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Which of these sentences are propositions? What are the truth values
of those that are propositions?
Which of these sentences are propositions? What are the truth values
of those that are propositions?
:=I<I9868I>;?$R;=8;2?49
a) Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. /X"H*>)*("$>")='"./D$)/0"*C" /X"A=$>"$>"/")4-'"D4*D*>$)$*(\
! ^'"->'"0'))'4>")*",'(*)'"G?-G-,1'1-2*;([*?1*#;%,(V*4",'*'%+%2'(
b) Miami is the capital of Florida. &/>>/.=->'))>\ QX"A=$>"$>"/"C/0>'"D4*D*>$)$*("
QX"&$/5$"$>")='"./D$)/0"*C"f0*4$,/\ VA/00/=/>>''"$>")='"./D$)/0X\
[*?1*#;%,X6")=/)"$>6"U/4$/Q0'>")=/)"4'D4'>'()"D4*D*>$)$*(>6"[->)"/>"0'))'4>"
c) 2 + 3 = 5. /4'"->',")*",'(*)'"(-5'4$./0"U/4$/Q0'>
d) 5 + 7 = 10. .X"S"8"2"g";\ .X"A=$>"$>"/")4-'"D4*D*>$)$*(\
e) x + 2 = 11. ,X";"8"E"g"MY\ ,X"A=$>"$>"/"C/0>'"D4*D*>$)$*(\ ! 7*(U'()$*(/0"0'))'4>"->',"C*4"D4*D*>$)$*(/0"U/4$/Q0'>"/4'";8%L8%$8%(8%3%3%3%3
'X"c"8"S"g"MM\ 'X"A=$>"$>"(*)"/"D4*D*>$)$*("V$)".*()/$(>"/" ! &/(B"5/)='5/)$./0">)/)'5'()>"/4'".*(>)4-.)',"QB".*5Q$($(%"*('"*4"
f ) Answer this question. C"X"<(>K'4")=$>"`-'>)$*(\ U/4$/Q0'h")='")4-)="U/0-'",'D'(,>"*("
5*4'"D4*D*>$)$*(>\"J'K"D4*D*>$)$*(>6"./00',"&-+G-"25(G?-G-,1'1-2,6"
)='"U/0-'"/>>$%(',")*"cX\
/4'"C*45',"C4*5"'c$>)$(%"D4*D*>$)$*(>"->$(%"0*%$./0"*D'4/)*4>\
CX"A=$>"$>"(*)"/"D4*D*>$)$*(6">$(.'"$)",*'>"
(*)"/>>'4)"/(B)=$(%\

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The negation of the proposition
<%'(G(#%(*(G?-G-,1'1-2.(DA%(2%:*'1-2(-/(G\(5%2-'%5(#E
\(1,('A%(
,'*'%+%2'(]8'(1,(2-'('A%(&*,%('A*'(G.^(DA%(G?-G-,1'1-2(
G(1,(?%*5(]2-'( “Vandana’s smartphone has at least 32GB of memory”
G.^(DA%('?"'A([*;"%(-/('A%(2%:*'1-2(-/(G\(
G\(1,('A%(-GG-,1'%(-/('A%( Is
'?"'A([*;"%(-/(G. “It is not the case that Vandana’s smartphone has at least
The negation of the proposition 32GB of memory.”
“Michael’s PC runs Linux”
is This negation can also be expressed as
“It is not the case that Michael’s PC runs Linux.” “Vandana’s smartphone does not have at least 32GB of memory”
This negation can be more simply expressed as or even more simply as
“Michael’s PC does not run Linux.”
“Vandana’s smartphone has less than 32GB of memory.”
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

