ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

SYSTEMS (3681)

UNIT 2
HEAT TRANSFER & THERMAL COMFORT
THEORY OF HEAT FLOW
• Heat is the energy of moving molecules in a substance.
Temperature is the measure of the average vibrating
energy in each of the molecules of a substance.

• Heat flows always from warmer to cooler substances. If no

temperature difference there can be no heat transfer.

• The equalizing of temperature is caused by three types of

heat transfer: conduction, radiation and convection.
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
• Thermal transmittance, the U -value, describes the
insulation capacity of a building structure. The lower the U-
value is, the better insulated the structure is.

• The U-value of a structure depends of the heat transfer

resistance (R) of each layer in the construction. The heat
transfer resistance depends on the thickness (d) and heat
conductivity (λ) of the material.

• The lower the value of heat conductivity is the better the

insulating value of the material. In addition, the thicker the
insulation is the greater the thermal resistance.
THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF
BUILDING ELEMENTS
• Building envelops is the physical
separator between the interior and
the exterior environments of a
building.
• Thermal performance of the
building envelope can make a
significant contribution to reducing
the overall building energy usage.
• It serves as the outer shell to help
maintain the indoor environment
(together with the mechanical
conditioning systems).
 THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF
BUILDING ELEMENTS
• On the outer surface of the wall, part of it
is reflected to the environment and
remaining part is absorbed by the wall and
converted into heat energy.
• Part of it again lost to the environment
through convection and radiation from
outer surface. Remaining part is
conducted into the wall, where it is partly
stored and raising the wall temperature.
• Inner surface transfer heat by convection
and radiation to the room air, raising its
temperature.
• This heat transfer processes affect the
indoor room temperature consequently
thermal comfort can be achieved by
occupants.
THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF
BUILDING ELEMENTS
• Well positioned windows and doors
allow to take advantage of the naturally
cooling effects of summer breezes.
• Louvers are good for promoting air
movements in hot days.
• Other key element of that affect thermal
performance include shading elements,
air tightness, wall and roof insulation
and roof reflectance.
• Window‟s energy efficiency can
improve by increase its insulation
ability. E.g. low e-windows
• High performance windows can reduce
energy losses to nearly zero.
THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF
BUILDING ELEMENTS
• Skylights introduce
daylight in poorly
oriented building,
unwanted heat transfer
may be hard to control
but energy that is saved
by reducing artificial
lighting is often more
than the energy required
for operating HVAC
systems to maintain
thermal comfort.
THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF
BUILDING MATERIALS
• Mostly buildings have their
wall cavities filled with
some kind of insulation.
• Buildings in hot or cold
climates experiences
extreme conditioned fitted
with insulation that does
not transfer energy.
HEAT TRANSFER FROM HUMAN BODY
HEAT TRANSFER FROM HUMAN BODY
• The metabolic heat generated in the body is dissipated to
the environment through the skin and the lungs by
convection and radiation as sensible heat and by
evaporation as latent heat.

• Sensible heat transfer include: the warming of the inhaled

air represents sensible heat transfer in the lungs and is
proportional to the temperature rise of inhaled air.

• Convection and radiation heat transfer from skin.

• Latent heat represents the heat of vaporization of water as

it evaporates in the lungs and on the skin by absorbing
body heat.
HEAT TRANSFER FROM HUMAN BODY
• Heat transfer from human
body depends on various
factors and clothing further
complicates the situation.
Thus we must rely on
experimental data for heat
transfer from human body.

