I

ON THE PSYCHOLOGY
OF
THE UNCONSCIOUS
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 P R E F A C E T O T H E F I R S T E D I T I O N (1917)

T h is essay# is the re su lt of m y a tte m p t to revise, at the p u b -

lish e r’s req u est, th e p ap e r w hich a p p e a re d in the R ascher Year-
b oo k for 1912 u n d e r th e title “ N e u e B ah n en d e r Psychologie.” f
T h e p resen t w ork th us re pro d u ces th a t ea rlier essay, th o u g h in
alte re d a n d en la rg ed form . In m y e a rlier p a p e r I confined myself
to th e ex po sition of one essential aspect of th e psychologi-
cal views in a u g u ra te d by F reu d . T h e m an ifo ld a n d im p o rta n t
changes w hich re c e n t years have b ro u g h t in the psychology of
th e unconscious have com p elled m e to b ro a d e n co nsiderably th e
fram ew ork of m y e a rlie r p aper. O n the one h a n d a n u m b e r of
passages on F re u d w ere sh orten ed, w hile on th e o th e r h and , A d -
le r’s psychology was tak en in to account; and, so far as was pos-
sible w ith in the lim its of this essay, a g en eral survey of m y ow n
views was given.
I m u st w a rn the re a d e r a t th e o utset th a t he will be d ea lin g
w ith a study w hich, on acco u n t of its ra th e r com p licated subject-
m atter, will m ake co nsid erab le dem an d s on his p atience a n d a t-
te n tio n . N o r can I associate this w ork w ith th e idea th a t it is in
any sense conclusive or ad e q u ately convincing. T h is re q u ir e -
m e n t co u ld be m e t only by com preh en siv e scientific treatises on
each separate p ro b le m to u ch ed u p o n in th e essay. T h e re ad er
w ho wishes to p ro b e m o re deeply in to th e questions at issue
m u st th erefo re be re fe rre d to th e specialist lite ra tu re . M y in te n -
tio n is sim ply to give a b ro a d survey of th e m ost re c e n t views on
the n a tu re a n d psychology of th e unconscious. I reg ard th e p ro b -
lem of th e unconscious as so im p o rta n t a n d so topical th a t it
w ould, in m y o p in io n , be a g reat loss if this q uestio n, w hich
touches each o ne of us so closely, w ere to d isap p ear fro m the
o rb it of th e ed u c ated lay p u b lic by b e in g b an ish ed to some in -
accessible technical jo u rn a l, th ere to lead a shadowy paper-
existence on th e shelves of libraries.
• ie sy hologie e nbe ssten o esse (Zurich, 1917). T ran s, by D ora H echt
as “T h e Psychology of the Unconscious Processes” in olle te ape s on n a
lyti al sy hology (2nd edn., L ondon, 1917; New York, 1920).— E d i t o r s .]
•f [Cf. below, pars. 4071!.: “New P ath s in Psychology.*']

2647
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

T h e psychological con co m itan ts of th e p re sen t w ar— above

all th e in cre d ib le b ru ta liz a tio n of p u b lic o p in io n , the m u tu a l
slanderings, th e u n p re c e d e n te d fu ry o f destru c tio n , th e m o n -
strous flood of lies, a n d m a n ’s incapacity to call a h a lt to th e
b loody d e m o n — are u n iq u e ly fitted to force u p o n th e a tte n tio n
of every th in k in g person th e p ro b le m of the chaotic unconscious
w h ich slum bers uneasily b e n e a th th e o rd e re d w o rld of conscious-
ness. T h is w a r has pitilessly revealed to civilized m a n th a t h e is
still a b a rb a ria n , a n d has at th e sam e tim e show n w h a t a n iro n
scourge lies in store fo r h im if ever again he sh o u ld be te m p te d
to m ak e his n e ig h b o u r resp o nsible for his ow n evil qualities.
T h e psychology of th e in d iv id u a l is reflected in th e psychology
o f th e n atio n . W h a t th e n a tio n does is do n e also by each in d iv id -
ual, a n d so lo n g as th e in d iv id u a l co n tin u es to do it, th e n a tio n
will d o likewise. O n ly a change in th e a ttitu d e of th e in d iv id u a l
can in itia te a change in th e psychology of th e n atio n . T h e g reat
p ro b lem s of h u m a n ity w ere n ev e r yet solved by g en eral laws, b u t
o nly th ro u g h re g e n e ra tio n of th e attitu d e s of individuals. If ever
th e re was a tim e w h e n self-reflection was th e absolutely neces-
sary a n d only rig h t th in g , it is now, in o u r p resen t catastrop h ic
epoch. Yet w h o ev er reflects u p o n him self is b o u n d to strike
u p o n th e fro n tie rs of th e unconscious, w h ich con tain s w h a t
above all else h e needs to know .

sn a h t i h, e e be C. G. J u n g

P R E F A C E T O T H E S E C O N D E D I T I O N (1918)

I am glad th a t it has b ee n th e lo t o f this little b oo k to pass in to a

second e d itio n in so sh o rt a tim e, despite th e difficulties it m u st
have p re sen ted to m an y readers. I am le ttin g th e second e d itio n
a p p e a r u n a lte re d ex cep t for a few m in o r m odifications a n d im -
p rovem ents, a lth o u g h I am aw are th a t th e last chapters in p a r-
ticu lar, ow in g to th e e x tra o rd in a ry difficulty a n d th e novelty of
th e m aterial, really n ee d ed discussion on a m u c h b ro a d e r basis
in o rd e r to b e generally u n d ersto o d . B u t a m o re d eta ile d tre a t-
m e n t of th e fu n d a m e n ta l p rin cip les th ere o u tlin e d w o uld far ex-
ceed th e b o u n d s of a m o re o r less p o p u la r p re sen tatio n , so th a t I

2648
 PREFACES

p re fe rre d to trea t these qu estion s w ith d u e circ u m sta n tia lity in a

separate w o rk w hich is no w in p re p a ra tio n .*
F ro m th e m an y co m m u n ica tio n s I received afte r th e p u b lic a -
tio n of th e first e d itio n I have discovered th at, even am o n g th e
w id er p u b lic, in terest in th e p ro b lem s of th e h u m a n psyche is
very m u c h k e e n e r th a n I expected. T h is in tere st m ay b e d u e in
n o sm all m easure to th e p ro fo u n d shock w hich o u r consciousness
sustain ed th ro u g h th e W o r ld W a r. T h e spectacle of this catas-
tro p h e th rew m a n back u p o n him self by m a k in g h im feel his
c o m p lete im p o ten ce; it tu r n e d his gaze inw ards, an d , w ith
ev ery th in g ro c k in g a b o u t h im , h e m u st needs seek so m eth in g
th a t g u arantees h im a hold. T o o m an y still look outw ards, some
b eliev in g in th e illu sio n of victory a n d of victorious pow er,
o th ers in treaties a n d laws, a n d oth ers again in th e ov erth ro w of
th e existing order. B u t still too few look inw ards, to th e ir ow n
selves, a n d still few er ask them selves w h e th e r th e ends of h u m a n
society m ig h t n o t best b e served if each m a n trie d to abolish th e
o ld o rd e r in him self, a n d to practise in his ow n p erso n a n d in his
ow n in w ard state those precepts, those victories w h ich he
p reaches at every street-corner, in stead of always ex p e ctin g these
thing s of his fellow m en . Every in d iv id u a l needs re v o lu tio n , in -
n e r division, o v erth ro w of th e ex istin g o rd e r, a n d renew al, b u t
n o t by forcin g th e m u p o n his n e ig h b o u rs u n d e r th e h ypocritical
cloak of C h ristia n love o r th e sense of social respo n sib ility o r any
of th e o th e r b e a u tifu l eup h em ism s fo r unconscious urges to p e r-
sonal pow er. In d iv id u a l self-reflection, r e tu r n of th e in d iv id u a l
to th e g ro u n d of h u m a n n a tu re , to his ow n deep est b e in g w ith
its in d iv id u a l a n d social destin y — h e re is th e b e g in n in g of a cu re
fo r th a t b lin d ness w hich reigns at th e p re sen t h o u r.
In te re s t in th e p ro b le m of th e h u m a n psyche is a sym ptom of
this instinctiv e r e tu r n to oneself. I t is to serve this in te re st th a t
th e p re sen t b o o k was w ritte n .

sn a h t i h, to b e C. G. J .
• sy hologi al Types .

2649
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

P R E F A C E T O T H E T H I R D E D I T I O N * (1926)

T h is b o o k was w ritte n d u rin g th e W o rld W a r, a n d it owes its

existence p rim a rily to th e psychological repercussions o f th a t
great event. N o w th a t th e w ar is over, th e waves are b e g in n in g
to subside again. B u t th e g re at psychological p ro b lem s th a t th e
w ar th rew u p still occupy th e m in d a n d h e a rt of every th in k in g
a n d feelin g person. I t is p ro b a b ly thanks to this th a t m y little
b o o k has survived th e p ostw ar p e rio d a n d n o w appears in a th ird
ed itio n .
I n view of th e fact th a t seven years have elapsed since th e
p u b lic a tio n of th e first ed itio n , I have d ee m ed it necessary to
u n d e rta k e fairly extensive a lteratio n s a n d im p rov em en ts, p a rtic -
u larly in th e ch ap ters o n types a n d o n th e unconscious. T h e
c h a p te r o n “T h e D e v elo p m en t of T y p es in th e A nalytical
Process” f I have o m itte d en tirely , as this q u estio n has since
received co m p reh en siv e tre a tm e n t in m y book sy hologi al
T y p e s to w hich I m u st re fe r th e in tere ste d read er.
A n y o n e w ho has trie d to p o p u lariz e h ighly com p licated m a-
teria l th a t is still in th e process of scientific d ev e lo p m e n t w ill
agree w ith m e th a t this is n o easy task. I t is even m o re difficult
w h e n m an y of th e psychological processes a n d p ro b lem s I have
to discuss h ere are q u ite u n k n o w n to m ost people. M u c h of w h a t
I say m ay arouse th e ir p reju d ices o r m ay ap p e a r a rb itra ry ; b u t
th ey sh o u ld b e a r in m in d th a t th e p u rp o se of such a b o o k can be,
a t m ost, to give th e m a ro u g h idea of its su b ject a n d to p rovoke
th o u g h t, b u t n o t to e n te r in to all th e details of th e a rg u m e n t. I
shall be q u ite satisfied if m y bo o k fulfils this purpose.

sna ht i h p il C. G. J.

* [Zurich, 1926; title changed to as nbe sste i no alen n k anken

eelenleben T rans, by H. G. and C. F. Baynes as “T h e Unconscious in the N or-
m al and Pathological M ind" in T o ssays on nalyti al sy hology (London
and New York, 1928).]
f olle te ape s on nalyti al sy hology (2nd edn.), pp. 437-41.]

2650
 PREFACES

P R E F A C E T O T H E F O U R T H E D I T I O N (1936)

A side fro m a few im p ro v em en ts th e fo u rth ed itio n appears u n -

changed. F ro m n u m e ro u s reactions of th e p u b lic I have seen
th a t th e id ea of th e collective unconscious, to w hich I have d e-
vo ted o n e c h a p te r in this book, has aro u sed p a rtic u la r interest. I
c a n n o t th erefo re o m it callin g th e a tte n tio n of m y readers to the
latest issues of th e anos ah b h w hich co n ta in im p o rta n t
w orks by v arious a u th o rs o n this subject. T h e p re sen t b o o k
m akes n o a tte m p t to give a co m p reh en siv e acco u n t of th e fu ll
ra n g e of an alytical psychology; co n seq u en tly , m u c h is m erely
h in te d at a n d som e things are n o t m e n tio n e d at all. I hope, how -
ever, th a t it w ill c o n tin u e to fulfil its m o d est purpose.

sn a h t i h p il C. G. J.

P R E F A C E T O T H E F I F T H E D I T I O N f (1943)

Since th e last, u n c h a n g e d ed itio n , six years have gone by; hence

it seem ed to m e advisable to s u b m it th e presen t, n ew e d itio n of
th e b o ok to a th o ro u g h revision. O n this occasion a n u m b e r of
in ad eq uacies co u ld be e lim in a te d o r im p ro v ed , a n d superfluous
m ateria l deleted. A difficult a n d co m p licated m a tte r like th e
psychology of th e unconscious gives rise n o t only to m an y new
insights b u t to erro rs as well. I t is still a b o u ndless expanse of
v irg in te rrito ry in to w h ich we m ak e e x p e rim e n ta l incursions,
a n d o n ly by g o in g th e lo n g way ro u n d do we strike th e d irect
road. A lth o u g h I have trie d to in tro d u c e as m an y n ew view -
p o in ts as possible in to th e text, m y re a d e r sh o u ld n o t expect
* [For translations of several papers from the first three issues of the anos
ah b h (1933-35), see pi it al is iplines (Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks,
4). Those issues also first published Jung's “A Study in the Process of Individua-
tion," “Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious,” and “Dream Symbols of
the Individuation Process.”]
f [Zurich, 1943; title changed to ebe ie sy hologie es nbe ssten. It is
this edition which is translated in the present volume.]

2651
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

an y th in g lik e a co m p lete survey of th e fu n d a m e n tals of o u r con-

tem p o ra ry psychological k n ow ledge in th is d o m ain . In th is p o p -
u la r a c co u n t I am p re se n tin g o nly a few of th e m ost essential
aspects o f m edical psychology a n d also of m y ow n researches, a n d
th is on ly b y way of a n in tro d u c tio n . A solid k n ow ledge c a n n o t
b e ac q u ire d ex cep t th ro u g h th e stu d y of th e lite ra tu re on th e o n e
h a n d a n d th ro u g h p ractical ex p e rien c e o n th e o th er. I n p a rtic -
u la r I w o u ld lik e to re c o m m e n d to those read ers w h o are d esir-
ous o f g a in in g d e ta ile d k n o w led g e of these m atters th a t they
sh o u ld n o t on ly stu d y th e basic w orks of m edical psychology
a n d psychopathology, b u t also th o ro u g h ly digest th e psychologi-
cal text-books. So d oing, they w ill a c q u ire th e re q u isite k n o w l-
edge of th e p o sitio n a n d g en e ral significance of m edical psychol-
ogy in th e m o st d ire c t way.
F ro m such a co m p a rativ e stud y th e re a d e r w ill b e a b le to
ju d g e how fa r F re u d ’s c o m p la in t a b o u t th e “ u n p o p u la rity ” of
his psychoanalysis, a n d m y ow n feeling th a t I occupy an isolated
ou tp o st, are justified. A lth o u g h th e re have b ee n a few n o ta b le
exceptions, I d o n o t th in k I exaggerate w h en I say th a t th e views
of m o d e rn m edical psychology have still n o t p e n e tra te d far
e n o u g h in to th e stron g h o ld s of academ ic science. N ew ideas, if
th ey are n o t ju s t a flash in th e p an , gen erally re q u ire a t least a
g e n e ra tio n to take ro o t. Psychological in n o v atio n s p ro b a b ly take
m u c h lo n g er, since in this field m o re th a n in an y o th e r p ra c ti-
cally everybody sets him self u p as an au th o rity .

iisn a h t i h p il C. G. J .

2652
 I
PSYCHOANALYSIS

1 If he wants to help his patient, the doctor and above all the
“specialist for nervous diseases” must have psychological knowl-
edge; for nervous disorders and all that is embraced by the terms
“nervousness,” hysteria, etc. are of psychic origin and therefore
logically require psychic treatment. Cold water, light, fresh air,
electricity, and so forth have at best a transitory effect and some-
times none at all. The patient is sick in mind, in the highest and
most complex of the mind’s functions, and these can hardly be
said to belong any more to the province of medicine. Here the
doctor must also be a psychologist, which means that he must
have knowledge of the human psyche.
* In the past, that is to say up to fifty years ago, the doctor’s
psychological training was still very bad. His psychiatric text-
books were wholly confined to clinical descriptions and the sys-
tematization of mental diseases, and the psychology taught in the
universities was either philosophy or the so-called “experimen-
tal psychology” inaugurated by Wundt.1 The first moves to-
wards a psychotherapy of the neuroses came from the Charcot
school, at the Salpetrière in Paris; Pierre Janet2 began his
epoch-making researches into the psychology of neurotic states,
and Bernheim3 in Nancy took up with great success LiébeaultV
old and forgotten idea of treating the neuroses by suggestion.
Sigmund Freud translated Bernheim’s book and also derived
valuable inspiration from it. At that time there was still no psy-
chology of the neuroses and psychoses. To Freud belongs the
1 in iples of hysiologi al sy hology o ig. 1893).
2 to atis e psy hologi e (1889); oses et i es fi es (1898).
«D e la s ggestion et e ses appli ations la th ape ti e (1886); trans. by S.
Freud as ie ggestion n ih e eil i k ng
4 L iébeault, so eil et es tats analog es onsi s a point e e e
a tion o al s le physi e (1866).

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

u n d y in g m e rit of h a v in g laid th e fo u n d a tio n s of a psychology of

th e neuroses. H is teachings sp ran g fro m his ex p erien ce in th e
p ractical tre a tm e n t of th e neuroses, th a t is, from th e ap p lic a tio n
of a m e th o d w h ich he called psy hoanalysis
S B efore we e n te r u p o n a closer p re se n ta tio n of o u r subject,
so m eth in g m u st be said a b o u t its re la tio n to science as k n o w n
h ith e rto . H e re we e n c o u n te r a cu rio u s spectacle w hich proves
yet again th e tr u th of A n a to le F rance's re m a rk : “Les savants ne
so n t pas c u rie u x .” T h e first w o rk of any m a g n itu d e 5 in this field
aw ak en ed only th e fain test echo, in spite of th e fact th a t it in tro -
d u ce d an e n tire ly new co n c ep tio n of th e neuroses. A few w riters
spoke of it ap p reciativ ely a n d th en , o n th e n e x t page, pro ceed ed
to ex p la in th e ir hysterical cases in th e sam e o ld way. T h e y b e-
hav ed very m u ch like a m an who, h a v in g eulogized th e idea o r
fact th a t th e e a rth was a sphere, calm ly co n tin u es to re p re se n t
it as flat. F re u d 's n e x t p u b licatio n s re m a in e d absolutely u n n o -
ticed, a lth o u g h they p u t fo rw ard observations w hich w ere of in -
calcu lab le im p o rtan ce for psychiatry. W h e n , in th e year 1900,
F re u d w ro te th e first real psychology of d ream s6 (a p ro p e r Sty-
g ian darkness h ad h ith e rto re ig n e d over this field), peo p le b e-
gan to laugh, a n d w h en he actually starte d to th ro w lig h t o n th e
psychology of sexuality in 1905,7 la u g h te r tu rn e d to insult. A n d
this sto rm of lea rn e d in d ig n a tio n was n o t b e h in d h a n d in giving
F re u d ia n psychology a n u n w a n te d p u b licity , a n o to rie ty th a t
e x te n d e d far bey o n d th e confines of scientific interest.
4 A ccordingly we m u st look m o re closely in to this new psy-
chology. A lread y in C h arco t's tim e it was k n o w n th a t th e n e u -
ro tic sym ptom is “ psychogenic,” i.e., orig in ates in the psyche. I t
was also k now n, th an k s m ain ly to th e w o rk of th e N ancy school,
th a t all hysterical sym ptom s can be p ro d u c e d th ro u g h sugges-
tion. E qually, so m eth in g was kn o w n , thanks to th e researches of
J a n e t, a b o u t th e psychological m echanism s th a t p ro d u c e such hys-
terical p h e n o m e n a as anaesthesia, paresia, paralysis, a n d a m n e -
sia. B u t it was n o t k n o w n ho an hysterical sy m ptom o riginates
in th e psyche; th e psychic causal co n n ectio n s w ere com pletely
u n k n o w n . In th e early eighties D r. B reuer, an o ld V iennese prac-
titio n e r, m ad e a discovery w h ich b ecam e th e real startin g -p o in t
5 B reuer and Freud, t ies on yste ia (orig. 1895).
6 T he nte p etation of ea s.
7 “T hree Essays on the Theory of Sexuality.’*

2654
 PSYCHOANALYSIS

fo r the new psychology. H e h ad a young, very in tellig e n t w om an

p a tie n t suffering fro m hysteria, w ho m an ifested th e follow ing
sym ptom s am o n g others: she h ad a spastic (rigid) paralysis of
th e rig h t arm , a n d occasional fits of ab sen tm ind ed n ess o r tw i-
lig h t states; she h ad also lost th e pow er of speech in asm u ch as
she co u ld n o lo n g er c o m m an d h e r m o th e r to n g u e b u t cou ld
only express herself in E nglish (systematic aphasia). T h e y trie d
a t th a t tim e to acco u n t fo r these disorders w ith an ato m ical th eo -
ries, a lth o u g h th e cortical ce n tre for th e arm fu n c tio n was as lit-
tle d is tu rb e d h ere as w ith a n o rm al person. T h e sym ptom atology
of hysteria is fu ll of an ato m ical im possibilities. O n e lady, w ho
h a d co m p letely lost h e r h e a rin g because of an hysterical affec-
tion, o ften used to sing. O nce, w h en she was singing, h e r do cto r
seated him self u n o b serv ed at th e p ian o a n d softly acco m p an ied
her. In passing fro m on e stanza to the n e x t h e m ad e a su d d en
change of key, w h e re u p o n th e p a tie n t, w ith o u t n o tic in g it, w e n t
on sin g in g in th e ch an g ed key. T h u s she hears— a n d does n o t
hear. T h e v arious form s of system atic b lin d n ess offer sim ilar p h e -
n o m en a : a m a n suffering fro m to tal hysterical blin d n ess recov-
ered his p o w er of sight in th e course of tre a tm e n t, b u t it was only
p a rtia l a t first a n d re m a in e d so for a lo ng tim e. H e co u ld see
ev ery th in g w ith th e ex cep tio n of p e o p le ’s heads. H e saw all th e
p eo p le r o u n d h im w ith o u t heads. T h u s he sees— a n d does n o t
see. F ro m a large n u m b e r of like experiences it h ad b ee n co n -
clu d e d th a t only th e conscious m in d of th e p a tie n t does n o t see
a n d h ear, b u t th a t th e sense fu n c tio n is otherw ise in w o rk in g o r-
der. T h is state of affairs directly co n trad icts th e n a tu re of an
o rg an ic disorder, w hich always affects th e actu al fu n c tio n as
well.
5 A fte r this digression, let us com e back to th e B reu e r case.
T h e r e w ere n o o rganic causes fo r th e diso rd er, so it h ad to be
re g ard e d as hysterical, i.e., psychogenic. B reu e r h ad observed
th a t if, d u rin g h e r tw ilig h t states (w h ether sp o n tan eo u s o r a r ti-
ficially ind u ced ), he g o t th e p a tie n t to tell h im of the re m in is-
cences a n d fantasies th a t th ro n g e d in u p o n her, h e r co n d itio n
was eased fo r several h o u rs afterw ards. H e m ad e system atic use
o f this discovery for fu r th e r tre a tm e n t. T h e p a tie n t devised the
n am e “ talk in g c u re ” for it or, jokingly, “chim ney-sw eeping.”
6 T h e p a tie n t h ad becom e ill w h en n u rs in g h e r fa th e r in his
fatal illness. N a tu ra lly h e r fantasies w ere chiefly co n c ern e d w ith

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

these d is tu rb in g days. R em iniscences of this p erio d cam e to th e

surface d u rin g h e r tw ilig h t states w ith p h o to g rap h ic fidelity; so
vivid w ere they, dow n to the last detail, th a t we can h ard ly as-
sum e th e w aking m em o ry to have b ee n capable of such plastic
a n d exact re p ro d u c tio n . (T h e n am e “h y p erm n esia” has been
given to this in ten sificatio n of th e pow ers of m em o ry w hich n o t
in fre q u e n tly occurs in re stric ted states of consciousness.) R e -
m ark a b le things now cam e to light. O n e of th e m an y stories to ld
ra n som ew hat as follows:
O n e n ig h t, w atch in g by th e sick m an, w ho h ad a hig h fever,
she was tense w ith an x iety because a surgeon was ex p ected from
V ien n a to p erfo rm an o p eratio n . H e r m o th e r h ad left th e room
for a w hile, a n d A n n a , th e p atien t, sat by th e sick-bed w ith h er
rig h t arm h a n g in g over th e back of th e chair. She fell in to a sort
of w ak in g d re a m in w hich she saw a black snake com ing, a p p a r-
en tly o u t of th e wall, tow ards th e sick m a n as th o u g h to b ite
h im . (It is q u ite likely th a t th ere really w ere snakes in the
m eadow at the back of th e house, w hich had already given the
girl a frig h t a n d w hich now p ro v id ed th e m ateria l for th e h a l-
lu cin atio n .) She w an ted to d rive th e cre a tu re away, b u t felt
paralysed; h e r rig h t arm , h an g in g over th e back of th e chair,
h a d ‘‘gone to sleep” : it h a d becom e an aesth etic a n d paretic,
an d , as she looked a t it, th e fingers chang ed in to little serpents
w ith death's-heads. P ro b ab ly she m ad e efforts to d rive away
th e snake w ith h e r paralysed rig h t h an d , so th a t th e anaesthesia
a n d paralysis becam e associated w ith th e snake h allu cin a tio n .
W h e n th e snake h a d disap p eared , she was so frig h te n ed th a t she
w a n te d to pray; b u t all speech failed her, she co u ld n o t u tte r a
w o rd u n til finally she re m e m b e re d an E nglish n u rse ry rhym e,
an d th e n she was ab le to go o n th in k in g a n d p ray in g in E n glish .8
7 Such was th e scene in w hich the paralysis a n d th e speech dis-
tu rb a n c e o rig in ated , a n d w ith the n a r ra tio n of this scene th e dis-
tu rb a n c e itself was rem oved. In this m a n n e r th e case is said to
have b een finally cu red .
8 I m u st co n te n t m yself w ith this on e exam ple. I n th e b o o k I
have m e n tio n e d by B reu e r a n d F re u d th e re is a w ealth of sim ilar
exam ples. I t can read ily be u n d e rsto o d th a t scenes of this k in d
m ak e a p o w erfu l im pression, a n d p eo p le are th ere fo re in clin ed
to im p u te causal significance to th e m in th e genesis of th e symp-
8 [Cf. Breuer and Freud, pp. 38!:.]

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 PSYCHOANALYSIS

tom . T h e view of hysteria th e n c u rre n t, w h ich d eriv e d fro m th e

E nglish th eo ry of th e “n erv o u s shock” en erg etically ch a m p io n e d
by G harcot, was w ell q u alified to e x p la in B re u e r’s discovery.
H e n c e th ere arose th e so-called tra u m a theory, w h ich says th a t
th e hysterical sym ptom , an d , in so far as th e sym ptom s co n stitu te
th e illness, hysteria in general, d eriv e fro m psychic in ju ries o r
tra u m a ta whose im p r in t persists unconsciously fo r years. F reu d ,
n o w co lla b o ra tin g w ith B reu er, was ab le to fu rn ish a b u n d a n t
co n firm atio n of this discovery. I t tu rn e d o u t th a t n o n e of th e
h u n d re d s of hysterical sym ptom s arose by chance— they w ere al-
ways caused by psychic occurrences. So far th e new co n cep tio n
o p e n e d u p a n extensive field for e m p irica l w ork. B u t F re u d ’s
in q u irin g m in d co u ld n o t re m a in lo n g o n this superficial level,
fo r alread y d e e p e r a n d m o re difficult p ro b lem s w ere b e g in n in g
to em erge. I t is obvious e n o u g h th a t m o m en ts of ex tre m e a n x -
iety such as B re u e r’s p a tie n t ex p e rien c ed m ay leave an a b id in g
im pression. B u t ho w d id she com e to ex p erien ce th em a t all,
since they alread y clearly b e a r a m o rb id stam p? C o u ld th e strain
of n u rs in g b rin g this ab o u t? If so, th e re o u g h t to be m an y m o re
occurrences of th e k in d , fo r th e re are u n fo rtu n a te ly very m any
e x h a u stin g cases to nurse, a n d th e n erv o u s h e a lth of th e n u rse is
n o t always of th e best. T o this p ro b le m m ed icin e gives a n excel-
le n t answ er: “T h e in th e ca lcu latio n is p re d isp o sitio n .” O n e is
ju s t “p re d isp o se d ” th a t way. B u t for F re u d th e p ro b le m was:
w h a t co n stitu tes th e p red isposition? T h is q u estio n leads logi-
cally to an e x a m in a tio n of th e p rev iou s history of th e psychic
trau m a . I t is a m a tte r of co m m o n o b serv atio n th a t ex citing
scenes have q u ite d iffe ren t effects o n th e various persons in -
volved, o r th a t th in g s w hich are in d iffe ren t o r even agreeable to
o n e p erso n arouse th e g reatest h o rro r in oth ers— witness frogs,
snakes, m ice, cats, etc. T h e r e are cases of w o m en w ho will assist
a t b loody o p eratio n s w ith o u t tu r n in g a h air, w hile they trem b le
all over w ith fear a n d lo a th in g a t th e to u ch of a cat. I re m e m b e r
a y o u n g w o m an w ho suffered fro m acu te hysteria follow ing a
s u d d en frig h t.9 She h a d b ee n to an ev en in g p arty a n d was o n h e r
way h o m e a b o u t m id n ig h t in th e com pany of several a c q u a in t-
ances, w h en a cab cam e u p b e h in d th em at full tro t. T h e others
g o t o u t of th e way, b u t she, as th o u g h sp ellb o u n d w ith terro r,
«[For another presentation of this case, see “T he Theory of Psychoanalysis/*
pars. 2i8ff., 297ff., and 355ft.—E d i t o r s .]

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

k e p t to th e m id d le of the ro a d a n d ra n alo n g in fro n t of th e

horses. T h e ca b m an cracked his w h ip a n d swore; it was n o good,
she ra n d o w n th e w hole len g th of th e road, w hich led across a
b rid g e. T h e r e h e r stren g th d eserted her, a n d to avoid b e in g
tra m p le d o n by th e horses she w o u ld in h e r d e sp e ratio n have
lea p t in to th e riv e r h ad n o t th e passers-by p re v en ted her. N ow ,
this sam e lady h ad h a p p e n e d to b e in St. P e te rsb u rg o n th e
b loo d y tw enty-second of J a n u a ry [1905], in th e very street w hich
was cleared by th e volleys of th e soldiers. A ll ro u n d h e r p eo p le
w ere fallin g to th e g ro u n d d ead o r w o u n d e d ; she, how ever, q u ite
calm a n d clear-headed, espied a gate lea d in g in to a yard th ro u g h
w hich she m ad e h e r escape in to a n o th e r street. T h e s e d re a d fu l
m o m en ts caused h e r n o fu r th e r ag itatio n . She felt perfectly well
afterw ards— in d eed , ra th e r b e tte r th a n usual.
9 T h is fa ilu re to react to an a p p a re n t shock can fre q u e n tly b e
observed. H e n ce it necessarily follows th a t th e in ten sity of a
tra u m a has very little p ath o g en ic significance in itself, b u t it
m u st have a special significance for th e p atien t. T h a t is to say, it
is n o t th e shock as such th a t has a p ath o g en ic effect u n d e r all cir-
cum stances, b u t, in o rd e r to have an effect, it m u st im p in g e o n a
special psychic disposition, w hich may, in ce rta in circum stances,
consist in th e p a tie n t's unconsciously a ttr ib u tin g a specific sig-
nificance to th e shock. H e re we have a possible key to th e “ p re -
d isp o sitio n .” W e have th ere fo re to ask ourselves: w h at are th e
p a rtic u la r circum stances of th e scene w ith th e cab? T h e p a tie n t's
fear began w ith th e so u n d of th e tro ttin g horses; fo r an in sta n t
i t seem ed to h e r th a t this p o rte n d e d som e te rrib le d o o m — h e r
d eath , o r so m eth in g as d re ad fu l; th e n e x t m o m e n t she lost all
sense of w hat she was doing.
0 T h e real shock ev id en tly cam e fro m th e horses. T h e p a tie n t's
p red isp o sitio n to re act in so u n a c c o u n ta b le a way to this u n r e -
m ark a b le in c id e n t m ig h t th ere fo re consist in th e fact th a t horses
have som e special significance for her. W e m ig h t co n jectu re, for
instance, th a t she once h ad a d an g ero u s acciden t w ith horses.
T h is was actually fo u n d to be th e case. As a c h ild of a b o u t seven
she was o u t fo r a d riv e w ith h e r coachm an, w h en su d d en ly th e
horses took frig h t a n d at a w ild gallop m ad e for th e p recip ito u s
b a n k of a d eep river-gorge. T h e co ach m an ju m p e d d ow n a n d
sh o u ted to h er to do likewise, b u t she was in such deadly fear
th a t she co u ld h ard ly m ak e u p h e r m in d . N evertheless she

2658
 PSYCHOANALYSIS

ju m p e d in th e n ick of tim e, w h ile th e horses crashed w ith th e

carriag e in to th e d ep th s below . T h a t such an ev en t w o u ld leave
a very d ee p im pression scarcely needs proof. Yet it does n o t ex-
p la in w hy at a la te r d a te such an insensate re actio n sh o u ld fol-
low th e perfectly harm less h in t of a sim ilar situ atio n . So far we
k n o w only th a t th e la te r sym ptom h ad a p re lu d e in child h o o d ,
b u t th e p athological aspect of it still re m a in s in the dark. In
o rd e r to p e n e tra te this m ystery, f u r th e r k now ledge is need ed .
F o r it h a d becom e clear w ith in creasin g ex p erien ce th a t in all
th e cases analysed so far, th e re existed, a p a rt from th e trau m a tic
experiences, a n o th e r, special class of d istu rb an ces w hich lie in
th e p ro v in ce of love. A d m itte d ly “ love” is an elastic co n cep t th a t
stretches fro m h eav en to hell a n d co m b in es in itself good a n d
evil, h ig h a n d low. W ith this discovery F r e u d ’s views u n d e rw e n t
a co n sid erab le change. If, m o re o r less u n d e r th e spell of B re u e r’s
tra u m a theory, h e h a d fo rm erly so u g h t th e cause of neurosis in
tra u m a tic experiences, no w th e ce n tre of gravity of the p ro b lem
sh ifted to an e n tire ly d ifferen t p o in t. T h is is best illu stra te d by
o u r case: we can u n d e rs ta n d w ell en o u g h why horses sh o u ld
play a special p a rt in th e life of the p a tie n t, b u t we do n o t u n d e r-
sta n d th e la te r reactio n , so ex ag g erated a n d u n ca lle d for. T h e
path o lo g ical p ec u lia rity of this story lies in th e fact th a t she is
frig h te n e d of q u ite harm less horses. R e m e m b e rin g th e discovery
th a t besides th e tra u m a tic ex p erien ce th e re is o ften a d is tu rb -
ance in th e p ro v in ce of love, we m ig h t in q u ire w h e th e r p erh ap s
th e re is s o m eth in g p ec u lia r in this co n n ectio n .
11 T h e lady know s a y o u n g m a n to w h o m she th in k s of b eco m -
in g engaged; she loves h im a n d hopes to be h ap p y w ith him . A t
first n o th in g m o re is discoverable. B u t it w o u ld n ev er do to be
d e te rre d fro m in v estig atio n by th e n eg ativ e results of th e p re -
lim in a ry q u estio n in g . T h e r e are in d ire c t ways of re a c h in g th e
goal w h e n th e d ire c t way fails. W e th ere fo re r e tu r n to th a t sin-
g u la r m o m e n t w h e n th e lady ra n h e a d lo n g in fro n t of th e
horses. W e in q u ire a b o u t h e r co m p an io n s a n d w h a t sort of fes-
tive occasion it was in w h ich she h a d ju s t tak en p art. I t h ad b een
a farew ell p arty fo r h e r best frien d , w ho was go in g ab ro ad to
a h e a lth re so rt o n acco u n t of h e r nerves. T h is frie n d is m a rrie d
a n d , we are told, h ap p ily ; she is also th e m o th e r of a child. W e
m ay take leave to d o u b t th e sta te m e n t th a t she is h appy; for,
w ere she really so, she w o u ld p re su m a b ly h ave n o reaso n to b e

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

“ n erv o u s” a n d in n ee d of a cure. S h iftin g m y angle of ap p ro ach ,

I le a rn e d th a t afte r h e r frien d s h a d rescu ed h e r they b ro u g h t th e
p a tie n t back to th e house of h e r host— h e r best fr ie n d ’s h u sb a n d
— as this was th e n earest sh elter a t th a t late h o u r of n ig h t. T h e r e
she was h o sp itab ly received in h e r ex h a u ste d state. A t this p o in t
th e p a tie n t b ro k e off h e r n a rra tiv e , becam e em barrassed, fidg-
eted, a n d trie d to change th e subject. E v id en tly som e disa-
g reeab le rem in iscen ce h a d su d d en ly b o b b e d u p . A fte r th e m ost
o b stin ate resistance h ad b ee n overcom e, it ap p e a re d th a t yet
a n o th e r very re m a rk a b le in c id e n t h a d o ccu rred th a t n ig h t: th e
a m iab le host h ad m ad e h e r a fiery d ec lara tio n of love, th u s p re -
c ip ita tin g a s itu a tio n w hich, in th e absence of th e lady o f th e
house, m ig h t w ell be co n sid ered b o th difficult a n d distressing.
O stensibly this d ec lara tio n of love cam e to h e r lik e a b o lt from
th e b lu e, b u t these things u sually have th e ir history. I t was n o w
th e task of th e n e x t few weeks to d ig o u t b it by b it a lo n g love
story, u n til at last a co m p lete p ic tu re em erg ed w hich I a tte m p t
to o u tlin e so m ew h at as follows:
As a c h ild th e p a tie n t h a d b ee n a re g u la r tom boy, ca rin g
o n ly fo r w ild boys’ games, sco rn in g h e r ow n sex, a n d av o id in g all
fe m in in e ways a n d occupations. A fte r p u b e rty , w h e n th e ero tic
p ro b le m m ig h t have com e too close, she b eg an to sh u n all soci-
ety, h a te d a n d despised e v e ry th in g th a t even rem o tely re m in d e d
h e r of th e biological d estiny of w o m an , a n d lived in a w o rld of
fantasies w h ich h a d n o th in g in co m m o n w ith ru d e reality. T h u s ,
u n til a b o u t h e r tw en ty -fo u rth year, she evaded all those little
adv en tu res, hopes, a n d ex p ectatio n s w h ich o rd in a rily m ove a
g irl’s h e a rt a t this age. T h e n she got to k n o w tw o m e n w h o w ere
d estin ed to b re a k th ro u g h th e th o rn y h edge th a t h a d g ro w n u p
a r o u n d her. M r. A was h e r best fr ie n d ’s h u sb an d , a n d M r. B was
his b ac h elo r frien d . She lik ed th em b o th . N evertheless it soon
b eg an to look as th o u g h she lik ed M r. B a vast deal b e tte r. A n
in tim a cy q u ick ly sp ra n g u p b etw e en th e m a n d b efo re lo n g th ere
was talk of a possible en g ag em en t. T h r o u g h h e r re la tio n s w ith
M r. B a n d th ro u g h h e r frie n d she o ften cam e in to co n tact w ith
M r. A, whose presence som etim es d is tu rb e d h e r in th e m ost u n -
acco u n tab le way a n d m ad e h e r n ervous. A b o u t this tim e th e p a-
tie n t w e n t to a large p arty . H e r frien d s w ere also th ere. She b e -
cam e lost in th o u g h t a n d was d re am ily p lay in g w ith h e r rin g
w h e n it su d d en ly slip p e d off h e r finger a n d ro lle d u n d e r th e

2660
 PSYCHOANALYSIS

table. B o th g e n tlem e n looked fo r it a n d M r. B succeeded in find-

in g it. H e placed th e rin g o n h e r finger w ith an arch sm ile a n d
said, “You k n ow w h at th a t m ean s!” O vercom e by a strange a n d
irresistib le feeling, she to re th e rin g from h e r finger a n d flung it
th ro u g h th e o p en w indow . A p a in fu l m o m e n t ensued, as m ay be
im ag in ed , a n d soon she left th e p arty in d eep d ejectio n . N o t lo n g
afte r this, so-called ch an ce b ro u g h t it a b o u t th a t she sh o u ld spend
h e r s u m m e r holidays a t a h e a lth re so rt w h ere M r. a n d M rs. A
w ere also staying. Mrs. A th e n began to grow visibly nervous,
a n d fre q u e n tly stayed in d oo rs because she felt o u t of sorts. T h e
p a tie n t was th u s in a p o sitio n to go o u t fo r walks alo n e w ith M r.
A. O n one occasion they w e n t b o atin g . So b o isterous was she in
h e r m e rrim e n t th a t she su d d enly fell overb o ard . She co u ld n o t
swim, a n d it was on ly w ith g reat difficulty th a t M r. A p u lle d h e r
half-unconscious in to th e b oat. A n d th e n it was th a t he kissed
her. W ith this ro m a n tic episode th e b o n d s w ere tied fast. B u t th e
p a tie n t w o u ld n o t allow th e d ep th s of this passion to com e to
consciousness, ev id en tly because she h ad lo n g h a b itu a te d herself
to pass o v er such thin g s or, b etter, to r u n away from them . T o
excuse herself in h e r ow n eyes she p u rs u e d h e r en g ag em en t to
M r. B all th e m o re energetically, te llin g herself every day th a t it
was M r. B w h o m she loved. N a tu ra lly this c u rio u s little gam e
h a d n o t escaped th e k een glances of wifely jealousy. Mrs. A, h e r
frie n d , h ad guessed th e secret a n d fre tte d accordingly, so th a t h e r
nerves only g o t worse. H e n c e it b ecam e necessary for Mrs. A to
go a b ro a d fo r a cure. A t th e farew ell p arty th e evil s p irit step p ed
u p to o u r p a tie n t a n d w h isp ered in h e r ear, “T o n ig h t he is alone.
S o m eth in g m u st h a p p e n to you so th a t you can go to his h o u se.”
A n d so in d ee d it h a p p e n e d : th ro u g h h e r ow n strange b eh a v io u r
she cam e back to his house, a n d th u s she a tta in e d h e r desire.
*2 A fte r this e x p la n a tio n everyone w ill p ro b a b ly be in clin ed to
assum e th a t o nly a devilish su b tlety co u ld devise such a ch a in of
circum stances a n d set it to w ork. T h e r e is n o d o u b t a b o u t th e
subtlety, b u t its m o ral e v a lu atio n rem ain s a d o u b tfu l m atter,
because I m u st em phasize th a t th e m otives lead in g to this d ra -
m atic d é n o u e m e n t w ere in n o sense conscious. T o th e p atien t,
th e w hole story seem ed to h a p p e n of itself, w ith o u t h e r b ein g
conscious of any m otive. B u t th e p revious history m akes it p e r-
fectly clear th a t ev ery th in g was unconsciously d irec ted to this
end , w h ile th e conscious m in d was stru g g lin g to b rin g a b o u t the

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

en g ag em ent to M r. B. T h e u n conscious d rive in th e o th e r direc-

tio n was stronger.
*3 So once m o re we r e tu r n to o u r o rig in al q u estio n , nam ely,
w hence comes th e p athological (i.e., p ec u lia r o r exaggerated)
n a tu re of th e reactio n to th e trau m a? O n th e basis of a c o n c lu -
sion d ra w n from analogous experiences, we c o n je ctu red th a t in
this case too th e re m u st be, in a d d itio n to th e trau m a , a d is tu rb -
ance in the ero tic sphere. T h is co n je ctu re has b ee n en tire ly co n -
firm ed, a n d we have le a rn t th a t th e tra u m a , th e ostensible cause
of th e illness, is n o m o re th an an occasion for so m eth in g p re v i-
ously n o t conscious to m an ifest itself, i.e., an im p o rta n t ero tic
conflict. A ccordingly th e tra u m a loses its exclusive significance,
a n d is rep laced by a m u c h d ee p er a n d m o re co m p reh en siv e co n -
ce p tio n w hich sees th e p ath o g en ic ag en t as an ero tic conflict.
O n e o ften hears th e q u estio n : w hy sh o u ld th e ero tic conflict
b e th e cause of th e neurosis ra th e r th a n an y o th e r conflict? T o
this we can only answ er: n o on e asserts th a t it m u st be so, b u t in
p o in t of fact it fre q u e n tly is so. In spite of all in d ig n a n t p ro tes-
tatio n s to th e co n trary , th e fact rem ain s th a t love,10 its p ro b lem s
an d its conflicts, is of fu n d a m e n ta l im p o rta n c e in h u m a n life
and , as careful in q u iry consistently shows, is of far g re ater sig-
nificance th a n the in d iv id u a l suspects.
*5 T h e tra u m a th eo ry has th ere fo re b ee n a b a n d o n e d as a n ti-
q u a te d ; for w ith th e discovery th a t n o t th e tra u m a b u t a h id d e n
ero tic conflict is th e ro o t of the neurosis, th e tra u m a loses its
causal significance.11
10 Using the word in the wider sense which belongs to it by right and embraces
more than sexuality. T his is not to say th at love and its disturbances are the
only source of neurosis. Such disturbances may be of secondary nature and con-
ditioned by deeper-lying causes. T here are other ways of becoming neurotic.
11 Genuine shock-neuroses like shell-shock, “railway sp in e/’ etc. form an excep-
tion.