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FD;6$89$6D4$>4L;68I>$IJ$4;5D$IJ$6D494$<=I<I9868I>9U
/X &'$"=/>"/("&32"D0/B'4\
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.X"S8M"! 2
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f$(,")='"#$>[-(.)$*("*C")='"D4*D*>$)$*(>"D"/(,"`"K='4'"
Let p and q be propositions. The D"$>")='"D4*D*>$)$*("ma'Q'../n>"37"=/>"5*4'")=/("M@"RH"
disjunction of p and q, denoted by p # q, C4''"=/4,",$>L">D/.'o"/(,"`"$>")='"D4*D*>$)$*("mA='" Let p and q be propositions. The
is the proposition “p or q.” The D4*.'>>*4"$("a'Q'../n>"37"4-(>"C/>)'4")=/("M"RTG\o exclusive or of p and q, denoted by
disjunction p # q is false when both p p $ q, is the proposition that is
and q are false and is true otherwise. true when exactly one of p and q is
A='",$>[-(.)$*("*C"D"/(,"`6"D"# `6"$>")='"D4*D*>$)$*(
true and is false otherwise.
]Y%#%&&*_,(>F(A*,(*'(;%*,'(BV(SL(/?%%(A*?5(51,4(,G*&%\(
-?('A%(G?-&%,,-?(12(Y%#%&&*_,(>F(?"2,(/*,'%?('A*2(B(
SX`.^
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

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#I>H868I>;?$06;64E4>69 A='">)/)'5'()"D"p"`"$>"./00',"/".*(,$)$*(/0">)/)'5'()"Q'./->'"D"p"`"
/>>'4)>")=/)"`"$>")4-'"*(")='".*(,$)$*(")=/)"D"=*0,>\"<".*(,$)$*(/0" OC")='"D*0$)$.$/("$>"'0'.)',6"U*)'4>"K*-0,"'cD'.)")=$>"D*0$)$.$/(")*"0*K'4")/c'>\"
Let p and q be propositions. The >)/)'5'()"$>"/0>*"./00',"/("1+G;1&*'1-2\ f-4)='45*4'6"$C")='"D*0$)$.$/("$>"(*)"'0'.)',6")='("U*)'4>"K$00"(*)"=/U'"/(B"
conditional statement p ! q is the <"U/4$')B"*C")'45$(*0*%B"$>"->',")*"'cD4'>>"D"p"`\" 'cD'.)/)$*(")=/)")=$>"D'4>*("K$00"0*K'4")/c'>6"/0)=*-%=")='"D'4>*("5/B"=/U'"
proposition “if p, then q.” The conditional >-CC$.$'()"$(C0-'(.'")*"./->'")=*>'"$("D*K'4")*"0*K'4")/c'>\"
statement p ! q is false when p is true ]1/(G\('A%2(a^ ]G(1+G;1%,(a^ O)"$>"*(0B"K='(")='"D*0$)$.$/("$>"'0'.)',"Q-)",*'>"(*)"0*K'4")/c'>")=/)"U*)'4>"./("
and q is false, and true otherwise. ]1/(G\(a^ ]G(-2;E(1/(a^ >/B")=/)")='"D*0$)$.$/("=/>"Q4*L'(")='"./5D/$%("D0',%'\"
In the conditional statement p ! q, p is ]G(1,(,"//1&1%2'(/-?(a^ ]*(,"//1&1%2'(&-251'1-2(/-?(a(1,(G^ A=$>"0/>)">.'(/4$*".*44'>D*(,>")*")='"./>'"K='("D"$>")4-'"Q-)"`"$>"C/0>'"$("D"p"`\
called the hypothesis (or antecedent or ]a(1/(G^ ]a(MA%2%[%?(G^
premise) and q is called the conclusion (or ]a(MA%2(G^ ]a(1,(2%&%,,*?E(/-?(G^
consequence). ]*(2%&%,,*?E(&-251'1-2(/-?(G(1,(a^ ]a(/-;;-M,(/?-+(G^
]a("2;%,,(
G^
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

1')"D"Q'")='">)/)'5'()"m&/4$/"0'/4(>",$>.4')'"5/)='5/)$.>o"/(,"`")='"
)S;E<?4
>)/)'5'()"m&/4$/"K$00"C$(,"/"%**,"[*Q\o"
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>)/)'5'()"]'A%(A-+%('%*+(M12,(MA%2%[%?(1'(1,(?*1212:b^
+cD4'>>")='">)/)'5'()"D"p"`"/>"/">)/)'5'()"$("+(%0$>= Q#),1(#%RL%P7#-#K#$%;S%'(%.-#%.0%*7#%P,G(%*.%#H;$#((%*7#%).-&'*'.-,2%
A='"D4*D*>$)$*("`"p"D"$>"./00',")=' &-2[%?,%(*C"D"p"` (*,*#+#-*%;%T%L8%*7#%.$'/'-,2%(*,*#+#-*%),-%J#%$#P$'**#-%,(

