is the basis of its operation.

Content: IMPATT Diode

1. Construction
2. Working
3. Advantages
4. Disadvantages
5. Applications
Construction

The figure here represents the structure of the IMPATT diode:

As we can see that it consists of 4 regions namely P+-N-I-N+
The structure of the IMPATT diode is somewhat similar to the PIN diode. However, it
operates on a very high voltage gradient of around 400KV/cm, so as to produce
avalanche current.
Generally, materials like GaAs, Si, Ge or InP are used for its construction.
However, GaAs is preferred because of its low noise behaviour.
Basically, it uses a slightly different structure from a normal diode. Because we know that
a normal PN junction diode breaks down under avalanche condition. As the generation of
a large amount of current causes the generation of heat inside it.

So variation in construction is adopted to produce RF signals at microwave frequencies.

Working of IMPATT Diode

As we have already discussed that these diodes operate on the principle of avalanche
breakdown and transit time delay.

So let’s first understand what is Avalanche Condition(breakdown).

An action that causes an abrupt increase in the junction current in reverse biased
condition of pn junction diode leading to junction breakdown is known as avalanche
breakdown.

We know that in reverse biased condition the width of the depletion region becomes
extremely thick. Due to which only minority carriers drift across the junction. In the
presence of a high electric field, the mobile charge carriers move with greater velocity.

During their movement, the high-velocity carriers collide with other atoms in the crystal
and generates electron-hole pairs. This causes multiplication of charge carriers inside the
crystal structure.

Thus the moving charges generate high current inside the device. This is known
as avalanche condition or impact ionization and is utilized in IMPATT diodes.
It is to be noted here that the overall external field provided to the diode is the summation
of RF ac signal and dc voltage.

 Initially when ac voltage is 0 then due to applied low dc voltage, a very small amount
of current flows through the diode. This current is generally known as pre-breakdown
current.
 But as the applied potential increases then the electric field inside the diode
increases. And as we have already discussed that with an increase in the electric field
there will be an increase in the number of generated electron-hole pairs due to impact
ionization.
The above figure clearly shows the avalanche region and drift space in the structure of the
diode.
The increase in superimposed ac field and dc potential causes the electrons in the p+
region to get injected into the I region in order to drift towards n+ region. This is so
because with the increase in the applied field the electrons will move towards the anode
and holes towards the cathode.
The moving electrons cause charge multiplication in the presence of a high electric field.

By this time the ac field now starts approaching 0 but due to secondary charge generation,
the concentration of electrons in the avalanche region will be extremely high.
This shows a phase shift of 90⁰ now gets generated between the ac input signal and
concentration of charge carriers in the avalanche region.

Thus while drifting from avalanche region to anode, the electrons generate high current
with a phase opposite to that of the applied ac signal.

During the negative half of the ac signal, even the dc potential is high, still, the reduction in
the overall electric field will cause decay in the concentration of carriers present in the
avalanche region. Thus the current flowing through it also gets reduced.

 In order to have the desired phase shift between the ac signal and diode current, the
thickness of the drift region must be properly selected.
The thickness of the drift region must be such that the electron bunch must be collected at
the anode till the time ac voltage is approaching 0. Thereby providing a phase shift of 90⁰.
This is so because the thickness of the drift region decides the time taken by the carriers
to reach the respective electrode.

Though all the carriers travel unequal distance while approaching the electrode. But the
introduced phase-shift due to drifting generates negative resistance.

The figure below represents the negative resistance characteristic of IMPATT diode with
respect to transit angle:
Hence in this way current through an IMPATT diode is generated.

Advantages

 It provides high operating range.

 It shows compactness in size.
 IMPATT diodes are economical.
 It provides reliable operation at high temperature.
Disadvantages

 The rate of generation of electron-hole pair in the avalanche region causes the
generation of high noise. Thus makes the system noisy.
 It offers a low tuning range.
 It offers high sensitivity to different operating conditions.
Applications

IMPATT diodes find applications in microwave oscillators, parametric amplifiers and

microwave generators. Along with these, other uses involve presence in intruder alarm
systems, telecommunication transmitters and receivers etc.

Quantum Tunneling
Quantum tunneling:  is the passing of electrons through an insulating barrier which is thin
compared to the de Broglie electron wavelength. If the “electron wave” is large compared
to the barrier, there is a possibility that the wave appears on both sides of the barrier.

Classical view of an electron surmounting a barrier, or not. Quantum mechanical view

allows an electron to tunnel through a barrier. The probability (green) is related to the
barrier thickness. After Figure 1

In classical physics, an electron must have sufficient energy to surmount a barrier.

Otherwise, it recoils from the barrier. (Figure above) Quantum mechanics allows for a
probability of the electron being on the other side of the barrier. If treated as a wave, the
electron may look quite large compared to the thickness of the barrier. Even when treated
as a wave, there is only a small probability that it will be found on the other side of a thick
barrier. See green portion of curve, Figure above. Thinning the barrier increases the
probability that the electron is found on the other side of the barrier.

MESFET & GaAs FET

The GaAs FET is a form of MESFET which provides excellent RF &
microwave performance.

The MESFET is a high performance form of field effect transistor that is used mainly for exacting microwave
applications both as a low noise signal amplifier and in higher power RF circuits.

The abbreviation MESFET stands for MEtal-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor and the most widely used form is
the GaAsFET fabricated using the III-IV semiconductor material gallium arsenide.