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THE EROS THEORY

16 I n th e lig h t of this discovery, th e q u estio n of th e tra u m a was

answ ered in a m ost u n e x p e c te d m a n n e r; b u t in its place th e in -
vestigator was faced w ith th e p ro b le m of th e ero tic conflict,
w hich, as o u r ex am p le shows, con tain s a w ealth of a b n o rm a l ele-
m ents a n d c a n n o t a t first sight be c o m p a red w ith an o rd in a ry
erotic conflict. W h a t is p ecu liarly s trik in g a n d alm ost in cre d ib le
is th a t on ly th e p re te n ce sh o u ld be conscious, w hile the p a tie n t’s
real passion re m a in e d h id d e n fro m her. In this case certainly, it
is b ey o n d d isp u te th a t th e real re la tio n s h ip was sh ro u d e d in
darkness, w hile th e p re te n d e d o n e d o m in a te d th e field of co n -
sciousness. If we fo rm u la te these facts theoretically, we arriv e at
th e fo llow ing resu lt: th e re are in a n eurosis tw o tendencies
sta n d in g in strict o p p o sitio n to o n e a n o th e r, o n e of w hich is u n -
conscious. T h is p ro p o sitio n is fo rm u la te d in very g en eral term s
on p u rp o se, because I w a n t to stress th a t alth o u g h th e p a th o -
genic conflict is a personal m a tte r it is also a b ro a d ly h u m a n
conflict m an ife stin g itself in the in d iv id u a l, fo r d isu n ity w ith
oneself is th e h all-m ark of civilized m an. T h e n e u ro tic is only a
special instance of th e d isu n ite d m a n w ho o u g h t to h arm o n ize
n a tu re a n d c u ltu re w ith in him self.
*7 T h e g ro w th of c u ltu re consists, as we know , in a progressive
su b ju g a tio n of th e an im al in m an . I t is a process of dom estica-
tio n w h ich c a n n o t be accom plished w ith o u t re b e llio n o n th e
p a rt of th e a n im al n a tu re th a t thirsts for freedom . F ro m tim e to
tim e th ere passes as it w ere a wave of frenzy th ro u g h th e ran k s of
m e n too lo n g c o n stra in ed w ith in th e lim ita tio n s of th e ir c u ltu re .
A n tiq u ity ex p e rien c ed it in th e D ionysian orgies th a t surged
over fro m th e East a n d becam e an essential a n d characteristic
in g re d ie n t of classical c u ltu re . T h e sp irit of these orgies con-
trib u te d n o t a little tow ards the d e v e lo p m e n t of th e stoic ideal
of asceticism in th e in n u m e ra b le sects a n d p h ilo so p h ical schools

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

of the last c e n tu ry before C hrist, w hich p ro d u c e d from th e poly-

theistic chaos of th a t epoch th e tw in ascetic religions of M ith ra-
ism a n d C hristian ity . A second wave of D ionysian licentiousness
sw ept over the W est at th e R enaissance. It is difficult to gauge
th e s p irit of o n e ’s ow n tim e; b u t in the succession of re v o lu tio n -
ary questio n s to w h ich th e last h alf c e n tu ry gave b irth , th e re was
th e “sexual q u e s tio n ,” a n d this has fa th e red a w hole new species
of lite ra tu re . In this “m o v e m e n t” are ro o ted the b eg in n in g s of
psychoanalysis, o n whose theories it ex e rted a very one-sided in -
fluence. A fte r all, n o b o d y can be co m p letely in d e p e n d e n t of the
c u rre n ts of his age. Since th e n th e “sexual q u e s tio n ” has largely
b ee n th ru s t in to th e b a c k g ro u n d by p o litical a n d s p iritu a l p ro b -
lems. T h a t, how ever, does n o th in g to a lte r the fu n d a m e n ta l fact
th a t m a n ’s in stin c tu al n a tu re is always co m in g u p against th e
checks im p o sed by civilization. T h e nam es alter, b u t th e facts
re m a in th e same. W e also k n o w today th a t it is by n o m eans th e
an im al n a tu re alo n e th a t is at odds w ith civilized constraints;
very o ften it is n ew ideas w hich are th ru s tin g u p w ard s fro m th e
unconscious a n d are ju s t as m u ch o u t of h arm o n y w ith th e d o m i-
n a tin g c u ltu re as the instincts. F o r instance, we co u ld easily co n -
stru ct a po litical th eo ry of neurosis, in so far as th e m an of today
is chiefly excited by po litical passions to w h ich th e “sexual q u es-
tio n ” was only an in sig n ifican t p re lu d e . I t m ay tu r n o u t th a t
politics are b u t th e fo r e ru n n e r of a far d ee p e r relig io u s co n v u l-
sion. W ith o u t b e in g aw are of it, th e n e u ro tic p articip ates in th e
d o m in a n t c u rre n ts of his age a n d reflects th em in his ow n co n -
flict.
18 N eurosis is in tim a te ly b o u n d u p w ith th e p ro b le m of o u r
tim e a n d really rep resen ts an unsuccessful a tte m p t o n th e p a rt of
th e in d iv id u a l to solve the g en eral p ro b le m in his ow n person.
N eurosis is self-division. I n m ost p eo ple th e cause of th e division
is th a t th e conscious m in d w ants to h a n g o n to its m o ral ideal,
w h ile th e unconscious strives afte r its— in th e co n te m p o rary
sense— u n m o ra l ideal w h ich th e conscious m in d tries to deny.
M en of this type w a n t to be m o re resp ectab le th a n they really
are. B u t th e conflict can easily be th e o th e r way a b o u t: th e re are
m e n w ho are to all ap p earan ces very d isre p u ta b le a n d do n o t
p u t th e least re s tra in t u p o n them selves. T h is is at b o tto m only
a pose o f w ickedness, fo r in th e b a c k g ro u n d they have th e ir
m o ral side w hich has fallen in to th e unconscious ju s t as su rely as

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 T H E EROS T H E O R Y

th e im m o ral side in th e case of th e m o ral m an . (E xtrem es sh o u ld

th ere fo re be av o id ed as fa r as possible, because they always arouse
suspicion of th e ir opposite.)
19 T h is g en e ral discussion was necessary in o rd e r to clarify th e
idea of an “ erotic c o n flic t/’ T h e n c e we can p ro ceed to discuss
firstly th e te c h n iq u e of psychoanalysis a n d secondly th e q u estio n
of therapy.
20 O bviously th e g re a t q u e stio n fo r this te c h n iq u e is: H o w are
we to arriv e by th e sh o rtest a n d best p a th a t a know ledge of w h at
is h a p p e n in g in th e u n conscious of th e p atien t? T h e o rig in al
m e th o d was h y p n o tism : e ith e r in te rro g a tio n in a state of h y p -
n o tic c o n c e n tra tio n o r else th e sp o n tan eo u s p ro d u c tio n of fa n ta-
sies by th e p a tie n t w h ile in this state. T h is m e th o d is still occa-
sionally em ployed, b u t co m p a red w ith th e p re sen t te c h n iq u e it
is p rim itiv e a n d o ften unsatisfactory. A second m e th o d was
evolved by th e Psychiatric C linic, in Z urich, th e so-called asso-
cia tio n m e th o d .1 I t d em o n strates very accu rately th e presence of
conflicts in th e fo rm of “co m p lex es” of feelin g -ton ed ideas, as
th ey are called, w h ich b etra y them selves th ro u g h ch aracteristic
d istu rb an ces in th e course of th e e x p e rim e n t.2 B u t th e m ost im -
p o rta n t m e th o d of g e ttin g a t th e p ath o g en ic conflicts is, as F re u d
was th e first to show, th ro u g h th e analysis of dream s.
21 O f th e d re am it can in d ee d be said th a t “ th e stone w h ich th e
b u ild e rs rejected , th e sam e is becom e th e th e h ead of th e cor-
n e r .” I t is only in m o d e rn tim es th a t th e d ream , this fleeting a n d
insignificant-looking p ro d u c t of th e psyche, has m e t w ith such
p ro fo u n d co n te m p t. F o rm erly it was esteem ed as a h a rb in g e r of
fate, a p o rte n t a n d co m fo rter, a m essenger of th e gods. N o w we
see it as th e em issary of th e unconscious, whose task it is to reveal
th e secrets th a t are h id d e n fro m th e conscious m in d , a n d this it
does w ith a sto u n d in g com pleteness. T h e “m an ife st” d ream , i.e.,
th e d re a m as we re m e m b e r it, is in F re u d ’s view only a façade
w h ich gives us n o id ea of th e in te rio r of th e house, b u t, o n th e
co n trary , carefu lly conceals it w ith th e h e lp of th e “d re a m cen -
sor.” If, how ever, w h ile observ in g c e rta in tech n ical rules, we in -
d u ce th e d re a m e r to talk a b o u t th e details o f his d ream , it soon
becom es ev id e n t th a t his associations te n d in a p a rtic u la r direc-
i j u n g and others, t ies in o sso iation trans. by M. D. Eder. [In the
oll o ks Vol. 2.]
2 Jung, “A Review of the Complex T heory.”

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

tio n a n d g ro u p them selves r o u n d p a rtic u la r topics. T h e s e are of

p erso nal significance a n d yield a m ea n in g w h ich co u ld n ev er
have b ee n co n je c tu re d to lie b e h in d th e d ream , b u t w hich, as
carefu l co m p ariso n has show n, stands in an ex trem ely d elicate
a n d m eticu lo u sly exact re la tio n sh ip to th e d re am façade. T h is
p a rtic u la r co m p lex of ideas w h e re in are u n ite d all th e th read s of
th e d re a m is th e conflict we are lo o k in g for, o r ra th e r a v a ria tio n
of it c o n d itio n e d by circum stances. A c co rd in g to F reu d , th e
p ain fu l a n d in c o m p a tib le elem ents in th e conflict are in this way
so covered u p o r o b lite ra te d th a t we we m ay speak of a “wish-
fu lfilm en t.” H ow ever, it is only very seldom th a t d ream s fulfil
obvious wishes, as for instance in th e so-called body-stim ulus
dream s, e.g., th e sensation of h u n g e r d u rin g sleep, w h en th e d e -
sire fo r food is satisfied by d re a m in g a b o u t delicious meals.
Likew ise th e pressing idea th a t o n e o u g h t to get u p , conflicting
w ith th e desire to go o n sleeping, leads to th e w ish-fulfilling
dream -id ea th a t o n e has already got u p, etc. In F reu d 's view th e re
are also unconscious wishes w hose n a tu re is in co m p a tib le w ith
th e ideas of th e w ak in g m in d , p a in fu l wishes w hich o n e prefers
n o t to ad m it, a n d these are precisely th e wishes th a t F re u d re -
gards as th e real arch itects of th e d ream . F o r instance, a d a u g h -
te r loves h e r m o th e r ten d erly , b u t dream s to h e r g re at distress
th a t h e r m o th e r is dead. F re u d argues th a t th e re exists in this
d a u g h te r, u n b e k n o w n to herself, th e exceedingly p a in fu l wish
to see h e r m o th e r rem o v ed fro m this w o rld w ith all speed, b e -
cause she has secret resistances to her. E ven in th e m ost b lam e-
less d a u g h te r such m oods m ay occur, b u t th ey w o u ld be m et
w ith th e m o st v io len t d en ia l if one trie d to saddle h e r w ith them .
T o all ap p earan ces th e m anifest d re a m co n tain s n o trace of
w ish-fulfilm ent, ra th e r of a p p re h e n sio n o r alarm , co n seq u en tly
th e d ire c t opp o site of th e supposed unconscious im pulse. B u t we
k n o w w ell en o u g h th a t e agge ate ala rm can o ften a n d rig h tly
b e suspected of th e co n trary . (H e re the critical re a d e r m ay ju s ti-
fiably ask: W h e n is th e a la rm in a d re a m exaggerated?) Such
dream s, in w h ich th e re is a p p a re n tly n o trace of w ish-fulfilm ent,
are in n u m e ra b le : th e conflict w o rk e d o u t in th e d re am is u n c o n -
scious, a n d so is th e a tte m p te d so lu tio n . A ctually, th ere does
exist in o u r d re a m e r th e ten d e n cy to be rid of h e r m o th e r;
expressed in th e lan g u ag e of th e unconscious, she w ants h e r
m o th e r to die. B u t th e d re a m e r s h o u ld certain ly n o t b e sad d led

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 T H E EROS T H E O R Y

w ith this ten d en cy because, strictly speaking, it was n o t she w ho

fa b ricate d th e d ream , b u t th e unconscious. T h e unconscious has
this tendency, m ost u n e x p e c te d fro m th e d re am er's p o in t of
view, to g et rid of th e m o th e r. T h e very fact th a t she can d re am
such a th in g proves th a t she does n o t consciously th in k it. She
has n o n o tio n w hy h e r m o th e r sh o u ld b e g o t rid of. N o w we
k n o w th a t a ce rtain layer of th e unconscious co n tain s ev ery th in g
th a t has passed b ey o n d th e recall of m em ory, in c lu d in g all those
in fa n tile in stin c tu al im pulses w h ich co u ld find n o o u tle t in
a d u lt life. W e can say th a t th e b u lk of w h a t comes o u t of th e
unconscious has a n in fa n tile ch a rac ter a t first, as for instance this
wish, w h ich is sim plicity itself: “W h e n M u m m y dies you w ill
m arry m e, w o n ’t you, D addy?” T h is expression of an in fa n tile
wish is th e su b stitu te for a re c e n t desire to m arry, a desire in this
case p ain fu l to th e d re am er, fo r reasons still to be discovered.
T h e idea of m arriag e, o r r a th e r th e seriousness of th e co rre-
s p o n d in g im p u lse, is, as they say, “repressed in to the u n c o n -
scious” a n d fro m th e re m u st necessarily express itself in an in -
fa n tile fashion, because th e m a te ria l at th e disposal of th e
unconscious consists largely of in fa n tile rem iniscences.
22 O u r d re am is a p p a re n tly c o n c ern e d w ith a tw inge o f in fa n -
tile jealousy. T h e d re a m e r is m o re o r less in love w ith h e r fath er,
a n d for th a t reason she w ants to get rid of h e r m o th er. B u t h e r
real conflict lies in th e fact th a t o n th e o n e h a n d she w ants to
m arry, a n d o n th e o th e r h a n d is u n a b le to m ak e u p h e r m in d :
fo r o n e n ev e r know s w h a t it w ill be like, w h e th e r he w ill m ak e a
su itab le h u sb an d , etc. A gain, it is so nice at hom e, a n d w h a t will
h a p p e n w h en she has to part fro m d a rlin g M u m m y a n d b e all
in d e p e n d e n t a n d g ro w n up? She fails to n o tice th a t th e m arriag e
q u estio n is n o w a serious m a tte r for h e r a n d has h e r in its grip,
so th a t she can n o lo n g er creep h o m e to fa th e r a n d m o th e r w ith -
o u t b rin g in g th e fatefu l q u estio n in to th e bosom of th e family.
She is n o lo n g er th e ch ild she once was; she is th e w o m an w h o
w ants to get m arried . As such she com es back, co m p lete w ith h e r
wish for a h u sb an d . B u t in th e fam ily th e fa th e r is th e h u sb a n d
an d , w ith o u t h e r b e in g aw are of it, it is o n h im th a t th e d a u g h -
t e r ’s desire for a h u s b a n d falls. B u t th a t is in est In this way
th e re arises a secondary incest-intrigue. F re u d assumes th a t th e
ten d en cy to incest is p rim a ry a n d th e real reason why th e d re a m e r
ca n n o t m ak e u p h e r m in d to m arry. C o m p a re d w ith th at, th e

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

o th e r reasons we have cited c o u n t fo r little. W ith re g a rd to this

view I have lo n g ad o p te d th e sta n d p o in t th a t th e occasional oc-
cu rren c e of incest is n o p ro o f of a u n iv ersal ten d en cy to incest,
an y m o re th a n th e fact of m u rd e r proves the existence of a u n i -
versal h o m icid al m a n ia p ro d u c tiv e of conflict. I w o u ld n o t go so
far as to say th a t th e germ s of every k in d of crim in a lity are n o t
p re sen t in each of us. B u t th e re is a w o rld of difference b etw e en
th e presence of such a germ a n d an actu al conflict w ith its re s u lt-
in g cleavage of th e p ersonality, such as exists in a neurosis.
23 If we follow th e history of a neurosis w ith a tte n tio n , we re g u -
larly find a critical m o m e n t w h en som e p ro b lem em erg ed th a t
was evaded. T h is evasion is ju st as n a tu ra l a n d ju s t as co m m o n a
re a c tio n as th e laziness, slackness, cow ardice, anxiety, ignorance,
a n d unconsciousness w h ich are a t th e back of it. W h e n e v e r
thin g s are u n p lea sa n t, difficult, a n d d angerous, we m ostly hesi-
tate a n d if possible give th e m a w ide b e rth . I re g ard these re a -
sons as e n tire ly sufficient. T h e sym ptom atology of incest, w hich
is u n d o u b te d ly th e re a n d w h ich F re u d rig h tly saw, is to m y
m in d a secondary p h e n o m e n o n , already pathological.
24 T h e d re am is o ften o ccu p ied w ith a p p a re n tly very silly d e-
tails, th u s p ro d u c in g an im pression of ab su rd ity , o r else it is o n
th e surface so u n in te llig ib le as to leave us th o ro u g h ly bew il-
d ered . H e n c e we always have to overcom e a ce rtain resistance
b efo re we can seriously set a b o u t d is en tan g lin g th e in tric a te w eb
th ro u g h p a tie n t w ork. B u t w h e n a t last we p e n e tra te to its re al
m ea n in g , we find ourselves d eep in th e d re am er's secrets a n d
discover w ith a sto n ish m en t th a t an a p p a re n tly q u ite senseless
d re a m is in th e h ig h est degree significant, a n d th a t in re ality it
speaks on ly of im p o rta n t a n d serious m atters. T h is discovery
com pels r a th e r m o re resp ect fo r th e so-called s u p e rstitio n th a t
dream s have a m ean in g , to w hich th e ra tio n a listic te m p e r of o u r
age has h ith e rto given sh o rt shrift.
25 As F re u d says, dream -analysis is th e ia egia to th e u n c o n -
scious. I t leads straig h t to th e d eep est p erso n al secrets, a n d is,
th erefo re, an in v alu ab le in s tru m e n t in th e h a n d of th e physician
a n d ed u c a to r of th e soul.
26 T h e an aly tical m e th o d in g en eral, a n d n o t o nly th e specifi-
cally F re u d ia n psychoanalysis, consists in th e m a in of n u m e ro u s
dream -analyses. I n th e course of tre a tm e n t, th e d ream s succes-
sively th ro w u p th e co n ten ts of th e unconscious in o rd e r to ex-

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 T H E EROS T H E O R Y

pose th e m to th e d isin fectin g p o w er of daylight, a n d in this way

m u c h th a t is v alu a b le a n d believ ed lost is fo u n d again. I t is o nly
to b e ex p ected th a t fo r m an y p eo p le w h o have false ideas a b o u t
them selves th e tre a tm e n t is a v erita b le to rtu re . For, in accord-
ance w ith th e o ld m ystical saying, “ G ive u p w h a t th o u hast, th e n
shalt th o u receive!” th ey are called u p o n to a b a n d o n all th e ir
cherish ed illusions in o rd e r th a t s o m eth in g d eep er, fairer, a n d
m o re em b ra cin g m ay arise w ith in them . I t is a g e n u in e o ld wis-
d o m th a t comes to lig h t ag ain in th e tre a tm e n t, a n d it is espe-
cially cu rio u s th a t this k in d of psychic ed u c a tio n sh o u ld prove
necessary in th e heyday o f o u r c u ltu re . In m o re th a n o n e respect
it m ay be co m p a red w ith th e Socratic m eth o d , th o u g h it m u st be
said th a t analysis p en e trates to far g re ater d epths.
27 T h e F re u d ia n m o d e of in v estig atio n so u g h t to prove th a t an
o v erw h elm in g im p o rta n c e attaches to th e ero tic o r sexual factor
as regards th e o rig in of th e p ath o g e n ic conflict. A c co rd ing to this
th eo ry th e re is a collision b etw e en th e tre n d of th e conscious
m in d a n d th e u n m o ra l, in co m p atib le, unconscious wish. T h e
unconscious wish is in fan tile, i.e., it is a w ish fro m th e ch ild ish
past th a t will n o lo n g e r fit th e presen t, a n d is th ere fo re repressed
on m o ral gro u n d s. T h e n e u ro tic has th e soul of a ch ild w ho
bears ill w ith a rb itra ry restrictio n s whose m e a n in g h e does n o t
see; he tries to m ak e this m o rality his ow n, b u t falls in to d isu n ity
w ith him self: o n e side of h im w ants to suppress, th e o th e r longs
to be free— a n d this struggle goes by th e n a m e of neurosis. W e re
th e conflict clearly conscious in all its parts, p re su m a b ly it w o u ld
n ev e r give rise to n e u ro tic sym ptom s; these o ccur on ly w h e n we
c a n n o t see th e o th e r side of o u r n a tu re a n d th e u rg en cy of its
p roblem s. O n ly u n d e r these c o n d itio n s does th e sy m ptom a p -
pear, a n d it helps to give expression to th e u nreco g n ized side of
th e psyche. T h e sy m ptom is th erefo re, in F re u d 's view, th e fu l-
film en t of u n reco g n ized desires w hich, w h en conscious, com e
in to v io len t conflict w ith o u r m o ral convictions. As alread y o b -
served, this shadow-side of th e psyche, b e in g w ith d ra w n fro m
conscious scrutiny, c a n n o t be d ea lt w ith by th e p atien t. H e can -
n o t co rrect it, ca n n o t com e to term s w ith it, n o r yet d isreg ard it;
for in re ality he does n o t “ possess” th e unconscious im pulses at
all. T h r u s t o u t fro m th e h iera rch y of th e conscious psyche, they
have becom e a u to n o m o u s com plexes w h ich it is th e task of a n a l-
ysis, n o t w ith o u t g re at resistances, to b rin g u n d e r co n tro l again.

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T h e r e are p atien ts w ho boast th a t for th em th e shadow-side does

n o t exist; they assure us th a t they have n o conflict, b u t they do
n o t see th a t o th e r things of u n k n o w n o rig in c u m b e r th e ir p a th —
hysterical m oods, u n d e r h a n d tricks w h ich they play o n th e m -
selves a n d th e ir n eig h b o u rs, a n erv o u s c a ta rrh of th e stom ach,
pains in various places, irrita b ility for n o reason, a n d a w hole
host of n erv o u s sym ptom s.
F re u d ia n psychoanalysis has b ee n accused of lib e ra tin g
m a n ’s (fo rtu n ately ) repressed an im al instincts a n d th u s causing
in calcu lab le h arm . T h is a p p re h e n sio n shows how little tru s t we
place in th e efficacy of o u r m o ral p rinciples. P eo ple p re te n d th a t
only the m o rality p re ach e d fro m th e p u lp it holds m e n back
fro m u n b rid le d licence; b u t a m u c h m o re effective re g u la to r is
necessity, w h ich sets b o u n d s far m o re re al a n d persuasive th a n
any m o ral precepts. I t is tru e th a t psychoanalysis m akes th e a n i-
m al instincts conscious, th o u g h n o t, as m an y w o u ld have it, w ith
a view to giv in g th e m b o un d less freedom , b u t ra th e r to in co rp o -
ra tin g th em in a p u rp o se fu l w hole. I t is u n d e r all circum stances
an ad v an tag e to be in fu ll possession of o n e ’s personality, o th e r-
wise th e repressed elem en ts w ill o n ly cro p u p as a h in d ra n c e
elsew here, n o t ju s t at som e u n im p o rta n t p o in t, b u t at th e very
sp o t w h ere we are m ost sensitive. If p eo p le can be ed u cated to
see th e shadow-side of th e ir n a tu re clearly, it m ay be h o p ed th a t
they will also le a rn to u n d e rs ta n d a n d love th e ir fellow m e n b e t-
ter. A little less hypocrisy a n d a little m o re self-knowledge can
on ly have good results in respect fo r o u r n e ig h b o u r; for we are
all too p ro n e to tran sfer to o u r fellows th e in ju stic e a n d violence
we inflict u p o n o u r ow n n atu re s.
*9 T h e F re u d ia n th eo ry of rep ressio n ce rtain ly does seem to say
th a t th e re are, as it were, o n ly h y p erm o ral p eo p le w ho repress
th e ir u n m o ra l, in stin ctiv e n atu re s. A ccordingly th e u n m o ra l
m an , w ho liyes a life of u n re s tra in e d in stin ct, sh o u ld be im m u n e
to neurosis. T h is is obviously n o t th e case, as ex p erien ce shows.
Such a m an can be ju s t as n e u ro tic as any o th er. If we analyse
h im , we sim ply find th a t his m o rality is repressed. T h e n e u ro tic
im m o ralist presents, in N ietzsche’s s trik in g phrase, th e p ic tu re
of th e “ pale fe lo n ” w ho does n o t live u p to his acts.
3° W e can of course take th e view th a t th e repressed re m n a n ts
of decency are in this case o nly a tra d itio n a l hang-over fro m in -

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 T H E EROS T H E O R Y

fancy, w hich im poses an unnecessary check on in stin c tu al n a tu re

a n d sh o u ld th ere fo re be erad icated . T h e p rin c ip le of ase
l in f e w o u ld e n d in a th eo ry of ab so lu te lib ertin ism .
N atu rally , th a t w o u ld b e q u ite fantastic a n d nonsensical. It
sh o u ld n ev er be fo rg o tte n — a n d of this th e F re u d ia n school m u st
be re m in d e d — th a t m o rality was n o t b ro u g h t d o w n on tables of
stone from Sinai a n d im p o sed o n th e people, b u t is a fu n c tio n of
th e h u m a n soul, as o ld as h u m a n ity itself. M o rality is n o t im -
posed from outside; we have it in ourselves from th e start— n o t
th e law, b u t o u r m o ral n a tu re w ith o u t w hich the collective life
of h u m a n society w o u ld be im possible. T h a t is why m o rality is
fo u n d at all levels of society. I t is th e in stin ctiv e re g u la to r of
action w hich also governs th e collective life of th e h erd . B u t
m o ral laws are valid only w ith in a co m p act h u m a n g ro u p . Be-
yon d th at, they cease. T h e r e th e o ld tr u th ru n s: o o h o in i
l p s W ith th e g ro w th of civilization we have succeeded in
su b jectin g ever la rg e r h u m a n g ro u p s to th e ru le of th e same
m o rality , w ith o u t, how ever, h av in g yet b ro u g h t th e m o ral code
to prevail b ey o n d the social fro n tiers, th a t is, in th e free space
b etw een m u tu a lly in d e p e n d e n t societies. T h e r e , as of old, re ig n
lawlessness a n d licence a n d m ad im m o rality — th o u g h of course
it is only th e enem y w ho dares to say it o u t loud.
31 T h e F re u d ia n school is so co n v in ced of th e fu n d a m e n ta l, in -
d eed exclusive, im p o rta n c e of sex u ality in neurosis th a t it has
d ra w n th e logical conclusion a n d valian tly attack ed th e sexual
m o rality of o u r day. T h is was b ey o n d a d o u b t useful a n d neces-
sary, for in this field th e re p rev ailed a n d still prevail ideas w hich
in view of th e ex trem ely co m p licated state o f affairs are too u n -
differen tiated . J u s t as in th e early M id d le Ages finance was h eld
in c o n te m p t because th e re was as yet n o d iffe ren tiate d financial
m o rality to su it each case, b u t only a mass m o rality , so today
th ere is only a mass sexual m orality. A girl w ho has an illegiti-
m ate b ab y is c o n d e m n e d a n d n o b o d y asks w h e th e r she is a d e-
ce n t h u m a n b e in g o r n o t. A ny fo rm of love n o t san ctio n ed by
law is co n sid ered im m o ral, w h e th e r betw een w orth-w hile peo p le
o r b o u n d ers. W e are still so h y p n o tized by hat h ap p e n s th a t we
forget ho a n d to h o it hap p en s, ju s t as fo r th e M id d le Ages
finance was n o th in g b u t g litte rin g gold, fiercely coveted a n d
th ere fo re th e devil.

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3* Yet things are n o t q u ite so sim p le as that. Eros is a q u estio n -

able fellow a n d w ill always re m a in so, w hatev er th e legislation
of th e fu tu re m ay have to say a b o u t it. H e belongs o n o n e side
to m a n ’s p rim o rd ia l a n im a l n a tu re w h ich w ill e n d u re as lo n g as
m a n has a n a n im a l body. O n th e o th e r side he is re la te d to th e
hig h est form s of th e sp irit. B u t h e thrives only w h en sp irit a n d
in stin c t are in rig h t h arm o n y . If o n e o r th e o th e r aspect is lack-
in g to h im , th e re su lt is in ju ry o r at least a lopsidedness th a t
m ay easily v eer tow ards th e pathological. T o o m u c h of th e a n i-
m al d isto rts th e civilized m an , too m u c h civilization m akes sick
anim als. T h is d ile m m a reveals th e vast u n c e rta in ty th a t Eros
holds fo r m an . For, at b o tto m , E ros is a s u p e rh u m a n p o w er
w hich, lik e n a tu re herself, allows itself to be c o n q u e re d a n d ex-
p lo ite d as th o u g h it w ere im p o te n t. B u t triu m p h over n a tu re
is dearly p a id for. N a tu r e re q u ire s n o e x p la n atio n s of p rin cip le,
b u t asks only for to leran ce a n d wise m easure.
33 “ Eros is a m ig h ty d a e m o n ,” as th e wise D io tim a said to Soc-
rates. W e shall n ev e r g et th e b e tte r of h im , o r only to o u r ow n
h u rt. H e is n o t th e w hole of o u r in w ard n a tu re , th o u g h he is at
least o n e of its essential aspects. T h u s F r e u d ’s sexual th eo ry of
neu ro sis is g ro u n d e d o n a tru e a n d factual p rin cip le. B u t it
m akes th e m istake of b e in g one-sided a n d exclusive; also it com -
m its th e im p ru d e n c e of try in g to lay h o ld of u n co n fin a b le Eros
w ith th e c ru d e term in o lo g y of sex. I n this respect F re u d is a
typical re p rese n ta tiv e of th e m ateria listic epoch,3 whose h o p e it
was to solve th e w o rld rid d le in a test-tube. F re u d him self, w ith
ad v an cin g years, a d m itte d this lack of b alan ce in his theory, a n d
h e o pposed to Eros, w h o m he called lib id o , th e d estru ctiv e o r
d ea th in stin c t.4 In his p o sth u m o u s w riting s he says:

After long hesitancies and vacillations we have decided to assume the

the existence of only two basic instincts, os and the est ti e
instin t . T h e aim of the first of these basic instincts is to estab-
lish ever greater unities and to preserve them thus— in short, to bind
together; the aim of the second is, on the contrary, to undo connec-
8 Cf. Jung, “Sigmund Freud in His Historical Setting.”
4 T his idea came originally from my pupil S. Spielrein: cf. “Die Destruktion als
Ursache des Werdens” (1912). T his work is mentioned by Freud, who introduces
the destructive instinct in “Beyond the Pleasure Principle” (orig. 1920), Ch. V.
[More fully in Ch. VI, which contains the Spielrein reference: Standard Edn.,
XVIII, p. 5 5 . — E d i t o r s .]

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 T H E EROS TH E O R Y

tions and so to destroy things. . . . For this reason we also call it the
eath instin t.6
34 I m u st c o n te n t m yself w ith this passing reference, w ith o u t
e n te rin g m o re closely in to th e q u estio n ab le n a tu re of th e co n -
cep tio n . I t is sufficiently obvious th a t life, like any o th e r process,
has a b e g in n in g a n d an e n d a n d th a t every b e g in n in g is also the
b e g in n in g of th e end. W h a t F re u d p ro b a b ly m eans is th e essen-
tial fact th a t every process is a p h e n o m e n o n of energy, a n d th a t
all energy can p ro ceed only fro m th e ten sio n of opposites.
6 [“An Outline of Psycho-Analysis” (orig. 1940), Standard Edn., XXIII, p. 148.]

2673
 Ill

T H E OTHER PO IN T OF VIEW:
T H E WILL TO POWER

35 So far we have co n sid ered th e p ro b le m of this new psychology

essentially from th e F re u d ia n p o in t of view. U n d o u b te d ly it has
show n us a very real tr u th to w hich o u r pride, o u r civilized co n -
sciousness, m ay say no, th o u g h so m eth in g else in us says yes.
M any p eople find this fact ex trem ely irrita tin g ; it arouses th e ir
h o stility o r even th e ir fear, a n d co n seq u en tly they are u n w illin g
to recognize th e conflict. A n d in d ee d it is a frig h te n in g th o u g h t
th a t m an also has a shadow-side to h im , consisting n o t ju st of
little weaknesses a n d foibles, b u t of a positively d em o n ic d y n a-
m ism . T h e in d iv id u a l seldom know s a n y th in g of this; to h im , as
a n in d iv id u a l, it is in c re d ib le th a t he sh o u ld ever in any c irc u m -
stances go b ey o n d him self. B u t let these harm less creatu res form
a mass, a n d th ere em erges a ra g in g m o n ster; a n d each in d iv id u a l
is only one tin y cell in th e m o n s te r’s body, so th a t for b e tte r o r
worse he m u st accom pany it o n its bloody ram pages a n d even
assist it to th e u tm o st. H a v in g a d ark suspicion of these g rim
possibilities, m an tu rn s a b lin d eye to th e shadow-side of h u m a n
n a tu re . B lindly he strives against th e salu tary dogm a of o riginal
sin, w h ich is yet so pro d ig io u sly tru e. Yes, he even hesitates to
a d m it th e conflict of w hich he is so p a in fu lly aw are. I t can re a d -
ily be u n d e rsto o d th a t a school of psychology— even if it be
biased a n d exaggerated in this o r th a t respect— w hich insists on
th e seamy side, is u n w elco m e, n o t to say frig h te n in g , because it
forces us to gaze in to th e bottom less abyss of this p ro b lem . A
d im p re m o n itio n tells us th a t we c a n n o t be w hole w ith o u t this
negative side, th a t we have a b o d y w hich, like all bodies, casts
a shadow, a n d th a t if we d en y this body we cease to be th re e -
d im en sio n al a n d becom e flat a n d w ith o u t substance. Yet this
bod y is a beast w ith a b east’s soul, a n o rg an ism th a t gives u n -
q u e stio n in g o b ed ien ce to in stin ct. T o u n ite oneself w ith this

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 T H E O T H E R P O IN T O F VIEW ! T H E W IL L T O PO W E R

shadow is to say yes to instin ct, to th a t fo rm id a b le dyn am ism

lu rk in g in th e b ack g ro u n d . F ro m this th e ascetic m o rality of
C h ristia n ity wishes to free us, b u t at th e risk of d isorganizing
m a n ’s a n im al n a tu re a t th e d eep est level.
36 H as an y o n e m ad e clear to him self w h a t th a t m eans— a yea-
saying to instinct? T h a t was w h a t N ietzsche d esired a n d tau g h t,
a n d he was in deadly earnest. W ith a ra re passion he sacrificed
him self, his w hole life, to th e id ea of th e S u p erm an — to th e idea
of th e m a n w ho th ro u g h o b ed ien ce to in stin c t transcends h im -
self. A n d w h at was th e course of th a t life? I t was as N ietzsche
him self p ro p h e sie d in a ath st a in th a t fo reb o d in g vision of
th e fatal fall of th e ro p e-d an cer, th e m a n w h o w o u ld n o t be “su r-
passed.” T o th e d y ing ro p e -d an c er Z a ra th u stra says: “T h y soul
w ill sooner be d e a d th a n th y b o d y !” a n d la te r th e d w a rf says to
Z arath u stra, “ O Z arath u stra, stone of wisdom ! H ig h th o u fling-
est thyself, b u t every sto n e th a t is flung m u s t fall I C o n d e m n e d
to thyself a n d to th in e ow n sto n in g : O Z arath u stra, far in d eed
th o u flingest the stone— b u t u p o n thyself w ill it fall.” A n d w h en
he cried his “Ecce H o m o ” o v er him self, again it was too late, as
once b efore w h e n this saying was u tte re d , a n d th e crucifixion
of th e soul b eg an b efo re th e b ody was dead.
37 W e m u st look very critically a t th e life of o n e w ho ta u g h t
such a yea-saying, in o rd e r to ex a m in e th e effects of this teach in g
o n th e te a c h e r’s ow n life. W h e n we scru tin ize his life w ith this
aim in view we are b o u n d to a d m it th a t N ietzsche lived b ey o n d
in stin ct, in th e lofty heights of h ero ic su b lim ity — heights th a t he
co u ld m a in ta in only w ith th e h e lp of th e m o st m eticu lo u s d iet, a
carefully selected clim ate, a n d m an y aids to sleep— u n til the te n -
sion s h attered his b ra in . H e talk ed o f yea-saying a n d lived the
nay. H is lo a th in g for m an , fo r th e h u m a n an im al th a t lived by
instin ct, was too great. D esp ite everything, h e c o u ld n o t swallow
th e toad he so o ften d re a m e d of a n d w h ich he feared h ad to be
swallowed. T h e ro a rin g of th e Z a ra th u s tria n lio n d rove back
in to th e cav ern o f th e unconscious all th e “h ig h e r” m en w h o
w ere c la m o u rin g to live. H e n ce his life does n o t convince us of
his teaching. F o r th e “h ig h e r” m a n w ants to be ab le to sleep
w ith o u t chloral, to live in N a u m b u r g a n d Basel d esp ite “ fogs
a n d shadow s.” H e desires w ife a n d offspring, sta n d in g a n d es-
teem am o n g th e h erd , in n u m e ra b le co m m o n p lace realities, a n d
n o t least those of th e P h ilistin e. N ietzsche failed to live this in -

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

stinct, th e a n im al u rg e to life. F o r all his greatness a n d im p o r-

tance, N ietzsche's was a p athological personality.
38 B u t w h at was it th a t he lived, if n o t th e life of instinct? C an
N ietzsche really be accused of h av in g d e n ie d his in stincts in
practice? H e w o u ld scarcely have ag reed to th at. H e co u ld even
show w ith o u t m u c h difficulty th a t h e lived his in stin c tu a l life in
th e h ig h est sense. B u t how is it possible, we m ay ask in asto n ish -
m e n t, fo r m a n ’s in stin c tu a l n a tu re to d riv e h im in to sep a ratio n
fro m his k in d , in to ab so lu te isolation fro m h u m an ity , in to an
aloofness fro m th e h e rd u p h e ld b y lo ath in g ? W e th in k of in -
stin ct as u n itin g m an , causing h im to m ate, to beget, to seek
p leasu re a n d good living, th e satisfaction of all sensuous desires.
W e forget th a t this is only one of th e possible d irectio n s of in -
stinct. T h e r e exists n o t only the in stin c t for th e p reserv atio n of
th e species, b u t also th e in stin c t of ¿¿//-preservation.
39 I t is of this last instin ct, th e ill to p o e th a t N ietzsche o b -
viously speaks. W h a te v e r else is in stin c tu a l on ly follows, for
h im , in th e tra in of th e will to pow er. F ro m th e s ta n d p o in t of
F reu d 's sexual psychology, this is a n e rro r of th e m ost g larin g
kin d , a m isco n cep tio n of biology, th e b u n g lin g o f a d ec ad en t n e u -
rotic. F o r it is a very sim ple m a tte r fo r any a d h e re n t of sexual
psychology to p rove th a t e v e ry th in g lofty a n d h ero ic in N ie -
tzsche's view of life a n d th e w o rld is n o th in g b u t a consequence
of th e rep ressio n a n d m isu n d e rs ta n d in g of th a t o th e r in stin c t
w h ich this psychology reg ard s as fu n d a m e n ta l.
40 T h e case of N ietzsche shows, o n th e o n e h a n d , th e conse-
qu en ces o f n e u ro tic one-sidedness, an d , o n th e o th e r h an d , th e
dangers th a t lu rk in this leap b ey o n d C h ristian ity . N ietzsche u n -
d o u b te d ly felt th e C h ristia n d e n ia l of a n im a l n a tu re very d eep ly
in d ee d , a n d th ere fo re h e so u g h t a h ig h e r h u m a n w holeness b e-
y o n d good a n d evil. B u t he w h o seriously criticizes th e basic a tti-
tu d es of C h ristia n ity also forfeits th e p ro te c tio n w h ich these b e-
stow u p o n h im . H e delivers h im self u p u n resistin g ly to th e
an im a l psyche. T h a t is th e m o m e n t of D io n y sian frenzy, th e
o v erw h elm in g m an ife sta tio n of th e “ b lo n d b ea st , ” 1 w hich seizes
th e u n su sp ec tin g soul w ith nam eless sh u d d erin g s. T h e seizure
tran sfo rm s h im in to a h ero o r in to a g od lik e b eing, a su p e r-

l [Cf. Jung, “T h e Role of the Unconscious," par. 1 7 .—E d it o r s .]