A='"&-2'?*G-,1'1[% *C"D"p"`"$>")='"D4*D*>$)$*("
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A='"D4*D*>$)$*("
D"p
`"$>"./00',")='"12[%?,% *C"D"p"`\ ]8/('A%(A-+%('%*+(5-%,(2-'(M12\('A%2(1'(1,(2-'(?*1212:.^
]1/(G\(a^ ]G(-2;E(1/(a^
]G(1,(,"//1&1%2'(/-?(a^ ]*(,"//1&1%2'(&-251'1-2(/-?(a(1,(G^ A='"&-2[%?,% $>
]a(1/(G^ ]a(MA%2%[%?(G^ ]8/('A%(A-+%('%*+(M12,\('A%2(1'(1,(?*1212:.^
]a(MA%2(G^ ]a(1,(2%&%,,*?E(/-?(G^ A='"12[%?,% $>
]*(2%&%,,*?E(&-251'1-2(/-?(G(1,(a^ ]a(/-;;-M,(/?-+(G^ ]8/(1'(1,(2-'(?*1212:\('A%2('A%(A-+%('%*+(5-%,(2-'(M12.^
]a("2;%,,(
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!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(
 [Q#V&BQ'QV&(O0 5IEEI>$7;@9$6I$4S<=499$<$\$]M '=16D$';2?49$IJ$#IE<I1>H$:=I<I9868I>9
Let p and q be propositions. The ]G(1,(2%&%,,*?E(*25(,"//1&1%2'(/-?(a^ (p #
q) ! (p " q)
biconditional statement p q is the ]1/(G('A%2(a\(*25(&-2[%?,%;E^
proposition “p if and only if q.” The ]G(1// a.^
biconditional statement p q is true when
p and q have the same truth values, and is 1')"D"Q'")='">)/)'5'()"Rc-"(&*2('*4%('A%(/;1:A'\^
false otherwise. Biconditional statements
/(,"0')"`"Q'")='">)/)'5'()"]c-"(#"E(*('1&4%'.^
are also called bi-implications
A='("D"q"`"$>")='">)/)'5'()
]c-"(&*2('*4%('A%(/;1:A'(1/(*25(-2;E(1/(E-"(#"E(*('1&4%'.^
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

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!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

Let p and q be the propositions Let p and q be the propositions

p :You drive over 65 miles per hour. p :You drive over 65 miles per hour.
q :You get a speeding ticket.
q :You get a speeding ticket. Write these propositions using p and q and logical connectives (including negations).
Write these propositions using p and q and logical connectives (including negations). a) You do not drive over 65 miles per hour.
a) You do not drive over 65 miles per hour. b) You drive over 65 miles per hour, but you do not get a speeding ticket.
b) You drive over 65 miles per hour, but you do not get a speeding ticket. c) You will get a speeding ticket if you drive over 65 miles per hour.
c) You will get a speeding ticket if you drive over 65 miles per hour. d) If you do not drive over 65 miles per hour, then you will not get a speeding ticket.
a) Sharks have not been spotted near the shore. e) Driving over 65 miles per hour is sufficient for getting a speeding ticket.
d) If you do not drive over 65 miles per hour, then you will not get a speeding ticket. f ) You get a speeding ticket, but you do not drive over 65 miles per hour.
b) Swimming at the New Jersey shore is allowed, and sharks have been spotted near the shore.
e) Driving over 65 miles per hour is sufficient for getting a speeding ticket. g) Whenever you get a speeding ticket, you are driving over 65 miles per hour.
c) Swimming at the New Jersey shore is not allowed, or sharks have been spotted near the shore.
d) If swimming at the New Jersey shore is allowed, then sharks have not been spotted near the shore.
f ) You get a speeding ticket, but you do not drive over 65 miles per hour.
e) If sharks have not been spotted near the shore, then swimming at the New Jersey shore is allowed. g) Whenever you get a speeding ticket, you are driving over 65 miles per hour.
f) If swimming at the New Jersey shore is not allowed, then sharks have not been spotted near the shore.
g) Swimming at the New Jersey shore is allowed if and only if sharks have not been spotted near the
shore.
h) Swimming at the New Jersey shore is not allowed, and either swimming at the New Jersey shore is
allowed or sharks have not been spotted near the shore.
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(
 !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