GaAs FET / MESFET structure

The MESFET structure is very similar to a junction FET or JFET. As the name of the MESFET indicates, it has a
metal contact directly onto the silicon, and this forms a Schottky barrier diode junction. As such the Schottky diode is
used as a reverse biased diode in the same was that a JFET does. The main difference is that the Schottky diode
forms a very much smaller diode.

The material that is used can be silicon or other forms of semiconductor. However the material that is most widely
used is gallium arsenide GaAs. Gallium arsenide is normally chosen because of the very superior electron mobility it
provides that enables superior high frequency operation to be achieved.

The substrate for the semiconductor device is semi-insulating for low parasitic capacitance, and then the active layer
is deposited epitaxially. The resulting channel is typically less than 0.2 microns thick.

The doping profile is normally non-uniform in a direction perpendicular to the gate. This makes for a device which
has good linearity and low noise. Most devices are required for high speed operation, and therefore an n-channel is
used because electrons have a much greater mobility than holes that would be present in a p-channel.

The gate contacts can be made from a variety of materials including Aluminium, a Titanium-Platinum-Gold layered
structure, Platinum itself, or Tungsten. These provide a high barrier height and this in turn reduces the leakage
current. This is particularly important for enhancement mode devices which require a forward biased junction.

The gate length to depth ratio is an important as this determines a number of the performance parameters. Typically
it is kept at around four as there is a trade-off between parasitic responses, speed, and short channel effects.

The source and drain regions are formed by ion-implantation. The drain contacts for GaAs MESFETs are normally
AuGe - a Gold-Germanium alloy.

There are two main structures that are used for MESFETs:

 Non-self aligned source and drain:   For this form of MESFET, the gate is placed on a section of the
channel. The gate contact does not cover the whole of the length of the channel. This arises because the source
and drain contacts are normally formed before the gate.
Self aligned source and drain:   This form of structure reduces the length of the channel and the gate contact
covers the whole length. This can be done because the gate is formed first, but in order that the annealing process
required after the formation of the source and drain areas by ion implantation, the gate contact must be able to
withstand the high temperatures and this results in the use of a limited number of materials being suitable.

MESFET operation
Like other forms of field effect transistor the GaAs Fet or MESFET has two forms that can be used:

 Enhancement mode MESFET:   In an enhancement-mode MESFET, the depletion region is wide enough
to pinch off the channel without applied voltage. Therefore the enhancement-mode MESFET is naturally "OFF".
When a positive voltage is applied between the gate and source, the depletion region shrinks, and the channel
becomes conductive. Unfortunately, a positive gate-to-source voltage puts the Schottky diode in forward bias,
where a large current can flow.
 Depletion mode MESFET:   If the depletion region does not extend all the way to the p-type substrate, the
MESFET is a depletion-mode MESFET. A depletion-mode MESFET is conductive or "ON" when no gate-to-
source voltage is applied and is turned "OFF" upon the application of a negative gate-to-source voltage, which
increases the width of the depletion region such that it "pinches off" the channel.

MESFET / GaAsFET characteristics

The MESFET is used in many RF amplifier applications. It is used in many RF and microwave applications where its
characteristics give it an edge over other technologies.

Some of the key characteristics include:

 High electron mobility:   The use of Gallium Arsenide or other high performance semiconductor materials
provides for a high level of electron mobility which is required for high performance RF applications. MESFET
 semiconductor technology has enabled amplifiers using these devices that can operate up to 50 GHz and more,
and some to frequencies of 100 GHz.
 Low capacitance levels:   The Schottky diode gate structure results in very low stray capacitance levels
which lend themselves to excellent RF and microwave performance.
 High input impedance:   The MESFET has a very much higher input when compared to bipolar transistors
as a result of the non-conducting diode junction.
 Negative temperature coefficient:   The MESFET / GaAs FET has a negative temperature co-efficient
which inhibits some of the thermal problems experienced with other transistors.
 Lack of oxide traps:   When compared to the more common silicon MOSFET, the GaAs FET or MESFET
does not have the problems associated with oxide traps.
 High level of geometry control:   The MESFET has better channel length control than a JFET. The reason
for this is that the JFET requires a diffusion process to create the gate and this process is far from well
defined. The more exact geometries of the GaAS FET / MESFET provide a much better and more
repeatable product, and this enables very small geometries suited to RF microwave frequencies to catered
for.
In many respects GaAs technology is less well developed than silicon. The huge on-going investment in silicon
technology means that silicon technology is much cheaper. However GaAs technology is able to benefit from many
of the developments and it is easy to use in integrated circuit fabrication processes.

GaAs FET / MESFET in use

The GaAs FET / MESFET is widely used as an RF amplifier device. The small geoemtries and other aspects of the
device make it ideal in this application.

The circuits normally used supply voltages of the order of around 10 volts. However great care must be taken when
designing the bias arrangements because if current flows in the gate junction, it will destroy the GaAS FET.

Similarly great care must be taken when handling the devices as they are very sensitive to static. Even static
voltages of under 100 volts can destroy the junction.

In addition to this, when used as an RF amplifier connected to an antenna, the device must be protected against
static received during electrical storms.

If these precautions are observed, the GaAs FET or MESFET will perform exceedingly well, providing high
frequency performance combined with low noise and a high level of efficiency.