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 T H E O T H E R P O IN T O F V IE W : T H E W IL L T O PO W E R

h u m a n entity. H e rig h tly feels h im self “six th o u san d feet b e-

y o n d good a n d evil."
4* T h e psychological ob serv er know s this state as “id entifica-
tio n w ith th e shadow ,” a p h e n o m e n o n w h ich occurs w ith g reat
re g u la rity a t such m o m en ts of collision w ith th e unconscious.
T h e o n ly th in g th a t helps h ere is cau tio u s self-criticism. F irstly
a n d b efo re all else, it is exceedingly u n lik ely th a t one has ju st
discovered a w o rld -sh atterin g tru th , for such things h a p p e n ex-
trem ely seldom in th e w o rld's history. Secondly, o n e m u st care-
fully in q u ire w h e th e r so m eth in g sim ilar m ig h t n o t have h a p -
p e n e d elsew here— fo r instance N ietzsche, as a philologist, co u ld
have ad d u c ed a few obvious classical parallels w hich w o u ld cer-
ta in ly have calm ed his m in d . T h ird ly , o n e m u st reflect th a t a D i-
onysian ex p erien ce m ay well be n o th in g m o re th a n a relapse in to
a pagan form of relig io n , so th a t in re ality n o th in g n ew is discov-
ered a n d the sam e story only repeats itself from th e b eg in n in g .
F o u rth ly , o n e c a n n o t avoid foreseeing th a t this jo y fu l intensifi-
catio n of m o o d to h ero ic a n d g odlike heights is dead ce rtain to
b e follow ed by an eq u ally d eep p lu n g e in to th e abyss. T h e se
co n sid eratio n s w o u ld p u t o n e in a p o sitio n of advantage: th e
w hole extravaganza co u ld th e n b e re d u c e d to th e p ro p o rtio n s of
a som ew hat e x h a u stin g m o u n ta in e e rin g ex p e d itio n , to w hich
succeed th e e te rn a l co m m onplaces of day. J u s t as every stream
seeks th e valley a n d th e b ro a d riv e r th a t hastens tow ards th e flat-
lands, so life n o t on ly flows alo n g in com m onplaces, b u t m akes
ev ery th in g else com m onplace. T h e u n co m m o n , if it is n o t to
e n d in catastro ph e, m ay steal in alongside th e com m onplace,
b u t n o t often. If h ero ism becom es ch ro nic, it ends in a cram p,
a n d th e c ra m p leads to ca tastro p h e or to n eurosis o r b o th . N ie -
tzsche g o t stuck in a state of h ig h tension. B u t w ith this ecstasy
h e co u ld ju s t as w ell have b o rn e u p u n d e r C h ristian ity . N o t th a t
this answers th e q u estio n of th e an im al psyche in th e least— for
a n ecstatic a n im a l is a m onstrosity. A n an im al fulfils th e law of
its ow n life, n e ith e r m o re n o r less. W e can call it o b e d ie n t a n d
“go o d .” B u t th e ecstatic by-passes th e law of his ow n life a n d
behaves, fro m th e p o in t of view of n a tu re , im p ro p erly . T h is im -
p ro p rie ty is th e exclusive p rero g ativ e of m an , whose conscious-
ness a n d free w ill can occasionally loose them selves ont a na
t a fro m th e ir ro o ts in an im al n a tu re . I t is th e in d isp ensab le

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fo u n d a tio n of all cu ltu re , b u t also of sp iritu al sickness if exag-

gerated. M an can suffer only a ce rtain a m o u n t of c u ltu re w ith -
o u t in ju ry. T h e endless d ilem m a of c u ltu re a n d n a tu re is always
a q u estio n of too m u c h o r too little, n ev er of either-or.
4* T h e case of N ietzsche faces us w ith th e q u e stio n : W h a t d id
th e collision w ith th e shadow, n am ely the w ill to pow er, reveal
to him ? Is it to b e re g ard e d as so m eth in g bogus, a sym ptom of
repression? Is th e will to p o w er g e n u in e o r m erely secondary?
If th e conflict w ith th e shadow h ad le t loose a flood of sexual
fantasies, th e m a tte r w o u ld be perfectly clear; b u t it h a p p e n e d
otherw ise. T h e “ K ern des P u d els” was n o t Eros b u t th e pow er
of th e ego. F ro m this we w o u ld have to co n clu d e th a t w h a t was
repressed was n o t Eros b u t th e will to pow er. T h e r e is in m y
o p in io n n o g ro u n d for th e assu m p tio n th a t Eros is g en u in e a n d
th e w ill to p o w er bogus. T h e will to p o w er is surely ju st as
m ig h ty a d ae m o n as Eros, a n d ju s t as o ld a n d original.
43 A life like N ietzsche’s, lived to its fatal e n d w ith ra re consist-
ency in accordance w ith the u n d e rly in g in stin ct for pow er, c a n -
n o t sim ply b e ex p la in e d away as bogus. O therw ise one w o u ld
m ake oneself g u ilty of th e sam e u n fa ir ju d g m e n t th a t N ietzsche
passed o n his p o lar opposite, W ag n er: “E v ery th in g a b o u t h im is
false. W h a t is g e n u in e is h id d e n or decorated. H e is an actor, in
every good a n d b ad sense of the w o rd .” W h y this prejudice? Be-
cause W a g n e r em bodies th a t o th e r elem en tal urg e w hich N ie -
tzsche overlooked, a n d u p o n w hich F r e u d ’s psychology is b u ilt.
If we in q u ire w h e th e r F re u d knew of th a t o th e r instinct, th e
u rg e to pow er, we find th a t he conceived it u n d e r th e n am e of
“ ego-instinct.” B u t these “ego-instincts” occupy a ra th e r pokey
little c o rn e r in his psychology co m p a red w ith th e b ro ad , all too
b ro ad , d e v e lo p m e n t of th e sexual factor. In reality h u m a n n a -
tu re bears th e b u rd e n of a te rrib le a n d u n e n d in g conflict b etw een
th e p rin c ip le of th e ego a n d th e p rin c ip le of in stin ct: th e ego
all b arriers a n d re strain t, in stin c t lim itless, a n d b o th p rin cip les
of eq u al m ig h t. In a ce rtain sense m a n m ay c o u n t him self h ap p y
th a t h e is “conscious only of th e single u rg e ,” a n d th ere fo re it
is on ly p r u d e n t to g u a rd against ever k n o w in g th e o th er. B u t
if he does lea rn to k n ow th e o th er, it is all u p w ith h im : he th e n
en ters u p o n th e F au stian conflict. In th e first p a rt of a st
G o eth e has show n us w hat it m eans to accept in stin c t a n d in th e
second p a r t w h a t it m eans to accept th e ego a n d its w eird u n c o n -

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scious w orld. A ll th a t is insignificant, p altry, a n d cow ardly in us

cowers a n d sh rin k s from this acceptance— a n d th ere is an excel-
le n t p re te x t for this: we discover th a t the “o th e r” in us is in d eed
“a n o th e r,” a real m an , w ho actually thinks, does, feels, a n d d e-
sires all th e things th a t are despicable a n d odious. In this way
we can seize h o ld of th e bogey a n d declare w ar on h im to o u r
satisfaction. H e n ce those c h ro n ic idiosyncrasies of w hich the his-
tory of m orals has preserved som e fine exam ples. A p a rtic u la rly
tra n s p a re n t ex am p le is th a t already cited — “ N ietzsche ont a
W a g n er, ont a P a u l,” etc. B u t daily life ab o u n d s in such cases.
By this in g en io u s device a m a n m ay save him self from the Faus-
tia n catastrophe, before w hich his courage a n d his stren g th m ig h t
w ell fail h im . A w hole m an, how ever, know s th a t his b itte rest
foe, o r in d ee d a host of enem ies, does n o t eq u al th a t one w orst
adversary, th e “ o th e r self” w ho dw ells in his bosom . Nietzsche
h a d W a g n e r in h i se lf a n d th a t is w hy he en v ied h im a sifal
b u t, w h a t was worse, he, Saul, also h ad P au l in him . T h e re fo re
N ietzsche becam e o n e stigm atized by th e sp irit; like Saul he had
to ex p erien ce C hristification, w h en th e “o th e r” w hispered the
“ Ecce H o m o ” in his ear. W h ic h of th em “ b ro k e dow n before
th e cross”— W a g n e r o r Nietzsche?
44 F ate w illed it th a t o n e of F re u d ’s earliest disciples, A lfred
A d ler, sh o u ld fo rm u la te a view of n eu ro sis2 based exclusively on
th e p o w er p rin cip le. It is of no little interest, in d eed singularly
fascinating, to see how u tte rly d ifferen t th e sam e things look
w h e n view ed in a c o n tra ry light. T o take the m ain co n trast first:
w ith F re u d ev ery th in g follows from an te c e d e n t circum stances
a cco rd in g to a rig o ro u s causality, w ith A d ler ev ery th in g is a
teleological “a rra n g e m e n t.” H e re is a sim ple exam ple: A young
w o m an begins to have attacks of anxiety. A t n ig h t she wakes u p
fro m a n ig h tm a re w ith a b lo o d -cu rd lin g cry, is scarcely able to
calm herself, clings to h e r h u sb a n d a n d im plores h im n o t to
leave her, d e m a n d in g assurance th a t he really loves her, etc.
G ra d u ally a n erv o u s asth m a develops, the attacks also co m in g o n
d u rin g th e day.
45 T h e F re u d ia n m e th o d at once begins b u rro w in g in to th e in -
n e r causality of th e sickness a n d its sym ptom s. W h a t w ere th e
first an x iety d ream s ab o u t? Ferocious bulls, lions, tigers, a n d evil
m e n w ere attack in g her. W h a t are th e p a tie n t’s associations? A
2 T he e oti onstit tion

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story of so m eth in g th a t h a p p e n e d to h e r before she was m arried .

She was staying at a h e a lth re so rt in th e m o u n tain s. She played a
good deal of ten n is a n d th e u su al acq u ain tan ces w ere m ade.
T h e r e was a y o u n g Ita lia n w ho played p artic u la rly well a n d also
knew how to h an d le a g u ita r in th e evening. A n in n o c e n t flirta-
tio n developed, lea d in g once to a m o o n lig h t stroll. O n this
occasion th e Ita lia n te m p e ra m e n t “u n ex p e cted ly ” b ro k e loose,
m u ch to th e ala rm of th e u n su sp ectin g girl. H e gave h e r “such a
lo o k ” th a t she co u ld n ev e r forget it. T h is look follows h e r even
in h e r dream s: th e w ild an im als th a t p u rsu e h e r look at h e r ju s t
like that. B u t does this look in fact com e only from the Italian ?
A n o th e r rem in scen ce is instru ctiv e. T h e p a tie n t h ad lost h e r fa-
th e r th ro u g h an accid en t w h en she was a b o u t fo u rte e n years old.
H e r fa th e r was a m a n of th e w o rld a n d trav elled a good deal.
N o t lo n g b efo re his d e a th he took h e r w ith h im to Paris, w h ere
they visited, am o n g o th e r places, th e Folies Bergères. T h e r e
so m eth in g h a p p e n e d th a t m ad e an in d e lib le im pression on
her. O n leaving th e th ea tre, a p a in te d hussy jo stled h e r fa th e r
in a n in cre d ib ly b razen way. L o o k in g in ala rm to see w h at
he w o u ld do, she saw this same look, this a n im al glare, in his
eyes. T h is in ex p lica b le so m eth in g follow ed h e r day a n d n ig h t.
F ro m th e n on h e r re la tio n s w ith h e r fa th e r changed. Som e-
tim es she was irrita b le a n d su b ject to ven o m o u s m oods, som e-
tim es she loved h im extravagantly. T h e n cam e su d d en fits of
w eep in g fo r n o reason, a n d fo r a tim e, w henev er h e r fa th e r was
at hom e, she suffered at tab le from a h o rrib le g u lp in g accom pa-
n ie d by w h at lo o k ed like choking-fits, gen erally follow ed by loss
of voice fo r on e o r two days. W h e n th e news of th e su d d en d ea th
of h e r fa th e r reach ed her, she was seized by u n c o n tro lla b le grief,
w hich gave way to fits of hysterical lau g h ter. H ow ever, she soon
calm ed dow n; h e r c o n d itio n q u ick ly im p ro v ed , a n d th e n e u ro tic
sym ptom s p ractically vanished. A veil of forgetfulness was
d ra w n over th e past. O n ly th e episode w ith th e Ita lia n stirred
so m eth in g in h e r of w h ich she was afraid. She th e n a b ru p tly
b ro k e off all co n n e ctio n w ith th e y o u n g m an . A few years la te r
she m arried . T h e first ap p e ara n ce of h e r p re sen t neurosis was
afte r th e b irth of h e r second child, ju st w h en she m ad e the dis-
covery th a t h e r h u s b a n d h ad a certain te n d e r in tere st in a n o th e r
w om an.
46 T h is history gives rise to m an y qu estio n s: fo r exam ple, w h a t

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a b o u t th e m o th er? C o n cern in g th e m o th e r th e re le v a n t facts are

th a t she was very nervous a n d sp en t h e r tim e try in g every k in d
of s a n a to riu m a n d m e th o d of cure. She too suffered fro m n erv -
ous asth m a a n d an x iety sym ptom s. T h e m arriag e h ad b ee n of a
very d ista n t k in d as far back as th e p a tie n t co u ld re m e m b er. H e r
m o th e r d id n o t u n d e rs ta n d th e fa th e r p ro perly; th e p a tie n t
always h a d th e feelin g th a t she u n d e rsto o d h im m u ch b etter.
She was h e r fa th e r’s confessed d a rlin g a n d was co rresp o n d in g ly
cool a t h e a rt tow ards h e r m o th e r.
47 T h e s e h in ts m ay suffice to give us an over-all p ic tu re of th e
illness. B e h in d th e p re sen t sym ptom s lie fantasies w hich are im -
m ed iately re la te d to th e ex p erien ce w ith th e Ita lia n , b u t w hich
clearly p o in t back to th e fath er, w hose u n h a p p y m arriag e gave
th e little d a u g h te r an early o p p o rtu n ity to secure for herself th e
place th a t sh o u ld p ro p e rly have b een filled by th e m o th er. Be-
h in d this co n q u e st th e re lies, of course, th e fantasy of b e in g th e
really su itab le w ife for th e father. T h e first attack of neurosis
b ro k e o u t a t a m o m e n t w h en this fantasy received a severe shock,
p ro b a b ly th e sam e shock th a t th e m o th e r h ad also received,
th o u g h this w o u ld be u n k n o w n to th e child. T h e sym ptom s are
easily u n d e rs ta n d a b le as a n expression of d isap p o in ted a n d
slig h ted love. T h e ch o k in g is d u e to th a t feeling of co n strictio n
in th e th ro at, a w ell-know n c o n c o m ita n t of v io le n t affects w hich
c a n n o t be q u ite “sw allow ed d o w n .” (T h e m etap h o rs of com -
m o n speech, as we know , fre q u e n tly re la te to such physiolog-
ical p h en o m e n a.) W h e n th e fa th e r died, h e r conscious m in d
was grieved to death , b u t h e r shadow laug h ed , afte r th e m a n n e r
of T i l l E ulenspiegel, w ho was d o lefu l w h en things w e n t d o w n -
h ill, b u t full of m erry p ran k s o n the w eary way u p , always o n th e
lo o k-out fo r w h a t lay ahead. W h e n h e r fa th e r was a t hom e, she
was d ejected a n d ill; w h e n he was away, she always felt m u c h
b e tte r, like th e in n u m e ra b le h u sb an d s a n d wives w ho h id e fro m
each o th e r th e sweet secret th a t n e ith e r is alto g eth e r in d isp e n -
sable to th e o th er.
48 T h a t th e unconscious h a d at this ju n c tu re some ju stificatio n
fo r la u g h in g is show n by th e su p erv e n in g p e rio d of good h ealth .
She succeeded in le ttin g h e r w hole past sink in to ob liv io n . O n ly
th e episode w ith th e Ita lia n th re a te n e d to re su rrec t th e u n d e r -
w orld. B u t w ith a q u ic k g estu re she flung the d o o r to a n d re -
m a in e d h ealth y u n til th e d ra g o n of n eurosis cam e creep in g

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

back, ju s t w h en she im ag in ed herself safely over th e m o u n ta in ,

in th e p erfect state, so to speak, of w ife a n d m o th er.
49 Sexual psychology says: th e cause of th e neurosis lies in th e
p a tie n t’s fu n d a m e n ta l in a b ility to free herself fro m h e r father.
T h a t is w hy th a t ex p erien ce cam e u p again w h en she discovered
in th e Ita lia n th e m ysterious “so m e th in g ” w hich h ad previously
m ad e such an o v erw h elm in g im pression o n h e r in c o n n e ctio n
w ith h e r father. T h e s e m em ories w ere n a tu ra lly revived by th e
analogous ex p erien ce w ith h e r h u sb an d , th e im m e d iate cause of
th e neurosis. W e co u ld th ere fo re say th a t th e co n te n t of a n d re a-
son for th e neu ro sis was th e conflict betw een th e in fan tile-ero tic
re la tio n to h e r fa th e r a n d h e r love for h e r h u sb an d .
5° If, how ever, we look a t th e sam e clinical p ic tu re fro m th e
p o in t of view of th e “ o th e r” in stin ct, th e w ill to pow er, it as-
sum es q u ite a d ifferen t aspect. H e r p a re n ts ’ u n h a p p y m arriag e
afforded an ex cellen t o p p o rtu n ity fo r th e ch ild ish u rg e to
pow er. T h e p o w er-in stin ct w ants th e ego to b e “o n to p ” u n d e r
all circum stances, by fair m eans o r foul. T h e “ in teg rity of th e
p erso n ality ” m u st be p reserved a t all costs. Every a tte m p t, be it
only a n a p p a re n t a tte m p t, of th e e n v iro n m e n t to o b ta in th e
slightest ascendency o v er th e su b ject is m et, to use A d le r’s ex-
pression, by the “m ascu line p ro te st.” T h e d isillu sio n m en t of th e
m o th e r a n d h e r w ith d raw al in to neurosis create d th e d esired o p -
p o rtu n ity fo r a display of pow er a n d for g a in in g th e ascendency.
Love a n d good b e h a v io u r are, fro m th e sta n d p o in t of th e power-
instin ct, k n o w n to be a choice m eans to this end. V irtuousness
o ften serves to o p el re co g n itio n from others. A lready as a
c h ild th e p a tie n t k n ew how to secure a p rivileg ed p ositio n w ith
h e r fa th e r th ro u g h especially in g ra tia tin g a n d affectionate be-
h av io u r, a n d to get th e b e tte r of h e r m o th e r— n o t o u t of love for
h e r father, b u t because love was a good m e th o d of g a in in g th e
u p p e r h an d . T h e laughing-fit a t th e tim e of h e r fa th e r’s d ea th is
s trik in g p ro o f of this. W e are in c lin e d to re g ard such an ex p la-
n a tio n as a h o rrib le d e p re c ia tio n of love, n o t to say a m alicious
in s in u a tio n , u n til we reflect for a m o m e n t a n d look a t th e w o rld
as it is. H a v e we n o t seen countless p eo p le w h o love a n d believe
in th e ir love, a n d th en , w h e n th e ir p u rp o se is accom plished,
t u r n away as th o u g h they h ad n ev e r loved? A n d finally, is n o t
this th e way of n a tu re herself? Is “d isin te re ste d ” love a t all pos-

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sible? If so, it belongs to th e h ig h est virtues, w h ich in p o in t of

fact are exceedingly rare. P erh ap s th ere is in g eneral a ten d ency
to th in k as little as possible a b o u t th e p u rp o se of love; otherw ise
we m ig h t m ak e discoveries w hich w o u ld show th e w o rth of o u r
love in a less fav o u rab le light.
51 T h e p atien t, th en , h a d a laughing-fit a t th e d e a th of h e r fa-
th e r— she h ad finally arriv ed o n top. It was an hysterical lau g h -
ter, a psychogenic sym ptom , s o m e th in g th a t sp ran g fro m u n c o n -
scious m otives a n d n o t fro m those of th e conscious ego. T h a t is a
difference n o t to be m ad e lig h t of, a n d o n e th a t also tells us
w hence a n d how certain h u m a n v irtu es arise. T h e i r opposites
w e n t d ow n to hell— or, in m o d e rn parlan ce, in to th e u n c o n -
scious— w h ere th e co u n te rp a rts of o u r conscious virtu es have
lo n g been accu m u latin g . H e n ce for very v irtu e we wish to know
n o th in g of th e unconscious; in d e e d it is th e acm e of v irtu o u s
sagacity to d eclare th a t th e re is n o such th in g as th e unconscious.
B u t alas! it fares w ith us all as w ith B ro th e r M ed ard u s in H off-
m a n n ’s tale T h e e il s l i i som ew here we have a sinister
a n d frig h tfu l b ro th e r, o u r ow n flesh-and-blood c o u n te rp a rt, w ho
holds a n d m aliciously hoards ev ery th in g th a t we w o u ld so w ill-
ingly h id e u n d e r th e table.
52 T h e first o u tb re a k of n eurosis in o u r p a tie n t o ccu rred th e
m o m e n t she realized th a t th ere was so m eth in g in h er fa th e r
w hich she co u ld n o t d o m in ate. A n d th e n a g reat lig h t daw ned:
she now k n ew w h at was th e p u rp o se of h e r m o th e r's neurosis,
n am ely th a t w h en you e n c o u n te r a n obstacle w h ich c a n n o t be
overcom e by ra tio n a l m eth o d s a n d ch arm , th e re is still a n o th e r
m eth o d , h ith e rto u n k n o w n to her, w h ich h e r m o th e r h ad al-
ready discovered b efo reh a n d , i.e., neurosis. So fro m now on she
im itates h e r m o th e r’s neurosis. B u t w hat, we m ay ask in aston-
ish m en t, is th e good of a neurosis? W h a t can it do? A n y o ne w ho
has in his n e ig h b o u rh o o d a definite case of neurosis knows well
en o u g h w h a t it can “d o .” T h e r e is n o b e tte r m e th o d of ty r-
an n iz in g o ver the e n tire h o u sehold. H eart-attacks, choking-fits,
spasms of all kinds, p ro d u c e an en o rm o u s effect th a t can h ard ly
be surpassed. O ceans of sym pathy are let loose, th e re is the an -
guish of w o rried p aren ts, th e r u n n in g to a n d fro of servants,
te lep h o n e bells, h u rry in g doctors, difficult diagnoses, ela b o rate
ex am in atio n s, len g th y treatm en ts, heavy expenses, a n d th e re in

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

th e m id st of all th e h u b b u b lies th e in n o c e n t sufferer, w ith

everybody overflow ing w ith g ra titu d e w h en at last she recovers
fro m h e r “sp a sm s/’
53 T h is u n su rp assab le “a rra n g e m e n t”— to use A d le r’s expres-
sion— was discovered by th e little o n e a n d a p p lie d w ith success
w h en ev er h e r fa th e r was th ere. I t becam e superfluous w h e n th e
fa th e r d ied, fo r n ow she was finally o n top. T h e Ita lia n was
d ro p p e d o v erb o ard w h en he laid too m u ch em phasis o n h e r fem -
in in ity by a n a p p ro p ria te re m in d e r of his virility. B u t w h e n a
su itab le chance of m arriag e p re sen ted itself, she loved, a n d re -
signed herself w ith o u t a m u r m u r to th e fate of wife a n d m o th er.
So lo n g as h e r re v ere d s u p e rio rity was m a in ta in e d , ev ery th in g
w e n t sw im m ingly. B u t once h e r h u sb a n d h ad a little b it of in -
terest o utside, she h ad recourse as b efore to th a t exceedingly
effective “a rra n g e m e n t” for th e in d ire c t exercise of h e r pow er,
because she h a d again e n c o u n te re d th e obstacle— this tim e in h e r
h u s b a n d — w h ich previously in h e r fa th e r’s case h ad escaped h e r
m astery.
54 T h is is how things look fro m th e p o in t of view of p o w er
psychology. I fear th e re a d e r m u st feel like th e a i w ho, hav-
in g h e a rd th e counsel fo r th e on e party, said, “ T h o u hast well
spoken. I perceive th a t th o u a r t rig h t.” T h e n cam e th e o th e r
party, a n d w h en he h a d finished, th e a i scratched h im self b e -
h in d th e ear a n d said, “T h o u hast w ell spoken. I perceive th a t
th o u also a rt rig h t.” I t is u n q u e s tio n a b le th a t th e u rg e to p o w er
plays a n e x tra o rd in a rily im p o rta n t p art. I t is co rrect th a t n e u -
ro tic sym ptom s a n d com plexes are also ela b o rate “arra n g e -
m e n ts” w hich in ex o ra b ly p u rsu e th e ir aim s, w ith in cre d ib le
obstinacy a n d cu n n in g . N eurosis is id eo lo g ica lly o rien te d . In
estab lish in g this A d le r has w on fo r h im self n o sm all credit.
55 W h ic h of th e tw o p o in ts of view is right? T h a t is a q u estio n
th a t m ig h t lead to m u c h b rain -rack in g . O n e sim ply c a n n o t lay
th e two ex p la n atio n s side by side, for they c o n tra d ic t each o th e r
absolutely. In th e one, th e chief a n d decisive fact is Eros a n d its
destiny; in th e o th er, it is th e p o w er of th e ego. I n th e first case,
th e ego is m erely a sort of a p p e n d ag e to Eros; in th e second, love
is ju s t a m eans to th e end, w h ich is ascendency. T h o s e w ho have
th e p o w er of th e ego m ost at h e a rt w ill rev o lt against th e first
co n ceptio n , b u t those w ho care m ost for love w ill n ev er be rec-
o n ciled to th e second.

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THE PROBLEM OF THE ATTITUDE-TYPE

56 T h e in c o m p a tib ility of th e two theories discussed in th e p re -

ced in g ch ap ters re q u ire s a sta n d p o in t su p e ro rd in a te to b o th , in
w hich they co u ld com e to g eth er in uniso n . W e are certain ly n o t
e n title d to discard on e in fav o u r of th e o th er, how ever conven-
ie n t this e x p e d ie n t m ig h t be. For, if we ex am in e th e two th eo -
ries w ith o u t p reju d ice, we c a n n o t d en y th a t b o th co n ta in signifi-
ca n t tru th s, an d , co n tra d icto ry as these are, they sh o u ld n o t be
re g ard e d as m u tu a lly exclusive. T h e F re u d ia n th eo ry is attra c-
tively sim ple, so m u c h so th a t it alm ost pains one if anybody
drives in th e wedge of a co n tra ry assertion. B u t th e sam e is tru e
of A d le r’s theory. I t too is of illu m in a tin g sim plicity a n d ex-
p lains ju st as m u c h as th e F re u d ia n theory. N o w o n d er, th en ,
th a t th e a d h e ren ts of b o th schools o b stin ately cling to th e ir o n e-
sided tru th s. F o r h u m a n ly u n d e rs ta n d a b le reasons they are u n -
w illin g to give u p a b e a u tifu l, ro u n d e d th eory in exchange for a
p arad o x , or, worse still, lose them selves in th e co n fu sio n of co n -
trad ic to ry p oints of view.
57 N ow , since b o th theories are in a large m easu re co rrect— th a t
is to say, since they b o th ap p e a r to e x p la in th e ir m ateria l— it fol-
lows th a t a neurosis m u st have tw o o p p osite aspects, o n e of
w hich is grasped by th e F re u d ia n , th e o th e r by th e A d leria n th e -
ory. B u t how comes it th a t each investigator sees o nly one side,
a n d why does each m a in ta in th a t he has th e only v alid view? I t
m u st com e fro m th e fact th at, o w ing to his psychological p ecu -
liarity, each in v estig ato r m ost read ily sees th a t factor in th e n e u -
rosis w hich co rresponds to his p eculiarity. I t c a n n o t be assum ed
th a t th e cases of neurosis seen by A d le r are totally d ifferen t fro m
those seen by F reu d . B o th are obviously w o rk in g w ith th e sam e
m ateria l; b u t because of p erso n al pecu liarities they each see

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

things fro m a differen t angle, a n d th u s they evolve fu n d a m e n -

tally d ifferen t views a n d theories. A d le r sees how a subject w ho
feels suppressed a n d in fe rio r tries to secure an illusory su p erio r-
ity by m eans of “ protests,” “arran g e m e n ts,” a n d o th e r a p p ro p ri-
ate devices d irec ted eq u ally against parents, teachers, reg u lation s,
au th o rities, situations, in stitu tio n s, a n d such. E ven sexuality m ay
figure am o n g these devices. T h is view lays u n d u e em phasis u p o n
th e subject, b efo re w hich th e idiosyncrasy a n d significance of
objects en tire ly vanish. O bjects are re g ard e d at best as v eh i-
cles of suppressive tendencies. I shall p ro b a b ly n o t be w rong
in assum ing th a t th e love re la tio n a n d o th e r desires d irected
u p o n objects exist eq u ally in A d ler as essential factors; yet in
his th eo ry of neurosis they do n o t play th e p rin c ip a l ro le as-
signed to th em by F reu d .
58 F re u d sees his p a tie n t in p e rp e tu a l d e p e n d en ce on, a n d in
re la tio n to, significant objects. F a th e r a n d m o th e r play a large
p a rt here; w h atev er o th e r significant influences o r co n d itio n s
e n te r in to th e life of th e p a tie n t go back in a d irec t lin e of cau-
sality to these p rim e factors. T h e pi e e sistan e of his th e -
ory is th e co n cep t of transference, i.e., th e p a tie n t’s re la tio n to
th e doctor. Always a specifically qu alified o b ject is e ith e r d esired
o r m et w ith resistance, a n d this re actio n always follows th e p a t-
te rn established in earliest c h ild h o o d th ro u g h th e re la tio n to fa-
th e r a n d m o th er. W h a t comes fro m th e su b ject is essentially a
b lin d striv in g after pleasure; b u t this striv in g always acq u ires its
q u a lity fro m specific objects. W ith F re u d objects are of the
greatest significance a n d possess alm ost exclusively th e d e te r-
m in in g pow er, w h ile th e su b ject rem ain s re m a rk a b ly insignifi-
ca n t a n d is really n o th in g m o re th a n th e source of desire for
p leasu re a n d a “seat of an x ie ty .” As already p o in te d o u t, F re u d
recognizes ego-instincts, b u t this term alo n e is e n o u g h to show
th a t his co n cep tio n of th e sub ject differs toto oelo fro m A d le r’s,
w h ere th e su b ject figures as th e d e te rm in in g factor.
59 C erta in ly b o th investigators see the su b ject in re la tio n to th e
object; b u t how differently this re la tio n is seen! W ith A d le r th e
em phasis is placed on a su b ject who, n o m a tte r w h a t th e object,
seeks his ow n security a n d suprem acy; w ith F re u d th e em phasis
is placed w holly u p o n objects, w hich, acco rd in g to th e ir specific
character, e ith e r p ro m o te o r h in d e r th e s u b je c t’s desire for
pleasure.

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 T H E PR O B L E M O F T H E A TTITU D E-TY PE

60 T h is difference can h ard ly be a n y th in g else b u t a difference

of tem p eram en t, a co n trast betw een two types of h u m a n m e n ta l-
ity, o n e of w h ich finds th e d e te rm in in g agency p re-em in en tly in
th e subject, th e o th e r in th e object. A m id d le view, it m ay be
th a t of co m m o n sense, w o u ld suppose th a t h u m a n b e h a v io u r is
c o n d itio n e d as m u ch by th e su b ject as by th e object. T h e two
investigators w o u ld p ro b a b ly assert, on th e o th e r h and, th a t
th e ir th eo ry does n o t envisage a psychological e x p la n a tio n of the
n o rm al m an , b u t is a th eo ry of neurosis. B u t in th a t case F reu d
w o u ld have to e x p la in a n d tre a t som e of his p atien ts along A d-
leria n lines, a n d A d ler condescend to give earn est co n sid eratio n
in certain instances to his fo rm er te a c h e r’s p o in t of view— w hich
has o cc u rre d n e ith e r on th e o n e side n o r o n th e o th er.
61 T h e spectacle of this d ilem m a m ad e m e p o n d e r the qu estio n :
are th e re a t least tw o d ifferen t h u m a n types, o n e of th em m o re
in tere ste d in th e object, th e o th e r m o re in tere ste d in himself?
A n d does th a t e x p la in why th e o n e sees only th e o n e an d th e
o th e r only th e o th er, a n d th u s each arrives at totally d ifferen t
conclusions? As we have said, it was h ard ly to be supposed th a t
fate selected th e p atien ts so m eticu lo u sly th a t a definite g ro u p
in v aria b ly re ach e d a definite doctor. F o r som e tim e it h ad stru ck
m e, in co n n e ctio n b o th w ith m yself a n d w ith m y colleagues, th a t
th e re are som e cases w hich m ake a d istin ct appeal, w hile o thers
som ehow refuse to “click.” It is of crucial im p o rtan ce for th e
tre a tm e n t w h e th e r a good re la tio n sh ip betw een d o cto r a n d p a-
tie n t is possible o r not. If som e m easu re of n a tu ra l confidence
does n o t develop w ith in a sh o rt p eriod, th e n th e p a tie n t will do
b e tte r to choose a n o th e r doctor. I m yself have n ev er sh ru n k
fro m re c o m m e n d in g to a colleague a p a tie n t whose p eculiarities
w ere n o t in m y lin e o r w ere u n sy m p ath etic to m e, a n d in d eed
this is in th e p a tie n t’s ow n interests. I am positive th a t in such a
case I w o u ld n o t do good w ork. E veryone has his personal lim i-
tations, a n d th e psych o th erap ist in p a rtic u la r is well advised
n ev er to d isreg ard them . Excessive perso n al differences a n d in -
co m p a tib ilitie s cause resistances th a t are d isp ro p o rtio n a te an d
o u t of place, th o u g h they are n o t alto g eth e r u njustified. T h e
F reu d -A d ler controversy is sim ply a p arad ig m a n d one single in -
stance am o n g m an y possible attitude-types.
fa I have lo n g bu sied m yself w ith this q u estio n a n d have finally,
o n th e basis of n u m e ro u s observations a n d experiences, com e to

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

p o stu late two fu n d a m e n ta l attitu d es, n am ely int o e sion an d

e t a e si n T h e first a ttitu d e is n o rm ally ch aracterized by a
h esitan t, reflective, re tirin g n a tu re th a t keeps itself to itself,
shrinks from objects, is always slightly on th e defensive a n d p re -
fers to h id e b e h in d m istru stfu l scrutiny. T h e second is n o rm ally
ch aracterized by an o u tgoing, can d id , a n d acco m m o d atin g n a tu re
th a t adapts easily to a given situ atio n , qu ick ly form s attachm ents,
and, settin g aside any possible misgivings, w ill o ften v e n tu re
fo rth w ith careless confidence in to u n k n o w n situ atio n s. In the
first case obviously the subject, a n d in th e second th e object, is
all-im p o rtan t.
63 N a tu ra lly these rem ark s sketch th e tw o types only in th e
ro u g h est o u tlin e s.1 As a m a tte r of em p irical fact th e two a tti-
tudes, to w hich I shall com e back shortly, can seldom be o b -
served in th e ir p u re state. T h e y are infin itely v arie d a n d com -
pensated, so th a t o ften th e type is n o t at all easy to establish. T h e
reason for v a ria tio n — a p a rt from in d iv id u a l fluctuations— is the
p re d o m in a n c e of one of th e conscious fu n ctio n s, such as th in k -
in g or feeling, w hich th en gives the basic a ttitu d e a special ch ar-
acter. T h e n u m e ro u s com pensations of th e basic type are g en er-
ally d u e to experiences w hich teach a m an , p erh ap s in a very
p a in fu l way, th a t he ca n n o t give free re in to his n a tu re . In o th er
cases, for instance w ith neurotics, o n e fre q u e n tly does n o t know
w h e th e r o n e is d ea lin g w ith a conscious o r an unconscious a tti-
tu d e because, ow ing to th e dissociation of th e personality, som e-
tim es one h alf of it a n d som etim es th e o th e r h alf occupies the
fo re g ro u n d a n d confuses one's ju d g m e n t. T h is is w h a t m akes it
so excessively try in g to live w ith n e u ro tic persons.
64 T h e actual existence of far-reaching type-differences, of
w hich I have describ ed eig h t g ro u p s2 in th e ab o ve-m en tio ned
book, has e n a b led m e to conceive th e two co n tro v ersial theories
of n eurosis as m an ifestatio n s of a type-antagonism .
65 T h is discovery b ro u g h t w ith it th e n eed to rise above the
o p p o sitio n a n d to create a th eo ry w h ich sh o u ld do ju stice n o t

1 A com plete study of the type problem is to be found in my sy hologi al

Types
2 N atu rally this does n ot include all the existing types. F u rth e r points of d if-
ference are age, sex, activity, em otionality, and level of developm ent. My typ?-
psychology is based on the four orien ting functions of consciousness: thinking,
feeling, sensation, a n d in tu itio n . See ibid. (1923 edn., pp. 428!!.).

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 T H E PR O B L E M O F T H E A TTITU D E-T Y PE

m erely to o ne o r th e o th e r side, b u t to b o th equally. F o r this

p u rp o se a c ritiq u e of b o th th e a fo re m e n tio n e d th eo ries is essen-
tial. B o th are p ain fu lly in c lin e d to re d u ce high-flown ideals,
hero ic attitu d es, n o b ility of feeling, d ee p convictions, to som e
b an a l reality, if a p p lie d to such thin g s as these. O n n o acco u n t
sh o u ld they be so ap p lied , for b o th th eo ries are p ro p e rly th e ra -
p eu tic in stru m e n ts fro m th e a rm o u ry of th e d o cto r, whose kn ife
m u st be sh arp a n d pitiless fo r excising w h a t is diseased a n d in -
ju rio u s. T h is was w h a t N ietzsche w a n te d w ith his d estructive
criticism of ideals, w hich h e h eld to be m o rb id overgrow ths in
th e soul of h u m a n ity (as in d e e d they som etim es are). In th e
h a n d of a good doctor, of o n e w ho really know s th e h u m a n soul
— w ho, to use N ietzsche’s phrase, has a “ finger for n u an c es”—
b o th theories, w h en a p p lie d to th e really sick p a rt of a soul, are
w holesom e caustics, of g reat h elp in dosages m easu red to th e in -
d iv id u a l case, b u t h a rm fu l a n d d an g ero u s in th e h a n d th a t
know s n o t how to m easu re a n d weigh. T h e y are critical m e th -
ods, having, like all criticism , th e p o w er to do good w h e n th e re
is so m eth in g th a t m u st b e destroyed, dissolved, o r re d u ced , b u t
capable only of h a rm w h en th e re is so m eth in g to be b u ilt.
66 B oth th eo ries m ay th ere fo re be allow ed to pass w ith n o ill
consequences p ro v id ed th at, like m edical poisons, they are e n -
tru ste d to tfre su re h a n d of th e physician, for it re q u ires an u n -
co m m o n k n ow ledge of th e h u m a n psyche to ap p ly these caustics
w ith advantage. O n e m u st be capable of d istin g u ish in g th e
p ath o lo g ical a n d th e useless fro m w h a t is v alu a b le a n d w o rth
preserving, a n d th a t is one of th e m ost difficult things. A nyone
w h o wishes to get a vivid im pression of how irresp o nsib ly a psy-
chologizing d o cto r can falsify his su b ject th ro u g h narrow ,
pseudo-scientific p re ju d ic e, sh o u ld tu r n to th e w ritin g s of
M ö b iu s on N ietzsche, or, b e tte r still, to th e various “ psychiatric”
w ritin g s on th e “case” of C hrist. H e will n o t h esitate to cry a
“ th ree fo ld la m e n ta tio n ” o ver th e p a tie n t w ho m eets w ith such
“u n d e rsta n d in g . ’’
67 T h e two theories of neurosis are n o t universal theories: they
are caustic rem edies to be ap p lied , as it were, locally. T h e y are
destru ctiv e a n d reductive. T h e y say to everything, “You are
n o th in g b u t. . . .” T h e y e x p la in to th e sufferer th a t his sym p-
tom s com e from here a n d from th ere a n d are n o th in g b u t this o r
th at. I t w o u ld be u n ju s t to assert th a t this re d u c tio n is w ro n g in

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

a given case; b u t, ex alted to th e status of a gen eral ex p la n a tio n

of th e h ealth y psyche as well as th e sick, a red u ctiv e theory by
itself is im possible. F o r th e h u m a n psyche, be it sick or healthy,
ca n n o t be ex p la in e d solely by red u ctio n . Eros is certainly always
a n d everyw here present, the u rge to pow er certainly pervades
th e heights a n d d epth s of th e psyche, b u t th e psyche is n o t st
th e one o r th e o th er, n o r for th a t m a tte r b o th together. I t is also
w hat it has m ad e a n d will m ak e o u t of them . A m a n is only h alf
u n d e rsto o d w h e n we know how ev ery thin g in h im cam e in to
being. If th a t w ere all, he co u ld ju st as well have b ee n d ead years
ago. As a living b ein g he is n o t u nd ersto o d , for life does n o t have
only a yesterday, n o r is it ex p la in e d by re d u c in g today to yester-
day. Life has also a tom orrow , a n d today is u n d e rs to o d only
w hen we can ad d to o u r know ledge of w h a t was yesterday th e
b eg inn ings of tom orrow . T h is is tru e of all life's psychological
expressions, even of pathological sym ptom s. T h e sym ptom s of a
neurosis are n o t sim ply the effects of long-past causes, w h e th e r
“ in fan tile sex uality” o r the in fan tile u rg e to power; they are also
attem p ts at a new synthesis of life— unsuccessful attem p ts, let it
be ad d e d in th e same b re ath , yet attem p ts nevertheless, w ith a
core of value an d m ean ing . T h e y are seeds th a t fail to s p ro u t
ow ing to the in clem e n t co nditions of in n e r a n d o u te r n a tu re .
68 T h e re ad er will doubtless ask: W h a t in the w o rld is th e
value a n d m e a n in g of a neurosis, this m ost useless a n d p estilen t
curse of hu m anity? T o be n e u ro tic — w h a t good can th a t do? As
m u c h good, possibly, as flies a n d o th e r pests, w hich the good
L o rd created so th a t m a n m ig h t exercise th e useful v irtu e of p a-
tience. H o w ev er s tu p id this th o u g h t is fro m the p o in t of view of
n a tu ra l science, it m ay yet be sensible en o u g h fro m th e p o in t
of view of psychology, if we p u t “ nervous sym ptom s” instead of
“ pests.” Even Nietzsche, a ra re one for sco rning stu p id a n d b a -
n al thoughts, m o re th a n once acknow ledged how m u c h he ow ed
to his m alady. I myself have kn o w n m o re th a n one person w ho
ow ed his e n tire usefulness a n d reason for existence to a neurosis,
w hich p re v en ted all th e w orst follies in his life a n d fo e h im to
a m o d e of liv in g th a t dev elop ed his v alu ab le potentialities.
T h e s e m ig h t have been stifled h ad n o t th e neurosis, w ith iro n
grip, held h im to th e place w h ere he belonged. T h e r e are a c tu -
ally people w ho have th e w hole m e a n in g of th e ir life, th e ir tru e
significance, in the unconscious, w hile in the conscious m in d is

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n o th in g b u t in v eig lem en t a n d erro r. W ith oth ers th e case is re -

versed, a n d h ere neurosis has a d ifferen t m ean in g . In these cases,
b u t n o t in th e fo rm er, a th o ro u g h g o in g re d u c tio n is in d icated .
69 A t this p o in t th e re a d e r m ay b e in c lin e d to g ra n t th e possi-
b ility th a t th e n eurosis has such a m e a n in g in ce rta in cases,
w h ile d en y in g it so far-reach in g a purposiveness in o rd in a ry ev-
eryday cases. W h a t, fo r instance, co u ld be th e v alue of a neurosis
in th e ab o v e -m en tio n ed case of asth m a w ith its hysterical
anxiety-states? I a d m it th a t th e v alu e is n o t so obvious here, es-
pecially w h en th e case is co n sid ered from th e th eo retical re d u c -
tive s ta n d p o in t, th a t is, fro m th e shadow-side of in d iv id u a l d e -
v elo p m en t.
7° T h e two theories we have b ee n discussing ev id en tly have this
m u c h in co m m o n : they pitilessly u n v eil ev ery th in g th a t belongs
to m a n ’s shadow-side. T h e y are th eo ries or, m o re correctly, hy-
potheses w h ich ex p la in in w h a t th e p ath o g en ic factor consists.
T h e y are accordingly c o n c ern e d n o t w ith a m a n ’s positive val-
ues, b u t w ith his n eg ativ e values w h ich m ak e them selves so dis-
tu rb in g ly conspicuous.
71 A “v a lu e ” is a possibility for th e display of energy. B u t in so
far as a n egative v alu e is likew ise a possibility for th e display of
energy— w h ich can b e seen m ost clearly in th e n o tab le m anifes-
tatio n s of n e u ro tic energy— it too is p ro p e rly a ‘‘v alu e,” b u t one
th a t b rin g s a b o u t useless a n d h a rm fu l m anifestatio n s of energy.
E n erg y in itself is n e ith e r good n o r bad, n e ith e r useful n o r
h a rm fu l, b u t n e u tra l, since ev ery th in g d ep en ds o n th e fo in to
w h ich energy passes. F o rm gives energy its q u ality. O n th e o th e r
h a n d , m ere fo rm w ith o u t energy is eq u ally n e u tra l. F o r th e cre-
a tio n of a re al value, th erefo re, b o th energy a n d v alu ab le form
are needed. I n neurosis psychic en erg y 3 is p resent, b u t u n d o u b t-
edly it is th e re in a n in fe rio r a n d un serv iceab le form . T h e two
re d u c tiv e theories act as solvents of this in fe rio r form . T h e y are
ap p ro v ed caustic rem edies, by m eans of w hich we o b ta in free
b u t n e u tra l energy. N ow , it has h ith e rto b ee n supposed th a t this
new ly disengaged energy is a t th e conscious disposal of th e p a-
tien t, so th a t he can apply it at his pleasure. Since it was th o u g h t
th a t th e energy is n o th in g b u t th e in stin c tu al p o w er of sex, peo-
p le talk ed of a “su b lim a te d ” a p p lica tio n of it, o n th e assu m p tio n
th a t th e p a tie n t could, w ith th e h e lp of analysis, canalize th e
S C f. m y e ssa y “ O n P s y c h ic E n e r g y .”

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sexual energy in to a “s u b lim a tio n ,” in o th e r words, co u ld ap p ly

it non-sexually, in th e practice of an art, perh ap s, o r in som e
o th e r good o r useful activity. A cco rd in g to this view, it is pos-
sible for th e p a tie n t, fro m free choice o r in c lin a tio n , to achieve
th e su b lim a tio n of his in stin c tu a l forces.
7* W e m ay allow th a t this view has a ce rtain ju stificatio n in so
fa r as m a n is at all cap ab le of m a rk in g o u t a d efin ite lin e alo n g
w h ich his life has to go. B u t we k n o w th a t th e re is n o h u m a n
fo resight o r w isdom th a t can p rescrib e d ire c tio n to o u r life, ex-
cep t for sm all stretches of th e way. T h is is of course tru e only of
th e “o rd in a ry ” type of life, n o t of th e “h e ro ic ” type. T h e la tte r
k in d also exists, th o u g h it is m u c h ra rer. H e re we are certain ly
n o t e n title d to say th a t n o m a rk e d d ire c tio n can b e given to life,
o r on ly fo r sh o rt distances. T h e h ero ic style of life is ab so lu te—
th a t is, it is o rie n te d by fatefu l decisions, a n d th e decision to go
in a ce rta in d ire c tio n holds, som etim es, to th e b itte r end. A d -
m itte d ly th e d o cto r has to do, in th e m ain , o n ly w ith h u m a n
beings, seldom w ith v o lu n ta ry heroes, a n d th e n th ey are m ostly
of a type whose surface h ero ism is an in fa n tile defiance of a fate
g re a te r th a n they, o r else a po m p o sity m e a n t to cover u p som e
to u ch y in ferio rity . In this overp ow erin g ly h u m d ru m existence,
alas, th ere is little o u t of th e o rd in a ry th a t is health y , a n d n o t
m u c h ro o m for conspicuous heroism . N o t th a t h ero ic d em an d s
are n ev er p u t to us: o n th e co n tra ry — a n d this is ju s t w h a t is so
irrita tin g a n d irksom e— th e b an a l everyday m akes b a n a l d e-
m an d s u p o n o u r p atien ce, o u r dev o tion , perseverance, self-
sacrifice; a n d for us to fulfil these d em a n d s (as we m ust) h u m b ly
a n d w ith o u t c o u rtin g ap p lause th ro u g h h ero ic gestures, a h e ro -
ism is n ee d ed th a t ca n n o t be seen fro m th e outside. I t does n o t
g litte r, is n o t b ela u d ed , a n d it always seeks c o n c ealm en t in ev-
eryday attire. T h e s e are th e d em an d s w hich, if n o t fulfilled, are
th e cause of neurosis. I n o rd e r to evade them , m an y a m a n has
d a re d th e g eat decision of his life a n d ca rried it th ro u g h , even if
i n th e co m m o n h u m a n estim atio n it was a g re at erro r. B efore a
fate such as this one can only bow o n e ’s head. B ut, as I say, such
cases are ra re; th e oth ers are in th e vast m ajo rity . F o r th e m th e
d ire c tio n of th e ir life is n o t a sim ple, stra ig h t line; fate co n fro n ts
th e m like an in tric a te la b y rin th , all too rich in possibilities, a n d
yet of these m an y possibilities o nly o n e is th e ir ow n rig h t way.
W h o w o u ld p re su m e — even th o u g h a rm e d w ith th e co m pletest

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know ledge of his ow n ch a rac ter— to d esignate in advance th a t

single possibility? M u ch in d ee d can be a tta in e d by th e will, b u t,
in view of th e fate of ce rta in m ark ed ly strong-w illed p erso n ali-
ties, it is a fu n d a m e n ta l e rro r to try to su b ject o u r ow n fate at all
costs to o u r will. O u r will is a fu n c tio n re g u la te d by reflection;
hen ce it is d e p e n d e n t o n th e q u a lity of th a t reflection. T h is , if it
really is reflection, is supposed to b e ra tio n a l, i.e., in accord w ith
reason. B u t has it ever b een show n, o r w ill it ever be, th a t life
an d fate are in accord w ith reason, th a t they too are ratio n al? W e
have o n th e c o n tra ry good g ro u n d s for su p p o sin g th a t they are
irra tio n a l, o r ra th e r th a t in th e last reso rt they are g ro u n d e d
b ey o n d h u m a n reason. T h e irra tio n a lity of events is show n in
w h a t we call chance, w hich we are obviously co m p elled to deny
because we ca n n o t in p rin c ip le th in k of any process th a t is n o t
causal a n d necessary, w hence it follows th a t it c a n n o t h a p p e n by
chance.4 In practice, how ever, chance reigns everyw here, an d so
o b tru siv ely th a t we m ig h t as well p u t o u r causal p hilosophy in
o u r pocket. T h e p le n itu d e of life is g o vern ed by law a n d yet n o t
g o v ern ed by law, ra tio n a l a n d yet irra tio n a l. H e n ce reason an d
th e w ill th at,is g ro u n d e d in reason are valid only u p to a p oint.
T h e fu r th e r we go in th e d irec tio n selected by reason, the su rer
we m ay be th a t we are ex c lu d in g the irra tio n a l possibilities of
life w hich have ju s t as m u c h rig h t to be lived. I t was in d eed
h ighly e x p e d ie n t fo r m a n to becom e som ew hat m o re capable of
d ire c tin g his life. I t m ay ju stly be m a in ta in e d th a t the acq u isi-
tion of reason is th e greatest ach iev em en t of h u m an ity ; b u t th at
is n o t to say th a t things m u st o r will always c o n tin u e in th a t
d irec tio n . T h e frig h tfu l catastro p h e of th e first W o rld W a r drew
a very th ick lin e th ro u g h th e calculations of even the m ost o p ti-
m istic ratio n alizers of cu ltu re . In 1913, W ilh e lm O stw ald w rote:
T h e whole world is agreed that the present state of armed peace is
untenable and is gradually becoming impossible. It demands tremen-
dous sacrifices from each single nation, far exceeding the expendi-
ture for cultural purposes, yet without securing any positive values.
If m ankind could discover ways and means for doing away with

4 M odern physics has p u t a n .e n d to this strict causality. Now there is only

“statistical p ro b a b ility .” As far back as 1916, I h a d p ointed o u t the lim itations
of the causal view in psychology, for which I was heavily censured at the time.
See my preface to the second edition of olle te ape s on nalyti al sy hol
ogy in e an sy hoanalysis pp. aggff.