PI7$5;>$6D89$)>L?89D$94>64>54$24$6=;>9?;64H$8>6I$;$ PI7$5;>$6D89$)>L?89D$94>64>54$24$6=;>9?;64H$8>6I$;$
?IL85;?$4S<=4998I>U ?IL85;?$4S<=4998I>U
]c-"(&*2(*&&%,,('A%(82'%?2%'(/?-+(&*+G",(-2;E(1/(E-"(*?%(*( ]c-"(&*2(*&&%,,('A%(82'%?2%'(/?-+(&*+G",(-2;E(1/(E-"(*?%(*(
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let a, c, and f represent “You can access the Internet from campus,”
“You are a computer science major,” and “You are a freshman,”
respectively.
Noting that “only if” is one way a conditional statement can be
expressed,
this sentence can be represented as
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(
a ! (c #
f ).
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

How can this English sentence be translated into a logical expression? How can this English sentence be translated into a logical expression? B464=E8>4$7D46D4=$6D494$9@964E$9<458J85;68I>9$;=4$
“You cannot ride the roller coaster if you are under 4 feet tall unless you are “You cannot ride the roller coaster if you are under 4 feet tall unless you are
older than 16 years old.” older than 16 years old.” 5I>98964>6M
]DA%(51*:2-,'1&(+%,,*:%(1,(,'-?%5(12('A%(#"//%?(-?(1'(1,(
Let q, r, and s represent “You can ride the roller coaster,” “You are under 4 ?%'?*2,+1''%5.^
feet tall,” and “You are older than 16 years old,” respectively. Then the ]DA%(51*:2-,'1&(+%,,*:%(1,(2-'(,'-?%5(12('A%(#"//%?.^
sentence can be translated to
]8/('A%(51*:2-,'1&(+%,,*:%(1,(,'-?%5(12('A%(#"//%?\('A%2(1'(1,(
(r "
s)!
q ?%'?*2,+1''%5.^
Of course, there are other ways to represent the original sentence as a logical
expression, but the one we have used should meet our needs.

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

 B464=E8>4$7D46D4=$6D494$9@964E$9<458J85;68I>9$;=4$ Express these system specifications using the propositions Express these system specifications using the propositions
P : “The message is scanned for viruses” and
5I>98964>6M P : “The message is scanned for viruses” and Q : “The message was sent from an unknown system”
]DA%(51*:2-,'1&(+%,,*:%(1,(,'-?%5(12('A%(#"//%?(-?(1'(1,(?%'?*2,+1''%5.^ Q : “The message was sent from an unknown system” together with logical connectives (including negations).
a) “The message is scanned for viruses whenever the message was sent from an unknown system.”
together with logical connectives (including negations). b) “The message was sent from an unknown system but it was not scanned for viruses.”
]DA%(51*:2-,'1&(+%,,*:%(1,(2-'(,'-?%5(12('A%(#"//%?.^
a) “The message is scanned for viruses whenever the message was sent c) “It is necessary to scan the message for viruses whenever it was sent from an unknown system.”
]8/('A%(51*:2-,'1&(+%,,*:%(1,(,'-?%5(12('A%(#"//%?\('A%2(1'(1,(?%'?*2,+1''%5.^ from an unknown system.” d) “When a message is not sent from an unknown system it is not scanned for viruses.”