• Clothing serves as insulation

and reduces both the
sensible and latent forms of
heat loss
HEAT TRANSFER FROM HUMAN BODY
• Heat transfer describes the exchange of thermal energy
between physical systems depending on the temperature
and pressure, by dissipating heat.
• The fundamental modes of heat transfer are Conduction,
Convection and Radiation
HEAT TRANSFER FROM HUMAN BODY
• Heat is produced in the body by the continuous metabolism of
nutrients which provides energy for the systems of the body.
• The human body must maintain a consistent internal temperature
in order to maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess
heat must be dissipated from body to keep it from overheating.
• When a person engage in elevated levels of physical activity, the
body requires additional fuel which increases the metabolic rate
and the rate of heat production.
• The body just then use additional methods to remove the
additional heat produced in order to keep the internal temperature
at a healthy level.
• It means there should not be any heat accumulation within the
body.
• Thermal comfort is basically the maintenance of equilibrium
between heat generated by metabolism and heat loss from human
body by various processes.
THERMAL COMFORT
• Thermal Comfort is a condition of mind that expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment.
• It defines not only our well-being but our physical and
intellectual performance.
• There are many factors that effect human thermal comfort
such as:
• Air temperature
• Temperature of surfaces
• Relative humidity
• Air movement
• Clothing
• Activity level of person
THERMAL COMFORT
• The human body produces heat continuously, in quantities
that depends on the body´s physical activity. The thermal
processes by which the body interacts with its
environment are conduction, convection, radiation and
evaporation.
• The interaction of the heat transfer processes with body´s
heat production is complex.
• Because of individual differences of the perception or
sensation of humans, an universally valid thermal room
climate in which amenity for all is realized, is not
producible. Therefore, acceptable thermal room climate
need to create/develop, which is reasonable for at least
80% of all persons staying in it.
THERMAL COMFORT
• The consciousness for comfort of human beings depends
on conditions for the thermal balance between the body
and the environment, determined by the following factors:
• Physical factors:
• air temperature,
• temperature of the surrounding surfaces,
• relative humidity,
• air movement in the vicinity of the body,
• heat resistance of the clothing.
THERMAL COMFORT
• Thermal Comfort is that condition of mind that which
expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment.
Thermal environment is those characteristics of the
environment which affects a person‟s heat loss.
• In terms of bodily sensations, thermal comfort is a
sensation of hot, warm, slightly warmer, neutral, slightly
cooler, cool and cold.
• From the psychological point of view, thermal comfort
occurs when there is a thermal equilibrium in the
absence of regulatory sweating between the heat
exchange between the human body and the environment.
BODY HEAT BALANCE
• A temperature around 37°C is
required for our body in order to
feel comfortable and in addition
to perform all the necessary
functions in the best way.
• If this temperature drops or
rises, the body immediately
reacts doing what is needed to
maintain its temperature.
• In cold environments, the body
generates heat by
movement(shivering). On the
other hand, in too hot
environments, cooling of the
surface of the skin is achieved
by evaporation.
BODY HEAT BALANCE
• In general, there is a constant effort to keep the
temperature of the body at the acceptable levels,
which involves the continuous cooperation of the
body with its environment.
• This is what we call metabolic rates, which is
associated with the activity that a person is doing
at a specific time (physical activity). When the
physical activity increases the heat produced by
the body increases as well. As a result the
perception of hot and cold is affected as well.
EXAMPLES:
• In cold environment, there is excessive
heat loss from the body which may
exceed the rate of metabolic heat
generation is SHIVERING. Shivering
begins slowly in small muscle groups
and may double the rate of metabolic
heat production of the body at its initial
stages.
• The rate of metabolic heat generation
may go up for six times the resting level
during total body shivering in cold
weather.
EXAMPLES:
• Second measure to avoid thermal discomfort in winter is
to wear clothes with high value of RECLOTHING as it will
decrease heat loss from body and helps in maintaining
thermal equilibrium between heat generated and heat
loss from body.
• For e.g. trousers, long sleeve shirt, long sleeve sweater
and T-shirt as these clothes hove high value of cloth and
as an insulation to heat loss.
EXAMPLES:
• In hot environment, the rate of heat loss from the body may
drop below the rate of metabolic heat generation. In this case
the body activates the opposite mechanism. First the body
increases the blood flow and thus transports heat to the skin
causing the temperature of skin to rise and approach the deep
body temperature, which will make feel thermally
uncomfortable.
• The best way to overcome this problem it to release water from
the sweat glands i.e. to dissipate a large amount of metabolic
heat by sweating.
• During sweating, the sweat absorbs the heat from the body and
evaporates. Also for better evaporative cooling the humidity
should be low.
• That is why we drink more water in summer so that more water
can be dissipated from sweat glands to dissipate large amount
of metabolic heat without the scarcity of water in body.
EXAMPLES:

• In summer we wear clothing with low resistance value to have

more heat loss. For e.g. light slacks, short-sleeved shirts as
these clothes have resistivity which is half of winter clothes.
COMFORT ZONE
• Formal Definition of Thermal Comfort (ASHRAE Standard
55 ‐ 2013 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy) “Thermal Comfort is that condition of mind
which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment.”
• The human body has ways to adjust (increase or decrease)
its heat loss. We can feel thermally comfortable within a
limited range of temperatures. Experience reveals that the
comfort range for most people extends from 68 º F (20 º C)
to 78 º F(25 º C).
• With humidity, Experience reveals that comfort is best
achieved within a range of relative humidity. The maximum
comfortable level varies with the season. In summer, RH is
best kept below 60%. In winter, the maximum RH level is
80%.
PSYCHROMETRY
• Psychrometry is the science of studying the
thermodynamic properties of moist air and the use of these
properties to analyze conditions and processes involving
moist air.

• When designing an air conditioning system, the

temperature and moisture content of the air to be
conditioned and same properties of the air needed to
produce the desired air conditioning effect.

• Therefore, basically the Psychrometry is the study of

MOIST AIR or mixture of dry air and water vapor.
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
The comfort zone and various types of discomfort outside that zone
 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
SYSTEMS (3681)

UNIT 3
DESIGNING BY DETERMINING CLIMATES
CLIMATE AND SHELTER
• Historically shelter has been built to reduce the range of
local climatic variations to avoid some of the sun's heat in
hot climates and to conserve heat in cold climates.

• Shelter has been designed to welcome the breezes when

they can provide the desired cooling and to avoid winds
when it exacerbates problems of an already cold climate.

• The natural resources available in a given location,

especially sun and wind, should be harnessed for the
climate conditioning of buildings and should be reflected
in the design of their layout and form.

• The criteria for balance are minimum heat-flow out of

building in wintertime minimum heat-gain in the structures
during the over-heated period.
CLIMATE AND SHELTER
• Climate has direct effect on thermal environment. Building
design is concerned with general climatic data.

• The main natural elements that define the climate, are

• Temperature – Humidity
• Atmospheric pressure – Wind
• Precipitation and
• Other meteorological variables in a given region over long
periods of time

• These characteristics and relevance for construction

depend largely on the geographical location, topography,
altitude and properties of the earth‟s surface.
BUILDING & CLIMATE
• A building‟s primary
function is to provide
shelter from the elements
as a function of climate.

• To satisfy all other

requirements, a building
envelope must provide
control of:
• Heat flow
• Air flow
• Movement of water and
vapors
• Solar radiation
 BUILDING & CLIMATE
• Modern building
envelopes are like
balloons. Very thin but
their performance is
therefore even more
critical.

• Buildings with thin skin

now required more
functional also – as
technological symbols
and cultural icons.
Shelter is not just
enough now.
 TECHNIQUE & TECHNOLOGY
• Old buildings with
stone based on
massive structures
to withstand the
weather.

• New modern
buildings are
compromised of
thinner layers, that
are individually less
able to withstand
the elements.
WEATHER & CLIMATE
• The weather of the world
varies by location as relates
to the distance from the
equator and as influenced by
aspects of geography such as
the trade winds, adjacency to
bodies of waters, elevation
etc.