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these preparations for wars hi h ne e take pla e together with

the immobilization of a large p art of the n atio n ’s m anhood, at the
age of m axim um strength and efficiency, for the furtherance of war-
like aims, and all the other innum erable evils which the present
state of affairs creates, such an immense economy of energy would
be effected that from this m om ent onwards we could look forward
to a blossoming of culture hitherto undream ed of. For war, like per-
sonal combat, although the oldest of all possible means of settling
contests of will, is on that very account the most inept, and entails
the most grievous waste of energy. Hence the complete abolition of
warfare, potential no less than actual, is the categorical imperative
of efficiency and one of the supremely im portant cultural tasks of
our day.5
73 T h e irra tio n a lity of fate, how ever, d id n o t c o n c u r w ith th e
ra tio n a lity of w ell-m eaning th in k ers; it o rd a in e d n o t only th e
d e stru c tio n of the ac cu m u lated arm s a n d arm ies, b u t, far b ey o n d
th at, a m ad a n d m o n stro u s d evastation, a mass m u rd e r w ith o u t
p arallel— fro m w h ich h u m a n ity m ay possibly d raw th e c o n c lu -
sion th a t only o n e side of fate can be m astered w ith ra tio n a l
in ten tio n s.
74 W h a t is tru e of h u m a n ity in g en eral is also tru e of each in d i-
vid u al, for h u m a n ity consists only of ind iv id u als. A n d as is th e
psychology of h u m a n ity so also is th e psychology of th e in d i-
vidual. T h e W o rld W a r b ro u g h t a te rrib le re c k o n in g w ith th e
ra tio n a l in te n tio n s of civilization. W h a t is called “w ill” in th e
in d iv id u a l is called “ im p erialism ” in natio n s; for all w ill is a
d e m o n stra tio n of p o w er over fate, i.e., th e exclusion of chance.
C ivilization is th e ra tio n a l, “p u rp o s e fu l” su b lim a tio n of free
energies, b ro u g h t a b o u t by will a n d in te n tio n . I t is th e sam e
w ith the in d iv id u a l; a n d ju st as th e idea of a w o rld civilization
received a fearful co rrectio n at the h an d s of war, so th e in d i-
v id u al m u st often lea rn in his life th a t so-called “d ispo sab le”
energies are n o t his to dispose.
75 O nce, in A m erica, I was co n su lted by a business m an of
a b o u t forty-five, whose case is a good illu s tra tio n of w h a t has
b een said. H e was a typical A m erican self-made m an w ho h ad
w o rk ed his way u p fro m th e b o tto m . H e h ad b ee n very success-
ful an d h ad fo u n d e d an im m en se business. H e h ad also suc-
ceeded in o rg an izin g it in such a way th a t he was ab le to th in k of
&Ostw ald, ie hilosophi e e te pp. 312L

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re tirin g . T w o years b efo re I saw h im he h a d in fact tak en his

farew ell. U n til th e n he h a d lived e n tire ly for his business a n d
co n c en tra te d all his energies o n it w ith th e in cre d ib le in ten sity
a n d one-sidedness p ec u lia r to successful A m eric an business m en.
H e h ad p u rc h ased a sp len d id estate w h ere he th o u g h t of “ liv-
in g ,” by w h ich he m e a n t horses, au to m o b iles, golf, tennis, p a r-
ties a n d w h a t not. B u t he h ad reck o n ed w ith o u t his host. T h e
energy w h ich sh o u ld have b ee n at his disposal w o u ld n o t e n te r
in to these a llu rin g prospects, b u t w en t ca p erin g off in q u ite a n -
o th e r d irec tio n . A few weeks a fte r th e in itia tio n of th e longed-
for life of bliss, he b eg an b ro o d in g over pecu liar, vague sensa-
tions in his body, a n d a few weeks m o re sufficed to p lu n g e h im
in to a state of e x tre m e h y p o ch o n d ria. H e h ad a co m p lete n erv -
ous collapse. F ro m a h ea lth y m an , of u n c o m m o n physical
stren g th a n d a b o u n d in g energy, he becam e a peevish child.
T h a t was th e e n d of all his glories. H e fell fro m one state of
an x ie ty to th e n e x t a n d w o rried him self alm ost to d ea th w ith
h y p o ch on d riacal m opings. H e th e n co n su lted a fam ous special-
ist, w ho recognized at once th a t th e re was n o th in g w ro n g w ith
th e m a n b u t lack of w ork. T h e p a tie n t saw th e sense of this, a n d
re tu r n e d to his fo rm e r position. B ut, to his im m ense d isa p p o in t-
m en t, n o in tere st in th e business co u ld be aroused. N e ith e r p a-
tience n o r re so lu tio n was of any use. H is energy co u ld n o t by
any m eans be forced back in to th e business. H is co n d itio n n a t-
u ra lly becam e worse th a n before. A ll th a t h ad fo rm erly been
living, creative energy in h im no w tu rn e d against h im w ith ter-
rib le destro y in g force. H is creative g enius rose u p , as it w ere, in
re v o lt against h im ; a n d ju s t as before he h a d b u ilt u p great o r-
ganizations in th e w orld, so n ow his d ae m o n sp u n eq u ally su b tle
systems of h y p o ch o n d riacal d elu sio n th a t co m pletely a n n ih i-
lated h im . W h e n I saw h im he was already a hopeless m oral
ru in . N evertheless I trie d to m ak e clear to h im th a t th o u g h such
colossal energy m ig h t be w ith d ra w n fro m th e business, the
q u e stio n re m a in ed , w here sh o u ld it go? T h e finest horses, th e
fastest cars, a n d th e m ost am u sin g parties m ay very likely fail to
allu re th e energy, a lth o u g h it w o u ld be ra tio n a l en o u g h to th in k
th a t a m a n w ho h ad d ev o ted his w hole life to serious w ork h ad a
sort of n a tu ra l rig h t to enjoy him self. Yes, if fate b eh av ed in a
h u m a n ly ra tio n a l way, it w o u ld ce rtain ly be so: first work, th en
w ell-earned rest. B u t fate behaves irra tio n a lly , a n d th e energy

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of life in co n v en ien tly d em an d s a g ra d ie n t agreeable to itself;

otherw ise it sim ply gets d a m m e d u p a n d tu rn s destructive. I t
regresses to fo rm e r situ atio n s— in th e case of this m an , to th e
m em o ry of a syphilitic in fectio n co n tra cted twenty-five years b e -
fore. Yet even this was only a stage on the way to th e resuscita-
tio n of in fa n tile rem iniscences w hich h ad all b u t v an ish ed in
th e m ean tim e. I t was th e o rig in al re la tio n to his m o th e r th a t
m a p p e d th e course of his sym ptom s: they w ere an “a rra n g e -
m e n t” whose p u rp o se it was to com pel th e a tte n tio n a n d in tere st
of his long-dead m o th er. N o r was this stage th e last; for th e u lti-
m ate goal was to d riv e h im back, as it were, in to his ow n body,
after he h ad lived since his y o u th only in his head. H e h ad
d iffe ren tiate d o n e side of his b eing; th e o th e r side re m a in e d in
an in e rt physical state. H e w o u ld have n ee d ed this o th e r side in
o rd e r to “ live.” T h e h y p o ch o n d riacal “d ep ressio n ” p u sh ed h im
d o w n in to th e body he h ad always overlooked. H a d he b ee n able
to follow th e d irec tio n in d icate d by his depression a n d hypo-
ch o n d riacal illusion, a n d m ak e him self conscious of th e fantasies
w hich proceed from such a co n d itio n , th a t w o u ld have b een the
ro a d to salvation. My a rg u m e n ts n a tu ra lly m et w ith n o response,
as was to be expected. A case so far adv an ced can only be cared
for u n til d eath; it can h ard ly be cured.
76 T h is ex am p le clearly shows th a t it does n o t lie in o u r pow er
to tran sfer “disp o sab le” energy at w ill to a ra tio n a lly chosen o b -
ject. T h e same is tru e in g eneral of th e a p p a re n tly disposable
energy w hich is disengaged w hen we have destroyed its u n se r-
viceable form s th ro u g h th e corrosive of re d u ctiv e analysis. T h is
energy, as we have said, can a t best be a p p lie d v o lu n ta rily for
only a sh o rt tim e. B u t in m ost cases it refuses to seize hold, fo r
any len g th of tim e, of th e possibilities ra tio n a lly p re sen ted to it.
Psychic energy is a very fastidious th in g w h ich insists o n fulfil-
m e n t of its ow n co n ditions. H o w e v er m u c h energy m ay be
p resen t, we ca n n o t m ake it serviceable u n til we have succeeded
in fin d in g th e rig h t g rad ien t.
77 T h is q u estio n of th e g ra d ie n t is an e m in e n tly p ractical p ro b -
lem w hich crops u p in m ost analyses. F o r instance, w h en in a
fav o u rab le case th e disposable energy, th e so-called lib id o ,6 does
6 From the foregoing it will have become clear to the re ad e r th a t the term
“ libido,” coined by F reud an d very suitable for practical usage, is used by m e in
a m u ch wider sense. L ibido for m e m eans psychic energy, w hich is equivalent

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seize h o ld of a ra tio n a l o bject, we th in k we have b ro u g h t a b o u t

th e tra n sfo rm a tio n th ro u g h conscious e x e rtio n of th e will. B u t
in th a t we are d elu d e d , because even th e m ost stren u o u s exer-
tions w o u ld n o t have sufficed h a d th e re n o t b e e n p re sen t a t th e
sam e tim e a g ra d ie n t in th a t d irec tio n . H o w im p o rta n t th e g ra-
d ie n t is can be seen in cases w hen, desp ite th e m ost d esp erate
exertions, a n d d esp ite th e fact th a t th e o b ject chosen o r th e fo rm
d esire d im presses everybody w ith its reasonableness, th e tran s-
fo rm a tio n still refuses to tak e place, a n d all th a t h ap p en s is a
n ew repression.
78 I t has b ecom e a b u n d a n tly clear to m e th a t life can flow fo r-
w a rd only alo n g th e p a th of th e g ra d ie n t. B u t th e re is n o energy
unless th e re is a ten sio n of opposites; h en ce it is necessary to
discover th e o pposite to th e a ttitu d e of th e conscious m in d . I t is
in te re stin g to see how this c o m p e n sa tio n by opposites also plays
its p a r t in th e histo rical theo ries of neurosis: F re u d 's th eo ry es-
p o u sed Eros, A d le r’s th e w ill to pow er. Logically, th e o pposite of
love is h ate, a n d of Eros, P h obos (fear); b u t psychologically it is
th e w ill to pow er. W h e re love reigns, th e re is n o w ill to pow er;
a n d w h ere th e w ill to p o w er is p a ra m o u n t, love is lacking. T h e
on e is b u t th e shadow of th e o th e r: th e m a n w ho adopts th e
s ta n d p o in t of Eros finds his co m p en sato ry op p o site in th e w ill to
pow er, a n d th a t of th e m a n w ho p u ts th e accent o n pow er is Eros.
Seen fro m th e one-sided p o in t of view of th e conscious a ttitu d e ,
th e shadow is an in fe rio r c o m p o n e n t of th e p erso nality a n d is
co n seq u en tly rep ressed th ro u g h intensive resistance. B u t th e re -
pressed c o n te n t m u st b e m ad e conscious so as to p ro d u c e a te n -
sion of opposites, w ith o u t w h ich n o fo rw ard m o v em en t is pos-

to th e intensity w ith which psychic contents are charged. Freud, in accordance

w ith his theoretical assum ptions, identifies libido w ith Eros a n d tries to d istin -
guish it from psychic energy in general. T h u s he says (“T h re e Essays on the
T h e o ry of Sexuality” [orig. 1908], p. 217): “ We have defined th e concept of
lib id o as a q u a n titativ ely variable force w hich could serve as a m easure of pro c-
esses a nd transform ations occurring in the field of sexual excitation. W e dis-
tinguish this libido in respect of its special origin from the energy which m ust
be supposed to u nderlie m en ta l processes in general.” Elsewhere F reud rem arks
th a t in respect of the destructive in stinct he lacks “a term analogous to libido.”
Since the so-called destructive instinct is also a p h en om eno n of energy, it seems
to m e sim pler to define libido as an inclusive term for psychic intensities, a n d
consequently as sheer psychic energy. Cf. my y bols of T ansfo ation pars.
i9off.; also “O n Psychic Energy,” pars. 4ff.

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sible. T h e conscious m in d is o n top, th e shadow u n d e rn e a th ,

a n d ju s t as h ig h always longs fo r low a n d h o t for cold, so all
consciousness, p erh ap s w ith o u t b e in g aw are of it, seeks its u n -
conscious opposite, lack in g w h ich it is d o o m ed to stag n atio n ,
congestion, a n d ossification. L ife is b o rn on ly of th e spark of
opposites.
79 I t was a concession to in te lle c tu a l logic o n th e o n e h a n d a n d
to psychological p re ju d ic e o n th e o th e r th a t im p elled F re u d to
n a m e th e o p posite of Eros th e d estru ctiv e o r d ea th in stin ct. F o r
in th e first place, Eros is n o t e q u iv a le n t to life; b u t for an y o n e
w ho th in k s it is, th e op p o site of Eros w ill n a tu ra lly a p p e a r to be
d eath . A n d in th e second place, we all feel th a t th e o p p osite of
o u r ow n h ig h est p rin c ip le m u st b e p u re ly d estructive, deadly,
a n d evil. W e refuse to en d o w it w ith an y positive life-force;
h en ce we avoid a n d fear it.
80 As I have already in d icated , th e re are m a n y highest p rin c i-
ples b o th of life a n d of philosophy, a n d accordingly th e re are
ju s t as m an y d ifferen t form s of co m p en satio n by opposites. E ar-
lie r o n I singled o u t th e two— as it seems to m e— m a in o pposite
types, w h ich I have called in tro v e rte d a n d ex tra v erte d . W illia m
Jam es7 h a d already b een stru ck by th e existence of b o th these
types am o n g th in k ers. H e d istin g u ish ed th e m as “ ten d er-
m in d e d ” a n d “ to u g h -m in d ed .” S im ilarly O s tw a ld 8 fo u n d a n
analogous division in to “classic” a n d “ro m a n tic ” types am o n g
m e n of learn in g . So I am n o t alo n e in m y id ea of types, to m e n -
tio n on ly these tw o w ell-know n nam es a m o n g m an y others. I n -
q u irie s in to history have show n m e th a t n o t a few of th e g re at
s p iritu a l controversies rest u p o n th e o p p o sitio n of th e tw o types.
T h e m ost significant case of this k in d was th e o p p o sitio n b e-
tw een n o m in alism a n d realism w hich, b e g in n in g w ith th e differ-
ence b etw een th e P la to n ic a n d M eg arian schools, b ecam e th e
h erita g e of scholastic philosophy, a n d it was A b e la rd 's g re at
m e rit to have h azard ed a t least th e a tte m p t to u n ite th e tw o o p -
posed stan d p o in ts in his “co n cep tu alism .” 9 T h is controversy has
c o n tin u e d rig h t in to o u r ow n day, as is show n in th e o p p o sitio n
b etw een idealism a n d m aterialism . A n d again, n o t only th e h u -
m a n m in d in general, b u t each in d iv id u a l has a share in this
7 Pragmatism.
8 Grosse Männer.
• Psychological Types (1923 edn., pp. 62ff.).

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o p p o sitio n of types. I t has com e to lig h t o n closer in vestigation

th a t e ith e r type has a p re d ile c tio n to m a rry its opposite, each
b e in g unconsciously c o m p lem e n ta ry to th e o th er. T h e reflective
n a tu re of th e in tro v e rt causes h im always to th in k a n d co n sid er
b efo re acting. T h is n a tu ra lly m akes h im slow to act. H is shyness
a n d d istru st of things in d u c e h esitatio n , a n d so he always has
difficulty in a d a p tin g to th e e x te rn al w orld. C onversely th e ex-
tra v e rt has a positive re la tio n to things. H e is, so to speak, a t-
trac ted to them . N ew , u n k n o w n situ atio n s fascinate him . In o r-
d e r to m ake closer a c q u ain tan ce w ith the u n k n o w n he will ju m p
in to it w ith b o th feet. As a ru le he acts first a n d th in k s after-
w ards. T h u s his actio n is swift, su b ject to n o m isgivings a n d hes-
itations. T h e two types th ere fo re seem created for a symbiosis.
T h e o n e takes care of reflection a n d th e o th e r sees to th e in itia -
tive a n d p ractical action. W h e n th e two types m arry they m ay
effect an ideal u n io n . So lo n g as they are fully o ccupied w ith
th e ir a d a p ta tio n to th e m an ifo ld e x te rn al needs of life they fit
to g e th e r ad m irab ly . B u t w h en th e m a n has m ad e en o u g h
m oney, o r if a fine legacy sh o u ld d ro p from th e skies a n d ex-
tern al necessity n o lo n g er presses, th e n they have tim e to occupy
them selves w ith o n e a n o th e r. H ith e rto they stood back to back
a n d d efen d ed them selves against necessity. B u t no w they tu r n
face to face a n d look for u n d e rs ta n d in g — only to discover th a t
they have n ev er u n d e rsto o d o n e a n o th e r. Each speaks a d ifferen t
language. T h e n th e conflict b etw een th e two types begins. T h is
struggle is en v en o m ed , b ru ta l, fu ll of m u tu a l d ep reciatio n , even
w h en co n d u c ted q u ie tly a n d in th e g reatest intim acy. F o r the
v alue of th e o n e is th e n eg a tio n of value for th e o th er. I t m ig h t
reaso n ab ly b e su p posed th a t each, conscious of his ow n value,
co u ld peaceably recognize th e o th er's value, a n d th a t in this way
any conflict w o u ld b e superfluous. I have seen a good n u m b e r of
cases w h ere this lin e of a rg u m e n t was ad o p ted , w ith o u t, how -
ever, a rriv in g a t a satisfactory goal. W h e re it is a q u estio n of
n o rm a l people, such critical p eriods of tra n sitio n w ill be over-
com e fairly sm oothly. By “n o rm a l” I m ea n a person w ho can
som ehow exist u n d e r all circum stances w hich afford h im th e
m in im u m needs of life. B u t m an y p eo p le ca n n o t do this; th e re -
fore n o t so very m an y p eo p le are n o rm al. W h a t we co m m o nly
m ea n by a “ n o rm a l p erso n ” is actually an ideal person whose
h ap p y b le n d of c h a rac ter is a ra re o ccurrence. By far th e g re ater

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n u m b e r of m o re o r less d iffe ren tiate d persons d e m a n d co n d i-

tions of life w hich offer co n sid erab ly m o re th a n th e certain ty of
food a n d sleep. F o r these th e e n d in g of a sym biotic re la tio n sh ip
comes as a severe shock.
81 I t is n o t easy to u n d e rs ta n d w hy this sh o u ld be so. Yet if we
co n sid er th a t n o m a n is sim ply in tro v e rte d o r sim ply e x tra -
verted, b u t has b o th a ttitu d e s p o ten tially in h im — a lth o u g h he
has dev elo p ed only one of th em as a fu n c tio n of a d a p ta tio n — we
shall im m ed iately co n je ctu re th a t w ith th e in tro v e rt ex tra v e r-
sión lies d o rm a n t a n d u n d ev e lo p ed som ew here in th e back -
g ro u n d , a n d th a t in tro v ersio n leads a sim ilar shadow y existence
in th e ex trav ert. A n d this is in d ee d th e case. T h e in tro v e rt does
possess an e x tra v erte d a ttitu d e , b u t it is unconscious, because his
conscious gaze is always tu rn e d to th e subject. H e sees th e object,
of course, b u t has false o r in h ib itin g ideas a b o u t it, so th a t he
keeps his distance as m u ch as possible, as th o u g h th e o b jec t w ere
so m eth in g fo rm id a b le a n d dangerous. I will m ak e m y m ea n in g
clear by a sim ple illu stra tio n :
L e t us suppose tw o youths ra m b lin g in th e co u n try. T h e y
com e to a fine castle; b o th w a n t to see inside it. T h e in tro v e rt
says, “ I ’d like to k now w h a t it’s like in sid e.” T h e e x tra v e rt a n -
swers, “ R ig h t, le t’s go in ,” a n d m akes for th e gateway. T h e in -
tro v e rt draw s back— “ P erh ap s we a r e n ’t allow ed in ,” says he,
w ith visions of policem en, fines, a n d fierce dogs in th e back-
g ro u n d . W h e re u p o n the e x tra v ert answers, “W ell, we can ask.
T h e y ’ll let us in all r ig h t”— w ith visions of k in d ly old w atch m en ,
h o sp itab le seigneurs, a n d th e possibility of ro m a n tic adventures.
O n th e stren g th of ex tra v erte d o p tim ism they at le n g th find
them selves in th e castle. B u t no w com es th e d é n o u e m e n t. T h e
castle has b ee n r e b u ilt inside, a n d co n tain s n o th in g b u t a couple
of room s w ith a collection of old m anuscripts. As it hap p en s, old
m an u scrip ts are th e chief joy of th e in tro v e rte d y outh. H a rd ly
has he cau g h t sight of th e m th a n he becom es as o n e tran s-
form ed. H e loses him self in c o n te m p la tio n of th e treasures, u t -
te rin g cries of enthusiasm . H e engages the ca reta k er in conversa-
tio n so as to ex tra ct fro m h im as m u ch in fo rm a tio n as possible,
a n d w h en th e re su lt is d isa p p o in tin g he asks to see th e c u ra to r
in o rd e r to p ro p o u n d his q u estions to him . H is shyness has v an -
ished, objects have tak en o n a seductive g lam o u r, a n d th e w o rld
wears a new face. B u t m ea n w h ile th e spirits of th e e x tra v erte d

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y o u th are e b b in g low er a n d lower. H is face grows lo ng er a n d he

begins to yawn. N o k in d ly w a tc h m en are fo rth c o m in g here, n o
k n ig h tly hospitality, n o t a trace of ro m a n tic ad v e n tu re — only a
castle m ad e over in to a m useum . T h e r e are m an uscripts e n o u g h
to be seen at hom e. W h ile th e en thu siasm of the o ne rises, the
spirits of the o th e r fall, the castle bores him , th e m anu scrip ts
re m in d h im of a library, lib rary is associated w ith university,
un iversity w ith studies a n d m en acin g exam ination s. G ra d u ally a
veil of gloom descends over th e once so in tere stin g a n d en ticin g
castle. T h e o bject becom es negative. “ Isn 't it m arvellous," cries
th e in tro v ert, “ to have s tu m b le d on this w o n d e rfu l collection?"
“T h e place bores m e to e x tin c tio n ," replies the o th e r w ith u n -
disguised ill h u m o u r. T h is annoys the in tro v ert, w ho secretly
vows never again to go ra m b lin g w ith an ex travert. T h e la tte r is
ann o y ed w ith the o th er's annoyance, a n d he th in k s to him self
th a t he always knew th e fellow was an incon siderate egotist who
w ould, in his ow n selfish interest, waste all the lovely sprin g day
th a t co uld be enjoyed so m u ch b e tte r o u t of doors.
82 W h a t has happened? B oth w ere w a n d e rin g to g eth er in
h ap p y symbiosis u n til they discovered the fatal castle. T h e n the
fo reth in k in g , or P ro m e th e a n , in tro v e rt said it m ig h t be seen
fro m the inside, a n d the after-thinking, o r E p im eth ea n , ex tra-
v ert o p en e d the d o o r.10 A t this p o in t the types in vert themselves:
the in tro v ert, w ho at first resisted th e idea of going in, ca n n o t
no w be in d u ce d to go out, a n d the ex tra v ert curses the m o m e n t
w h e n he set foot inside th e castle. T h e fo rm e r is now fascinated
by the object, th e la tte r by his n egative thoughts. W h e n th e in -
tro v ert spo tted th e m an uscrip ts, it was all u p w ith him . H is shy-
ness vanished, the o bject took possession of him , an d he yielded
him self w illingly. T h e extravert, however, felt a grow ing resist-
ance to the o bject a n d was ev entu ally m ad e the p riso n er of his
ow n ill-h u m o u red subjectivity. T h e in tro v e rt becam e e x tra -
verted, the e x tra v ert in tro v erte d . B ut the extraversión of th e in -
tro v ert is different from the extraversió n of the extravert, an d
vice versa. So long as b o th w ere w a n d e rin g alon g in joyous h a r-
m ony, n e ith e r fell foul of th e oth er, because each was in his
n a tu ra l character. Each was positive to th e o ther, because th eir
a ttitu d es w ere com plem entary . T h e y w ere co m plem entary , how-
10 Cf. m y discussion of Carl S pitteler’s Prometheus und Epimetheus in Psycho-
logical Types (1923 edn., pp. 207ff.).

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

ever, only because th e a ttitu d e of th e on e in c lu d e d th e o th er.

W e can see this from th e sh o rt co nversation at the gateway. B oth
w a n te d to e n te r th e castle. T h e d o u b t of th e in tro v e rt as to
w h e th e r an en try w ere possible also h eld good for th e o th er. T h e
in itia tiv e of th e ex tra v ert likewise h eld good for th e o th er. T h u s
th e a ttitu d e of th e one includes th e o th er, a n d this is always in
som e degree tru e if a person h ap p en s to be in th e a ttitu d e n a tu -
ra l to him , for this a ttitu d e has som e degree of collective a d a p ta -
tion. T h e same is tru e of th e in tro v ert's a ttitu d e , a lth o u g h this
always starts from th e subject. I t sim ply goes from su b ject to
object, w hile th e e x tra v e rt’s a ttitu d e goes from ob ject to subject.
83 B u t th e m o m e n t w hen, in the case of th e in tro v ert, th e o b -
je c t overpow ers a n d attracts th e subject, his a ttitu d e loses its so-
cial ch aracter. H e forgets th e presence of his frien d , he n o lo n g er
includes h im , he becom es ab so rb ed in to th e o b ject a n d does n o t
see how very b o re d his frie n d is. In th e sam e way th e ex tra v e rt
loses all co n sid eratio n for th e o th e r as soon as his expectations
are d is ap p o in ted a n d he w ithdraw s in to su b jectiv ity a n d m o o d i-
ness.
84 W e can th erefo re fo rm u la te the o ccu rren ce as follows: in th e
in tro v e rt th e influence of th e o b ject produces an in fe rio r e x tra -
version, w hile in th e ex tra v ert an in fe rio r in tro v ersio n takes th e
place of his social attitu d e . A n d so we com e back to th e p ro p o si-
tio n fro m w hich we started : “T h e v alue of th e one is th e n eg a-
tio n of value for th e o th er."
85 Positive as well as negative occurrences can co nstellate th e
in fe rio r c o u n te r-fu n c tio n . W h e n this happens, sensitiveness a p -
pears. Sensitiveness is a su re sign of th e presence of in ferio rity .
T h is provides th e psychological basis for discord a n d m is u n d e r-
stan d in g , n o t only as b etw een two people, b u t also in ourselves.
T h e essence of th e in fe rio r fu n c tio n 11 is au to n o m y : it is in d e -
p e n d e n t, it attacks, it fascinates a n d so spins us a b o u t th a t we are
n o lo n g er m asters of ourselves a n d can n o lo n g er rig h tly d is tin -
guish betw een ourselves a n d others.
86 A n d yet it is necessary for th e d ev e lo p m e n t of ch a rac ter th a t
we sh o u ld allow th e o th e r side, th e in fe rio r fu n c tio n , to find
expression. W e c a n n o t in th e lo n g ru n allow o n e p a rt of o u r
perso nality to be cared for sym biotically by a n o th e r; fo r the m o -
m e n t w h en we m ig h t have n ee d of th e o th e r fu n c tio n m ay com e
11 Psychological Types, Def. 30.

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at any tim e a n d find us u n p re p a re d , as th e above ex am p le shows.

A n d the consequences m ay be bad: th e ex tra v e rt loses his in d is-
pen sab le re la tio n to th e object, a n d th e in tro v e rt loses his to th e
subject. Conversely, it is eq u ally in d isp en sab le for th e in tro v e rt
to arriv e at som e form of actio n n o t co n stantly b ed ev illed by
d o u b ts a n d hesitations, a n d for th e ex tra v e rt to reflect u p o n
him self, yet w ith o u t e n d a n g e rin g his relationships.
87 In ex trav ersió n a n d in tro v ersio n it is clearly a m a tte r of two
an tith etica l, n a tu ra l attitu d e s o r trends, w hich G o eth e once re -
ferred to as diastole a n d systole. T h e y o u g h t, in th e ir h a rm o n i-
ous a lte rn a tio n , to give life a rh y th m , b u t it seems to re q u ir e a
high degree of a rt to achieve such a rh y th m . E ith e r one m u st do
it q u ite unconsciously, so th a t th e n a tu ra l law is n o t d is tu rb e d
by any conscious act, o r o n e m u st be conscious in a m u c h h ig h er
sense, to be cap ab le of w illin g a n d carry in g o u t th e an tith e tic a l
m ovem ents. Since we c a n n o t develop backw ards in to an im al u n -
consciousness, th ere rem ain s only th e m o re stren u o u s way for-
w ards in to h ig h er consciousness. C erta in ly th a t consciousness,
w hich w o u ld en a b le us to live th e g reat Yea a n d N ay of o u r ow n
free will a n d purpose, is an alto g eth e r s u p e rh u m a n ideal. Still, it
is a goal. P erh ap s o u r p re sen t m e n ta lity on ly allows us co n -
sciously to will th e Yea a n d to b e a r w ith th e Nay. W h e n th a t is
th e case, m u ch is already achieved.
88 T h e p ro b le m of opposites, as an in h e re n t p rin c ip le of h u -
m an n a tu re , form s a fu r th e r stage in o u r process of realization.
As a ru le it is o n e of th e p ro b lem s of m a tu rity . T h e p ractical
tre a tm e n t of a p a tie n t w ill h ard ly ever b eg in w ith this p ro b lem ,
especially n o t in th e case of y o u n g people. T h e neuroses of th e
y o u n g generally com e fro m a collision b etw een th e forces of re -
ality a n d an in ad e q u ate, in fa n tile a ttitu d e , w h ich fro m th e
causal p o in t of view is characterized by an a b n o rm a l d ep e n d en ce
o n the real o r im ag in ary parents, a n d from th e teleological p o in t
of view by u n re alizab le fictions, plans, a n d aspirations. H e re th e
red u ctiv e m eth o ds of F re u d a n d A d ler are en tire ly in place. B u t
th e re are m any neuroses w hich e ith e r a p p e a r only at m a tu rity o r
else d e te rio ra te to such a degree th a t th e p atien ts becom e inca-
p ab le of w ork. N a tu ra lly one can p o in t o u t in these cases th a t an
u n u su a l d ep en d en ce o n th e p aren ts existed even in you th , a n d
th a t all kinds of in fa n tile illusions w ere p resen t; b u t all th a t d id
n o t p re v e n t th em fro m ta k in g u p a profession, fro m p ractisin g it

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

successfully, from k ee p in g u p a m arriag e of sorts u n til th a t m o -

m e n t in rip e r years w h en th e previous a ttitu d e su d d en ly failed.
I n such cases it is of little h elp to m ak e th e m conscious of th e ir
ch ild h o o d fantasies, d ep e n d en ce on th e parents, etc., a lth o u g h
this is a necessary p a rt of th e p ro c ed u re a n d o ften has a n o t u n -
favo u rab le result. B u t th e real th erap y only begins w h en th e p a -
tie n t sees th a t it is n o lo n g er fa th e r a n d m o th e r w ho are stan d in g
in his way, b u t him self— i.e., an unconscious p a rt of his p erso n al-
ity w hich carries o n th e ro le of fa th e r a n d m o th er. Even this
realization, h elp fu l as it is, is still negative; it sim ply says, “ I
realize th a t it is n o t fa th e r a n d m o th e r w ho are against m e, b u t I
m yself.” B u t w h o is it/in h im th a t is against him ? W h a t is this
m ysterious p a rt of his p erso n ality th a t hides u n d e r th e father-
a n d m other-im agos, m ak in g h im believe for years th a t th e cause
of his tro u b le m u st som ehow have got in to h im fro m outside?
T h is p a rt is th e c o u n te rp a rt of his conscious a ttitu d e , a n d it will
leave h im n o peace a n d will c o n tin u e to p lague h im u n til it has
b een accepted. F o r y ou n g p eo p le a lib e ra tio n fro m th e past m ay
be en o u g h : a b eck o n in g fu tu re lies ahead, ric h in possibilities. I t
is sufficient to b reak a few bonds; th e life-urge will d o th e rest.
B u t we are faced w ith a n o th e r task in th e case of p eo p le w ho
have left a large p a rt of th e ir life b e h in d th em , for w ho m th e
fu tu re n o lo n ger beckons w ith m arvellous possibilities, a n d
n o th in g is to be ex p ected b u t th e endless ro u n d of fa m iliar d u -
ties a n d th e d o u b tfu l pleasures of old age.
89 If ever we succeed in lib e ra tin g y o u n g p eo p le from th e past,
we see th a t they always tran sfer th e imagos of th e ir p aren ts to
m o re su itab le su b stitu te figures. F o r instance, th e feeling th a t
clu n g to th e m o th e r no w passes to th e wife, a n d the fath er's a u -
th o rity passes to respected teachers a n d su p erio rs or to in s titu -
tions. A lth o u g h this is n o t a fu n d a m e n ta l so lu tio n , it is yet a
practical ro a d w h ich th e n o rm a l m a n treads unconsciously a n d
th erefo re w ith n o n o ta b le in h ib itio n s a n d resistances.
9° T h e p ro b lem for th e a d u lt is very different. H e has p u t this
p a r t of th e ro a d b e h in d h im w ith o r w ith o u t difficulty. H e has
c u t loose from his parents, lo n g since d ead p erhaps, a n d has
so u g h t a n d fo u n d th e m o th e r in th e wife, or, in th e case of a
w om an, th e fa th e r in th e h u sb an d . H e has d u ly h o n o u re d his
fathers a n d th e ir in stitu tio n s, has him self becom e a father, and,
w ith all this in th e past, has possibly com e to realize th a t w haf

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orig in ally m e a n t ad v an cem en t a n d satisfaction has now becom e

a b o rin g m istake, p a rt of th e illu sio n of yo u th , u p o n w h ich he
looks back w ith m in g le d re g re t a n d envy, because n o th in g now
aw aits h im b u t old age a n d th e e n d of all illusions. H e re th ere
are n o m o re fathers a n d m oth ers; all the illusions he pro jected
u p o n th e w o rld a n d u p o n things g rad ually com e h o m e to him ,
ja d e d a n d way-worn. T h e energy strea m in g back from these
m an ifo ld re la tio n sh ip s falls in to th e unconscious a n d activates
all th e things he h a d neglected to develop.
91 In a y o u n g m an, th e in stin c tu a l forces tied u p in the neurosis
give him , w h en released, buoyancy a n d h o p e a n d the chance to
e x te n d th e scope of his life. T o th e m an in th e second h alf of life
th e d ev e lo p m e n t of th e fu n c tio n of opposites lying d o rm a n t in
th e unconscious m eans a renew al; b u t this d ev e lo p m e n t no
lo n g er proceeds via th e disso lu tio n of in fa n tile ties, the d estru c-
tio n of in fa n tile illusions a n d th e tran sferen ce of old im agos to
new figures: it proceeds via th e p ro b lem of opposites.
92 T h e p rin c ip le of o p p o sitio n is, of course, fu n d a m e n tal even
in adolescence, a n d a psychological th eo ry of th e adolescent
psyche is b o u n d to recognize this fact. H e n ce th e F re u d ia n an d
A d le ria n view points c o n tra d ic t each o th e r only w hen they claim
to be generally ap p licab le theories. B u t so long as they are co n -
te n t to be technical, au x iliary concepts, they do n o t co n tra d ict
o r exclude one an o th e r. A psychological theory, if it is to be
m o re th a n a technical m akeshift, m ust base itself on the p rin -
ciple of o p p o sitio n ; for w ith o u t this it co u ld only re-establish a
n eu ro tic ally u n b a la n c e d psyche. T h e r e is n o balance, n o system
of self-regulation, w ith o u t op p o sitio n. T h e psyche is ju st such a
self-regulating system.
2

93 If at this p o in t we take u p th e th re a d we let fall earlier, we

shall now see clearly why it is th a t the values w hich the in d iv id -
u al lacks are to be fo u n d in th e neurosis itself. A t this p o in t, too,
we can r e tu r n to the case of the y o u n g w o m an a n d apply the
in sig h t we have gained. L e t us suppose th a t this p a tie n t is “a n a -
lysed,” i.e., she has, th ro u g h th e tre a tm e n t, com e to u n d e rs ta n d
th e n a tu re of the unconscious th o u g h ts lu rk in g b e h in d h er
sym ptom s, a n d has th u s reg ain ed possession of the unconscious
energy w hich c o n stitu ted th e stren g th of those sym ptoms. T h e

2705
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

q u estio n th e n arises: w h a t to do w ith the so-called disposable

energy? In accordance w ith th e psychological type of th e p a-
tien t, it w o u ld b e r a tio n a l to tran sfer this energy to an o b ject— to
p h ila n th ro p ic w ork, for exam ple, o r some useful activity. W ith
ex ceptio n ally energetic n a tu re s th a t are n o t afraid of w earin g
them selves to th e bo n e, if n e e d be, o r w ith p eo p le w ho d elig h t
in th e toil a n d m oil of such activities, this way is possible, b u t
m ostly it is im possible. F o r— do n o t forget— th e libido, as this
psychic energy is technically called, already possesses its o b ject
unconsciously, in th e form of th e y o u n g Ita lia n o r som e eq u ally
real h u m a n su b stitu te. In these circum stances a s u b lim a tio n is as
im possible as it is desirable, because th e real o b ject g enerally
offers th e energy a m u c h b e tte r g ra d ie n t th a n do th e m ost ad -
m ira b le ethical activities. U n fo rtu n a te ly far too m any of us talk
a b o u t a m a n only as it w o u ld b e desirable for h im to be, n ev er
a b o u t th e m a n as he really is. B u t th e d o cto r has always to do
w ith th e real m an , w ho rem ain s ob stin ately him self u n til all
sides of his reality are recognized. T r u e ed u c atio n can only start
from n ak e d reality, n o t fro m a delusive ideal.
94 I t is u n h a p p ily th e case th a t n o m an can d irec t th e so-called
disposable energy at will. I t follows its ow n g rad ien t. In d e ed , it
h ad already fo u n d th a t g ra d ie n t even before we set th e energy
free from th e unserviceable form to w hich it was linked. F o r we
discover th a t th e p a tie n t’s fantasies, previously occupied w ith
th e y o u n g Italian , have n ow tran sferred them selves to th e doc-
to r.12 T h e d o cto r has him self becom e the ob ject of th e u n c o n -
scious libido. If th e p a tie n t alto g eth e r refuses to recognize th e
fact of th e tran sferen ce,13 o r if th e d o cto r fails to u n d e rs ta n d it,

12 Freu d in trod uced the concept of transference as a designation for the projec-
tion of unconscious contents.
13 C ontrary to certain views I am n o t of the o pinion th a t the “ transference to
th e d octo r” is a re g u la r p h e nom en on indispensable to the success of the tre a t-
m ent. T ransference is projection, a n d projection is e ith e r there o r not there. B u t
it is n ot necessary. In no sense can it be “m ade,” for by definition it springs from
unconscious m otivations. T h e doctor m ay be a suitable object for the projection,
or he m ay not. T h e re is absolutely no saying th a t he will in all circum stances
correspond to the n a tu ra l gra d ie n t of the p a tie n t’s libido; for it is q u ite on the
cards th a t the libido is envisaging a m uch m ore im p o rta n t object for its projec-
tions. T h e absence of projections to th e doctor may in fact considerably facilitate
the treatm ent, because the real personal values can then come m ore clearly to
the forefront.

2706
 T H E PR O B L E M O F T H E A TT ITU D E-T Y PE

o r in te rp re ts it falsely, vigorous resistances supervene, d irec ted

tow ards m ak in g th e re la tio n w ith th e d o cto r co m p letely im pos-
sible. T h e n the p a tie n t goes away a n d looks fo r a n o th e r doctor,
o r fo r som eone w ho u n d ersta n d s; or, if he gives u p th e search,
h e gets stuck in his p ro b lem .
95 If, how ever, th e tran sferen ce to th e d o cto r takes place, a n d is
accepted, a n a tu ra l fo rm is fo u n d w hich su p p lan ts th e ea rlier
on e a n d a t th e sam e tim e provides th e energy w ith an o u tle t
relatively free fro m conflict. H e n ce if th e lib id o is allow ed to
r u n its n a tu ra l course, it will find its ow n way to the d estin ed
object. W h e re this does n o t h a p p e n , it is always a q u estio n of
w ilfu l defiance of th e laws of n a tu re , o r of som e d is tu rb in g influ-
ence.
96 I n th e tran sferen ce all k in d s of in fa n tile fantasies are p ro -
jected. T h e y m u st be cauterized, i.e., resolved by re d u ctiv e a n a l-
ysis, a n d this is gen erally k n o w n as “resolving th e tra n s fe re n c e /'
T h e r e b y th e energy is again released fro m a n unserviceable
form , a n d again we are faced w ith th e p ro b le m of its disposabil-
ity. O n c e m o re we shall p u t o u r tru st in n a tu re , h o p in g th at,
even befo re it is sought, an o b jec t will have b een chosen w hich
w ill p ro v id e a fav o u rab le g ra d ie n t.