Let p denote “The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer” and b) “The message was sent from an unknown system but it was not scanned
let q denote “The diagnostic message is retransmitted.” for viruses.” a) Since "whenever" means "if," we have q%p.
The specifications can then be written as p # q,
p, and p ! q. c) “It is necessary to scan the message for viruses whenever it was sent b) Since "but" means "and," we have q /\ & P.
An assignment of truth values that makes all three specifications true must have p false to from an unknown system.” c) This sentence is saying the same thing as the sentence in part (a), so
make
p true. Because we want p # q to be true but p must be false, q must be true. d) “When a message is not sent from an unknown system it is not scanned the answer is the same: q % p.
Because p ! q is true when p is false and q is true, we conclude that these specifications d) Again, we recall that "when" means "if" in logic: &q % &p.
for viruses.”
are consistent, because they are all true when p is false and q is true.

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

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*D'4/)*4>6">-.="/>"D"" `
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.*()4/,$.)$*("$>"./ ',"/"&-2'12:%2&E\

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!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

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! ^='("K'"C$(,"/"D/4)$.- /4"/>>$%(5'()"*C")4-)="U/ -'>")=/)"5/L'>"/"
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A='(6")='"/4%-5'()"=/>")='"C*45

We know that when p and q are propositional variables, the statement

((p ! q) " p) ! q is a tautology
We say this form of argument is valid because whenever all its premises are true,
the conclusion must also be true.
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

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.*(,$)$*(/ ">)/)'5'()6"m^'"K$ "%*">L$$(%6o"$>")4-'\

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)S;E<?4$_$ 98>L$W1?49$IJ$Q>J4=4>54$6I$[18?H$(=L1E4>69
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123"40(("53"6'73"5*"8&-83$+9
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+
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! 4")='"D4*D*>$)$*("m^'"K$ "%*">K$55$(%6o" +%,,*:%\('A%2(8(M1;;(/121,A(M?1'12:('A%(G?-:?*+\^(
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!"#$%$$&'()*"+
!"#$%$$
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(
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,-./)$* ( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

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:'U'4/ ".*55*("C/ /.$'>"/4$>'"$("$(.*44'.)"/4%-5'()>\"A='>'"C/ /.$'>"
4'>'5Q '"4- '>"*C"$(C'4'(.'6"Q-)"/4'"Q/>',"*(".*()$(%'(.$'>"4/)='4")=/(" ! +\%\"m+U'4B".*5D-)'4".*(('.)',")*")='"-($U'4>$)B"(')K*4L"$>"C-(.)$*($(%" mc"s"26o"mc"g"B"8"26o"mc"8"B"g"G6o
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! J*"4- '>"*C"D4*D*>$)$*(/ " *%$."/ *K"->")*".*(. -,'")='")4-)="*C")='">)/)'5'() m.*5D-)'4"c"$>"-(,'4"/))/.L"QB"/("$()4-,'46o
The proposition ((p ! q) " q) ! p is not a tautology, because it is m&<AT2"$>"C-(.)$*($(%"D4*D'4 B6o
false when p is false and q is true. /(,
! ^='4'"&<AT2"$>"*('"*C")='".*5D-)'4>".*(('.)',")*")='"-($U'4>$)B"(')K*4L\"
However, there are many incorrect arguments that treat this as a m.*5D-)'4"c"$>"C-(.)$*($(%"D4*D'4 B6o
1$L'K$>'6"K'"./((*)"->'")='"4- '>"*C"D4*D*>$)$*(/ " *%$.")*".*(. -,'"C4*5")='"
tautology. >)/)'5'() /4'"*C)'("C*-(,"$("5/)='5/)$./ "/>>'4)$*(>6"$(".*5D-)'4"D4*%4/5>6"/(,"
In other words, they treat the argument with premises p ! q and q and m7:S"$>"-(,'4"/))/.L"QB"/("$()4-,'46o $(">B>)'5">D'.$C$./)$*(>\
conclusion p as a valid argument form, which it is not. ! K='4'"7:S"$>"/".*5D-)'4"*(")='"-($U'4>$)B"(')K*4L6")*".*(. -,'")='")4-)="*C A='>'">)/)'5'()>"/4'"('$)='4")4-'"(*4"C/ >'"K='(")='"U/ -'>"*C")='"
This type of incorrect reasoning is called the fallacy of affirming the mA='4'"$>"/".*5D-)'4"*(")='"-($U'4>$)B"(')K*4L")=/)"$>"-(,'4"/))/.L"QB"/(" U/4$/Q '>"/4'"(*)">D'.$C$',\
conclusion $()4-,'4\o
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