• The earth‟s atmosphere helps

to moderate the climate to
prevent radical shifts in

• Temperature from season to

season and day to night.
CLIMATIC REGIONS
CLIMATIC REGIONS
• Five major climatic regions include:
• Cold (with dominant winter and
conserving heat are main concerns)
• Temperate (equally severe winter
and summer with mild transitional
seasons)
• Hot/Arid (with very high summer
with dry conditions throughout the
year)
• Warm/Humid (warm stable
conditions with high humidity
throughout the year)
• Hot with seasonable humidity (hot
temperature with part of the year is
humid with stable temperature and
part of year is arid with high
temperature variation).
IMPACT OF SUN ON BUILDINGS
• The impact of the sun on our buildings is a direct result of
our distance from the equator.

• This effects amounts of solar radiation as well as solar

geometry.
 BUILDINGS AND CLIMATE
Buildings must be
designed to fit in
with their climate.
Different climatic
zones demand
different
architectural
responses in order
to function
properly and be
energy and
environmentally
efficient.
DESIGN FOR DIFFERENT ZONES
• Basic understanding of all climate design zones that
certain building types obviously do not belong in certain
places and there are more aspects to consider.
DESIGN FOR COLD WEATHER
• Where winter is the dominant season and concerns for
conserving heat predominate all other concerns. Heating
degree days greatly exceed cooling degree days.
RULES:
• Insulate the building first
• Minimize infiltration (building tight
to reduce air changes)
• Then insolate and fenestrate for
direct gain.
• Orient building properly for the sun
• Maximize south facing windows for
easier control
• Apply thermal mass inside the
building envelope to store the free
solar heat.
DESIGN FOR HOT/ARID WEATHER
• Where very high summer temperatures with great
fluctuations predominate with dry conditions throughout
the year.
RULES:
• Solar avoidance. Keep direct solar
gain out of the building.
• Avoid daytime ventilation.
• Achieve day lighting by reflectance
and use of light non-heat absorbing
colors.
• Promote night time flushing with
cool evening air.
• Use heavy mass for walls with no
insulation.
DESIGN FOR HOT/HUMID WEATHER
• Where warm to hot stable conditions predominate with
high humidity throughout the year.
RULES:
• Solar avoidance. Large roofs with
overhangs that shade walls and to
allow windows open at all times
promote ventilation.
• Use stack affect for ventilate
through high spaces.
• Use of courtyards and semi-
enclosed outside spaces.
• Use water features for cooling
• Use light weight materials that do
not hold heat and that will not
promote condensation and
dampness.
DESIGN FOR TEMPERATE WEATHER
• Where the summers are hot and humid, and winters are
cold. Mostly with flat topography cold winds come from
northwest and cool summer breezes flow from southwest.
RULES:
• Balance strategies between cold
and hot humid.
• Maximize flexibility in order to be
able to modify the building
envelope for varying climatic
conditions.
• Can take natural benefits of solar
angles that shade during the warm
months and allow heat during cool
months.
MICROCLIMATE
• When we design with the specific
local environmental
characteristics in mind, we start
to manipulate the relationship
between the climate, the site and
the building to create a local
environment or microclimate
around the building.

• This microclimate around the

building can decrease the
apparent severity of the climate
to make for a confortable interior
and exterior environment. If badly
handled it can increase the
severity of the local climate.
MICROCLIMATE
• The building might be same but the site, climate,
microclimate conditions drastically impact the success of
the comfort experienced by the occupants.
SITE CONSIDERATIONS
• Whenever the found condition of
the site which we are to consider
building has a climate that is not
only dependent upon the general
climate of the REGION but also
the specific climate of the site as
affected by:
• The surface(s) that cover the ground.
• Available tree cover, size, height,
biodiversity, species etc.
• Nearness to water
• Amount of paving adjacent
• Height of adjacent buildings
TEMPERATURE
• Need to consider the climatological variation that can
occur over a single site.
• Variation can be seasonal, snowy winters to new
vegetation in springs.
• Temperature decreases with altitude. Even small
differences in terrain can effect major decrease in
temperature.
• Influence of large water bodies on temperature variation is
also considerable.
• Earth mass also relatable with temperature conditions.
• Character of ground covers on the site can have a
pronounced effect on temperature.
• Urban development raises the ambient air temperature
higher than rural.
TEMPERATURE
HUMIDITY
• Plants affect humidity in the atmosphere along with
temperature, insolation and wind.
• Process of precipitation on the site also effect the humidity.
Some precipitation does not reach the ground and
evaporate into the environment.
• In urban areas multiple factors affect humidity including
nature of surface materials, pavements, roofs. These are
designed to carry off precipitation and convert it into
runoff.
• At higher altitude above the city, clouds are likely to form
than rural or suburban areas.
HUMIDITY
SOLAR RADIATION
• Total amount of heat including direct, diffused and
reflected is called solar radiation or insolation.
• Quantity of solar radiation is a dominant effect on the
temperature of microclimate of the site of the region.
WIND
• Pre-Dominant Wind air
directions can be used to help
the building get natural
ventilation and cross
ventilation without usage of
energy means.