2707
 V
THE PERSONAL AND THE COLLECTIVE
(OR TRANSPERSONAL) UNCONSCIOUS

97 A t this p o in t a new stage in o u r process of realizatio n begins.

W e ca rried the analysis of in fan tile tran sferen ce fantasies to th e
p o in t w h ere it becam e sufficiently clear, even to th e p a tie n t, th a t
h e was m ak in g th e d o cto r his fath er, m o th er, uncle, g u ard ia n ,
a n d teacher, a n d all th e rest of th e p a re n ta l au th o rities. B ut, as
ex p erien ce has rep eated ly show n, still o th e r fantasies a p p e a r
w hich re p rese n t th e d o cto r as a saviou r o r g odlike b ein g — n a tu -
rally in co m p lete co n tra d ic tio n to h ea lth y conscious reasoning.
M o reo v er it tran sp ires th a t these godlike a ttrib u te s go far b e-
yond th e fram ew o rk of C h ristia n ity in w h ich we have grow n u p ;
they take on a pagan g la m o u r a n d in d ee d very o ften ap p e a r in
an im al form .
98 T h e transference is in itself n o m o re th a n a p ro jec tio n of
unconscious contents. A t first th e so-called superficial co n ten ts
of the unconscious are pro jected , as can b e seen from sym ptom s,
dream s, a n d fantasies. I n this state th e d o cto r is in te re stin g as a
possible lover (ra th e r like th e y o u n g Ita lia n in th e case we were
discussing). T h e n he ap p ears m o re in th e ro le of th e fath er:
e ith e r th e good, k in d fa th e r o r the “ th u n d e re r,” d e p e n d in g on
th e q u alities w h ich th e real fa th e r h ad for th e p a tie n t. Som e-
tim es th e d o cto r has a m a te rn a l significance, a fact th a t seems
som ew hat p ecu liar, b u t is still w ith in th e b o u n d s of possibility.
A ll these fantasy p ro jectio n s are fo u n d e d o n p erso n al m em ories.
99 F in ally th e re ap p e ar form s of fantasy th a t possess an ex trav a-
g an t character. T h e d o cto r is th en en d o w ed w ith u n ca n n y pow -
ers: he is a m agician o r a w icked d em o n , o r else th e co rresp o n d -
in g personification of goodness, a saviour. A gain, he m ay ap p e ar
as a m ix tu re of b o th . O f course it is to be u n d e rsto o d th a t he
n e e d n o t necessarily a p p e a r like this to th e p a tie n t’s conscious

2708
 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E C O LLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

m in d ; it is on ly th e fantasies co m in g to th e surface w hich p ic tu re

h im in this guise. Such p atien ts o ften c a n n o t get it in to th e ir
heads th a t th e ir fantasies really com e fro m them selves a n d have
little o r n o th in g to do w ith th e c h a rac ter of the doctor. T h is
d elu sio n rests o n th e fact th a t th e re are n o personal g ro u n d s in
th e m em o ry for this k in d of p ro jec tio n . I t can som etim es be
show n th a t sim ilar fantasies h ad, a t a ce rta in p e rio d in ch ild -
hood, a ttac h ed them selves to th e fa th e r o r m o th er, a lth o u g h
n e ith e r fa th e r n o r m o th e r p ro v id ed any real occasion for them .
i°o F re u d has show n in a little essay1 how L e o n a rd o da V inci
was in fluenced in his la te r life by th e fact th a t he h ad two
m o th ers. T h e fact of th e two m o th ers, o r of a d o u b le descent,
was real e n o u g h in L eo n a rd o 's case, b u t it plays a ro le in th e
lives of o th e r artists as well. B en v en u to C ellin i h ad this fantasy
of a d o u b le descent. G en erally sp eak in g it is a m ythological m o -
tif. M any heroes in legend have tw o m others. T h e fantasy does
n o t arise fro m th e actu al fact th a t th e heroes have two m o thers;
it is a w id esp read “ p rim o rd ia l” im age b elo n g in g n o t to th e d o -
m a in of p ersonal m em o ry b u t to the secrets of the m en tal history
of m a n k in d .
101 T h e r e are p re sen t in every in d iv id u a l, besides his personal
m em ories, the g re at “p rim o rd ia l” images, as Jac o b B u rc k h a rd t
once ap tly called them , th e in h e rite d possibilities of h u m a n im -
a g in a tio n as it was fro m tim e im m e m o rial. T h e fact of this in -
h e rita n c e explains th e tru ly am azin g p h e n o m e n o n th a t certain
m otifs from m yths a n d legends re p e a t them selves th e w o rld over
in id en tical form s. I t also ex p lain s w hy it is th a t o u r m en tal pa-
tien ts can re p ro d u c e exactly th e sam e im ages a n d associations
th a t are k n o w n to us fro m th e o ld texts. I give some exam ples of
this in m y b o o k S ym b o ls of T r a n s fo r m a tio n .2 In so d o in g I do
n o t by any m eans assert th e in h e rita n c e of ideas, b u t only of th e
possibility of such ideas, w hich is so m eth in g very different.
1Q2 I n this fu r th e r stage of tre a tm e n t, th en , w h en fantasies are
p ro d u c e d w h ich n o lo n g er rest o n p ersonal m em ories, we have
to d o w ith th e m an ifestatio n s of a d ee p er layer of th e u n c o n -
scious w h ere th e p rim o rd ia l im ages co m m o n to h u m a n ity lie
sleeping. I have called these im ages or m otifs “ archetypes,” also
1 “L eonardo da Vinci a nd a M emory of His C h ild h o o d ” (orig. 1910).
2 Cf. also “T h e Concept of the Collective Unconscious.”

2709
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

“d o m in a n ts ” of th e unconscious. F o r a fu r th e r elu cid atio n of

th e idea I m u st re fe r th e re a d e r to th e re le v an t lite ra tu re .3
103 T h is discovery m eans a n o th e r step fo rw ard in o u r u n d e r-
stan d in g : th e re co g n itio n , th a t is, of tw o layers in the u n co n -
scious. W e have to d istin g u ish b etw een a p ersonal unconscious
a n d an im p erson a l o r transpersonal unconscious. W e speak of
th e la tte r also as th e collective unconscious/ because it is d e-
tach ed from a n y th in g p ersonal a n d is co m m o n to all m en, since
its co n ten ts can be fo u n d everyw here, w hich is n atu ra lly n o t
th e case w ith th e p ersonal contents. T h e p ersonal unconscious
co n tain s lost m em ories, p ain fu l ideas th a t are repressed (i.e.,
fo rg o tten o n purp o se), su b lim in a l perceptions, by w hich are
m e a n t sense-perceptions th a t w ere n o t stro n g en o u g h to reach
consciousness, a n d finally, co n ten ts th a t are n o t yet rip e for con-
sciousness. I t co rresp o n d s to th e figure of th e shadow so fre-
q u e n tly m e t w ith in d ream s.5
104 T h e p rim o rd ia l im ages are th e m ost a n c ien t a n d the m ost
u n iv ersal “ th o u g h t-fo rm s” of h u m an ity . T h e y are as m u ch feel-
ings as tho u g h ts; in d eed , they lead th e ir ow n in d e p e n d e n t life
r a th e r in th e m a n n e r of part-souls,6 as can easily be seen in those
p h ilo so p h ical o r G nostic systems w hich rely on p ercep tio n of the
unconscious as th e source of know ledge. T h e idea of angels,
archangels, “ p rin cip a lities a n d pow ers” in St. P aul, th e archons
o f th e Gnostics, th e heavenly h ierarch y of D ionysius th e Areo-
pagite, all com e fro m th e p erc e p tio n of th e relativ e a u to n o m y of
th e archetypes.
105 W e have n o w fo u n d th e o b ject w hich the lib id o chooses
w h en it is freed fro m th e personal, in fan tile form of tran sfer-
ence. I t follows its ow n g ra d ie n t d ow n in to th e d ep th s of th e
unconscious, a n d th e re activates w h a t has lain slu m b e rin g fro m
S Symbols of Transformation; Psychological Types , Def. 26; T he Archetypes and
the Collective Unconscious; C om m entary on The Secret of the Golden Flower.
4 T h e collective unconscious stands for th e objective psyche, the personal u n c o n -
scious for the subjective psyche.
5 By shadow I m ean th e “negative” side of the personality, the sum of all those
un p leasan t qualities we like to hide, together w ith th e insufficiently developed
functions a n d the contents of the personal unconscious. A com prehensive account
is to be fo u n d in T . Wolff, “E in fü h ru n g in die G rundlagen d e r kom plexen
Psychologie,” p p. io7ff.
6 Cf. “A Review of th e Com plex T h eo ry .”

2710
 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E C O LLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

th e b e g in n in g . I t has discovered the h id d e n trea su re u p o n w hich

m a n k in d ever a n d an o n has d raw n , a n d from w hich it has
raised u p its gods a n d dem ons, a n d all those p o te n t a n d m ighty
th o u g h ts w ith o u t w h ich m a n ceases to b e m an .
106 L e t us take as an ex am p le one of th e g reatest th o u g h ts w hich
th e n in e te e n th ce n tu ry b ro u g h t to b irth : th e idea of th e conser-
v atio n of energy. R o b e rt M ayer, th e real c re a to r of this idea, was
a physician, a n d n o t a physicist o r n a tu ra l p h ilo so p h er, for
w h o m th e m ak in g of such a n idea w o u ld have b een m o re a p p ro -
p riate. B u t it is very im p o rta n t to realize th a t th e idea was not,
strictly speaking, “m a d e ” by M ayer. N o r d id it com e in to b ein g
th ro u g h th e fusion of ideas o r scientific hypotheses th en ex ta n t,
b u t grew in its creato r like a p lan t. M ayer w ro te a b o u t it in the
follow ing way to G riesin g er, in 1844:
I am far from having hatched out the theory at my w riting desk.
[He then reports certain physiological observations he had made in
1840 and 1841 as ship’s doctor.] Now, if one wants to be clear on
matters of physiology, some knowledge of physical processes is essen-
tial, unless one prefers to work at things from the metaphysical side,
which I find infinitely disgusting. I therefore held fast to physics
and stuck to the subject with such fondness that, although many
may laugh at me for this, I paid b u t little attention to that remote
quarter of the globe in which we were, preferring to remain on board
where I could work w ithout intermission, and where I passed many
an ho u r as though inspired, the like of which I cannot remember
either before or since. Some flashes of thought that passed through
me while in the roads of Surabaya were at once assiduously followed
up, and in their tu rn led to fresh subjects. Those times have passed,
b u t the quiet exam ination of that which then came to the surface
in me has taught me that it is a truth, which can not only be subjec-
tively felt, b u t objectively proved. It remains to be seen whether this
can be accomplished by a man so little versed in physics as I am.7
107 I n his b o o k o n energetics,8 H e lm expresses th e view th a t
“ R o b e rt M ayer's new idea d id n o t d etach itself g rad u ally fro m
th e tra d itio n a l concepts of energy by d ee p e r reflection on them ,
b u t belongs to those in tu itiv ely a p p re h e n d e d ideas w hich, aris-

7 Mayer, Kleinere Schriften und Briefe, p. 213 (letter to W ilhelm Griesinger,

J u n e 16, 1844).
® H elm , Die Energetik nach ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung, p. 20.

2711
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY OF T H E UNCONSCIOUS

ing in o th e r realm s of a sp iritu al n a tu re , as it w ere take posses-

sion of the m in d a n d com pel it to reshape th e trad itio n al co n -
ceptions in th e ir likeness."
i°8 T h e q u estio n now arises: W h e n ce cam e this new idea th at
th ru st itself u p o n consciousness w ith such elem en tal force? A n d
w hence d id it deriv e th e pow er th a t cou ld so seize u p o n con-
sciousness th a t it com pletely eclipsed the m u ltitu d in o u s im pres-
sions of a first voyage to th e tropics? T h e se questions are n o t so
easy to answer. B u t if we apply o u r th eory here, the ex p la n atio n
can only be this: the idea of energy a n d its conservation m u st be
a p rim o rd ia l im age th a t was d o rm a n t in the collective u n c o n -
scious. Such a conclusion n a tu ra lly obliges us to prove th a t a
p rim o rd ia l im age of this k in d really d id exist in th e m en tal his-
tory of m a n k in d a n d was operative th ro u g h the ages. As a m a tte r
of fact, this pro o f can be p ro d u c e d w ith o u t m u ch difficulty: the
m ost p rim itiv e religions in the m ost w idely separated parts of
th e ea rth are fo u n d e d u p o n this image. T h e s e are the so-called
dynam istic religions whose sole an d d e te rm in in g th o u g h t is th at
th ere exists a universal m agical po w er9 a b o u t w hich everything
revolves. T y lo r, th e w ell-know n English investigator, a n d F razer
likewise, m isu n d ersto o d this idea as anim ism . In re ality p rim i-
tives do n o t m ean, by th e ir power-concept, souls or spirits at all,
b u t so m eth in g w hich th e A m erican investigator Lovejoy has a p -
p ro p ria te ly te rm e d “ p rim itiv e energetics." 10 T h is co ncept is
e q u iv a le n t to th e idea of soul, spirit, G od, h ealth, bodily
streng th , fertility, magic, influence, power, prestige, m edicine,
as well as ce rta in states of feeling w hich are characterized by th e
release of affects. A m o n g ce rtain Polynesians m u lu n g u — this
sam e p rim itiv e pow er-concept— m eans spirit, soul, daem onism ,
magic, prestige; a n d w h e n an y th in g astonishing happens, th e
people cry o u t “ M u lu n g u !" T h is pow er-concept is also th e ea rli-
est form of a co ncep t of G od am on g prim itives, a n d is an im age
w hich has u n d e rg o n e countless v ariations in the course of his-
tory. I n the O ld T e s ta m e n t the m agic p ow er glows in th e b u r n -
ing b ush a n d in th e c o u n te n an ce of Moses; in the Gospels it
descends w ith th e H o ly G host in the form of fiery tongues from
heaven. I n H e ra c litu s it appears as w o rld energy, as “ ever-living
0 Generally called mana. Cf. S6derblom, Das W erden des Gottesglaubens (trans.
from the Swedish Gudstrons uppkom st).
10 Lovejoy, “T h e F u n d a m en ta l Concept of th e Prim itive Philosophy,” p. 361.

2712
 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

fire” ; am o n g th e P ersians it is th e fiery glow of haom a, d iv in e

grace; am o n g th e Stoics it is the o rig in al heat, th e pow er of fate.
A gain, in m edieval leg en d it appears as th e a u ra o r halo, a n d it
flares u p like a flame fro m th e ro o f of th e h u t in w h ich th e saint
lies in ecstasy. I n th e ir visions th e saints b e h o ld th e su n of this
pow er, th e p le n itu d e of its light. A cco rd in g to th e o ld view, th e
soul itself is this pow er; in th e idea of th e so u l’s im m o rtality
th ere is im p lic it its conservation, a n d in th e B u d d h ist a n d p rim -
itive n o tio n of m etem psychosis— tra n sm ig ra tio n of souls— is im -
p licit its u n lim ite d ch an g eab ility to g eth er w ith its co n stan t d u -
ra tio n .
109 So this idea has b ee n stam p ed o n th e h u m a n b ra in fo r aeons.
T h a t is w hy it lies read y to h a n d in th e unconscious of every
m an. O nly, c e rta in co n d itio n s are n e e d e d to cause it to appear.
T h e s e co n d itio n s w ere ev id en tly fulfilled in th e case of R o b e rt
M ayer. T h e g reatest a n d best th o u g h ts of m an shape them selves
u p o n these p rim o rd ia l im ages as u p o n a b lu e p rin t. I have o ften
b een asked w h ere th e archetypes o r p rim o rd ia l images com e
from . I t seems to m e th a t th e ir o rig in can only be ex p la in e d by
assum ing th em to be deposits of th e co nstan tly re p e a te d ex p e ri-
ences of h u m an ity . O n e of th e co m m o n est a n d a t th e sam e tim e
m ost im pressive experiences is th e a p p a re n t m o v em en t of th e
sun every day. W e ce rtain ly c a n n o t discover a n y th in g of th e
k in d in th e unconscious, so far as th e k n o w n physical process is
concerned. W h a t we do find, o n th e o th e r h an d , is th e m y th of
th e sun-hero in all its countless v ariations. I t is this m yth, a n d
n o t th e physical process, th a t form s th e sun archetype. T h e
sam e can be said of th e phases of th e m o o n. T h e arch ety p e is a
k in d of readiness to p ro d u c e over a n d over again th e sam e or
sim ila r m y thical ideas. H e n ce it seems as th o u g h w h at is im -
pressed u p o n th e unconscious w ere exclusively th e subjective
fantasy-ideas aro used by th e physical process. W e m ay th erefo re
assum e th a t th e archetypes are re c u rr e n t im pressions m ad e by
su b jectiv e reactio n s.11 N a tu ra lly this assu m p tio n o n ly pushes the
p ro b le m fu r th e r back w ith o u t solving it. T h e r e is n o th in g to
p re v e n t us fro m assu m in g th a t c e rta in archetypes exist even in
anim als, th a t they are g ro u n d e d in th e p ecu liarities of th e liv-
in g organism itself a n d are th ere fo re d ire c t expressions of life
w hose n a tu re c a n n o t b e f u r th e r ex p lain ed . N o t only are th e
U Cf. “T h e S tructure of the Psyche," p p. 152ft.

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archetypes, ap p a ren tly , im pressions of ever-repeated typical ex-

periences, b u t, at th e sam e tim e, they b eh av e em p irically like
agents th a t te n d tow ards th e r e p e titio n of these sam e experiences.
F o r w hen an arch ety p e appears in a d ream , in a fantasy, o r in
life, it always b rin g s w ith it a certain influence o r pow er by v ir-
tu e of w hich it e ith e r exercises a n u m in o u s o r a fascinating effect,
o r im pels to action.
862 H a v in g show n, in this exam ple, how n ew ideas arise o u t of
th e treasure-house of p rim o rd ia l images, we w ill p ro ceed to th e
fu r th e r discussion of th e tran sferen ce process. W e saw th a t the
lib id o had, for its n ew object, seized u p o n those seem ingly a b -
s u rd a n d sin g u lar fantasies, the co n ten ts of th e collective u n c o n -
scious. As I have already said, the p ro jec tio n of p rim o rd ia l im -
ages u p o n th e d o cto r is a d an g e r n o t to be u n d e r ra te d a t this
stage of th e tre a tm e n t. T h e images c o n ta in n o t on ly all th e fine
a n d good things th a t h u m a n ity has ever th o u g h t a n d felt, b u t
th e w orst infam ies a n d devilries of w hich m e n have b ee n capa-
ble. O w in g to th e ir specific energy— fo r they b eh av e like highly
ch arg ed a u to n o m o u s centres of pow er— they ex e rt a fascinating
a n d possessive influence u p o n th e conscious m in d a n d can th u s
p ro d u c e extensive alteratio n s in th e subject. O n e can see this
in religious conversions, in cases of influence by suggestion, a n d
p a rtic u la rly a t th e o nset of certain form s of sch izo p h ren ia.12
N ow , if th e p a tie n t is u n a b le to d istin g u ish th e p erso n ality of
th e d o cto r from these p rojections, all h o p e of a n u n d e rs ta n d in g
is finally lost a n d a h u m a n re la tio n sh ip becom es im possible. B u t
if the p a tie n t avoids this C harybdis, he is w recked o n th e Scylla
of in tro je c tin g these im ages— in o th e r words, he ascribes th e ir
p ecu liarities n o t to th e d o cto r b u t to him self. T h is is ju s t as dis-
astrous. In p ro jectio n , he vacillates betw een an ex tra v a g a n t a n d
p ath o lo g ical deification of th e doctor, a n d a c o n te m p t b ris tlin g
w ith h atre d . In in tro je c tio n , he gets involved in a rid ic u lo u s self-
deification, o r else in a m o ral self-laceration. T h e m istak e he
m akes in b o th cases comes from a ttrib u tin g to a person th e co n -
tents of th e collective unconscious. I n this way h e m akes him self
o r his p a r tn e r e ith e r god o r devil. H e re we see the ch aracteristic
effect of th e arch ety p e: it seizes h o ld of th e psyche w ith a k in d of
12 One such case is analysed in detail in Symbols of T ransform ation. Cf. also
Nelken, "Analytische Beobachtungen iiber Phantasien eines Schizophrenen"
(1912), p. 504.

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 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

p rim ev al force a n d com pels it to transgress th e b o u n d s of h u -

m an ity . I t causes exaggeration, a puffed-up a ttitu d e (inflation),
loss of free will, delusio n , a n d en th u siasm in good a n d evil alike.
T h is is th e reason w hy m en have always n ee d ed dem ons a n d
c a n n o t live w ith o u t gods, except for a few p artic u la rly clever
specim ens of h o m o occidentalis w ho lived yesterday o r th e day
before, su p e rm e n fo r w h o m “ G o d is d e a d ” because they th e m -
selves have becom e gods— b u t tin-gods w ith th ick skulls a n d cold
hearts. T h e idea of G o d is a n ab solutely necessary psychological
fu n c tio n of an irra tio n a l n a tu re , w hich has n o th in g w h atev er to
d o w ith th e q u e stio n of G od's existence. T h e h u m a n in tellect
can n ev e r answ er this q u estio n , still less give any p ro o f of G od.
M o reo ver such p ro o f is superfluous, fo r th e id ea of an all-
p o w erfu l d iv in e B eing is p re sen t everyw here, unconsciously if
n o t consciously, because it is a n archetype. T h e r e is in th e
psyche som e s u p e rio r pow er, a n d if it is n o t consciously a god, it
is th e “ b elly ” at least, in St. P au l's words. I th ere fo re co n sid er it
w iser to acknow ledge th e idea of G o d consciously; for, if we d o
n o t, s o m eth in g else is m ad e G od, u sually so m eth in g q u ite in a p -
p ro p ria te a n d s tu p id such as only an “ e n lig h te n e d ” in tellect
c o u ld h atch forth . O u r in tellect has lo n g k n o w n th a t we can
fo rm n o p ro p e r idea of G od, m u c h less p ic tu re to ourselves in
w h a t m a n n e r he really exists, if at all. T h e existence of G o d is
once a n d fo r all an u n an sw e rab le q u estio n . T h e consensus g en -
tiu m has b ee n ta lk in g of gods fo r aeons a n d w ill still b e ta lk in g
of th e m aeons hence. N o m a tte r how b e a u tifu l a n d perfect m an
m ay believe his reason to be, h e can always b e ce rtain th a t it is
only o n e of th e possible m e n ta l fu n ctio n s, a n d covers only th at
o ne side of th e p h e n o m e n a l w o rld w hich corresponds to it. B u t
th e irra tio n a l, th a t w hich is n o t ag reeab le to reason, rings it
a b o u t on all sides. A n d th e irra tio n a l is likew ise a psychological
fu n c tio n — in a w ord, it is th e collective unconscious; w hereas th e
ra tio n a l is essentially tie d to th e conscious m in d . T h e conscious
m in d m u st have reason, firstly to discover some o rd e r in the
chaos of d iso rd erly in d iv id u a l events o cc u rrin g in th e w orld, a n d
secondly to create o rd er, at least in h u m a n affairs. W e are m oved
b y th e lau d a b le a n d useful a m b itio n to e x tirp a te th e chaos of
th e irra tio n a l b o th w ith in a n d w ith o u t to th e best of o u r ability.
A p p a re n tly th e process has gone p re tty far. As a m en tal p a tie n t
once to ld m e: “D octor, last n ig h t I d isinfected th e w hole heav-

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

ens w ith b ic h lo rid e of m ercury, b u t I fo u n d n o G o d ." Some-

th in g of the sort has h a p p e n e d to us as well.
862 O ld H e raclitu s, w h o was in d ee d a very g reat sage, discovered
th e m ost m arv ello u s of all psychological laws: th e re g u lativ e
fu n c tio n of opposites. H e called it en a n tio d ro m ia , a r u n n in g
contrariw ise, by w h ich he m e a n t th a t so o n er o r la te r ev ery th in g
ru n s in to its opposite. (H e re I w o u ld re m in d you of th e case
above of th e A m erican business m an , a b e a u tifu l ex am p le of e n -
an tio d ro m ia.) T h u s th e ra tio n a l a ttitu d e of c u ltu re necessarily
ru n s in to its opposite, n am ely the irra tio n a l d ev a sta tio n of cu l-
tu re .13 W e sh o u ld n ev er id en tify ourselves w ith reason, fo r m an
is n o t a n d n ev er will b e a cre a tu re of reason alone, a fact to be
n o te d by all p e d a n tic culture-m ongers. T h e irra tio n a l c a n n o t be
a n d m u st n o t be ex tirp a te d . T h e gods c a n n o t a n d m u st n o t die.
I said ju st n ow th a t th ere seems to be som ething, a k in d of supe-
r io r pow er, in th e h u m a n psyche, a n d th a t if this is n o t th e idea
of G od, th en it is th e “belly." I w a n te d to express th e fact th a t
one o r o th e r basic in stin ct, o r co m p lex of ideas, w ill in v ariab ly
co n c en tra te u p o n itself th e greatest sum of psychic energy a n d
th u s force th e ego in to its service. As a ru le the ego is d ra w n in to
this focus of energy so po w erfu lly th a t it identifies w ith it a n d
th in k s it desires a n d needs n o th in g fu rth e r. In this way a craze
develops, a m o n o m a n ia o r possession, an acute one-sidedness
w hich m ost seriously im perils th e psychic e q u ilib riu m . W ith o u t
d o u b t th e capacity for such one-sidedness is th e secret of success—
of a sort, for w hich reason o u r civilization assiduously strives to
foster it. T h e passion, th e p ilin g u p of energy in these m o n o m a -
nias, is w h a t the an cien ts called a “god," a n d in co m m o n speech
we still do th e same. D o we n o t say, “ H e m akes a god of this o r
th at"? A m a n th in k s th a t he wills a n d chooses, a n d does n o t n o -
tice th a t he is alread y possessed, th a t his in tere st has b ecom e th e
m aster, a rro g a tin g all pow er to itself. Such interests are in d ee d
gods of a k in d w hich, once recognized by th e m any, g ra d u ally
fo rm a “c h u rc h " a n d g ath e r a h e rd of believers a b o u t them .

13 T h is sentence was w ritten d u rin g the first W o rld W ar. I have let it stand in
its original form because it contains a tru th which has been confirm ed m ore
th an once in the course of history. (W ritten in 1925.) As present events show,
the confirm ation d id n o t have to w ait very long. W ho w ants this blin d d estruc-
tion? B u t we all he lp th e daem on to o u r last gasp. O sancta simplicitas! (W ritten
in 1942.)

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 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E C O LLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

T h is we th e n call an “o rg a n iz atio n .” I t is follow ed by a dis-

o rg an izin g re actio n w hich aim s to d riv e o u t th e devil w ith
B eelzebub. T h e e n a n tio d ro m ia th a t always th rea ten s w h e n a
m o v em en t attain s to u n d is p u te d p o w er offers n o so lu tio n of
th e p ro b lem , fo r it is ju st as b lin d in its diso rg an izatio n as
it was in its o rganization.
112 T h e only person w ho escapes th e g rim law of e n a n tio d ro m ia
is th e m an w ho knows how to separate him self fro m th e u n c o n -
scious, n o t by rep ressin g it— for th e n it sim ply attacks h im from
the re a r— b u t by p u ttin g it clearly b efo re h im as that w hich he is
n o t.
1 !3 T h is p rep ares th e way fo r th e so lu tio n of th e Scylla a n d
C harybdis p ro b le m d escrib ed above. T h e p a tie n t m u st learn
to d iffe ren tiate w h a t is ego a n d w h a t is non-ego, i.e., collective
psyche. In this way he finds th e m ateria l to w hich he w ill h en ce-
fo rth have to acco m m o d ate him self. H is energy, u n til n o w laid
u p in u n serv iceab le a n d p ath olog ical forms, has com e in to its
p ro p e r sphere. I t is essential, in d iffe re n tia tin g th e ego fro m th e
non-ego, th a t a m an sh o u ld be firm ly ro o te d in his ego-function;
th a t is, he m u st fulfil his d u ty to life, so as to b e in every respect
a v iable m e m b e r of th e co m m u n ity . A ll th a t he neglects in this
respect falls in to th e unconscious a n d reinforces its position, so
th a t he is in d an g e r of b e in g sw allow ed u p by it. B u t th e p e n a l-
ties for this are heavy. As Synesius o p in e d of old, it is ju s t the
“in sp ired so u l” ( mfevnanxii ypvxn ) th a t becom es god a n d d e -
m o n , a n d as such suffers th e d iv in e p u n is h m e n t of b e in g to rn
a su n d e r like Zagreus. T h is was w h a t N ietzsche ex p e rien c ed at
the onset of his m alady. E n a n tio d ro m ia m eans b ein g to rn asu n -
d e r in to pairs of opposites, w hich are th e a ttrib u te s of “ th e g o d ”
a n d hence also of th e godlike m an , w h o owes his godlikeness to
o v erco m in g his gods. As soon as we speak of th e collective u n -
conscious we find ourselves in a sphere, a n d c o n c ern e d w ith a
p ro b lem , w h ich is a lto g eth e r p re c lu d e d in th e practical analysis
of y o u n g p eo p le o r of those w ho have re m a in e d in fa n tile too
long. W h e re v e r th e fa th e r a n d m o th e r im agos have still to be
overcom e, w h erev er th e re is a little b it of life still to be co n -
q u e re d , w h ich is th e n a tu ra l possession of th e average m an, th en
we h a d b e tte r m ake n o m e n tio n of th e collective unconscious
a n d th e p ro b le m of opposites. B u t once th e p a re n ta l tran sfer-
ences a n d th e y o u th fu l illusions have b ee n m astered, o r are a t

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

least rip e for m astery, th e n we m u st speak of these things. W e

are h ere o u tsid e th e ran g e of F re u d ia n a n d A d le ria n red u ctio n s;
we are n o lo n g er co n c ern e d w ith how to rem o v e the obstacles to
a m an 's profession, o r to his m arriage, o r to a n y th in g th a t m eans
a w id en in g of his life, b u t are co n fro n ted w ith the task of find-
ing a m ea n in g th a t w ill en ab le h im to c o n tin u e living at all— a
m e a n in g m o re th a n b la n k resig n atio n a n d m o u rn fu l retrospect.
“ 4 O u r life is like the course o f th e sun. I n th e m o rn in g it gains
co n tin u ally in stre n g th u n til it reaches th e zen ith -h eat of h igh
noo n . T h e n comes th e e n a n tio d ro m ia : th e steady fo rw ard m ove-
m e n t n o lo n g er denotes an increase, b u t a decrease, in stren g th .
T h u s o u r task in h a n d lin g a yo u n g person is d ifferen t fro m th e
task of h a n d lin g an o ld er person. In th e fo rm e r case, it is en o u g h
to clear away all th e obstacles th a t h in d e r ex p an sio n a n d ascent;
in th e latter, we m u st n u r tu r e ev ery th in g th a t assists th e descent.
A n in ex p e rien ce d y o u th th in k s one can let th e o ld p eo p le go,
because n o t m u ch m o re can h a p p e n to th em anyway: they have
th e ir lives b e h in d th e m a n d are n o b e tte r th a n petrified pillars
of th e past. B u t it is a g reat m istake to suppose th a t th e m e a n in g
of life is ex h au sted w ith the p erio d of y o u th a n d ex p an sio n ;
th at, fo r exam ple, a w o m an w ho has passed th e m en o p au se is
“finished.” T h e afte rn o o n of life is ju s t as full of m e a n in g as th e
m o rn in g ; only, its m e a n in g a n d p u rp o se are d ifferen t.14 M an has
tw o aim s: th e first is th e n a tu ra l aim , th e b e g e ttin g of c h ild re n
a n d th e business of p ro te c tin g th e b ro o d ; to this belongs th e
acq u isitio n of m oney a n d social position. W h e n this aim has
b ee n reach ed a new phase begins: the c u ltu ra l aim . F o r th e
a tta in m e n t of th e fo rm e r we have th e h elp of n a tu re and, o n
to p of that, ed u catio n ; for the a tta in m e n t of th e latter, little
o r n o th in g helps. O ften , in d eed , a false a m b itio n survives, in
th a t an o ld m a n w ants to be a y o u th again, o r a t least feels
h e m u st behave like one, alth o u g h in his h e a rt he can n o lo n g er
m ake believe. T h is is w h at makes th e tra n sitio n fro m th e n a tu -
ra l to th e c u ltu ra l phase so terrib ly difficult a n d b itte r fo r
m an y people; th ey cling to th e illu sio n of y o u th o r to th e ir ch il-
d re n , h o p in g to salvage in this way a last little scrap of you th .
O n e sees it especially in m others, w ho find th e ir sole m e a n in g in
th e ir c h ild re n a n d im ag in e they w ill sink in to a bottom less void
w h en they have to give th em u p. N o w o n d e r th a t m an y b ad n eu-
14 c f . “T h e Stages of L ife.”

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 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

roses a p p e a r at th e on set of life ’s afte rn o o n . I t is a sort of second

p u b erty , a n o th e r “sto rm a n d stress” p erio d , n o t in fre q u e n tly ac-
c o m p a n ie d by tem pests of passion— th e “d an g ero u s age.” B u t th e
p ro b lem s th a t cro p u p a t this age are n o lo n g er to be solved by
th e o ld recipes: th e h a n d of this clock c a n n o t be p u t back. W h a t
y o u th fo u n d a n d m u st find outside, th e m a n of life’s afte rn o o n
m u st find w ith in him self. H e re we face n ew p ro b lem s w hich
o ften cause th e d o cto r n o lig h t headache.
n 5 T h e tra n sitio n fro m m o rn in g to a fte rn o o n m eans a rev al-
u a tio n of th e e a rlie r values. T h e r e com es th e u rg e n t n ee d to
ap p recia te th e v alue of the op p osite of o u r fo rm e r ideals, to p e r-
ceive th e e rro r in o u r fo rm e r convictions, to recognize th e u n -
tr u th in o u r fo rm e r tru th , a n d to feel how m u c h an tag o n ism a n d
even h a tre d lay in w hat, u n til now , h a d passed fo r love. N o t a
few of those w ho are d ra w n in to th e conflict of opposites jettiso n
every th in g th a t h ad previously seem ed to th e m good a n d w o rth
striv in g for; they try to live in co m p lete o p p o sitio n to th e ir for-
m e r ego. C hanges of profession, divorces, relig io u s convulsions,
apostasies of every d escrip tio n , are th e sym ptom s of this sw ing
over to th e opposite. T h e snag a b o u t a rad ical conversion in to
o n e ’s opposite is th a t o n e ’s fo rm e r life suffers rep ressio n a n d
th u s p roduces ju s t as u n b a la n c e d a state as existed before, w h en
th e c o u n te rp a rts of the conscious v irtu es a n d values w ere still
repressed a n d unconscious. J u s t as b efore, perh aps, n e u ro tic dis-
orders arose because th e o p p o sin g fantasies w ere unconscious, so
now o th e r disorders arise th ro u g h th e rep ressio n of fo rm e r idols.
I t is of course a fu n d a m e n ta l m istake to im ag in e th a t w h en we
see th e n o n -v alu e in a v alu e o r th e u n t r u t h in a tru th , th e v alu e
o r th e tr u th ceases to exist. I t has on ly becom e rela tive. Every-
th in g h u m a n is relative, because ev ery th in g rests o n an in n e r
po larity ; for ev ery th in g is a p h e n o m e n o n of energy. E n ergy n ec-
essarily d ep en d s on a pre-existing p olarity, w ith o u t w hich th ere
co u ld be n o energy. T h e r e m u st always be h ig h a n d low, h o t a n d
cold, etc., so th a t th e e q u ilib ra tin g process— w h ich is energy—
can take place. T h e re fo re th e ten d en cy to d en y all previous val-
ues in fav o ur of th e ir opposites is ju s t as m u c h of an exaggera-
tio n as the ea rlier one-sidedness. A n d in so fa r as it is a q u estio n
of re je ctin g u n iv ersally accepted a n d in d u b ita b le values, th e re -
su lt is a fatal loss. O n e w ho acts in this way em p ties him self o u t
w ith his values, as N ietzsche has already said.

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

116 T h e p o in t is n o t conversion in to th e o pposite b u t conserva-

tio n of previous values to g eth er w ith reco g n itio n of th e ir o p p o -
sites. N a tu ra lly this m eans conflict a n d self-division. I t is u n d e r-
stan d ab le e n o u g h th a t one sh o u ld sh rin k fro m it, philosophically
as well as m o rally ; h en ce the alte rn a tiv e sought, m o re o ften
th a n conversion in to th e opposite, is a convulsive stiffening of
th e previous a ttitu d e . I t m u st be a d m itte d th at, in th e case of
elderly m en , this is a p h e n o m e n o n of n o little m e rit, how ever
disagreeable it m ay be: a t least they do n o t becom e renegades,
they re m a in u p rig h t, they do n o t fall in to m uddle-headedness
n o r yet in to th e m u d ; they are n o defaulters, b u t are m erely
d ead w ood or, to p u t it m o re politely, p illars of th e past. B u t th e
acco m pan y in g sym ptom s, th e rig id ity , th e n arrow -m indedness,
th e stand-offishness of these laudatores tem p o ris acti are u n p lea s-
a n t, n o t to say h a rm fu l; for th e ir m e th o d of espousing a tr u th o r
any o th e r v alu e is so inflexible a n d v io len t th a t th e ir u n m a n n e r-
liness repels m o re th a n th e tru th attracts, so th a t th e re su lt is the
o pposite of th e in te n d e d good. T h e fu n d a m e n ta l cause of th e ir
rig id ity is fear of th e p ro b le m of opposites: they have a fo reb o d -
in g a n d secret d re a d of th e “sin ister b ro th e r of M ed a rd u s.”
T h e re fo re th e re m u st be only o n e tr u th a n d o n e g u id in g p r in -
ciple of action, a n d th a t m u st b e abso lu te; o therw ise it affords
n o p ro te c tio n against th e im p e n d in g disaster, w h ich is sensed
everyw here save in them selves. B u t actu ally th e m ost d angerous
re v o lu tio n ary is w ith in ourselves, a n d all m u st realize this who
wish to pass over safely in to th e second h alf of life. C erta in ly this
m eans ex ch an g in g th e a p p a re n t security we have so far enjoyed
fo r a c o n d itio n of insecurity, of in te rn a l division, of c o n tra d ic-
tory convictions. T h e w orst fe atu re of all is th a t th ere appears to
be n o way o u t of this co n d itio n . T e r tiu m n o n datur, says logic—
th e re is n o m id d le way.
**7 T h e p ractical necessities of tre a tm e n t have th ere fo re forced
us to look fo r ways a n d m eans th a t m ig h t lead o u t of this in to le r-
able situ atio n . W h e n e v e r a m a n is co n fro n te d by an ap p a ren tly
in s u rm o u n ta b le obstacle, he draw s back: he m akes w h at is tech -
nically called a regression. H e goes back to th e tim es w h en he
fo u n d him self in sim ilar situ atio n s, a n d he tries to ap p ly again
th e m eans th a t h e lp e d h im th en . B u t w h at h elp ed in y o u th is of
no use in age. W h a t good d id it d o th a t A m erican business m a n
to r e tu r n to his fo rm e r position? I t sim ply w o u ld n ’t w ork. So the

2720
 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

regression c o n tin u es rig h t back in to ch ild h o o d (hence th e c h ild -

ishness of m an y eld erly n eu ro tics) a n d ends u p in th e tim e b e -
fore ch ild h o o d . T h a t m ay so u n d strange, b u t in p o in t of fact it is
n o t only logical b u t a lto g e th e r possible.
118 W e m e n tio n e d e a rlie r th a t th e unconscious contains, as it
were, tw o layers: th e p ersonal a n d th e collective. T h e personal
layer ends a t th e earliest m em o ries of infancy, b u t th e collective
layer com prises th e p re -in fan tile p erio d , th a t is, th e residues of
ancestral life. W h e rea s th e m em ory-im ages of th e perso n al u n -
conscious are, as it w ere, filled ou t, because they are im ages p e r-
sonally ex p e rien c ed by the in d iv id u a l, th e archetypes of th e col-
lective unconscious are n o t filled o u t because they are form s n o t
p ersonally ex p erien ced . W h e n , o n th e o th e r h an d , psychic e n -
ergy regresses, g o ing b ey o n d even th e p e rio d of early infancy,
a n d breaks in to th e legacy of an cestral life, th e m ythological im -
ages are aw akened: these are th e arch ety p es.15 A n in te rio r sp irit-
u al w o rld whose existence we n ev er suspected opens o u t a n d dis-
plays co n ten ts w hich seem to stan d in sh arp est co n trast to all o u r
fo rm e r ideas. T h e s e im ages are so in ten se th a t it is q u ite u n d e r-
stan d ab le why m illio n s of c u ltiv ated persons sh o u ld be tak en in
by theosophy a n d an th ro p o so p h y . T h is h ap p e n s sim ply because
such m o d e rn gnostic systems m ee t th e n ee d fo r expressing a n d
fo rm u la tin g th e w ordless occurrences g o in g o n w ith in ourselves
b e tte r th a n any of th e ex istin g form s of C h ristia n ity , n o t ex-
ce p tin g C atholicism . T h e la tte r is certain ly ab le to express, far
m o re com p reh en siv ely th a n P ro testan tism , th e facts in q u estio n
th ro u g h its d o g m a a n d ritu a l sym bolism . B u t n e ith e r in th e past
n o r in the p re sen t has even C atholicism a tta in e d a n y th in g like
th e richness of th e old pagan sym bolism , w hich is w hy this
sym bolism persisted fa r in to C h ristia n ity a n d th e n g ra d u ally
w e n t u n d e rg ro u n d , fo rm in g c u rre n ts th at, fro m th e early M id d le

15 T h e read er will note th e a d m ix tu re here of a new elem en t in the idea of the

archetypes, not previously m entioned. T h is a d m ix tu re is n o t a piece of u n in te n -
tio nal obscurantism , b u t a delib erate extension of th e archetype by m eans of
the karm ic factor, which is so very im p o rta n t in In d ia n philosophy. T h e karma
aspect is essential to a deeper u n d e rstan d in g of th e n a tu re of an archetype.
W ith o u t en te rin g here in to a closer description of this factor, I would like at
least to m en tio n its existence. I have been severely attacked by critics for my
idea of archetypes. I ad m it at once th a t it is a controversial idea a n d m ore than
a little perplexing. B ut I have always w ondered w h at sort of idea my critics
w ould have used to characterize the em pirical m aterial in question.

2721
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

Ages to m o d e rn tim es, have n ev er q u ite lost th e ir vitality. T o a

large e x te n t they van ish ed from th e surface; b u t, ch an g in g th e ir
form , they com e back again to co m p en sate the one-sidedness of
o u r conscious m in d w ith its m o d e rn o rie n ta tio n .16 O u r co n -
sciousness is so s a tu ra te d w ith C h ristian ity , so u tte rly m o u ld e d
by it, th a t th e unconscious co u n ter-p o sitio n can discover n o foot-
h o ld there, for th e sim ple reason th a t it seems too m u ch th e
antith esis of o u r ru lin g ideas. T h e m o re one-sidedly, rigidly, a n d
absolutely th e o n e positio n is held, th e m o re aggressive, hostile,
a n d in co m p a tib le w ill th e o th e r becom e, so th a t at first sight
th e re w o u ld seem to be little prospect of re co n cilin g th e two.
B u t once th e conscious m in d ad m its a t least th e relative valid ity
of all h u m a n o p in io n , th en th e o p p o sitio n loses so m eth in g of
its irreco n cilab le ch aracter. I n th e m e a n tim e th e conflict casts
r o u n d for a p p ro p ria te expression in, for instance, th e o rie n ta l
religions— B u d d h ism , H in d u is m , T ao ism . T h e syncretism of
theosophy goes a lo n g way tow ards m e e tin g this need , a n d th a t
explains its n u m e ro u s successes.
1X9 T h e w o rk involved in analytical tre a tm e n t gives rise to ex-
periences of an arch ety p al n a tu re w h ich re q u ir e to b e expressed
a n d shaped. O bviously this is n o t th e only occasion fo r ex p e ri-
ences of such a k in d ; o ften they occu r q u ite spontaneously, a n d
by n o m eans only in th e case of “ psychological-m inded” people.
I have h e a rd th e m ost cu rio u s dream s a n d visions fro m th e lips
of p eople whose m e n ta l sanity n o t even th e professional psychol-
ogist co u ld d o u b t. T h e ex p erien ce of th e arch ety p e is fre q u e n tly
g u a rd e d as th e closest personal secret, because it is felt to strike
in to th e very core of one's being. I t is like a p rim o rd ia l ex p e ri-
ence of th e non-ego, of an in te rio r o p p o n e n t w ho throw s d o w n a
ch allen g e to th e u n d e rsta n d in g . N a tu ra lly e n o u g h we th e n look
ro u n d fo r h e lp fu l parallels, a n d it h ap p e n s all too easily th a t th e
o rig in al o ccu rren ce is in te rp re te d in term s of d erivative ideas. A
typical in stan ce of this k in d is th e T r i n i t y vision of B ro th e r
N icholas of F lu e ,17 o r again, St. I g n a tiu s ' vision of th e snake w ith
m u ltip le eyes, w hich he in te rp re te d first as a d iv in e a p p a ritio n
a n d th e n as a v isitatio n fro m th e devil. T h r o u g h these p e ri-
p h rastic in te rp re ta tio n s th e a u th e n tic ex p erien ce is rep laced by
images a n d w ords b o rro w ed fro m a foreign source, a n d by views,
16 Cf. “ Paracelsus as a S p iritu al P h e n o m en o n ” and Psychology and Alchemy.
17 Cf. “B ro th e r K la u s/'

2722
 TH E PERSONAL AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

ideas, a n d form s th a t have n o t gro w n o n o u r soil a n d have n o

ties w ith o u r hearts, b u t only w ith o u r heads. In d e ed , n o t even
o u r th o u g h t can clearly grasp th em , because it n ev e r in v e n te d
th em . I t is a case of stolen goods th a t b rin g n o prosperity. Such
su b stitu tes m ak e m e n shadow y a n d u n re a l; they p u t em p ty
w ords in th e place of liv in g realities, a n d slip o u t of th e p a in fu l
ten sio n of opposites in to a wan, tw o-dim ensional, p h an ta sm a l
w o rld w here ev e ry th in g v ital a n d creativ e w ithers a n d dies.
120 T h e w ordless o ccurrences w h ich are called fo rth by regression
to th e p re -in fa n tile p e rio d n ee d n o su b stitu tes; they d e m a n d
to be in d iv id u a lly shaped in a n d by each m an 's life a n d w ork.
T h e y are im ages sp ru n g fro m th e life, th e joys a n d sorrows, of
o u r ancestors; a n d to life they seek to r e tu r n , n o t in exp erience
only, b u t in deed. Because of th e ir o p p o sitio n to th e conscious
m in d they c a n n o t be tra n sla te d stra ig h t in to o u r w orld; hence a
way m u st be fo u n d th a t can m ed iate b etw e en conscious a n d u n -
conscious reality.