:=4H85;64$;>H$<=I<I9868I>$N1>568I> )S;E<?4
< )S;E<?4
A='">)/)'5'()"mc"$>"%4'/)'4")=/("2o"=/>")K*"D/4)>\"
M\ A='"C$4>)"D/4)6")='"U/4$/Q '"c6"$>")='","#$%&' *C")='">)/)'5'()\"
S\ A='">'.*(,"D/4)t'A%(G?%51&*'%6"m$>"%4'/)'4")=/("2ot4'C'4>")*"/"
G?-G%?'E )=/)")='">-Q['.)"*C")='">)/)'5'()"./("=/U'\

^'"./(",'(*)'")='">)/)'5'()"mc"$>"%4'/)'4")=/("2o"QB"3VcX6"K='4'"3",'(*)'>"
)='"D4',$./)'"m$>"%4'/)'4")=/("2o"/(,"c"$>")='"U/4$/Q '\"
A='">)/)'5'()"3VcX"$>"/ >*">/$,")*"Q'")='"U/ -'"*C")='"D4*D*>$)$*(/ "C-(.)$*("
3"/)"c\"
9(.'"/"U/ -'"=/>"Q''("/>>$%(',")*")='"U/4$/Q '"c6")='">)/)'5'()"3VcX"
Q'.*5'>"/"D4*D*>$)$*("/(,"=/>"/")4-)="U/ -'
!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(
 )S;E<?4 a1;>68J84=9
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4/(%'"*C"' '5'()>\"
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`-/()$C$./)$*(>\"
! ^'"K$ "C*.->"*(")K*")BD'>"*C"`-/()$C$./)$*("='4'k"
!"21[%?,*;(a"*2'1/1&*'1-26"K=$.=")' >"->")=/)"/"D4',$./)'"$>")4-'"C*4"
'U'4B"' '5'()"-(,'4".*(>$,'4/)$*(6"
!/(,"%71,'%2'1*;(a"*2'1/1&*'1-26"K=$.=")' >"->")=/)")='4'"$>"*('"*4"
5*4'"' '5'()"-(,'4".*(>$,'4/)$*("C*4"K=$.=")='"D4',$./)'"$>")4-'\"
! A='"/4'/"*C" *%$.")=/)",'/ >"K$)="D4',$./)'>"/(,"`-/()$C$'4>"$>"./ ',"
)='"G?%51&*'%(&*;&";",\

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

>8K4=9;?$a1;>68J84= )S;E<?4$ )S;E<?4$

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

)S;E<?4$

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

 'P)$)bQ0')&'Q(O$a (&'QNQ)W

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

)b(C:O) )b(C:O) FP)&$(OO$)O)C)&'0$Q&$BVC(Q&$(W)$OQ0')B

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

a1;>68J84=9$786D$W496=8564H$BIE;8>9$
)b(C:O) 'P)$ &Qa )&)00a (&'QNQ)W
)b(C:O)

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

 OIL85;?$)]18K;?4>549$Q>KI?K8>L$a1;>68J84=9
B)CVW"(&c0$O(F

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

&4L;68>L$a1;>68J84H$)S<=4998I>9
L L < &4L;68>L$a1;>68J84H$)S<=4998I>9

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

 98>L$a1;>68J84=9$8>$0@964E$0<458J85;68I>9 98>L$a1;>68J84=9$8>$0@964E$0<458J85;68I>9 )S;E<?4

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

)S;E<?4

Let P(x), Q(x), and R(x) be the statements “x is

a lion,” “x is fierce,” and “x drinks coffee,” respectively. Assuming that the domain
consists of all
creatures, express the statements in the argument using quantifiers and P(x), Q(x), and
R(x).

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(

!"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*( !"#$%$$&'()*"+,-./)$*(