• Using the existing wind flow

direction to generate the
suction pressure to suck the
air out of the building.

• Using the existing wind flow

direction to generate the
cross ventilation phenomena
in the building.
WIND
 WIND
• Wind catchers and orientation
of rooms in the building.
SOLAR GEOMETRY
• Understanding solar
geometry is essential
in order to:
• Do passive building
design
• Orient buildings
properly
• Understand seasonal
changes in the building
and its surroundings.
• Design shading devices.
• Use the sun to animate
architecture.
SOLAR GEOMETRY
• Solar heating strategies
also provide
opportunities for day
lighting and views to the
outdoors through well-
positioned windows.
The goal of passive
design is to maximize
solar gain while
minimizing
conductance.
SOLAR GEOMETRY
• In solar
geometry use the
sun‟s natural
path i.e. to
provide free heat
in winter and to
reduce required
cooling in
summer.
SOLAR GEOMETRY
• The sun‟s rays can
warm a building: glazing
on the south side of
buildings will increase
this „solar gain‟.

• The sun is higher in the

sky in the summer, large
over hangs reduce heat
gains in summer but
allow solar gain in
winter
SOLAR GEOMETRY
• Sun is high in summer
making it easy to block
the sun with shading
devices.

• Allowing the sun to

penetrate below our
shading devices and
enter the building with
free heat
SUN TRANSMISSION THROUGH GLASS
• When sun strike glass,
solar radiation id
transmitted through the
glass and proceeds to
heat up the interior
spaces.
• Part of solar energy
reflects, part of it
absorbed.
SHADING
• By shading a building and
its outdoor spaces we can
reduce summer
temperatures, improve
comfort and save energy.

• A variety of shading
techniques can help, from
fixed or adjustable shades
to trees and vegetation,
depending on the
building‟s orientation as
well as climate and
latitude.
SHADING
• Shading of wall and roof
surfaces is therefore
important to reduce
summer heat gain,
particularly if they are
dark colored or
heavyweight. Light
colored roofs can reflect
up to 70% of summer heat
gain.
SHADING
• In addition to providing shade, plants can assist
cooling by transpiration. Plants also enhance the
visual environment and create pleasant filtered light.
SHADING
SHADING
 SHADING

• Ceramic fritted that is

sloped, to allow some
light but shed rain.

• Louvers or grates that will

let snow, rain and wind
through
SHADING
 SHADING
• Avoid windows on the east and west façade by shifting
the windows to face north or south.
• Best solution is to limit using east and west windows as
much as possible in hot climates.
• Another solution is to have windows on east and west
facades face north or south.
 SHADING
• By using the vertical fins,
spacing is an issue, as well as
fin length. The can severely
restrict the view if to be effective.
 SHADING
• The sun also hits the façade from north east and north
west during summer. Fins can be used to control the
oblique light as well.
SHADING
• Plantation may also
be treated for
shading.
• Deciduous trees
and trellises with
vines are very good
for shading. They
can gain and lose
leaves in response
to temperature
changes.