2723
 VI
THE SYNTHETIC OR
CONSTRUCTIVE METHOD

121 T h e process of c o m in g to term s w ith th e unconscious is a

tru e lab o u r, a w o rk w h ich involves b o th actio n a n d suffering. It
has b ee n n a m e d th e “ tra n sc e n d e n t f u n c ti o n " 1 because it re p re -
sents a fu n c tio n based on real a n d “ im ag in ary ," o r ra tio n a l a n d
irra tio n a l, data, th u s b rid g in g th e y aw ning g u lf b etw een c o n -
scious a n d unconscious. I t is a n a tu ra l process, a m an ife sta tio n of
th e energy th a t springs from th e tension of opposites, a n d it co n -
sists in a series of fantasy-occurrences w hich a p p e a r sp o n ta n e -
ously in d ream s a n d visions.2 T h e sam e process can also b e o b -
served in th e in itia l stages of ce rtain form s of sch izo p h ren ia. A
classical acco u n t of such a p ro c eed in g is to b e fo u n d , fo r ex am -
ple, in G é ra rd de N erv al's au to b io g ra p h ic a l frag m en t, A u r e lia .
B u t th e m ost im p o rta n t lite rary ex am p le is P a rt II of Faust. T h e
n a tu ra l process by w h ich th e opposites are u n ite d cam e to serve
m e as th e m o d el a n d basis fo r a m e th o d consisting essentially in
this: ev ery th in g th a t h ap p en s at th e b ehest of n a tu re , u n c o n -
sciously a n d spontaneously, is d e lib erately su m m o n e d fo rth a n d
in te g ra te d in to th e conscious m in d a n d its ou tlo o k . F a ilu re in
m an y cases is d u e precisely to th e fact th a t they lack th e m e n ta l
a n d s p iritu a l e q u ip m e n t to m aster th e events ta k in g place in
them . H e re m edical h elp m u st in terv e n e in th e fo rm of a special
m e th o d o f tre a tm e n t.
>22 As we have seen, the theories discussed a t th e b e g in n in g of
this b o o k rest o n an exclusively causal a n d re d u ctiv e p ro c e d u re
w h ich resolves th e d re am (or fantasy) in to its m em o ry compo-
1 1 discovered only subsequently th a t the idea of the tran scen den t fu nctio n also
occurs in the h ig h er m athem atics, a n d is actually th e nam e of the fu n ctio n of
real a n d im aginary n um bers. See also m y essay “T h e T ran sce n d en t Function/*
2 F o r an analysis of one such dream -series see Psychology and A lc h e m y f

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 T H E SY N TH ETIC OR CONSTRUCTIVE M E T H O D

n en ts a n d the u n d e rly in g in stin c tu a l processes. I have in d icate d

above th e ju stificatio n as well as th e lim ita tio n of this pro ced u re.
I t breaks d o w n a t th e p o in t w h ere th e d re am sym bols can n o
lo n g er be re d u c e d to personal rem iniscences o r aspirations, th at
is, w h e n th e im ages of th e collective u n conscious b eg in to a p -
pear. I t w o u ld be q u ite senseless to try to re d u c e these collective
ideas to a n y th in g p erso n al— n o t o n ly senseless b u t positively
h arm fu l, as p a in fu l ex p erien ce has ta u g h t m e. O n ly w ith m u ch
difficulty, a fte r lo n g h esita tio n a n d disabuse by m an y failures,
was I ab le to decide to a b a n d o n th e p u re ly p erso n alistic a ttitu d e
of m edical psychology in th e sense in d icated . I h a d first to com e
to th e fu n d a m e n ta l realizatio n th a t analysis, in so far as it is re -
d u c tio n a n d n o th in g m ore, m u st necessarily be follow ed by syn-
thesis, a n d th a t ce rta in k in d s of psychic m ateria l m ean n e x t to
n o th in g if sim ply b ro k e n dow n, b u t display a w ealth of m e a n in g
if, in stead of b e in g b ro k e n dow n, th a t m e a n in g is re in fo rce d a n d
e x te n d e d by all th e conscious m eans a t o u r disposal— by th e so-
called m e th o d of am p lificatio n .3 T h e im ages o r sym bols of th e
collective u n conscious yield th e ir distin ctiv e values only w h en
su b jected to a sy n th etic m o d e of tre a tm e n t. J u s t as analysis
breaks d o w n th e sym bolical fantasy-m aterial in to its co m p o -
nents, so th e syn th etic p ro c e d u re in teg rates it in to a g en eral a n d
in te llig ib le statem en t. T h e p ro c e d u re is n o t exactly sim ple, so I
w ill give a n ex am p le w h ich w ill h e lp to e x p la in th e w hole
process.
123 A w o m an p a tie n t, w ho h a d ju s t re ach e d th e critical b o rd e r-
lin e b etw een th e analysis of th e personal unconscious a n d th e
em ergence of co n te n ts fro m th e collective unconscious, h ad th e
fo llow ing d ream : She is a b o u t to cross a w ide r iver . T h e r e is no
b ridge, b u t she finds a fo r d w here she can cross. She is on the
p o in t o f d o in g so, w h en a large crab that lay h id d e n in the water
seizes h er by the fo o t a nd w ill n o t let her go. She wakes u p in
te rro r.
Associations:
15*4 R iv e r : “ F orm s a b o u n d a ry th a t is difficult to get across— I
have to overcom e an obstacle— p ro b a b ly to do w ith th e fact th a t
I ’m progressing so slowly— I o u g h t to reach th e o th e r side.”
[For an account of amplification see “T he Theory of Psychoanalysis,” pars,
326ff.—Editors.]

2725
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

125 Ford: “A n o p p o rtu n ity to cross in safety— a possible way,

otherw ise th e riv er w o u ld b e too b ro a d — in th e tre a tm e n t lies
th e possibility of s u rm o u n tin g th e obstacle.”
126 Crab: “T h e crab was q u ite h id d e n in th e w ater, I d id n o t
see it before— cancer [G erm an K reb s = crab] is a te rrib le dis-
ease, in c u ra b le [reference to M rs. X , w ho d ie d of carcinom a]— I
am afraid of this disease— th e crab is an an im al th a t walks back -
w ards— a n d obviously w ants to d ra g m e in to th e riv er— it ca u g h t
h o ld of m e in a h o rrib le way a n d I was te rrib ly frig h te n ed — w h a t
keeps sto p p in g m e from g e ttin g across? O h yes, I h a d a n o th e r
row w ith m y frie n d [a w o m an ].”
127 T h e r e is so m eth in g p ec u lia r a b o u t h e r re la tio n s w ith this
frien d . I t is a sen tim en tal atta c h m e n t, b o rd e rin g o n th e h o m o -
sexual, th a t has lasted for years. T h e frie n d is like th e p a tie n t in
m an y ways, a n d eq u ally nervy. T h e y have m a rk e d artistic in -
terests in co m m o n . T h e p a tie n t is th e stro n g er p erso n ality of th e
two. Because th e ir m u tu a l re la tio n sh ip is too in tim a te a n d ex-
cludes too m an y o f th e o th e r possibilities of life, b o th are nervy
an d , d esp ite th e ir ideal frien d sh ip , have v io le n t scenes d u e to
m u tu a l irritab ility . T h e unconscious is try in g in this way to
p u t a distance b etw een th em , b u t they refu se to listen. T h e
q u a rre l usually begins because one of th e m finds th a t she is still
n o t sufficiently u n d ersto o d , a n d urges th a t they sh o u ld speak
m o re p lain ly to o n e a n o th e r; w h e re u p o n b o th m ak e en th u siastic
efforts to u n b o so m them selves. N a tu ra lly a m isu n d e rsta n d in g
comes a b o u t in n e x t to n o tim e, a n d a worse scene th an ever
ensues. F aute de m ie u x , this q u a rre llin g h ad lo n g b een for b o th
of th e m a p leasu re s u b stitu te w h ich they w ere u n w illin g to re -
lin q u ish . M y p a tie n t in p a rtic u la r co u ld n o t do w ith o u t th e
sw eet p a in of b e in g m isu n d ersto o d by h e r best frien d , a lth o u g h
every scene “tire d h e r to d e a th .” She h a d lo n g since realized th a t
this frie n d sh ip h a d becom e m o rib u n d , a n d th a t only false a m b i-
tio n led h e r to believe th a t s o m eth in g ideal co u ld still be m ad e
o f it. She h a d fo rm erly h ad a n exaggerated, fantastic re la tio n to
h e r m o th e r a n d a fte r h e r m o th e r's d e a th h ad tra n sfe rre d h e r
feelings to h e r frien d .

2726
 T H E SY N TH ETIC OR CONSTRUCTIVE M E T H O D

A n a lytica l (causal-reductive) in te r p r e ta tio n :4

^8 T h is in te rp r e ta tio n can be s u m m ed u p in o n e sentence: “ I
see well en o u g h th a t I o u g h t to cross th e riv e r (th at is, give u p
re la tio n s w ith m y frien d ), b u t I w o u ld m u c h ra th e r th a t m y
frie n d d id n o t le t m e o u t o f h e r clutches (i.e., em braces)—
w hich, as an in fa n tile wish, m eans th a t I w a n t M o th e r to draw
m e to h e r in th e e x u b e ra n t em b ra ce I k n o w so w ell.” T h e in -
c o m p a tib ility of th e wish lies in th e stro n g u n d e r c u rr e n t of h o -
m osexuality, a b u n d a n tly p ro v ed by th e facts. T h e crab seizes h er
by th e foot. T h e p a tie n t has large “m ascu lin e” feet, she plays th e
m ascu line ro le w ith h e r frie n d a n d has c o rresp o n d in g sexual
fantasies. T h e foot has a n o to rio u sly p h allic significance.5 T h u s
th e over-all in te rp r e ta tio n w o u ld be: T h e reason w hy she does
n o t w a n t to leave h e r frie n d is because she has repressed sexual
desires for her. As these desires are m o rally a n d aesthetically in -
co m p a tib le w ith th e ten d en cy of th e conscious p ersonality, they
are repressed a n d th ere fo re m o re o r less unconscious. H e r a n x -
iety corresponds to h e r rep ressed desire.
129 T h is in te rp r e ta tio n is a severe d e p re c ia tio n of th e p a tie n t’s
ex alted ideal of frie n d sh ip . T o be sure, a t this p o in t in th e an a l-
ysis she w o u ld n o lo n g er have tak e n ex c ep tio n to such an in te r-
p re ta tio n . Some tim e ea rlier c e rta in facts h ad am p ly convinced
h e r of h e r hom o sex u al tendency, so th a t she co u ld freely a d m it
this in clin atio n , a lth o u g h it was by n o m eans agreeable to her.
If, th e n , I h ad given h e r this in te rp re ta tio n a t th e p resen t stage
of tre a tm e n t, I w o u ld have n o t e n c o u n te re d any resistance. She
h a d alread y overcom e th e pain fu ln ess of this un w elco m e te n d -
ency by u n d e rs ta n d in g it. B u t she w o u ld have said to m e, “W h y
are we still analysing this d ream ? I t only reiterates w h at I have
k n o w n for a lo n g tim e .” T h e in te rp re ta tio n , in fact, tells th e
p a tie n t n o th in g new ; it is th ere fo re u n in te re s tin g a n d ineffec-
tive. Such an in te rp re ta tio n w o u ld have been im possible at th e
b e g in n in g of th e tre a tm e n t, because th e u n u s u a l p ru d e ry of the
p a tie n t w o u ld n o t u n d e r any circum stances have a d m itte d an y -
4 A p a rallel view of the two kinds of in te rp re ta tio n is to be fo u n d in H e rb ert
Silberer’s com m endable book, P roblem s of M ysticism and Its Symbolism.
5 A igrem ont (pseud, of Siegmar B aron von Schultze-Galléra), Fuss- u n d Sch uh -
sym bo lik u n d -Erotik [1909].

2727
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

th in g of th a t k in d . T h e “ p o iso n ” of u n d e rs ta n d in g h ad to be
in jecte d w ith ex tre m e care, a n d in very sm all doses, u n til she
g rad u ally becam e m o re reasonable. N ow , w h e n th e analytical o r
causal-reductive in te rp re ta tio n ceases to b rin g to lig h t a n y th in g
new , b u t only th e sam e th in g in d ifferen t v ariations, th e m o -
m e n t has com e to look o u t for possible arch ety p al m otifs. If
such a m o tif comes clearly to th e fo refro n t, it is hig h tim e to
change th e in te rp re ta tiv e p ro ced u re. T h e causal-reductive p ro -
c e d u re has in th is p a rtic u la r case ce rtain disadvantages. Firstly,
it does n o t take accurate acco u n t of th e p a tie n t's associations,
e.g., th e association of “c ra b ” w ith “ca n cer.” Secondly, th e p e-
cu lia r choice of th e sym bol re m a in s u n e x p la in e d . W h y sh o u ld
th e m o th e r-frie n d a p p e a r as a crab? A p re ttie r a n d m o re g rap h ic
re p re s e n ta tio n w o u ld have b ee n a w ater-n y m p h . (“ H a lf d rew
she h im , h alf sank he u n d e r ,” etc.) A n octopus, a drag o n , a
snake, o r a fish w o u ld have served as well. T h ird ly , th e causal-
re d u ctiv e p ro c e d u re forgets th a t th e d re a m is a su b jectiv e p h e-
n o m e n o n , a n d th a t co n seq u en tly an ex h au stiv e in te rp re ta tio n
can n e v e r re fer the crab to th e frie n d o r th e m o th e r alone, b u t
m u st re fe r it also to th e subject, th e d re a m e r herself. T h e
d re a m e r is th e w hole d ream ; she is th e river, th e ford, a n d the
crab, o r r a th e r these d etails express co n d itio n s a n d tendencies
in th e un conscious of th e subject.
I3° I have th ere fo re in tro d u c e d the follow ing term ino lo g y : I
call every in te rp r e ta tio n w h ich eq u ates th e d re a m im ages w ith
real objects an in terp reta tio n on th e o b jective lev el. I n co n trast
to this is th e in te rp r e ta tio n w h ich refers every p a r t of th e d re am
a n d all th e actors in it back to th e d re a m e r him self. T h is I call
in terp reta tio n on th e su b jective level. In te r p re ta tio n o n th e o b -
jective level is analytic, because it breaks d o w n th e d re a m co n -
te n t in to m em ory-com plexes th a t re fe r to e x te rn a l situ atio n s.
In te r p re ta tio n o n th e subjective level is synthetic, because it d e-
taches th e u n d e rly in g m em ory-com plexes fro m th e ir ex te rn a l
causes, regards th em as tendencies o r c o m p o n e n ts of th e subject,
a n d re u n ite s th em w ith th a t subject. (In any ex p erien ce I ex p e-
rien c e n o t m erely th e o b ject b u t first a n d forem ost myself, p ro -
v id ed of course th a t I re n d e r m yself an a c co u n t of th e ex p e ri-
ence.) In this case, therefo re, all th e co n ten ts of th e d re a m are
tre a te d as sym bols fo r su bjectiv e contents.

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 T H E SY N TH ETIC OR CONSTRUCTIVE M E T H O D

131 T h u s th e sy n th etic o r co n stru ctiv e process of in te rp r e ta tio n 0

is in te rp r e ta tio n o n th e su b jectiv e level.

T h e sy n th e tic (co n stru ctive) in terp reta tio n :

*3* T h e p a tie n t is un con scio u s of th e fact th a t th e obstacle to b e
overcom e lies in herself: nam ely, a b o u n d ary -lin e th a t is difficult
to cross a n d h in d e rs fu r th e r progress. N ev erth eless it is possible
to pass th e b a rrie r. B u t a special a n d u n e x p e c te d d a n g e r loom s
u p ju s t at this m o m e n t— so m eth in g “a n im a l” (n o n -h u m a n o r
su b h u m a n ), w h ich moves backw ards a n d dow nw ards, th re a te n -
in g to d ra g w ith it th e w hole p erso n ality of th e d re am er. T h is
d a n g e r is lik e a d ead ly disease th a t begins in som e secret place
a n d is in c u ra b le (overpow ering). T h e p a tie n t im agines th a t h e r
frie n d is h in d e rin g h e r a n d try in g to d ra g h e r dow n. So lo n g as
she believes this, she m u st go o n try in g to “u p lif t” h e r frie n d ,
ed u cate a n d im p ro v e h er; she has to m ak e fu tile a n d senselessly
idealistic efforts to stop herself fro m b e in g d rag g ed dow n. N a tu -
rally h e r frie n d m akes sim ila r efforts too, fo r she is in th e sam e
pass as th e p a tie n t. So th e two k eep ju m p in g a t each o th e r like
fig h tin g cocks, each try in g to g et th e u p p e r h a n d . A n d th e
h ig h e r th e p itc h th e o n e screws h erself u p to, th e fiercer b ecom e
th e self-torm ents of th e o th er. W hy? Because each th in k s th e
fa u lt lies in th e o th er, in th e object. In te r p re ta tio n o n th e su b -
jectiv e level b rin g s release fro m this folly; fo r th e d re a m shows
th e p a tie n t th a t she has s o m eth in g in herself w hich prev en ts h e r
fro m crossing th e b o u n d ary , i.e., fro m g e ttin g o u t of o n e situ a-
tio n o r a ttitu d e in to a n o th e r. T h e in te rp r e ta tio n of a change of
place as a change of a ttitu d e is c o rro b o ra te d by form s of speech
in c e rta in p rim itiv e languages, w here, fo r ex am p le, “ I am th in k -
in g of g o in g ” is expressed as “I am a t th e place of (on th e p o in t
of) g o in g .” T o m ak e th e language of d ream s in te llig ib le we
n ee d n u m e ro u s parallels fro m th e psychology of p rim itiv e a n d
histo rical sym bolism , because dream s sp rin g essentially fro m th e
unconscious, w h ich co n tain s re m n a n ts of th e fu n c tio n a l possibil-
ities of all p re c e d in g epochs of ev o lu tio n . A classical ex am p le of
this is th e “C rossing of th e G re a t W a te r” in th e oracles of th e I
C hing.
« Cf. “ O n Psychological U n d e rsta n d in g .” Elsew here I have called th is procedure
th e “h e rm e n eu tic ” m ethod; cf. infra, pars. 4936:.

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

*33 O bviously, ev ery th in g n ow d ep en d s o n w h a t is m e a n t by th e

crab. W e k n o w in th e first place th a t it is so m eth in g c o n n e cted
w ith th e frie n d (since th e p a tie n t associates it w ith h er frien d ),
a n d also so m eth in g co n n e cted w ith h e r m o th er. W h e th e r
m o th e r a n d frie n d really have this q u a lity is irre le v a n t so far as
th e p a tie n t is concerned. T h e s itu a tio n can b e ch an g ed only by
th e p a tie n t ch an g in g herself. N o th in g can be ch an g ed in th e
m o th er, for she is dead. A n d th e frie n d c a n n o t be nagged in to
changing. If she w ants to change, th a t is h e r ow n affair. T h e fact
th a t th e q u a lity in q u e stio n is co n n ected w ith th e m o th e r p o in ts
to so m eth in g in fan tile. W h a t, th en , is th e re in co m m o n in th e
p a tie n t’s re la tio n to h e r m o th e r a n d to h e r frien d ? T h e co m m o n
facto r is a violen t, se n tim e n ta l d e m a n d fo r love, so im passioned
th a t she feels herself overw h elm ed . T h is d e m a n d has th e charac-
te r of an o v erp o w erin g in fa n tile crav ing w hich, as we know , is
b lin d . So we are d ea lin g w ith an u n d isc ip lin e d , u n d iffe re n ti-
ated, a n d n o t yet h u m a n iz e d p a rt of th e lib id o w h ich still pos-
sesses th e com pulsive ch a rac ter of an in stin ct, a p a r t still u n -
tam ed by d o m estication . F o r such a p a rt som e k in d of a n im a l is
an e n tire ly a p p ro p ria te sym bol. B u t w hy sh o u ld th e a n im a l be a
crab? T h e p a tie n t associates it w ith cancer, of w h ich disease Mrs.
X d ie d at a b o u t th e sam e age as th a t no w re ach e d by th e p a tie n t
herself. So th e re m ay be a h in t of id en tificatio n w ith M rs. X . W e
m u s t th e re fo re follow this u p . T h e p a tie n t relates th e follow ing
facts a b o u t h er: M rs. X was w idow ed early; she was very m erry
a n d fu ll of life; she h a d a series of a d v e n tu res w ith m en , a n d one
in p a rtic u la r w ith an ex trem ely gifted artist w h om th e p a tie n t
k n ew personally a n d w ho always im pressed h e r as re m a rk a b ly
fascin ating a n d strange.
*34 A n id en tificatio n can occu r on ly on th e basis of som e u n re a l-
ized, i.e., unconscious, sim ilarity. N o w in w h a t way is o u r pa-
tie n t sim ilar to Mrs. X? H e re I was ab le to r e m in d th e p a tie n t of
a series of ea rlier fantasies a n d d ream s w h ich h ad p lain ly show n
th a t she too h a d a frivolous streak in her, a n d o n e w h ich she
always an x iously repressed, because she feared this d im ly a p p re -
h e n d e d ten d en cy in h erself m ig h t b e tra y h e r in to lea d in g an im -
m o ra l life. W ith this we have m ad e a f u r th e r im p o rta n t c o n tri-
b u tio n tow ards u n d e rs ta n d in g th e “a n im a l” ele m e n t; for once
m o re we com e u p o n th e sam e u n ta m e d , in stin c tu a l craving, b u t

2730
 T H E SY N T H E TIC OR CONSTRUCTIVE M E T H O D

this tim e d ire c te d tow ards m en . A n d we have also discovered

a n o th e r reason w hy she c a n n o t let go of h e r frie n d : she m u st
clin g to h e r so as n o t to fall v ictim to this o th e r tendency, w hich
seems to h e r m u c h m o re d angerous. A ccordingly she re m a in s at
th e in fan tile, h o m o sex u al level, because it serves h e r as a d e -
fence. (E x p erien ce shows th a t this is o n e of th e m ost p o te n t m o -
tives for clin g in g to u n s u ita b le in fa n tile relatio n ship s.) I n this
a n im a l elem en t, how ever, also lies h e r h ea lth , th e g erm of a fu -
tu re so u n d p erso n ality w h ich w ill n o t sh rin k fro m the hazards of
life.
*35 B u t th e p a tie n t h ad d ra w n q u ite a d iffe ren t con clu sio n fro m
th e fate of M rs. X. She h ad tak en the la tte r’s s u d d en grave illness
a n d early d e a th as th e p u n is h m e n t of fate foi th e gay life w hich,
w ith o u t a d m ittin g it, th e p a tie n t h a d always envied. W h e n M rs.
X died, th e p a tie n t m ad e a very lo n g m o ral face w hich concealed
an all-too-hum an m alicious satisfaction. T o p u n ish herself fo r
this, she c o n tin u a lly used th e ex am p le of M rs. X to scare herself
away fro m life a n d all fu r th e r d ev e lo p m e n t, a n d b u rd e n e d h e r-
self w ith th e m isery of an un satisfying frie n d sh ip . N a tu ra lly
this w hole seq uen ce of events h ad n ev er b ee n clear to her, o th e r-
wise she w o u ld n ev er have acted as she did. T h e rig h tn ess of this
surm ise was easily verified fro m th e m aterial.
13 6 T h e story of this id en tificatio n by n o m eans ends here. T h e
p a tie n t su b seq u e n tly em phasized th a t Mrs. X possessed a n o t in -
co n sid erab le artistic capacity w h ich d ev elo p ed only after h e r
h u sb a n d 's d e a th a n d th e n led to h e r frie n d sh ip w ith th e artist.
T h is fact seems to b e o n e of the essential reasons for th e id en tifi-
cation, if we re m e m b e r th a t th e p a tie n t h a d re m a rk e d w h at a
stro n g a n d p ecu liarly fascinatin g im p ressio n th e artist h a d m ad e
u p o n her. A fascination of this k in d is n ev e r exercised ex clu -
sively by o n e p erso n u p o n a n o th e r; it is always a p h e n o m e n o n of
re la tio n sh ip , w h ich re q u ire s two p eo p le in so far as th e person
fascinated necessarily has a co rre sp o n d in g d isposition. B u t th e
d isp o sitio n m u st be unconscious, o r n o fascin atio n w ill tak e
place. F ascin atio n is a co m pulsive p h e n o m e n o n in th e sense th a t
it lacks a conscious m otive; it is n o t a v o lu n ta ry process, b u t
s o m eth in g th a t rises u p fro m th e u n conscious a n d forcibly o b -
tru d es itself u p o n th e conscious m in d .
137 I t m u st th ere fo re be assum ed th a t th e p a tie n t has a n u n c o n -

2731
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

scious d isp o sitio n sim ilar to th a t of th e artist. A ccordingly she is

also id en tified w ith a m a n .7 W e recall th e analysis of th e d re am ,
w h ere we m e t a n allu sio n to th e “m a sc u lin e ” foot. A n d in fact
th e p a tie n t does play a m ascu lin e ro le w ith h e r frien d ; she is th e
active on e w ho always sets th e tone, w h o bosses h e r frie n d a n d
som etim es actu ally forces h e r to do s o m eth in g she alo n e w ants.
H e r frie n d is d istin ctly fe m in in e, even in e x te rn a l ap p earan ce,
w h ile th e p a tie n t is clearly of a so m ew h at m ascu lin e type. H e r
voice too is stro n g a n d d e e p e r th a n h e r frien d 's. Mrs. X is d e-
scrib ed as a very fe m in in e w om an, c o m p a rab le to h e r frien d , so
th e p a tie n t th inks, in gentleness a n d affectionateness. T h is gives
us a n o th e r clue: in re la tio n to h e r frien d , th e p a tie n t obviously
plays th e sam e ro le th a t th e artist played w ith M rs. X. T h u s she
unconsciously com pletes h e r id en tificatio n w ith M rs. X a n d h e r
lover, a n d thus, in spite of all, she gives ex pression to th e frivo-
lous streak in h e r w h ich she h a d so anxiously repressed. B u t she
is n o t liv in g it consciously, she is r a th e r th e p la y th in g of this
u n conscious ten d en cy ; in o th e r words, she is possessed by it, a n d
has b ecom e th e u nconscious e x p o n e n t of h e r com plex.
*3 8 W e no w k n o w very m u c h m o re a b o u t th e crab : it contains
th e in n e r psychology of this u n ta m e d b it of lib id o . T h e u n c o n -
scious id en tificatio n s k eep d ra w in g h e r d o w n f u r th e r a n d fu r-
th er. T h e y have this p o w er because, b e in g unconscious, they are
n o t o p en to in sig h t o r co rrectio n . T h e crab is th e re fo re th e sym-
b o l for th e u nconscious contents. T h e s e co n te n ts are always try-
in g to d ra w th e p a tie n t back in to h e r re la tio n s w ith h e r friend.
(T h e crab walks backw ards.) B u t th e c o n n e c tio n w ith h er
frie n d is synonym ous w ith disease, for th ro u g h it she becam e
n eu ro tic .
*39 Strictly speaking, all this really belongs to th e analysis o n th e
o b jectiv e level. B u t we m u st n o t forget th a t we cam e in to posses-
sion of this k n ow ledge o nly by m a k in g use of th e subjective
level, w h ich th u s proves to b e an im p o rta n t h eu ristic p rin cip le.
F o r practical purposes we m ig h t re st c o n te n t w ith th e resu lts so
far reached; b u t we have to satisfy th e d em an d s of th eo ry : n o t all
th e associations have yet b ee n ev alu ated , n o r has th e significance
of th e choice of sym bol yet b e e n sufficiently ex p la in e d .
140 w e sh all n o w take u p th e p a tie n t's re m a rk th a t th e crab lay
71 am n o t overlooking the fact th a t th e deeper reason for h e r identification
w ith th e a rtist lies in a c ertain creative a p titu d e on th e p a r t o f th e p a tie n t.

2732
 T H E SY N TH ETIC OR CONSTRUCTIVE M E T H O D

h id d e n in th e w ater a n d th a t she d id n o t see it a t first. N o r d id

she see, a t first, th e unconscious re la tio n s w h ich we have ju s t
discussed; they too lay h id d e n in th e w ater. T h e riv e r is th e o b -
stacle th a t p rev en ts h e r fro m crossing to th e o th e r side. I t is p re -
cisely these u n conscious relatio n s, b in d in g h e r to h e r frien d ,
th a t p re v e n te d her. T h e unconscious was th e obstacle. T h u s th e
w ater signifies th e unconscious, o r ra th e r, th e state of u n c o n -
sciousness, of co n cealm en t; fo r th e crab too is so m eth in g u n c o n -
scious, in fact it is th e d y n am ic c o n te n t th a t lies concealed in its
dep th s.

2733
 VII
THE ARCHETYPES OF THE COLLECTIVE
UNCONSCIOUS

862 W e are n o w faced w ith th e task of ra isin g to th e subjective

level th e p h e n o m e n a w h ich have so far b e e n u n d e rs to o d o n th e
objective level. F o r this p u rp o se we m u st d eta ch th em fro m th e
o b ject a n d take th em as sym bolical ex p o n e n ts of th e p a tie n t’s
subjective com plexes. If we try to in te rp r e t th e figure of Mrs. X
o n th e su b jectiv e level, we m u s t re g a rd i t as th e personification
of a part-soul, o r ra th e r of a c e rta in aspect of th e d re am er. Mrs.
X th e n becom es a n im age of w h a t th e p a tie n t w o u ld like to be,
a n d yet fears to be. She rep resen ts, as it w ere, a p a rtia l p ic tu re of
th e p a tie n t’s fu tu re ch aracter. T h e fascin atin g a rtist ca n n o t so
easily b e raised to th e su bjectiv e level, because th e unconscious
artistic capacity ly in g d o rm a n t in th e p a tie n t is alread y tak en u p
by Mrs. X . I t w o u ld , how ever, b e co rrect to say th a t th e artist is
th e im age of th e p a tie n t’s m ascu lin ity w h ich is n o t consciously
realized a n d th ere fo re lies in th e unco n scio u s.1 T h is is tru e in
th e sense th a t th e p a tie n t does in fact d e lu d e h erself in this m at-
ter. I n h e r ow n eyes she is q u ite re m a rk a b ly fragile, sensitive,
a n d fem in in e, a n d n o t in th e least m asculine. She was th ere fo re
in d ig n a n tly am azed w h e n I p o in te d o u t h e r m ascu lin e traits.
B u t th e strange, fascin atin g e le m e n t is o u t of k e e p in g w ith these
traits. I t seems to b e e n tire ly lack in g to th em . Y et it m u st be
h id in g som ew here, since she p ro d u c e d this feelin g o u t of herself.
*42 W h e n e v e r such an e le m e n t is n o t to b e fo u n d in th e d re am er
him self, ex p erien ce tells us th a t it is always p ro jected . B u t u p o n
w hom ? Is it still a ttac h ed to th e artist? H e has lo n g since disap-
p ea re d fro m th e p a tie n t’s p u rv iew a n d c a n n o t very w ell have
tak en th e p ro je c tio n w ith h im , since it lies a n c h o re d in th e un-
11 have called this m asculine elem ent in w om an the a n im u s a n d th e correspond-
ing fem inine elem ent in m an th e anim a. See infra, pars. 296-340; also E m m a
Ju n g , “O n th e N a tu re of the A nim us.”

2734
 T H E ARCH ETY PES O F T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

conscious of th e p a tie n t, a n d m o reo v e r she h a d n o perso n al re la -

tio n w ith this m a n d esp ite his fascination. F o r h e r he was m o re a
figure of fantasy. N o, a p ro je c tio n of th is k in d is always topical,
th a t is, som ew here th e re m u st b e som ebody u p o n w h o m this
c o n te n t is p ro jected , o therw ise she w o u ld b e p alp a b ly aw are of it
in herself.
*43 A t this p o in t we com e back to th e o b jectiv e level, for w ith -
o u t it we c a n n o t locate th e p ro jec tio n . T h e p a tie n t does n o t
k n o w any m a n w ho m eans a n y th in g special to h er, a p a rt fro m
myself; a n d as h e r d o cto r I m ea n a good deal. P resu m ab ly th e re -
fore this c o n te n t is p ro jec ted o n to m e, th o u g h I h a d certain ly
n o ticed n o th in g of th e sort. B u t these s u b tle r c o n te n ts n ev e r a p -
p e a r o n th e surface; they always com e to lig h t o u tsid e th e co n -
s u ltin g h o u r. I th ere fo re asked h e r cautiously, “T e ll m e, how do
I seem to you w h en you are n o t w ith me? A m I ju s t th e sam e?”
She said, “W h e n I am w ith you, you are q u ite pleasant, b u t
w h en I am by myself, o r have n o t seen you for som e tim e, th e
p ic tu re I have of you changes in a re m a rk a b le way. Som etim es
you seem q u ite idealized, a n d th e n ag ain d iffe ren t.” H e re she
h esitated, a n d I p ro m p te d h er: “ I n w h a t way different?” T h e n
she said, “ Som etim es you seem r a th e r dan g ero u s, sinister, like an
evil m agician o r a d em o n . I d o n 't k n o w how I ever g et such
ideas— you are n o t a b it like th a t.”
>44 So th e c o n te n t was fixed o n m e as p a r t of th e transference,
a n d th a t is w hy it was m issing fro m h e r psychic inventory. H e re
we recognize a n o th e r im p o rta n t fact: I was c o n ta m in a te d (iden-
tified) w ith th e artist, so in h e r u n conscious fantasy she n a tu -
rally plays th e ro le of M rs. X w ith m e. I co u ld easily p rove this
to h e r w ith th e h e lp of th e m a te ria l— sexual fantasies— previously
b ro u g h t to light. B u t I m yself am th e n th e obstacle, th e crab
t h a t p revents h e r fro m g e ttin g across. If, in th is p a rtic u la r case,
we w ere to confine ourselves to th e objective level, th e po sitio n
w o u ld be very tricky. W h a t w o u ld b e th e good of m y ex p lain in g ,
“ B u t I am n o t this a rtist in any sense, I am n o t in th e least sinis-
ter, n o r am I an evil m a g ic ia n l” T h a t w o u ld leave th e p a tie n t
q u ite cold, fo r she know s th a t ju st as w ell as I do. T h e p ro jec tio n
co n tin u es as before, a n d I really am th e obstacle to h e r fu r th e r
progress.
»45 I t is at this p o in t th a t m an y a tre a tm e n t com es to a standstill.
T h e r e is n o way of g e ttin g o u t of th e toils of th e unconscious,

2735
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

ex cep t fo r th e d o cto r to raise h im self to th e subjective level a n d

to acknow ledge h im self as an im age. B u t a n im age of w hat?
H e re lies th e g reatest difficulty of all. “W e ll n o w ,” th e d o c to r
w ill say, “an im age o f so m eth in g in th e u n conscious of th e p a -
tie n t.” W h e re u p o n she will say, “W h a t, so I am a m an , a n d a
sinister, fascin atin g m a n a t th at, a w icked m ag ician o r dem on?
N o t o n y o u r lifel I c a n n o t accept th at, i t ’s all nonsense. I ’d
so o n er believe this of y o u l” She is rig h t: it is p rep o stero u s to
tran sfer such things to her. She c a n n o t accept b e in g tu rn e d in to
a d e m o n any m o re th a n th e d o cto r can. H e r eyes flash, an evil
expression creeps in to h e r face, th e gleam of a n u n k n o w n resist-
ance n ev er seen before. I am su d d en ly faced by th e possibility of
a p a in fu l m isu n d erstan d in g . W h a t is it? D isa p p o in te d love?
Does she feel offended, depreciated? I n h e r glance th e re lu rk s
so m eth in g of th e beast of prey, so m eth in g really dem oniacal. Is
she a d e m o n a fte r all? O r am I th e beast of prey, th e d em o n , a n d
is this a terrified v ictim sittin g b efo re m e, try in g to d e fen d h e r-
self w ith th e b ru te stren g th of d esp air against m y w icked spells?
A ll this m u st surely b e nonsense— fantastic delu sio n . W h a t have
I touched? W h a t n ew c h o rd is v ib ratin g ? Yet it is o n ly a passing
m o m en t. T h e expression o n th e p a tie n t’s face clears, a n d she
says, as th o u g h relieved, “I t is q u ee r, b u t ju s t n o w I h a d a feel-
in g you h a d to u ch e d th e p o in t I co u ld n ev e r get o ver in re la tio n
to m y frien d . I t ’s a h o rrib le feeling, so m eth in g in h u m a n , evil,
cruel. I sim ply c a n n o t describe how q u e e r this feelin g is. I t
m akes m e h a te a n d despise m y frie n d w h e n it comes, a lth o u g h I
struggle against it w ith all m y m ig h t.”
H6 T h is re m a rk throw s a n ex p la n ato ry lig h t o n w h a t has h a p -
p en ed : I have tak e n th e place of th e frien d . T h e frie n d has b ee n
overcom e. T h e ice of th e repression is b ro k e n a n d th e p a tie n t
has e n te re d a new phase of life w ith o u t k n o w in g it. N o w I know
th a t all th a t was p a in fu l a n d b a d in h e r re la tio n w ith h e r frie n d
w ill devolve u p o n m e, as w ell as all th e good, b u t it w ill b e in
v io len t conflict w ith th e m ysterious x w hich th e p a tie n t has
n ev e r b ee n able to m aster. A n ew phase of th e tran sferen ce has
started , a lth o u g h it does n o t as yet clearly reveal th e n a tu re of
th e x th a t has b ee n p ro jec ted u p o n m e.
>47 O n e th in g is ce rtain : if th e p a tie n t gets stuck in this form
of transference, th e m ost tro u b leso m e m isu n d erstan d in g s lie
ahead, for she w ill b e b o u n d to tre a t m e as she tre a te d h e r frie n d

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— in o th e r words, th e x w ill b e c o n tin u a lly in th e a ir giving rise

to m isu n d erstan d in g s. I t will in ev itab ly tu r n o u t th a t she will
see th e d e m o n in m e, since she c a n n o t accept it in herself. A ll
in so lu b le conflicts com e a b o u t in this fashion. A n d an in so lu b le
conflict m eans b rin g in g life to a standstill.
J4 8 O r a n o th e r possibility: th e p a tie n t co u ld use h e r o ld defence
m echanism against this n ew difficulty a n d co u ld sim ply ignore
th e p o in t of obscurity. T h a t is to say, she co u ld b eg in repressing
again, in stead of k ee p in g thin g s conscious, w h ich is th e necessary
a n d obvious d e m a n d of th e w hole m eth o d . B u t n o th in g w o u ld
be g ain ed by this; o n th e co n trary , th e x no w th rea ten s fro m th e
unconscious, a n d th a t is far m o re u n p lea sa n t.
14 9 W h e n e v e r such an u n ac cep ta b le c o n te n t appears, we m u st
co n sid er carefu lly w h e th e r it is a p ersonal q u a lity at all. “ M agi-
c ia n ” a n d “d e m o n ” m ay w ell re p re se n t q u alities whose very
nam es m ak e it in stan tly clear th a t these are n o t h u m a n a n d p e r-
sonal q u alities b u t m ythological ones. M agician a n d d em o n are
m ythological figures w h ich express th e u n k n o w n , “in h u m a n ”
feelin g th a t sw ept over th e p a tie n t. T h e y are a ttrib u te s n o t in
any sense ap p lica b le to a h u m a n personality, alth o u g h , as in tu i-
tive ju d g m e n ts n o t su b jected to closer criticism , they are co n -
stan tly b ein g p ro jec ted u p o n o u r fellow m en, to th e very g reat
d e trim e n t of h u m a n relations.
*5 ° T h e s e a ttrib u te s always in d icate th a t co n tents of th e tran s-
p erso nal o r collective unconscious are b e in g pro jected . P ersonal
m em o ries c a n n o t ac co u n t for “d em o n s,” o r for “w icked m agi-
cians,” a lth o u g h everyone has, of course, at on e tim e o r a n o th e r
h e a rd o r re a d of these things. W e have all h e a rd of rattlesnakes,
b u t we d o n o t call a lizard o r a b lin d w o rm a ra ttlesn a k e a n d
display th e c o rresp o n d in g em o tio n s m erely because we have
b ee n startled by th e ru s tlin g of a lizard o r a b lin d w o rm . Sim i-
larly, we d o n o t call o n e of o u r fellows a d e m o n unless th ere
really is so m eth in g d em o n ic in his effect u p o n us. B u t if this
effect w ere tru ly a p a rt of his personal ch aracter, it w o u ld show
itself everyw here, a n d th e n th e m a n w o u ld b e a d em o n indeed, a
so rt of w erewolf. B u t th a t is m ythology, i.e., collective psyche,
a n d n o t in d iv id u a l psyche. In so far as th ro u g h o u r unconscious
we have a share in th e h isto rical collective psyche, we live n a tu -
rally a n d unconsciously in a w o rld of werewolves, dem ons, m agi-
cians, etc., fo r these are thin g s w h ich all prev io u s ages have in-

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

vested w ith trem e n d o u s affectivity. E q u ally we have a share in

gods a n d devils, saviours a n d crim in als; b u t it w o u ld b e ab su rd
to a ttrib u te these p o ten tialitie s of th e unconscious to ourselves
personally. I t is th ere fo re ab so lu tely essential to m ake th e sh arp -
est possible d em a rca tio n b etw een th e p erso n al a n d th e im p e r-
sonal a ttrib u te s of the psyche. T h is is n o t to d en y th e som etim es
very fo rm id a b le existence of th e co n ten ts of th e collective u n -
conscious, b u t only to stress th at, as co n ten ts of th e collective
psyche, th ey are opposed to a n d d ifferen t fro m th e in d iv id u a l
psyche. S im p le-m in d ed folk have never, of course, sep arated
these things fro m th e ir in d iv id u a l consciousness, because th e
gods a n d d em ons w ere n o t re g ard e d as psychic p ro jectio n s a n d
h en ce as co n ten ts of th e unconscious, b u t as self-evident re a li-
ties. O n ly in th e age of e n lig h te n m e n t d id p eo p le discover th a t
th e gods d id n o t really exist, b u t w ere sim ply projections. T h u s
th e gods w ere disposed of. B u t th e c o rresp o n d in g psychological
fu n c tio n was by n o m eans disposed of; it lapsed in to th e u n c o n -
scious, a n d m en w ere th e re u p o n p o isoned by th e su rp lu s of li-
b id o th a t h ad once b ee n laid u p in th e c u lt of d iv in e images.
T h e d ev a lu atio n a n d repression of so p o w erfu l a fu n c tio n as th e
religious fu n c tio n n a tu ra lly have serious consequences fo r th e
psychology of the in d iv id u a l. T h e unconscious is p rodigiously
s tre n g th e n e d by this reflux of lib id o , an d , th ro u g h its archaic
collective contents, begins to exercise a p o w erfu l influence o n
th e conscious m in d . T h e p e rio d of th e E n lig h te n m e n t closed, as
we know , w ith th e h o rro rs of the F ren c h R ev o lu tio n . A n d at th e
p re se n t tim e, too, we are once m o re ex p e rie n c in g this u p risin g
o f th e unconscious d estru ctiv e forces of th e collective psyche.
T h e re su lt has b ee n m ass-m u rd er on a n u n p a ra lle le d scale.2
T h is is precisely w h a t th e unconscious was after. Its p o sitio n h ad
b ee n im m easu rab ly s tre n g th e n e d b e fo re h a n d by th e ra tio n a lism
of m o d e rn life, w hich, by d e p re c ia tin g ev e ry th in g irra tio n a l,
p re c ip ita te d th e fu n c tio n of th e irra tio n a l in to th e unconscious.
B u t once this fu n c tio n finds itself in th e unconscious, it w orks
u n ceasin g havoc, like an in c u ra b le disease whose focus ca n n o t be
erad icated because it is invisible. In d iv id u a l a n d n a tio n alike are
th e n co m p elled to live th e irra tio n a l in th e ir ow n lives, even
d ev o tin g th e ir loftiest ideals a n d th e ir best wits to expressing its
m adness in th e m ost p erfect form . W e see th e sam e th in g in
2 W ritte n in 1916; superfluous to rem a rk th a t it is still tru e today [1943].

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 T H E ARCH ETY PES O F T H E COLLECTIV E UNCONSCIOUS

m in ia tu re in o u r p a tie n t, w ho fled fro m a course o f life th a t

seem ed to h e r irra tio n a l— M rs. X — o n ly to act it o u t in p ath o lo g -
ical form , a n d w ith th e g reatest sacrifices, in h e r re la tio n s w ith
h e r frie n d .
151 T h e r e is n o th in g fo r it b u t to recognize th e irra tio n a l as a
necessary, because ever-present, psychological fu n c tio n , a n d to
take its co n te n ts n o t as co n crete realities— th a t w o u ld b e a regres-
sion!— b u t as psychic realities, re al because th ey w o r k . T h e col-
lective unconscious, b e in g th e rep o sito ry of m an 's ex perien ce
a n d at th e sam e tim e th e p rio r c o n d itio n of this experience, is an
im age of th e w o rld w h ich has ta k e n aeons to form . In this im age
c e rta in features, th e archetypes o r d o m in an ts, have crystallized
o u t in th e course of tim e. T h e y are th e r u lin g powers, th e gods,
im ages of th e d o m in a n t laws a n d p rin cip les, a n d of typical, re g u -
larly o c c u rrin g events in th e soul's cycle of e x p e rien c e .8 I n so far
as these im ages are m o re o r less fa ith fu l replicas of psychic
events, th e ir archetypes, th a t is, th e ir g en e ral characteristics
w h ich have b ee n em p h asized th ro u g h th e a c c u m u la tio n of sim i-
la r experiences, also co rresp o n d to c e rta in g en eral characteristics
o f th e physical w orld. A rch ety p al im ages can th ere fo re be tak en
m etap h o ric ally , as in tu itiv e concepts fo r physical p h en o m e n a.
F o r instance, a eth er, th e p rim o rd ia l b re a th o r soul-substance, is
a co n c ep t fo u n d all o ver th e w o rld , a n d energy, o r m agical
pow er, is an in tu itiv e idea th a t is eq u a lly w idespread.
152 O n a c co u n t of th e ir affinity w ith physical p h e n o m e n a ,4 th e
archetypes u sually a p p e a r in p ro je c tio n ; an d, because p ro jec-
tions are unconscious, they a p p e a r o n persons in th e im m e d iate
e n v iro n m e n t, m ostly in th e fo rm of a b n o rm a l over- o r u n d e r-
v alu a tio n s w h ich p ro v o k e m isu n d erstan d in g s, q u arrels, fa n ati-
cisms, a n d follies of every d escrip tio n . T h u s we say, “ H e m akes a
g od of so-and-so," or, “ So-and-so is M r. X 's bête n o i r e ” I n this
way, too, th e re grow u p m o d e rn m y th -fo rm atio n s, i.e., fantastic
ru m o u rs , suspicions, prejudices. T h e archetypes are th ere fo re
exceedingly im p o rta n t th in gs w ith a p o w e rfu l effect, m e ritin g
o u r closest a tte n tio n . T h e y m u st n o t b e suppressed o u t of h an d ,
b u t m u st be very carefu lly w eig h ed a n d considered, if only be-
3 As indicated earlier (par. 109), the archetypes m ay be regarded as the effect a n d
deposit of experiences th a t have already taken place, b u t equally they a p p e a r a*
th e factors w hich cause such experiences.
4 Cf. “T h e S tru c tu re of th e P syche/’ pars. 325®.

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

cause o f th e d a n g e r of psychic in fec tio n they carry w ith th em .

Since they usually o ccur as p rojections, a n d since these o nly at-
tach them selves w h ere th e re is a su itab le hook, th e ir ev alu atio n
a n d assessm ent is n o lig h t m a tte r. T h u s , w h e n som ebody p ro -
jects th e devil u p o n his n e ig h b o u r, h e does so because this person
has so m eth in g a b o u t h im w h ich m akes th e a tta c h m e n t of such
a n im age possible. B u t this is n o t to say th a t th e m a n is o n th a t
a c co u n t a devil; o n th e co n trary , h e m ay b e a p a rtic u la rly good
fellow, b u t a n tip a th e tic to th e m ak e r of th e p ro jec tio n , so th a t a
“d e v ilish ” (i.e., d iv id in g ) effect arises b etw een th em . N o r n e e d
th e p ro je c to r necessarily be a devil, a lth o u g h he has to recognize
th a t he has so m eth in g ju s t as devilish in him self, a n d has only
s tu m b le d u p o n it by p ro je c tin g it. B u t th a t does n o t m ak e h im a
devil; in d e e d he m ay be ju s t as d ec en t as th e o th e r m an . T h e
ap p e ara n ce of th e devil in such a case sim ply m eans th a t th e two
p eo p le are at p re sen t in c o m p atib le: fo r w h ich reaso n th e u n c o n -
scious forces th em a p a rt a n d keeps th e m away fro m each o th er.
T h e devil is a v a ria n t of th e “shad o w ” archetype, i.e., of th e
d an g ero u s aspect of th e u n reco g n ized d a rk h a lf of th e p erso n al-
ity.
153 O n e of th e archetypes th a t is alm o st in v aria b ly m e t w ith in
th e p ro je c tio n of unconscious collective co n ten ts is th e “m agic
d e m o n ” w ith m ysterious powers. A good ex am p le of this is G u s-
tav M e y rin k ’s G o le m , also th e T i b e t a n w izard in th e sam e a u -
th o r's F lederm äuse, w h o unleashes w o rld w a r by m agic. N a tu -
ra lly M ey rin k le a rn e d n o th in g of this fro m m e; h e b ro u g h t it
in d e p e n d e n tly o u t of his unconscious by c lo th in g in w ords a n d
im agery a feelin g n o t u n lik e th e o n e w hich m y p a tie n t h a d p ro -
jec te d u p o n m e. T h e m ag ician type also figures in Zarathustra,
w hile in Faust h e is th e actu al hero.
*54 T h e im age of this d e m o n form s o n e of th e low est a n d m ost
a n c ie n t stages in th e co n c ep tio n of God. I t is th e type of p rim i-
tive trib a l so rcerer o r m ed icin e-m an , a p ec u lia rly g ifted p erso n -
ality en d o w ed w ith m agical p o w er.5 T h is figure o ften app ears as
d ark -skin n ed a n d of m o n g o lo id type, a n d th e n it rep resen ts a
n egative a n d possibly d an g ero u s aspect. Som etim es it can hard ly
5 T h e idea of the m edicine-m an who com m unes w ith spirits a n d wields magical
powers is so deeply in g rained in m any prim itives th a t they even believe “doc-
tors’* are to be found am ong anim als. T h u s the Achom aw i of n o rth e rn C a l i f o r -
n ia speak of o rd in ary coyotes a n d of “d o ctor” coyotes.

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b e d istin g u ish ed , if at all, from th e shadow ; b u t th e m o re th e

m agical n o te p re d o m in a te s, th e easier it is to m ak e th e d istin c-
tio n , a n d this is n o t w ith o u t relevance in so far as th e d em o n can
also have a very positive aspect as th e “wise o ld m a n .” 6
*55 T h e re c o g n itio n of th e archetypes takes us a lo n g step for-
wards. T h e m agical o r d ae m o n ic effect e m a n a tin g fro m o u r
n e ig h b o u r d isap p ears w h e n th e m ysterious feelin g is traced back
to a d efin ite e n tity in th e collective unconscious. B u t n o w we
have an e n tire ly n ew task b efo re us: th e q u e stio n of ho w th e ego
is to com e to term s w ith this psychological non-ego. C an we Test
co n te n t w ith estab lish in g th e real existence of th e archetypes,
a n d sim ply let th in g s take care of themselves?
x56 T h a t w o u ld be to create a p e rm a n e n t state of dissociation, a
sp lit b etw een th e in d iv id u a l a n d th e collective psyche. O n th e
o n e side we s h o u ld have th e d iffe ren tiate d m o d e rn ego, a n d on
th e o th e r a sort of n e g ro id c u ltu re , a very p rim itiv e state of
affairs. W e s h o u ld have, in fact, w h a t actu ally exists— a v en eer of
civ ilization over a d ark -sk in n ed b ru te ; a n d th e cleavage w o u ld
b e clearly d e m o n s tra te d b efo re o u r eyes. B u t such a dissociation
re q u ire s im m e d ia te synthesis a n d th e d e v e lo p m e n t of w h a t has
re m a in e d u n d ev e lo p ed . T h e r e m u s t b e a u n io n of th e tw o parts;
for, fa ilin g th at, th e re is n o d o u b t how th e m a tte r w o u ld be d e-
cided: th e p rim itiv e m a n w o u ld in ev itab ly lapse back in to r e -
pression. B u t th a t u n io n is possible o nly w h ere a still v alid a n d
th ere fo re liv in g re lig io n exists, w h ich allows th e p rim itiv e m a n
a d e q u a te m eans of expression th ro u g h a rich ly dev elo p ed sym-
bolism . In o th e r words, in its dogm as a n d rites, this relig io n
m u st possess a m o d e of th in k in g a n d a c tin g th a t harks back to
th e m ost p rim itiv e level. Such is th e case in C atholicism , a n d
this is its special ad v an tag e as w ell as its g reatest dan g er.
*57 B efore we go in to this n ew q u estio n of a possible u n io n , let
us r e tu r n to th e d re a m fro m w h ich we started. T h is w hole dis-
cussion has given us a w id e r u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e d ream , a n d
p a rtic u la rly of on e essential p a rt of it— th e feeling of fear. T h is
fear is a p rim itiv e d re a d of th e co n ten ts of th e collective u n c o n -
scious. As we have seen, th e p a tie n t identifies h erself w ith Mrs.
X , th e re b y show ing th a t she also has som e re la tio n to th e m yste-
rio u s artist. I t p ro v e d th a t th e d o c to r was id en tified w ith th e
artist, a n d fu r th e r we saw th a t o n th e su b jectiv e level I becam e
« Cf. “A rchetypes of the Collective U nconscious,” pars. 74ft.

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

an im age fo r th e figure of th e m agician in th e collective u n c o n -

scious.
*58 All this is covered in th e d re am by th e sym bol of th e crab,
w h ich walks backw ards. T h e crab is th e liv in g c o n te n t of th e
unconscious, a n d it c a n n o t be ex h au sted o r m ad e ineffective by
analysis o n th e objective level. W e can, how ever, separate th e
m ythological o r collective psychic co n ten ts from th e objects of
consciousness, a n d co nsolidate th em as psychological realities
o u tsid e th e in d iv id u a l psyche. T h r o u g h th e act of co g n itio n we
“p o sit” th e reality of th e archetypes, or, m o re precisely, we pos-
tu la te the psychic existence of such co n ten ts o n a cognitive basis.
I t m u st em p h atically be stated th a t it is n o t ju s t a q u estio n of
cognitive contents, b u t of tran sub jectiv e, largely a u to n o m o u s
psychic systems w hich o n th a t a c co u n t are only very c o n d itio n -
ally u n d e r th e co n tro l of th e conscious m in d a n d for th e m ost
p a rt escape it alto g eth er.
*59 So lo n g as th e collective unconscious a n d th e in d iv id u a l
psyche are co u p le d to g eth er w ith o u t b e in g d ifferen tiated , n o
progress can be m ade; or, to speak in term s of th e d ream , th e
b o u n d a ry c a n n o t be crossed. If, d espite th at, th e d re a m e r m akes
read y to cross th e b o rd er-lin e, th e u n conscious becom es acti-
vated, seizes her, a n d holds h e r fast. T h e d re a m a n d its m ateria l
characterize th e collective unconscious p artly as a lo w er an im al
th a t lives h id d e n in th e d ep th s of th e w ater, a n d p artly as a d a n -
gerous disease th a t can b e c u re d only by a tim ely o p eratio n . T o
w h at e x te n t this ch aracterizatio n is a p t has alread y b ee n seen. As
we have said, th e a n im al sym bol p o in ts specifically to th e e x tra -
h u m a n , th e tran sperso n al; fo r th e co n ten ts of th e collective u n -
conscious are n o t only th e residues of archaic, specifically h u m a n
m odes of fu n c tio n in g , b u t also th e residues of fu n ctio n s from
m a n ’s an im al ancestry, whose d u ra tio n in tim e was in fin itely
g re ater th a n th e relatively b rie f epoch of specifically h u m a n
existence. T h e s e residues, o r “en g ram s,” as S em on calls th e m ,7

7 In his philosophical dissertation on Leibniz's theory of th e unconscious (Das

Unbewusste bei Leibniz in Beziehung zu modernen Theorien), Ganz has used
th e engram theory of R . W . Semon to explain the collective unconscious. T h e
concept of the collective unconscious advanced by m e coincides only a t certain
points w ith Sem on’s concept of the phylogenetic mneme. Cf. Semon, Die M nem e
als erhaltendes Prinzip im Wechsel des organischen Geschehens (1904); trans. by
L. Simon as T he M nem e.

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are ex trem ely liable, w h en activated, n o t only to re ta rd the pace

of d ev elo pm ent, b u t actually to force it in to regression u n til th e
store of energy th a t activated th e unconscious has b een used up.
B u t th e energy becom es serviceable again by b ein g b ro u g h t in to
play th ro u g h m an 's conscious a ttitu d e tow ards th e collective u n -
conscious. T h e religions have established this cycle of energy in
a co ncrete way by m eans of ritu a l c o m m u n io n w ith the gods.
T h is m eth o d , how ever, is too m u ch at v ariance w ith o u r in te l-
lectual m orality, a n d has m o reo v e r b ee n too radically su p -
p la n te d by C h ristian ity , for us to accept it as an ideal, or even
possible, so lu tio n of th e p ro b lem . If o n the o th e r h a n d we take
the figures of the unconscious as collective psychic p h en o m e n a
or functions, this hypothesis in n o way violates o u r in tellectu a l
conscience. I t offers a ra tio n a lly acceptable solu tio n, an d at the
sam e tim e a possible m e th o d of effecting a s ettlem en t w ith the
activated residues of o u r racial history. T h is s ettlem en t makes
th e crossing of previous b o u n d a rie s a lto g eth e r feasible a n d is
th erefo re ap p ro p ria te ly called the transcendent fu n c tio n . I t is
synonym ous w ith progressive d ev e lo p m e n t tow ards a new a tti-
tu d e.
i6° T h e p arallel w ith th e hero-m yth is very striking. M ore often
th a n n o t th e typical struggle of th e h ero w ith the m o n ster (the
unconscious co n te n t) takes place beside th e w ater, perh ap s at a
ford. T h is is th e case p artic u la rly in th e R ed sk in m yths w ith
w h ich L o n g fello w ’s H ia w a th a has m ad e us fam iliar. In the deci-
sive b a ttle th e h ero is, like J o n a h , in variab ly swallowed by the
m o n ster, as F ro b en iu s has show n8 w ith a w ealth of d etail. B ut,
once inside th e m on ster, the h ero begins to settle accounts w ith
th e c re a tu re in his ow n way, w h ile it swims eastw ards w ith h im
tow ards th e risin g sun. H e cuts off a p o rtio n of the viscera, the
h e a rt fo r instance, o r som e essential o rg an by v irtu e of w hich the
m o n ste r lives (i.e., th e v aluab le energy th a t activates the u n c o n -
scious). T h u s he kills th e m on ster, w hich th e n drifts to land,
w here th e hero, n ew -bo rn th ro u g h th e tra n sc e n d e n t fu n c tio n
(the “n ig h t sea jo u rn e y ,” as F ro b en iu s calls it), steps forth,
som etim es in the co m p an y of all those w h o m th e m o n ster has
previously d evo u red . I n this m a n n e r th e n o rm a l state of things
is restored, since th e unconscious, ro b b e d of its energy, n o
lo n g er occupies th e d o m in a n t position. T h u s th e m yth graphi-
8 Frobenius, Das Zeitalter des Sonnengottes.

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

cally describes th e p ro b le m w hich also engages o u r p a tie n t .9

161 I m u st no w em phasize the n o t u n im p o rta n t fact, w hich m u st
also have stru ck th e read er, th a t in th e d re am th e collective u n -
conscious ap p ears u n d e r a very n eg ativ e aspect, as so m eth in g
dan g ero u s a n d h arm fu l. T h is is because th e p a tie n t has a rich ly
developed, in d ee d positively lu x u ria n t, fantasy life, possibly d u e
to h er lite rary gift. H e r pow ers of fantasy are a sym ptom of ill-
ness in th a t she revels in th em far too m u ch a n d allows real life
to slip by. A ny m o re m ythology w o u ld be exceedingly d an g e r-
ous fo r her, because a g reat c h u n k of ex te rn al life stands before
her, still u n liv ed . She has too little h o ld u p o n life to risk all at
once a co m p lete reversal of s ta n d p o in t. T h e collective u n c o n -
scious has fallen u p o n h e r a n d th rea ten s to b e a r h e r away from a
re ality whose d em an d s have n o t b ee n ad eq u ately m et. A ccord-
ingly, as th e d re am indicates, th e collective unconscious h ad to
be p resen ted to h e r as so m eth in g d angerous, o therw ise she
w o u ld have b ee n only too read y to m ak e it a refu g e fro m the
d em an d s of life.
162 In ju d g in g a d re am we m u st observe very carefully how the
figures are in tro d u ce d . F o r exam ple, th e crab th a t personifies
th e unconscious is negative in th a t it “walks b ackw ards” an d , in
ad d itio n , holds back th e d re a m e r at th e critical m o m en t. M isled
by th e so-called d re am m echanism s of F re u d ia n m an u fa ctu re ,
such as d isplacem ent, inversion, etc., p eo p le have im ag in ed they
co u ld m ak e them selves in d e p e n d e n t of th e “façade” of th e
d re am by su p p o sin g th a t th e tru e d re am -th o u g h ts lay h id d e n
b e h in d it. As against this I have lo n g m a in ta in e d th a t we have
n o rig h t to accuse th e d re am of, so to speak, a d e lib e ra te m a -
n o eu v re calcu lated to deceive. N a tu r e is o ften obscure o r im -
p en e trab le, b u t she is n o t, like m an , deceitful. W e m u st th e re -
fore take it th a t th e d re am is ju st w h a t it p re te n d s to be, n e ith e r
m o re n o r less . 10 If it shows so m eth in g in a n egative light, th e re is
n o reason for assum ing th a t it is m e a n t positively. T h e arch e-
typal “ d an g e r at th e fo rd ” is so p a te n t th a t o n e is alm ost

» T h o se of m y readers w ho have a d eep er interest in the p rob lem of opposites

an d its solution, as well as in th e m ythological activity of the unconscious, are
referred to Symbols o f T ransform ation, Psychological Types, a n d T h e A rche-
types an d th e Collective Unconscious. [Cf. also M y steriu m C oniunctionis.—
E d i to r s .]
10 Cf. “G eneral Aspects of D ream Psychology.”

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 T H E A R CH ETYPES O F T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

te m p te d to take th e d re am as a w arn in g . B u t I m u st d isco u n te-

n an ce all such a n th ro p o m o rp h ic in te rp re ta tio n s. T h e d re am it-
self w ants n o th in g ; it is a self-evident c o n te n t, a p la in n a tu ra l fact
like the sugar in th e b lo o d of a d iab e tic o r th e fever in a p a tie n t
w ith typhus. I t is only we w ho, if we are clever a n d can u n rid d le
th e signs of n a tu re , tu r n it in to a w arn in g .
163 B u t— a w a rn in g of w hat? O f the obvious d an g e r th a t th e u n -
conscious m ig h t o v erp ow er th e d re a m e r a t th e m o m e n t of cross-
ing. A n d w h a t w o u ld b ein g o v erp o w ered m ean? A n invasion by
th e unconscious m ay very easily occu r a t m o m en ts of critical
change a n d decision. T h e b a n k fro m w h ich she approaches th e
riv er is h e r situ a tio n as k n o w n to us so far. T h is s itu a tio n has
p re c ip ita te d h e r in to a n e u ro tic d eadlock, as th o u g h she h ad
com e u p against a n im passable obstacle. T h e obstacle is re p re -
sen ted by th e d re a m as a perfectly passable river. So things do
n o t seem to b e very serious. B u t in th e river, m ost un ex p ected ly ,
th e crab is h id in g , a n d this rep resen ts th e real d an g e r on ac-
c o u n t of w h ich th e riv e r is, o r appears to be, im passable. F o r h ad
she on ly k n o w n b efo re h a n d th a t th e d an g ero u s crab was lu rk in g
a t this p a rtic u la r spot, she m ig h t p erh ap s have v e n tu re d to cross
som ew here else, o r have ta k e n o th e r p recau tio ns. I n th e d re a m -
er's p re se n t situ a tio n it is em in e n tly d esirab le th a t a crossing
s h o u ld be m ade. T h e crossing m eans in th e first place a carry in g
over— a tran sferen ce— of th e ea rlier situ a tio n to the doctor. T h a t
is th e new feature. W e re it n o t fo r th e u n p re d ic ta b le u n c o n -
scious, this w o u ld n o t involve such a g reat risk. B u t we saw th a t
th ro u g h th e tran sferen ce th e activity of arch ety p al figures is li-
able to be let loose, a fact we h a d n o t b a n k e d on. W e have reck-
o n e d w ith o u t o u r host, for we “ forgot th e gods.”
164 O u r d re a m e r is n o t a relig io u s person, she is “m o d e rn .” She
has fo rg o tte n th e re lig io n she was once tau g h t, she know s n o th -
in g of those m o m en ts w h e n th e gods in terv e n e, o r ra th e r she
does n o t k n o w th a t th e re are age-old situ atio n s w hose n a tu re it is
to stir us to th e d epths. O n e such s itu a tio n is love, its passion a n d
its d an g er. Love m ay s u m m o n fo rth u n su sp ected pow ers in th e
soul for w h ich we h ad b e tte r be p re p are d . “ R elig io ” in th e
sense of a “carefu l c o n sid e ra tio n ” of u n k n o w n dangers a n d
agencies— th a t is w h a t is in q u e stio n here. F ro m a sim ple p ro jec-
tio n love m ay com e u p o n h e r w ith all its fatal pow er, som e daz-
zlin g illu sio n th a t m ig h t th ro w h e r life off its n a tu ra l course.

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Is it a good th in g o r a bad, G o d o r devil, th a t will befall th e

d ream er? W ith o u t k n o w in g w hich, she feels th a t she is alread y
in its clutches. A n d w ho can say w h e th e r she will be ab le to cope
w ith this com plication! U n til now she h ad m an ag ed to c irc u m -
v en t such a n ev en tu ality , b u t now it th rea ten s to seize h o ld of
her. T h a t is a risk we sh o u ld avoid, or, if we m u st take th e
p lu n g e, we n eed a good deal of “ tru s t in G o d ” o r “fa ith ” in a
successful issue. T h u s , u n so u g h t a n d u n ex p e cted , th e q u estio n
creeps in of one's religious a ttitu d e to fate.
165 T h e d re am as it stands leaves th e d re a m e r n o alte rn a tiv e at
p re sen t b u t to w ith d raw h e r foot carefully; for to go o n w o u ld
be fatal. She c a n n o t yet leave th e n e u ro tic situ atio n , because the
d re am gives h e r n o positive in d ic a tio n of an y h e lp fro m th e u n -
conscious. T h e unconscious pow ers are still in au spicious a n d
obviously expect m o re w ork a n d a d ee p er in sig h t fro m th e
d re a m e r b efo re she can really v e n tu re across.
166 I certain ly d o n o t wish, by this n egative exam ple, to convey
the im pression th a t th e unconscious plays a negative ro le in all
cases. I w ill th erefo re a d d two fu r th e r dream s, this tim e of a
y o u n g m an, w hich illu m in a te a n o th e r a n d m o re fav o u rab le side
of th e unconscious. I do this th e m o re read ily since th e so lu tio n
o f th e p ro b le m of opposites can be reach ed only irra tio n a lly , by
way of c o n trib u tio n s from th e unconscious, i.e., fro m dream s.
167 F irst I m u st a c q u a in t th e re a d e r in som e m easu re w ith th e
p erso n ality of th e d re am er, fo r w ith o u t this a c q u a in ta n c e he will
h ard ly be ab le to tra n s p o rt him self in to th e p e c u lia r atm o sp h ere
of th e dream s. T h e r e are dream s th a t are p u re poem s a n d can
th ere fo re only be u n d e rsto o d th ro u g h th e m o o d they convey as
a w hole. T h e d re a m e r is a y o u th of a little ov er tw enty, still en -
tirely boyish in ap p earan ce. T h e r e is even a to u ch of g irlish -
ness in his looks a n d m a n n e r of expression. T h e la tte r betrays a
very good e d u c atio n a n d u p b rin g in g . H e is in te llig e n t, w ith p ro -
n o u n c e d in te lle c tu a l a n d aesthetic interests. H is aestheticism is
very m u c h in evidence: we are m ad e in stan tly aw are of his good
taste a n d his fine ap p re c ia tio n of all form s of art. H is feelings are
te n d e r a n d soft, given to th e enthusiasm s typical of p u b e rty , b u t
som ew hat effem inate. T h e r e is n o trace of adolescent callow -
ness. U n d o u b te d ly he is too y o u n g for his age, a clear case of
re ta rd e d d ev elo p m en t. I t is q u ite in k ee p in g w ith this th a t he
s h o u ld h ave com e to m e o n ac co u n t of his h om osexuality. T h e

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n ig h t p reced in g his first visit he h ad th e fo llow ing d ream : “I am

in a lofty cathedral filled w ith m ysterious tw ilig h t. T h e y tell m e
th a t it is th e cathedral at L o u r d e s . I n th e centre there is a deep
dark w ell, in to w h ich I have to descend ”
168 T h e d re am is clearly a co h e re n t expression of m ood. T h e
d re am er's co m m en ts are as follows: “ L o u rd e s is th e m ystic fo u n t
of healing. N a tu ra lly I re m e m b e re d yesterday th a t I was going
to you for tre a tm e n t a n d was in search of a cure. T h e r e is said to
be a well like this a t L ourdes. I t w o u ld be ra th e r u n p le a sa n t to
go d o w n in to this w ater. T h e w ell in th e c h u rc h was ever so
d ee p .”
169 N o w w h a t does d re a m tell us? O n th e surface it seems clear
en o u g h , a n d we m ig h t be c o n te n t to take it as a k in d of poetic
fo rm u la tio n of th e m o o d of th e day before. B u t we sh o u ld n ev er
stop th ere, fo r ex p erien ce shows th a t dream s are m u ch d ee p er
a n d m o re significant. O n e m ig h t alm ost suppose th a t th e d re a m e r
cam e to th e d o c to r in a h ig h ly p o etic m o o d a n d was e n te rin g
u p o n th e tre a tm e n t as th o u g h it w ere a sacred relig io u s act
to be p e rfo rm e d in th e m ystical half-light of som e aw e-inspir-
in g sanctuary. B u t this does n o t fit th e facts a t all. T h e p a tie n t
m erely cam e to th e d o c to r to b e tre a te d for th a t u n p le a sa n t
m a tte r, his h o m o sexuality, w h ich is a n y th in g b u t poetic. A t any
ra te we c a n n o t see fro m th e m o o d of th e p re ced in g day w hy he
sh o u ld d re am so poetically, if we w ere to accept so d irec t a causa-
tio n fo r th e o rig in of th e d ream . B u t we m ig h t con jectu re, p e r-
haps, th a t th e d re am was s tim u la te d precisely by th e d re am er's
im pressions of th a t h ig h ly u n p o e tic a l affair w hich im p elled h im
to com e to m e fo r tre a tm e n t. W e m ig h t even suppose th a t he
d re am ed in such an in ten sely poetical m a n n e r ju s t because of
th e un p o eticaln ess of his m o o d on th e day before, m u c h as a m an
w ho has fasted by day dream s of delicious m eals a t n ig h t. I t
c a n n o t be d e n ie d th a t th e th o u g h t of tre a tm e n t, of th e cu re a n d
its u n p le a sa n t p ro ced u re, recu rs in th e d ream , b u t poetically
transfigured, in a guise w h ich m eets m ost effectively the lively
aesth etic a n d em o tio n al needs of th e d re am er. H e w ill b e d ra w n
o n irresistib ly by this in v itin g p ictu re , d espite th e fact th a t the
well is dark, deep, a n d cold. S o m eth in g of th e d ream -m ood w ill
persist a fte r sleep a n d w ill even lin g e r o n in to th e m o rn in g of
th e day o n w hich he has to s u b m it to th e u n p le a sa n t a n d u n p o -
etical d u ty of visitin g m e. P erh ap s th e d ra b reality w ill be

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

to u ch e d by th e b rig h t, g o ld en after-glow of th e d re am feeling.

w Is this, perhaps, th e p u rp o se of th e dream ? T h a t w o u ld n o t
b e im possible, for in m y ex p erien ce th e vast m ajo rity of d ream s
are co m p en sato ry . 11 T h e y always stress th e o th e r side in o rd e r
to m a in ta in th e psychic e q u ilib riu m . B u t th e co m p en satio n of
m o o d is n o t th e only pu rp o se of th e d re a m p ictu re . T h e d re am
also provides a m e n ta l corrective. T h e p a tie n t h ad of course
n o th in g like an a d e q u a te u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e tre a tm e n t to
w h ich h e was a b o u t to s u b m it him self. B u t th e d re am gives h im
a p ic tu re w hich describes in p oetic m etap h o rs th e n a tu re of th e
tre a tm e n t befo re him . T h is becom es im m e d iately a p p a re n t if
we follow u p his associations a n d co m m en ts o n th e im age of th e
c a th ed ra l: “ C a th e d ra l,” he says, “m akes m e th in k of C ologne
C ath ed ral. E ven as a c h ild I was fascinated by it. I re m e m b e r m y
m o th e r tellin g m e of it for th e first tim e, a n d I also re m e m b e r
how , w h e n ev er I saw a village ch u rch , I used to ask if th a t w ere
C ologne C ath ed ral. I w a n te d to b e a p riest in a c a th ed ra l lik e
th a t.”
17 1 In these associations th e p a tie n t is d escrib in g a very im p o r-
ta n t ex p erien ce of his ch ild h o o d . As in n ea rly all cases of this
k in d , h e h ad a p a rtic u la rly close tie w ith his m o th er. By this we
are n o t to u n d e rs ta n d a p a rtic u la rly good o r in ten se conscious
re la tio n sh ip , b u t so m eth in g in th e n a tu re of a secret, s u b te rra -
n e a n tie w hich expresses itself consciously, perhaps, on ly in th e
re ta rd e d d e v e lo p m e n t of character, i.e., in a re la tiv e in fan tilism .
T h e d ev elo p in g p erso n ality n a tu ra lly veers away fro m such an
unconscious in fa n tile b o n d ; for n o th in g is m o re o b stru ctiv e to
d ev e lo p m e n t th a n persistence in a n unconscious— we co u ld also
say, a psychically em b ry o n ic— state. F o r this reaso n in stin c t
seizes o n th e first o p p o rtu n ity to rep lace th e m o th e r by a n o th e r
object. If it is to b e a real m o th er-su b stitu te, this ob ject m u st be,
in som e sense, an analogy of her. T h is is en tire ly th e case w ith
o u r p a tie n t. T h e in ten sity w ith w hich his ch ildish fantasy seized
u p o n th e sym bol of C ologne C a th e d ra l corresp o n d s to th e
stre n g th of his unconscious n ee d to find a s u b stitu te for th e
m o th er. T h e unconscious n ee d is h e ig h te n e d still fu r th e r in a
case w h ere th e in fa n tile b o n d co u ld becom e h arm fu l. H e n c e th e
en th u siasm w ith w h ich his ch ild ish im a g in a tio n to o k u p th e id ea
11 T h e idea of com pensation has already been extensively used by A lfred Adler.

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of th e C h u rch ; fo r th e C h u rc h is, in th e fu llest sense, a m o th er.

W e speak n o t only of M o th e r C h u rch , b u t even of th e C h u rc h ’s
w om b. I n the cerem o n y k n o w n as th e b en edictio fo n tis , th e b a p -
tism al fo n t is ap o stro p h ized as “im m a cu latu s d iv in i fontis
u te ru s ”— th e im m a cu late w o m b of th e d iv in e font. W e n a tu ra lly
th in k th a t a m an m u st have k n o w n this m e a n in g consciously b e-
fore it co u ld get to w ork in his fantasy, a n d th a t a n u n k n o w in g
ch ild co u ld n o t possibly be affected by these significations. Such
analogies ce rtain ly do n o t w ork by way of th e conscious m in d ,
b u t in q u ite a n o th e r m an n e r.
>7 * T h e C h u rc h rep resen ts a h ig h e r sp iritu a l s u b stitu te fo r th e
p u re ly n a tu ra l, o r “c a rn a l,” tie to th e parents. C o n seq u en tly it
frees th e in d iv id u a l fro m an unconscious n a tu ra l re la tio n sh ip
w hich, strictly speaking, is n o t a re la tio n sh ip a t all b u t sim ply a
co n d itio n of inchoate, unconscious id en tity . T h is , ju st because
it is unconscious, possesses a tre m e n d o u s in e rtia a n d offers th e
u tm o st resistance to any k in d of s p iritu a l d ev elo p m en t. I t w o uld
be h a rd to say w h a t th e essential difference is b etw een th is state
a n d th e soul of an an im al. N ow , it is by n o m eans th e special
p rero g ativ e of th e C h ristia n C h u rc h to try to m ak e it possible
for th e in d iv id u a l to d etach him self fro m his orig in al, a n im a l-
lik e c o n d itio n ; th e C h u rc h is sim ply th e latest, a n d specifically
W estern , fo rm of an in stin ctiv e striv in g th a t is p ro b a b ly as o ld
as m a n k in d itself. I t is a striv in g th a t can be fo u n d in th e m ost
v arie d form s a m o n g all p rim itiv e peoples w h o are in any way
d ev elo p ed a n d have n o t yet becom e d eg e n era te: I m ea n th e in -
s titu tio n o r rite of in itia tio n in to m an h o o d . W h e n h e has
re ach e d p u b e rty th e y o u n g m a n is co n d u c te d to th e “m e n ’s
h o u se,” o r some o th e r place of consecration, w h ere he is system-
atically a lien a ted fro m his fam ily. A t th e sam e tim e h e is in iti-
ate d in to th e religious m ysteries, a n d in this way is u sh ered n o t
o n ly in to a w holly n ew set of relatio n sh ip s, b u t, as a re n ew e d
a n d ch an g ed personality, in to a new w orld, like o n e re b o rn
(iq uasim odo genitus). T h e in itia tio n is o ften a tte n d e d by all
k inds of to rtu res, som etim es in c lu d in g such things as circu m ci-
sion a n d th e like. T h e s e practices are u n d o u b te d ly very old.
T h e y have alm ost becom e in stin ctiv e m echanism s, w ith th e re -
su lt th a t they c o n tin u e to re p e a t them selves w ith o u t ex te rn a l
c o m p u lsio n , as in th e “b ap tism s” of G e rm a n stu d en ts o r th e

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

even m o re w ildly e x tra v ag a n t in itia tio n s in A m eric an students*

fratern ities. T h e y are en g rav ed o n th e u nconscious as a p rim o r-
dial im age.
*73 W h e n his m o th e r to ld h im as a little boy a b o u t C ologne C a-
th ed ra l, this p rim o rd ia l im age was s tirre d a n d aw ak en ed to life.
B u t th ere was n o priestly in s tru c to r to develop it fu rth e r, so th e
c h ild re m a in e d in his m o th e r’s hands. Y et th e lo n g in g fo r a
m a n ’s lead ersh ip c o n tin u e d to grow in th e boy, ta k in g th e fo rm
of h o m osexual leanings— a faulty d e v e lo p m e n t th a t m ig h t n ev e r
have com e a b o u t h a d a m a n b een th e re to ed u cate his child ish
fantasies. T h e d ev iatio n tow ards h o m osex u ality has, to b e sure,
n u m e ro u s h isto rical precedents. I n a n c ie n t G reece, as also in
c e rta in p rim itiv e co m m u n ities, h o m o sex u ality a n d ed u catio n
w ere p ractically synonym ous. V iew ed in this lig h t, th e hom osex-
u a lity of adolescence is only a m isu n d e rs ta n d in g of th e otherw ise
very a p p ro p ria te n ee d for m ascu lin e g uidance. O n e m ig h t also
say th a t th e fear of incest w h ich is based o n th e m o th er-co m p lex
extends to w o m en in g en eral; b u t in m y o p in io n a n im m a tu re
m a n is q u ite rig h t to be afraid of w om en, because his re la tio n s
w ith w o m en are generally disastrous.
*74 A cco rd in g to th e dream , th en , w h a t th e in itia tio n of th e
tre a tm e n t signifies for th e p a tie n t is th e fu lfilm en t of th e tru e
m e a n in g of his h o m osexuality, i.e., his e n try in to th e w o rld of
th e a d u lt m an. A ll th a t we have b e e n forced to discuss h e re in
such tedious a n d long-w inded d etail, in o rd e r to u n d e rs ta n d it
pro p erly , th e d re am has co n d en sed in to a few vivid m etap h o rs,
thus c reatin g a p ic tu re w hich w orks fa r m o re effectively o n th e
im ag in atio n , feeling, a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e d re a m e r th a n
any lea rn e d discourse. C o n seq u en tly th e p a tie n t was b e tte r a n d
m o re in tellig e n tly p re p a re d for th e tre a tm e n t th a n if h e h a d
b ee n o v erw h elm ed w ith m edical a n d pedagogical m axim s. (For
this reason I re g ard dream s n o t only as a v alu a b le source of in -
fo rm a tio n b u t as a n e x tra o rd in a rily effective in s tru m e n t of e d u -
cation.)
»75 W e com e n o w to th e second d re am . I m u st ex p la in in ad -
vance th a t in th e first co n su ltatio n I d id n o t re fe r in an y way to
th e d re am we have ju s t b ee n discussing. I t was n o t even m e n -
tio n ed . N o r was th ere a w o rd said th a t was even re m o te ly co n -
n ec ted w ith th e foregoing. T h is is th e second d re am : “I am in a
great G o th ic cathedral. A t th e altar stands a p riest. I sta n d be-

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 T H E A R CH ETYPES O F T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

fo re h im w ith m y fr ie n d , ho ld in g in m y h a n d a little Japanese

ivory figure, w ith the fe e lin g that it is g o in g to be b a ptized . S u d -
d en ly an elderly w o m a n appears, takes th e fra tern ity ring fr o m
m y frien d 's finger, a n d p u ts it on h er o w n . M y fr ie n d is afraid
th a t this m ay b in d h im in so m e way. B u t at th e sam e m o m e n t
there is a s o u n d o f w o n d e r fu l organ m u s ic !'
*7 ^ H e re I w ill o n ly b rin g o u t briefly those p o in ts w h ich co n -
tin u e a n d s u p p le m e n t th e d re am of th e p reced in g day. T h e sec-
o n d d re am is u n m ista k ab ly co n n ected w ith th e first: once m o re
th e d re a m e r is in ch u rch , th a t is, in th e state of in itia tio n in to
m a n h o o d . B u t a n ew figure has b een ad d ed : th e priest, whose
absence in th e prev io u s s itu a tio n we have already n o ted . T h e
d re a m th ere fo re confirm s th a t th e unco n scio u s m e a n in g of his
h o m o sex u ality has b ee n fulfilled a n d th a t a fu r th e r d ev e lo p m e n t
can b e started. T h e actu al in itia tio n cerem ony, n am ely th e b a p -
tism , m ay no w b egin. T h e d re a m sym bolism co rro b o rates w h a t I
said before, n am ely th a t it is n o t th e p rero g ativ e of th e C h ristia n
C h u rc h to b rin g a b o u t such tran sitio n s a n d psychic tran sfo rm a-
tions, b u t th a t b e h in d th e C h u rc h th e re is a liv in g p rim o rd ia l
im age w h ich in c e rta in c o n d itio n s is cap ab le of en fo rcin g them .
177 W h a t, acco rd in g to th e d ream , is to be b ap tized is a little
Jap a n ese ivory figure. T h e p a tie n t says of this: “I t was a tiny,
g ro tesq u e little m a n ik in th a t re m in d e d m e of th e m ale organ. I t
was ce rtain ly o d d th a t this m e m b e r was to b e baptized. B u t afte r
all, w ith th e Jew s circu m cisio n is a sort of b aptism . T h a t m u st be
a referen ce to m y h o m o sexuality, because th e frie n d stan d in g
w ith m e b efo re th e a lta r is th e o n e w ith w h o m I have sexual
relatio n s. W e b elo n g to th e sam e fratern ity . T h e fratern ity rin g
obviously stands for o u r re la tio n s h ip .”
178 W e k n o w th a t in co m m o n usage th e rin g is th e to k en of a
b o n d o r rela tio n sh ip , as fo r ex am p le th e w e d d in g rin g . W e can
th e re fo re safely take th e fra te rn ity rin g in this case as sym boliz-
in g th e ho m o sex u al re la tio n sh ip , a n d th e fact th a t th e d re a m e r
ap p ears to g eth er w ith his frie n d p o in ts in th e sam e directio n .
179 T h e c o m p la in t to be re m e d ied is hom osexuality. T h e
d re a m e r is to be led o u t of this relativ ely ch ild ish co n d itio n a n d
in itia te d in to th e a d u lt state by m eans of a k in d of circum cision
cerem o n y u n d e r th e sup erv ision of a priest. T h e s e ideas co rre-
sp o n d exactly to m y analysis of th e prev io u s dream . T h u s far th e
d e v e lo p m e n t has p ro ceed ed logically a n d consistently w ith th e

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

aid of archetypal images. B u t now a d is tu rb in g factor comes on

th e scene. A n elderly w o m an su d d en ly takes possession of the
fra te rn ity rin g ; in o th e r words, she draw s to herself w h a t has
h ith e rto b ee n a h o m osexual rela tio n sh ip , th u s causing the
d re a m e r to fear th a t he is g ettin g involved in a new re la tio n sh ip
w ith o b ligations of its own. Since th e rin g is n o w o n th e h a n d of
a w om an, a m arriag e of sorts has b ee n co n tracted , i.e., th e h o m o -
sexual re la tio n sh ip seems to have passed o ver in to a hetero sex u al
one, b u t a hetero sex u al re la tio n sh ip of a p e c u lia r k in d since it
concerns a n elderly w om an. “She is a frie n d of m y m o th e r's ,”
says th e p atien t. “I am very fo n d of her, in fact she is like a
m o th e r to m e.”
180 F ro m this re m a rk we can see w h a t has h a p p e n e d in th e dream :
as a re su lt of th e in itia tio n th e ho m o sex u al tie has b ee n cu t a n d
a h etero sex u al re la tio n sh ip su b stitu te d for it, a p lato n ic frie n d -
sh ip w ith a m o th erly type of w om an. I n spite of h e r resem b lan ce
to his m o th er, this w o m an is n o t his m o th e r any longer, so the
re la tio n sh ip w ith h e r signifies a step b ey o n d th e m o th e r tow ards
m asculinity, a n d h ence a p a rtia l co n q u e st of his adolescent h o -
m osexuality.
181 T h e fear of th e new tie can easily b e u n d ersto o d , firstly as
fear w h ich th e w o m an 's resem b lan ce to his m o th e r m ig h t n a tu -
rally arouse— it m ig h t be th a t th e d isso lu tio n of th e hom osexual
tie has led to a co m p lete regression to th e m o th e r— a n d secondly
as fear of th e new a n d u n k n o w n factors in th e a d u lt h etero sex u al
state w ith its possible obligations, such as m arriag e, etc. T h a t we
are in fact co n cern ed h ere n o t w ith a regression b u t w ith a p ro -
gression seems to b e confirm ed by th e m usic th a t n o w peals
fo rth . T h e p a tie n t is m usical a n d especially susceptible to sol-
e m n o rgan m usic. T h e re fo re m usic signifies for h im a very posi-
tive feeling, so in this case it form s a h a rm o n io u s co n clusion to
th e d ream , w h ich in its t u r n is w ell q u alified to leave b e h in d a
b ea u tifu l, holy feeling for th e follow ing m o rn in g .
182 j f y OU co n sid er th e fact th a t u p to now th e p a tie n t h ad seen
m e for o nly on e c o n su ltatio n , in w h ich little m o re was discussed
th a n a g eneral anam nesis, you w ill d oubtless agree w ith m e
w h en I say th a t b o th dream s m ak e asto n ish ing an ticip atio n s.
T h e y show th e p a tie n t's s itu a tio n in a h ig h ly re m a rk a b le light,
a n d o n e th a t is very strange to th e conscious m in d , w h ile at th e
sam e tim e len d in g to th e b an a l m edical situ a tio n a n aspect th at

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 T H E ARCH ETY PES O F T H E COLLECTIV E UNCONSCIOUS

is u n iq u e ly a ttu n e d to th e m e n ta l p ecu liarities of th e d ream er,

a n d th u s cap ab le of strin g in g his aesthetic, in tellectu a l, a n d re li-
gious interests to co n c ert p itch. N o b e tte r c o n d itio n s for trea t-
m e n t c o u ld possibly b e im ag in ed . O n e is alm ost p ersu ad ed , fro m
th e m e a n in g of these dream s, th a t th e p a tie n t e n te re d u p o n th e
tre a tm e n t w ith th e u tm o st readiness a n d hopefulness, q u ite p re -
p a re d to cast aside his boyishness a n d b eco m e a m an . I n reality,
how ever, this was n o t th e case a t all. C onsciously h e was fu ll
of h esitatio n a n d resistance; m oreover, as th e tre a tm e n t p ro -
gressed, he co n stan tly show ed him self an tag o n istic a n d difficult,
ever read y to slip back in to his p rev io u s in fan tilism . C onse-
q u e n tly th e dream s stan d in strict co n tra st to his conscious b e -
h avio u r. T h e y m ove alo n g a progressive lin e a n d take th e p a rt of
th e ed u cato r. T h e y clearly reveal th e ir special fu n c tio n . T h is
fu n c tio n I have called co m p en satio n . T h e u n conscious progres-
siveness a n d th e conscious regressiveness to g eth er fo rm a p a ir of
opposites w hich, as it w ere, keeps th e scales balan ced . T h e influ-
ence of th e e d u c a to r tilts th e b alan ce in fa v o u r of progression.
183 I n th e case of this y o u n g m a n th e im ages of th e collective
unconscious play an e n tire ly positive role, w h ich comes fro m th e
fact th a t he has n o really d an g ero u s ten d e n cy to fall back o n a
fantasy-substitute fo r re a lity a n d to e n tre n c h him self b e h in d it
against life. T h e effect of these unco n sciou s im ages has some-
th in g fatefu l a b o u t it. P erh ap s— w ho knows?— these e te rn a l im -
ages are w h a t m e n m ea n by fate.
184 T h e archetypes are of course always at w o rk everyw here. B u t
p ractical tre a tm e n t, especially in th e case of y o u n g people, does
n o t always re q u ir e th e p a tie n t to com e to close q u a rte rs w ith
th em . A t th e clim acteric, o n th e o th e r h an d , it is necessary to
give special a tte n tio n to th e images of th e collective u n c o n -
scious, because they are th e source fro m w h ich h in ts m ay be
d ra w n for th e so lu tio n of th e p ro b le m of opposites. F ro m th e
conscious ela b o ra tio n of this m ateria l th e tra n sc e n d e n t fu n c tio n
reveals itself as a m o d e of ap p re h e n sio n m e d ia te d by th e arch e-
types a n d cap ab le of u n itin g th e opposites. By “a p p re h e n s io n ” I
d o n o t m ea n sim ply in tellectu a l u n d e rsta n d in g , b u t u n d e rs ta n d -
in g th ro u g h experience. A n archetype, as we have said, is a dy-
n am ic im age, a frag m en t of th e o b jectiv e psyche, w h ich can be
tru ly u n d e rsto o d on ly if ex p e rien c ed as an a u to n o m o u s entity.
185 A g en eral acco u n t of this process, w h ich m ay e x te n d o v er a

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 ON TH E PSYCHOLOGY OF TH E UNCONSCIOUS

lo n g p e rio d of tim e, w o u ld b e pointless— even if such a descrip-

tio n w ere possible— because it takes th e greatest im ag in ab le v ari-
ety of form s in d ifferen t in d ivid uals. T h e o nly co m m o n factor is
th e em ergence of c e rta in d efinite archetypes. I w o u ld m e n tio n
in p a rtic u la r th e shadow , the an im al, th e wise old m an , th e
a nim a, th e anim us, th e m o th e r, th e child, besides an in d efin ite
n u m b e r of archetypes re p rese n ta tiv e of situations. A special p o -
sition m u st be accorded to those archetypes w hich stan d fo r th e
goal of th e d ev e lo p m e n tal process. T h e re a d e r w ill find th e n ec-
essary in fo rm a tio n o n this p o in t in m y P sychology a nd A lc h e m y ,
as w ell as in “ Psychology a n d R e lig io n ” a n d th e v o lu m e w ritte n
in c o llab o ratio n w ith R ic h a rd W ilh elm , T h e Secret o f th e
G o lden F lo w er.
186 T h e tra n sc e n d e n t fu n c tio n does n o t p ro ceed w ith o u t aim a n d
purpose, b u t leads to th e re v elatio n of th e essential m an. I t is in
th e first place a p u re ly n a tu ra l process, w hich m ay in som e cases
p u rsu e its course w ith o u t th e know ledge o r assistance of th e in -
d iv id u al, a n d can som etim es forcibly accom plish itself in th e
face of o p p osition. T h e m e a n in g a n d p u rp o se o f th e process is
th e realization, in all its aspects, of th e p erso n ality o rig in ally
h id d e n away in th e em b ry o n ic germ -plasm ; th e p ro d u c tio n a n d
u n fo ld in g of the o rigin al, p o te n tia l w holeness. T h e sym bols
used by th e unconscious to this e n d are th e sam e as those w hich
m a n k in d has always used to express wholeness, com pleteness,
a n d p erfection: sym bols, as a ru le, of th e q u a te rn ity a n d th e cir-
cle. F o r these reasons I have te rm e d this th e in d iv id u a tio n
process.
187 T h is n a tu ra l process of in d iv id u a tio n served m e b o th as a
m odel a n d g u id in g p rin c ip le for m y m e th o d of tre a tm e n t. T h e
unconscious co m p e n sa tio n of a n e u ro tic conscious a ttitu d e con-
tains all th e elem ents th a t co u ld effectively a n d h ea lth ily correct
th e one-sidedness of th e conscious m in d if these elem ents w ere
m ad e conscious, i.e., w ere u n d e rsto o d a n d in te g ra te d in to it as
realities. I t is only very seldom th a t a d re a m achieves such in -
tensity th a t th e shock is e n o u g h to th ro w th e conscious m in d o u t
of th e saddle. As a ru le dream s are too feeble a n d too u n in te llig i-
ble to exercise a rad ical influence o n consciousness. I n conse-
qu en ce, the co m p en satio n ru n s u n d e rg ro u n d in th e unconscious
a n d has n o im m e d iate effect. B u t it has som e effect all th e sam e;
only, it is in d ire c t in so far as th e unconscious o p p o sitio n w ill,

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 T H E AR CH ETY PES O F T H E CO LLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

if consistently ig n o red , a rran g e sym ptom s a n d situ atio n s w hich

irresistibly th w a rt o u r conscious in ten tio n s. T h e aim of th e tre a t-
m e n t is th ere fo re to u n d e rs ta n d a n d to ap p reciate, so far as p rac-
ticable, dream s a n d all o th e r m an ifestatio n s of th e unconscious,
firstly in o rd e r to p re v e n t th e fo rm a tio n of a n u nconscious o p p o -
sitio n w h ich becom es m o re d an g ero u s as tim e goes on, a n d sec-
o n d ly in o rd e r to m ak e th e fullest possible use of th e h ea lin g
factor of co m p ensatio n .
188 T h e s e p roceedings n a tu ra lly rest o n th e assu m p tio n th a t a
m a n is cap ab le of a tta in in g wholeness, in o th e r words, th a t he
has it in h im to be healthy. I m e n tio n this assu m p tio n because
th e re are w ith o u t d o u b t in d iv id u a ls w ho are n o t a t b o tto m a lto -
g e th e r v iab le a n d w h o ra p id ly p erish if, fo r any reason, they
com e face to face w ith th e ir wholeness. E ven if this does n o t
h ap p e n , they m erely lea d a m iserab le existence fo r th e rest of
th e ir days as frag m en ts o r p a rtia l personalities, sh o red u p by so-
cial o r psychic p arasitism . Such p eo p le are, very m u c h to th e
m isfo rtu n e of others, m o re o ften th a n n o t in v eterate h u m b u g s
w ho cover u p th e ir deadly em ptiness u n d e r a fine o u tw a rd show.
I t w o u ld be a hopeless u n d e r ta k in g to try to tre a t th e m w ith th e
m e th o d h ere discussed. T h e on ly th in g th a t “ h elp s” h ere is to
k ee p u p th e show, fo r th e t r u t h w o u ld be u n e n d u r a b le o r use-
less.
189 W h e n a case is tre a te d in th e m a n n e r in d icated , th e in itia -
tive lies w ith th e unconscious, b u t all criticism , choice, a n d deci-
sion lie w ith th e conscious m in d . If th e decision is rig h t, it w ill
be co n firm ed by dream s ind icativ e of progress; in th e o th e r
even t co rre c tio n w ill follow fro m th e side of th e unconscious.
T h e course of tre a tm e n t is th u s ra th e r like a ru n n in g conversa-
tio n w ith th e unconscious. T h a t th e co rrect in te rp r e ta tio n of
dream s is of p a ra m o u n t im p o rta n c e sh o u ld b e sufficiently clear
fro m w h a t has b ee n said. B u t w hen, you m ay rig h tly ask, is one
su re of th e in te rp re ta tio n ? Is th e re a n y th in g a p p ro a c h in g a re li-
ab le c rite rio n fo r th e correctness of an in te rp re ta tio n ? T h is
q u estio n , hap p ily , can b e answ ered in th e affirmative. If we have
m ad e a w ro n g in te rp re ta tio n , o r if it is som ehow in co m p lete, we
m ay be ab le to see it fro m th e n e x t d ream . T h u s , fo r exam ple,
th e e a rlie r m o tif w ill b e re p e a te d in cle are r form , o r o u r in te r-
p re ta tio n m ay b e deflated by som e iro n ic p arap h rase, o r it m ay
m e e t w ith straig h tfo rw ard v io le n t o p p o sitio n . N o w su p posing

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 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

th a t these in te rp re ta tio n s also go astray, th e g en eral in co n c lu -

siveness a n d fu tility of o u r p ro c e d u re will m ake itself felt soon
en o u g h in th e bleakness, sterility, a n d pointlessness of th e u n -
d erta k in g , so th a t d o cto r a n d p a tie n t alike w ill b e suffocated
e ith e r by b o re d o m o r by d o u b t. J u s t as th e re w a rd o f a co rrect
in te rp r e ta tio n is an u p ru s h of life, so an in co rrect o n e doom s
th e m to deadlock, resistance, d o u b t, a n d m u tu a l desiccation.
Stoppages can of course also arise fro m th e resistance of th e p a -
tie n t, as for instance fro m an o b stin ate c lin g in g to o u tw o rn illu -
sions o r to in fa n tile dem ands. Som etim es, too, th e d o cto r lacks
th e necessary u n d e rsta n d in g , as once h a p p e n e d to m e in th e case
of a very in te llig e n t p a tie n t, a w o m an w ho, fo r various reasons,
lo o k ed to m e ra th e r a ru m custom er. A fte r a satisfactory b e g in -
n in g I h ad th e feelin g m o re a n d m o re th a t som ehow m y in te r-
p re ta tio n of h e r dream s was n o t q u ite h ittin g th e m ark . As I was
u n a b le to lay m y finger o n th e source of erro r, I trie d to talk
m yself o u t of m y dou b ts. B u t d u rin g th e c o n su ltin g h o u rs I
becam e aw are of th e g ro w in g d ullness of o u r conversation, w ith
a steadily m o u n tin g sense of ex c ru cia tin g fu tility . F in ally I re-
solved to speak a b o u t it a t th e n e x t o p p o rtu n ity to m y p a tie n t,
who, it seem ed to m e, h a d n o t failed to n o tice this fact. T h e n e x t
n ig h t I h a d th e follow ing d re am : I was w a lkin g alon g a co u n try
road th ro u g h a valley lit by th e ev e n in g sun. T o m y rig ht, sta n d -
in g on a steep h ill, was a castle, a n d on th e to p m o st tow er, on a
k in d o f balustrade, sat a w o m a n . I n o rder to see h er p ro p erly I
h ad to b e n d m y head back so far that I go t a crick in th e n e c k .
E v e n in m y dream I recognized th e w o m a n as m y p a tie n t.12
*9 ° F ro m this I c o n c lu d ed th a t if I h a d to lo o k u p so m u c h in th e
d ream , I m u st obviously have lo ok ed d o w n o n m y p a tie n t in
reality. W h e n I to ld h e r th e d re a m to g e th e r w ith th e in te rp r e -
tatio n , a co m p lete change cam e over th e situ a tio n a t once a n d
th e tre a tm e n t shot ah e ad b ey o n d all ex p ectatio n . E x p erien ces of
this k in d , a lth o u g h p a id fo r very dearly, lea d to a n u n sh ak a b le
confidence in th e re lia b ility of d re a m com pensations.
19 1 T o th e m a n ifo ld p ro b lem s in v olved in this m e th o d of tre a t-
m e n t a ll m y lab o u rs a n d researches have b ee n d ev o te d for th e
last ten years. B u t since, in this p re sen t ac co u n t of analytical
psychology, I am co n c ern e d on ly to p ro v id e a g en e ral survey, a
12 [F u rth e r details in “T h e R ealities of Practical Psychotherapy/* in the 2nd edn.
o f T h e Practice o f P sychotherapy, pars. 540S. Cf. in fra, p ar. 281.—E d itors.]

2756
 T H E ARC H ETYPES O F T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

m o re d etailed ex p o sitio n of the w idely ram ified scientific, p h ilo -

sophical, an d religious im p licatio n s m u st re m a in in abeyance.
F o r this I shall have to re fe r m y re a d e r to th e lite ra tu re I have
m en tio n ed .

2757
 VIII
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE THERAPEUTIC
APPROACH TO THE UNCONSCIOUS

x9 2 W e are greatly m istak en if we th in k th a t th e unconscious is

so m eth in g harm less th a t co u ld be m ad e in to an o b ject of e n te r-
ta in m e n t, a p a rlo u r gam e. C erta in ly th e unconscious is n o t al-
ways a n d in all circum stances d angerous, b u t as soon as a n e u r o -
sis is p re sen t it is a sign of a special h ea p in g u p of energy in th e
unconscious, like a charge th a t m ay explode. H e re ca u tio n is
in d icated . O n e n ev er know s w h at one m ay b e releasing w h e n
o n e begins to analyse dream s. S o m eth in g deeply b u rie d a n d in -
visible m ay th ere b y b e set in m o tio n , very p ro b a b ly so m eth in g
th a t w o u ld have com e to lig h t sooner o r la te r anyw ay— b u t
again, it m ig h t no t. I t is as if o n e w ere dig g ing an artesian w ell
a n d ra n the risk of stu m b lin g on a volcano. W h e n n e u ro tic
sym ptom s are p re sen t o n e m u st p ro ceed very carefully. B u t th e
n e u ro tic cases are n o t by a lo n g way th e m ost d angerous. T h e r e
are cases of people, a p p a re n tly q u ite n o rm al, show ing n o espe-
cial n e u ro tic sym ptom s— they m ay them selves be doctors a n d ed -
ucators— p rid in g them selves o n th e ir n o rm ality , m odels of good
u p b rin g in g , w ith ex cep tio n ally n o rm a l views a n d h ab its of life,
yet whose n o rm a lity is an artificial c o m p e n sa tio n for a la te n t
psychosis. T h e y them selves suspect n o th in g of th e ir co n d itio n .
T h e i r suspicions m ay p erh ap s find on ly an in d ire c t expression
in th e fact th a t they are p a rtic u la rly in te re ste d in psychology
a n d psychiatry, a n d are a ttra c te d to these things as a m o th to th e
lig h t. B u t since th e analytical te c h n iq u e activates th e u n c o n -
scious a n d b rin gs it to the fore, in these cases th e h e a lth fu l co m -
p en satio n is destroyed, the unconscious breaks fo rth in th e fo rm
of u n c o n tro lla b le fantasies a n d o v erw ro u g h t states w h ich m ay,
in ce rta in circum stances, lead to m e n ta l d iso rd e r a n d possibly
even to suicide. U n fo rtu n a te ly these la te n t psychoses are n o t so
very u n co m m o n .

2758
 GENERAL REMARKS

*93 T h e d an g e r of stu m b lin g on cases like these th rea ten s every-

body w ho concerns h im self w ith th e analysis of the unconscious,
even if he be e q u ip p e d w ith a large m easu re of ex p erien ce a n d
skill. T h r o u g h clum siness, m istak en ideas, a rb itra ry in te rp re ta -
tions, a n d so fo rth , he m ay even w reck cases th a t n eed n o t neces-
sarily have tu r n e d o u t badly. T h is is by n o m eans p ec u lia r to the
analysis of th e unconscious, b u t is the p en a lty of all m edical in -
te rv e n tio n th a t m iscarries. T h e assertion th a t analysis drives
p eople m ad is obviously ju s t as s tu p id as th e v u lg ar n o tio n th a t
th e psychiatrist is b o u n d to go m ad because he deals w ith lu n a -
tics.
*94 A p a rt fro m th e risks of tre a tm e n t, th e unconscious m ay also
tu r n d an g ero u s on its ow n account. O n e of th e com m onest
form s of d a n g e r is th e in stig a tin g of accidents. A very large n u m -
b er of accidents of every d escrip tio n , m o re th a n p eople w o u ld
ever guess, are of psychic causation, ra n g in g from triv ial m ishaps
like stu m b lin g , b a n g in g oneself, b u r n in g one's fingers, etc., to
car smashes a n d catastrophes in th e m o u n ta in s: all these m ay be
psychically caused a n d m ay som etim es have b een p re p a rin g for
weeks o r even m o n th s. I have e x a m in e d m an y cases of this k in d ,
a n d o ften I co u ld p o in t to dream s w hich show ed signs of a te n d -
ency to self-injury weeks b efo reh a n d . A ll those accidents th a t
h ap p e n from so-called carelessness sh o u ld be ex a m in e d for such
d ete rm in a n ts. W e k no w of course th a t w h en for o n e reason o r
a n o th e r we feel o u t of sorts, we are liab le to co m m it n o t only th e
m in o r follies, b u t so m eth in g really d an g erou s w hich, given th e
rig h t psychological m o m en t, m ay w ell p u t an e n d to o u r lives.
T h e p o p u la r saying, “ O ld so-and-so chose th e rig h t tim e to d ie,"
com es from a sure sense of th e secret psychological cause in qu es-
tion. In th e sam e way, b o d ily ills can be b ro u g h t in to b e in g o r
p ro tra cted . A w ro n g fu n c tio n in g of th e psyche can do m u ch to
in ju re th e body, ju s t as conversely a b o d ily illness can affect the
psyche; fo r psyche a n d body are n o t sep arate en tities b u t one
a n d th e sam e life. T h u s th ere is seldom a b od ily a ilm e n t th at
does n o t show psychic com plications, even if it is n o t psychically
caused.
*95 I t w o u ld be w rong, how ever, to dw ell only on th e u n fa v o u r-
able side of th e unconscious. In all o rd in a ry cases th e u n c o n -
scious is u n fa v o u ra b le o r d an g ero u s only because we are n o t at
o n e w ith it a n d th ere fo re in o p p o sitio n to it. A negative a ttitu d e

2759
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

to th e unconscious, o r its s p littin g oft, is d e trim e n ta l in so fa r as

th e dynam ics of the unconscious are id en tica l w ith in stin c tu a l
energ y . 1 D isalliance w ith th e unconscious is synonym ous w ith
loss of in stin c t a n d rootlessness.
*96 If we can successfully develop th a t fu n c tio n w h ich I have
called tran scen d en t, th e d ish arm o n y ceases a n d we can th e n e n -
joy th e fav o u rab le side of th e unconscious. T h e unconscious
th e n gives us all th e e n c o u rag e m en t a n d h e lp th a t a b o u n tifu l
n a tu re can show er u p o n m an . I t holds possibilities w h ich are
locked away from the conscious m in d , for it has at its disposal all
s u b lim in a l psychic contents, all those thin g s w hich have b ee n
fo rg o tte n o r overlooked, as w ell as th e w isdom a n d ex p erien ce of
u n c o u n te d ce n tu ries w h ich are laid d o w n in its archety pal o r-
gans.
*97 T h e unconscious is co n tin u a lly active, c o m b in in g its m a te -
ria l in ways w h ich serve th e fu tu re . I t produces, n o less th a n th e
conscious m in d , s u b lim in a l co m b in atio n s th a t are prospective;
only, they are m ark ed ly su p e rio r to th e conscious co m b in atio n s
b o th in re fin em en t a n d in scope. F o r these reasons th e u n c o n -
scious co u ld serve m a n as a u n iq u e g uide, p ro v id e d th a t he can
resist th e lu re of b ein g m isguided.
*9 8 In practice th e tre a tm e n t is a d ju sted acco rd in g to th e th e ra -
p e u tic results o b tain ed . R esults m ay a p p e a r a t alm ost any stage
of th e tre a tm e n t, q u ite irrespective of th e severity o r d u ra tio n of
th e illness. A n d conversely, th e tre a tm e n t of a severe case m ay
last a very lo n g tim e w ith o u t reach in g , o r n e e d in g to reach, th e
h ig h e r stages of d ev elo p m en t. T h e r e are a fa ir n u m b e r who,
even afte r th e ra p e u tic results have b ee n o b tain ed , go th ro u g h
f u r th e r stages of tran sfo rm a tio n for th e sake of th e ir ow n devel-
o p m en t. So it is n o t tru e th a t o n e m u st be a serious case in o rd e r
to go th ro u g h th e w hole process. A t all events o n ly those in d i-
viduals can a tta in to a h ig h e r degree of consciousness w ho are
d e stin ed to it a n d called to it from th e b eg in n in g , i.e., w h o have
a capacity a n d an u rg e for h ig h e r d iffe ren tiatio n . I n this m a tte r
m e n differ extrem ely, as also d o th e a n im a l species, am o n g
w h o m th e re are conservatives a n d progressives. N a tu r e is aristo -
cratic, b u t n o t in th e sense of h av in g reserved th e possibility of
d iffe ren tiatio n exclusively for species h ig h in th e scale. So too
w ith th e possiblity of psychic d ev e lo p m e n t: it is n o t reserved fo r
1 Cf. “In stin ct a n d th e U n conscious/’

2760
 GENERAL REMARKS

specially g ifted in d iv id u als. In o th e r words, in o rd e r to u n d e rg o

a far-reach in g psychological d ev elo p m en t, n e ith e r o u tsta n d in g
in tellig en ce n o r any o th e r ta le n t is necessary, since in this devel-
o p m e n t m o ral q u alities can m ak e u p for in tellectu a l sh o rtco m -
ings. I t m u st n o t o n any ac co u n t be im ag in ed th a t th e tre a tm e n t
consists in g ra ftin g u p o n people's m in d s g en eral form ulas a n d
co m p licated d octrines. T h e r e is n o q u e stio n of th at. Each can
take w h a t h e needs, in his ow n way a n d in his ow n language.
W h a t I have p re sen ted h ere is an in tellectu a l fo rm u la tio n ; it is
n o t th e sort of th in g discussed in th e g en eral r u n of practical
w ork. T h e little snip p ets of case histories I have woven in to m y
th em e give a ro u g h id ea of w h a t h ap p e n s in practice.
*99 If, a fte r all th a t has b e e n re la te d in th e foregoing chapters,
th e re a d e r s h o u ld still n o t feel capable of fo rm in g a clear p ic tu re
of th e th eo ry a n d p ractice of m o d e rn m edical psychology, th a t
w o uld n o t su rp rise m e so very m u ch . I w o u ld , o n th e contrary,
be in c lin e d to b lam e m y fau lty gift of ex p osition, since I can
h ard ly h o p e to give a co n crete p ic tu re of th a t w ide field of
th o u g h t a n d ex p erien ce w h ich is th e d o m a in of m ed ical psychol-
ogy. O n p a p e r th e in te rp r e ta tio n of a d re a m m ay look arb itrary ,
m u d d led , a n d sp u rio u s; b u t th e sam e th in g in re ality can be a
little d ra m a of u n su rp assed realism . T o experien ce a d re am a n d
its in te rp re ta tio n is very d ifferen t fro m h a v in g a tep id reh ash set
b efore you o n p ap er. E v ery th in g a b o u t this psychology is, in th e
deepest sense, ex p erien ce; th e e n tire theory, even w h ere it p u ts
o n th e m ost ab stra ct airs, is th e d ire c t o u tco m e of so m eth in g ex-
perienced. If I accuse th e F re u d ia n sexual th eo ry of one-sided-
ness, th a t does n o t m e a n th a t it rests o n rootless sp ecu latio n ; it
too is a fa ith fu l p ic tu re of real facts w h ich force them selves u p o n
o u r p ractical observation. A n d if th e inferences m ad e fro m th em
p ro life rate in to a one-sided theory, th a t only goes to show w ith
w h a t pow ers of persuasion, b o th objective a n d subjective, th e
facts in q u estio n them selves b rin g to bear. T h e in d iv id u a l inves-
tig ato r can h ard ly be asked to rise s u p e rio r to his ow n deepest
im pressions a n d th e ir ab stract fo rm u la tio n ; for th e acquisi-
tio n of such im pressions as w ell as th e ir co n c ep tu al m astery is in
itself th e la b o u r of a lifetim e. F o r m y p a rt, I h a d the g re at ad -
v antage over b o th F re u d a n d A d ler of n o t h av in g g row n u p
w ith in th e n a rro w confines of a psychology of th e neuroses;
ra th e r, I ap p ro a c h th em fro m th e side o f psychiatry, p re p a re d

2761
 ON T H E PSYCHOLOGY O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

fo r m o d e rn psychology by N ietzsche, a n d a p a rt fro m F re u d ’s

views I also h ad b efore m y eyes th e g ro w th of th e views of A dler.
In this way I fo u n d m yself in th e th ick of th e conflict fro m th e
very b eg in n in g , a n d was forced to re g ard n o t only th e ex istin g
o p inions, b u t m y ow n as well, as relativ e, o r ra th e r as expres-
sions of a c e rta in psychological type. J u s t as th e B re u e r case we
h ave discussed was decisive for F re u d , so a decisive ex p erien ce
u n d e rlie s m y ow n views. T o w a rd s th e e n d of m y m edical tra in -
in g I observed for a lo n g p e rio d a case of so m n am b u lism in a
y o u n g girl. I t b ecam e th e th em e of m y d o c to r’s d issertatio n .2
F o r on e a c q u a in te d w ith m y scientific w ritin g s it m ay n o t b e
w ith o u t in tere st to co m p are this forty-year-old study w ith m y
la te r ideas.
aoo W o rk in this field is p io n e e r w ork. I have o ften m ad e m is-
takes a n d h ad m an y tim es to forget w h a t I h a d learned . B u t I
k n o w a n d am c o n te n t to k n o w th a t as surely as lig h t comes o u t
of darkness, tr u th is b o rn of erro r. I have le t G u g lielm o Fer-
r e r o ’s m o t a b o u t th e “m isérab le v an ité d u sav an t” 3 serve m e for
a w arn in g , a n d have th ere fo re n e ith e r feared m y m istakes n o r
seriously re g re tte d th em . F o r m e, scientific research w ork was
n ev er a m ilch-cow o r a m eans of prestige, b u t a struggle, o ften a
b itte r one, forced u p o n m e by daily psychological ex p erien ce of
th e sick. H e n c e n o t ev e ry th in g I b rin g fo rth is w ritte n o u t of m y
head, b u t m u c h of it com es fro m th e h e a rt also, a fact I w o u ld
b eg th e gracious re a d e r n o t to o verlook if, fo llow ing u p th e in -
tellectu al lin e of th o u g h t, he comes u p o n c e rta in lacu n ae th a t
have n o t b een p ro p e rly filled in. A h a rm o n io u s flow of exposi-
tio n can be ex pected only w h en one is w ritin g a b o u t things
w hich o n e already knows. B u t w hen, u rg e d o n by th e n ee d to
h e lp a n d to heal, o n e acts as a path-finder, o n e m u st speak also of
realities as yet u n k n o w n .
2 “ O n the Psychology a n d Pathology of So-called O ccult P h en o m en a.”
3 “C ’est donc u n devoir m o ral de l'h om m e de science de s'exposer à com m ettre
des erreu rs et à su b ir des critiques, p o u r q u e la science avance toujours. . . .
Ceux q u i sont doués d 'u n esprit assez sérieux et froid p o u r ne pas croire q u e
to u t ce q u ’ils écrivent est l'expression de la vérité absolue et éternelle, ap p ro u v en t
cette théorie q u i place les raisons de la science au-dessus de la m isérable vanité
e t d u m esquin am o u r p ro p re d u savant."— Les Lois psychologiques d u sy m -
bolisme, p. viii; trans. of I sim boli in rapporto alla storia e filosofía del d iritto
alla psicología e alla sociología (1893).

2762
 CONCLUSION

*01 In con clusio n I m u st ask th e re a d e r to forgive m e fo r h av in g

v e n tu re d to say in these few pages so m u c h th a t is new a n d
p erh ap s h a rd to u n d e rsta n d . I expose m yself to his critical ju d g -
m e n t because I feel it is th e d u ty of o n e w ho goes his ow n way to
in fo rm society of w h a t h e finds o n his voyage of discovery, b e it
cooling w a te r fo r th e th irsty o r th e sandy wastes of u n fr u itfu l
erro r. T h e o n e helps, th e o th e r w arns. N o t th e criticism of in d i-
v id u al c o n te m p o raries will decide th e tr u th o r falsity of his dis-
coveries, b u t fu tu re g en eratio n s. T h e r e are things th a t are n o t
yet tru e today, p erh ap s we d are n o t find th em tru e, b u t to m o r-
ro w they m ay be. So every m a n w hose fate it is to go his in d iv id -
ual way m u st p ro ceed w ith hopefulness a n d w atchfulness, ever
conscious of his loneliness a n d its dangers. T h e p ecu lia rity of th e
way h ere d escrib ed is largely d u e to th e fact th a t in psychology,
w h ich springs fro m a n d acts u p o n real life, we can n o lo n g er
appeal to th e n arro w ly in tellectu a l, scientific s ta n d p o in t, b u t are
d riv en to take acco u n t of th e s ta n d p o in t of feeling, a n d conse-
q u e n tly of ev ery th in g th a t th e psyche actu ally contains. In p rac-
tical psychology we are d ea lin g n o t w ith any generalized h u m a n
psyche, b u t w ith in d iv id u a l h u m a n beings a n d th e m u ltitu d i-
no u s p ro b lem s th a t oppress them . A psychology th at satisfies th e
in tellect alo n e can n ev e r be practical, for th e totality of th e
psyche can n ev er b e grasped by in tellect alone. W h e th e r we w ill
o r no, philo so p h y keeps b re a k in g th ro u g h , because the psyche
seeks an expression th a t w ill em b race its to tal n a tu re .

2763
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 II
THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE
EGO AND THE UNCONSCIOUS
This page intentionally left blank
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION (1935)

T h is little b ook is th e o u tco m e of a lec tu re w h ich was originally

p u b lish ed in 1916 u n d e r the title “ L a S tru c tu re de l'in c o n -
scien t.” 1 T h is sam e lectu re la te r a p p e are d in E nglish u n d e r th e
title “T h e C o n cep tio n of th e U n co n scio u s” in m y C ollected Pa-
pers on A n a lytica l Psychology .2 I m e n tio n these facts because I
wish to place it o n re co rd th a t th e p re sen t essay is n o t m ak in g its
first ap p earan ce, b u t is ra th e r th e expression of a long-standing
en d e av o u r to grasp a n d — at least in its essential features— to d e-
pict th e strange ch aracter a n d course of th a t dram e in térieu r,
th e tran sfo rm atio n process of th e unconscious psyche. T h is idea
of th e in d e p e n d en ce of the unconscious, w hich distinguishes m y
views so radically fro m those of F re u d , cam e to m e as far back as
1902, w h en I was engaged in stu d y in g th e psychic history of a
yo u n g girl so m n am b u list.3 In a lec tu re given in Z u rich [1908]
o n “T h e C o n te n t of th e Psychoses,” I a p p ro ach e d this idea from
a n o th e r side. I n 1912, I illu stra te d som e of th e m a in p o in ts of
th e process in a n in d iv id u a l case a n d a t th e sam e tim e I in d i-
cated th e historical a n d eth n o lo g ical parallels to these seem ingly
u n iv ersal psychic events.4 I n th e ab o v e-m en tio n ed essay, “ L a
S tru c tu re de l'in c o n sc ie n t,” I a tte m p te d fo r th e first tim e to give
a co m prehensive acco u n t of th e w hole process. I t was a m ere
attem p t, of whose in ad eq u acy I was p ain fu lly aw are. T h e diffi-
culties p resen ted by th e m ateria l w ere so g re at th a t I co u ld n o t
h o p e to do th e m a n y th in g like ju stice in a single essay. I th e re -
fore let it rest a t th e stage of an “ in te rim re p o rt,” w ith th e firm
in te n tio n of re tu r n in g to this th e m e a t a la te r o p p o rtu n ity .
T w e lv e years of fu rth e r ex p erien ce en a b le d m e, in 1928, to u n -
d erta k e a th o ro u g h revision of m y fo rm u la tio n s of 1916, a n d
th e re su lt of these lab o u rs was th e little b o o k D ie B ezie h u n g e n
1 Cf. below, pars. 442ff.: “T h e S tru cture of th e U nconscious.”
2 2 n d edn., L ondon, 1917; New York, 1920.
3 “ O n the Psychology an d Pathology of So-called O ccult P h en o m en a.”
4 W a nd lu ng cn u n d Sym bole der L ib id o (Leipzig a n d Vienna, 1912); trans. by
B eatrice M. H ink le as Psychology of th e Unconscious (New York, 1916; L ondon,
1917). [R ew ritten as Symbole der W a n d lu n g (Zurich, 1952), trans. in Coll. W orks,
Vol. 5: Symbols of Transform ation. — E d i t o r s . ]

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

zw ischen d em Ic h u n d d em U nbew ussten. 5 T h is tim e I trie d to

describe chiefly th e re la tio n of th e ego-consciousness to th e u n -
conscious process. F o llo w in g this in te n tio n , I c o n c ern e d m yself
m o re p a rtic u la rly w ith those p h e n o m e n a w hich are to b e re -
g ard ed as th e reactive sym ptom s of th e conscious p erso n ality to
th e influences of th e unconscious. In this way I trie d to effect an
in d ire c t ap p ro ach to the unconscious process itself. T h e s e inves-
tigations have n o t yet com e to a satisfactory conclusion, for th e
answ er to th e crucial p ro b le m of th e n a tu re a n d essence of th e
unconscious process has still to b e fo u n d . I w o u ld n o t v e n tu re
u p o n this exceedingly difficult task w ith o u t th e fullest possible
experience. Its so lu tio n is reserved fo r th e fu tu re .
I tru s t th e re a d e r of this b o o k will b e a r w ith m e if I beg h im
to re g ard it— sh o u ld h e persevere— as an earn est a tte m p t o n m y
p a rt to form an in tellectu a l co n c ep tio n of a n ew a n d h ith e rto
u n e x p lo re d field of experience. I t is n o t c o n c ern e d w ith a clever
system of th o u g h t, b u t w ith th e fo rm u la tio n of co m p lex psychic
experiences w hich have n ev e r yet b ee n th e su b ject of scientific
study. Since th e psyche is an irra tio n a l d a tu m a n d can n o t, in
accordance w ith th e o ld p ictu re , be e q u a te d w ith a m o re o r less
d iv in e R eason, it sh o u ld n o t su rp rise us if in th e course o f psy-
chological ex p erien ce we com e across, w ith ex tre m e frequency,
processes a n d h a p p e n in g s w h ich r u n c o u n te r to o u r ra tio n a l ex-
p ectatio n s a n d a re th ere fo re re je cted by th e ra tio n a listic a ttitu d e
of o u r conscious m in d . Such a n a ttitu d e is n a tu ra lly n o t very
skilled a t psychological ob serv atio n because it is in th e h ig h est
degree unscientific. W e m u st n o t a tte m p t to tell n a tu re w h a t to
d o if we w a n t to observe h e r op eratio n s u n d is tu rb e d .
I t is tw enty-eight years of psychological a n d psychiatric ex-
p erien ce th a t I am try in g to sum u p h ere, so p erh ap s m y little
b o o k m ay lay som e claim to serious co n sid eratio n . N a tu ra lly I
co u ld n o t say ev ery th in g in this single ex position. T h e re a d e r
w ill find a d ev e lo p m e n t of th e last ch a p ter, [w ith referen ce to
th e co n cep t of th e self], in m y c o m m en ta ry to T h e Secret of the
G old en F low er, th e b o o k I b ro u g h t o u t in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith
m y frie n d R ic h a rd W ilh elm . I d id n o t wish to o m it referen ce to
this p u b licatio n , because O rie n ta l p h ilo so p h y has b e e n con-
5 [T rans, by H . G. a n d C. F. Baynes as “T h e R elations Betw een the Ego and the
Unconscious” in T w o Essays on A nalytical Psychology (L ondon a n d New York,
1928 ).]

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 PREFACES

ce rn ed w ith these in te rio r psychic processes for m an y h u n d re d s

of years a n d is th erefo re, in view of th e great n ee d for co m p a ra-
tive m aterial, of in estim ab le v alu e in psychological research.

O cto b er 1934 C. G . J u n g

PREFACE T O T H E T H IR D E D IT IO N (1938)

T h e n ew ed itio n is p u b lish e d w ith o u t changes. Since this w ork

first a p p e are d n o new p o in ts of view have em erg ed w hich m ig h t
have m ad e revisions desirable. I w o u ld like to preserve th e ch a r-
acter of this little b o o k — an u n p re te n tio u s in tro d u c tio n to the
psychological p ro b lem s of th e process of in d iv id u a tio n — a n d n o t
b u rd e n it w ith copious details th a t m ig h t lim it its read ab ility .

A p r il 1938 C. G. J u n g

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 P A R T ONE

THE EFFECTS OF THE UNCONSCIOUS

UPON CONSCIOUSNESS

THE PERSONAL AND THE COLLECTIVE

UNCONSCIOUS

202 i n Freud’s view, as most people know, the contents of the

unconscious are reducible to infantile tendencies which are re-
pressed because of their incompatible character. Repression is a
process that begins in early childhood under the moral influence
of the environment and continues throughout life. By means of
analysis the repressions are removed and the repressed wishes
made conscious.
2°3 According to this theory, the unconscious contains only
those parts of the personality which could just as well be con-
scious, and have been suppressed only through the process of
education. Although from one point of view the infantile tend-
encies of the unconscious are the most conspicuous, it would
nonetheless be a mistake to define or evaluate; the unconscious
entirely in these terms. The unconscious has still another side to
it: it includes not only repressed contents, but all psychic mate-
rial that lies below the threshold of consciousness. It is impos-
sible to explain the subliminal nature of all this material on the
principle of repression, for in that case the removal of repression
ought to endow a person with a prodigious memory which would
thenceforth forget nothing.
204 We therefore emphatically affirm that in addition to the re-
pressed material the unconscious contains all those psychic com-
ponents that have fallen below the threshold, as well as sub-

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW E EN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

lim in a l sense-perceptions. M o reo v er we know , from a b u n d a n t

ex p erien ce as well as for th eo retical reasons, th a t th e unconscious
also co n tain s all th e m ateria l th a t has n o t yet re ach e d th e th re sh -
o ld of consciousness. T h e s e are th e seeds of fu tu re conscious co n -
tents. E q u ally we have reason to suppose th a t th e unconscious is
n ev er q u iescen t in th e sense of b e in g inactive, b u t is ceaselessly
engaged in g ro u p in g a n d re g ro u p in g its contents. T h is activity
sh o u ld be th o u g h t of as co m p letely a u to n o m o u s only in p a th o -
logical cases; n o rm ally it is co -o rd in ated w ith th e conscious m in d
in a com pensatory re la tio n sh ip .
205 I t is to be assum ed th a t all these co n ten ts are of a p erso n al
n a tu re in so far as they are a c q u ire d d u rin g th e in d iv id u a l’s life.
Since this life is lim ited , th e n u m b e r of a c q u ire d co n ten ts in th e
unconscious m u st also be lim ited . T h is b e in g so, it m ig h t be
th o u g h t possible to em p ty th e unconscious e ith e r by analysis or
by m ak in g a co m p lete in v en to ry of th e unconscious contents, o n
the g ro u n d th a t th e unconscious c a n n o t p ro d u c e a n y th in g m o re
th a n w h a t is already k n o w n a n d assim ilated in to consciousness.
W e sh o u ld also have to suppose, as already said, th a t if o n e co u ld
arrest th e descent of conscious co n ten ts in to th e unconscious by
d o in g away w ith repression, unconscious p ro d u c tiv ity w o u ld be
paralysed. T h is is possible only to a very lim ite d ex te n t, as we
k n o w fro m experience. W e u rg e o u r p atien ts to h o ld fast to re -
pressed co n ten ts th a t have b ee n re-associated w ith consciousness,
a n d to assim ilate th e m in to th e ir p la n of life. B u t this p ro ce-
d u re , as we m ay daily convince ourselves, m akes n o im pression
o n th e unconscious, since it calm ly goes o n p ro d u c in g dream s
a n d fantasies w hich, acco rd in g to F r e u d ’s o rig in al theory, m u st
arise fro m personal repressions. If in such cases we p u rsu e o u r
observations system atically a n d w ith o u t p re ju d ic e, we shall find
m a te ria l w hich, a lth o u g h sim ilar in form to th e prev io u s p e r-
sonal co n ten ts, yet seems to c o n ta in allusions th a t go far b ey o n d
th e p erso nal sphere.
806 C asting a b o u t in m y m in d fo r a n ex am p le to illu stra te w h at
I have ju s t said, I have a p a rtic u la rly vivid m em o ry of a w om an
p a tie n t w ith a m ild hysterical n eu ro sis w hich, as we expressed it
in those days [ab o u t 1910], h a d its p rin c ip a l cause in a “ father-
com p lex .” By this we w a n te d to d en o te th e fact th a t th e p a-
tie n t’s p e c u lia r re la tio n sh ip to h e r fa th e r stood in h e r way. She
h a d b ee n o n very good term s w ith h e r fa th e r, w h o h ad since

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 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

died. I t was a re la tio n sh ip chiefly of feeling. In such cases it is

usu ally the in te lle c tu a l fu n c tio n th a t is developed, a n d this later
becom es th e b rid g e to th e w orld. A ccordingly o u r p a tie n t b e -
cam e a stu d e n t of philosophy. H e r en erg etic p u rs u it of k n o w l-
edge was m o tiv a ted by h e r n e e d to ex tricate herself from th e
em o tio n al e n ta n g le m e n t w ith h e r fath er. T h is o p e ra tio n m ay
succeed if h e r feelings can find an o u tle t o n th e n ew in tellectu a l
level, perh ap s in th e fo rm a tio n of an em o tio n al tie w ith a suit-
ab le m an , eq u iv a le n t to th e fo rm e r tie. In this p a rtic u la r case,
how ever, th e tra n sitio n refu sed to take place, because th e pa-
tie n t's feelings re m a in e d suspended, oscillating b etw een h e r fa-
th e r a n d a m a n w ho was n o t a lto g eth e r suitab le. T h e progress of
h e r life was th us h eld u p , a n d th a t in n e r d isu n ity so ch aracteris-
tic of a neurosis p ro m p tly m ad e its ap p earan ce. T h e so-called
n o rm a l p erson w o u ld p ro b a b ly be ab le to b re a k th e em o tio n al
b o n d in one o r th e o th e r d ire c tio n by a p o w erfu l act of will, or
else— a n d this is p erh ap s th e m o re u su al th in g — he w o u ld com e
th ro u g h th e difficulty unconsciously, o n th e sm o o th p a th of in -
stinct, w ith o u t ever b e in g aw are of th e sort of conflict th a t lay
b e h in d his headaches o r o th e r physical discom forts. B u t any
w eakness of in stin c t (w hich m ay have m an y causes) is en o u g h to
h in d e r a sm ooth unconscious tran sitio n . T h e n all progress is d e-
layed by conflict, a n d th e re su ltin g stasis of life is e q u iv a le n t to a
neurosis. In co n seq uen ce of th e standstill, psychic energy flows
off in every conceivable d irec tio n , a p p a re n tly q u ite uselessly.
F o r instance, th e re are excessive in n erv a tio n s of th e sym pathetic
system, w h ich lead to n erv o u s disorders of th e stom ach a n d in -
testines; o r th e vagus (an d co n seq u en tly th e h eart) is stim u -
lated ; o r fantasies a n d m em ories, u n in te re s tin g e n o u g h in th e m -
selves, becom e o verv alu ed a n d p rey o n th e conscious m in d
(m o u n tain s o u t of m olehills). In this state a new m otive is
n e e d e d to p u t an e n d to th e m o rb id suspension. N a tu re herself
paves th e way for this, unconsciously a n d in d irectly , th ro u g h the
p h e n o m e n o n o f th e transferen ce (F reud). In th e course of
tre a tm e n t th e p a tie n t transfers th e father-im ago to th e doctor,
th u s m a k in g him , in a sense, th e fath er, a n d in th e sense th a t he
is n o t the fath er, also m ak in g h im a s u b stitu te for th e m a n she
c a n n o t reach. T h e d o cto r th ere fo re becom es b o th a fa th e r a n d a
k in d of lover— in o th e r words, an ob ject of conflict. In h im th e
opposites are u n ite d , a n d for this reaso n h e stands fo r a quasi-

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 T H E RELATIONS B ETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

ideal so lu tio n of the conflict. W ith o u t in th e least w ishing it, he

draw s u p o n him self an over-valuation th a t is alm ost in cre d ib le
to th e ou tsid er, for to th e p a tie n t he seems like a saviour o r a
god. T h is way of sp eak in g is n o t alto g eth e r so lau g h ab le as it
sounds. I t is in d e e d a b it m u c h to be a fa th e r a n d lover at once.
N o b o d y co u ld possibly stan d u p to it in th e lo n g ru n , precisely
because it is too m u c h of a good th in g . O n e w o u ld have to be a
d em ig od a t least to sustain such a ro le w ith o u t a b reak, for all
th e tim e one w o u ld have to be th e giver. T o th e p a tie n t in th e
state of transference, this p rovisional so lu tio n n a tu ra lly seems
ideal, b u t only a t first; in th e e n d she comes to a standstill th a t is
ju st as b a d as th e n e u ro tic conflict was. F u n d am en tally , n o th in g
has yet h a p p e n e d th a t m ig h t lead to a real so lu tio n . T h e conflict
has m erely b ee n tran sferred . N evertheless a successful tran sfer-
ence can— at least tem p o ra rily — cause th e w hole neurosis to dis-
ap p ear, a n d for this reason it has b ee n very rig h tly recognized by
F re u d as a h ea lin g factor of first-rate im p o rtan ce, b u t, at th e
sam e tim e, as a pro v isio nal state only, for a lth o u g h it holds o u t
th e possibility of a cure, it is far fro m b e in g th e cu re itself.
2°7 T h is som ew hat len g th y discussion seem ed to m e essential ii
m y ex am p le was to be u n d ersto o d , for m y p a tie n t h a d a rriv ed at
th e state of tran sferen ce a n d h ad already reach ed the u p p e r lim it
w h ere th e standstill begins to m ak e itself disagreeable. T h e
q u estio n n o w arose: w h a t next? I h ad of course becom e th e com -
p lete saviour, a n d th e th o u g h t of h av in g to give m e u p was n o t
only exceedingly distasteful to th e p a tie n t, b u t positively terrify -
ing. In such a situ a tio n “so u n d co m m o n sense” generally comes
o u t w ith a w hole re p e rto ry of ad m o n itio n s: “ you sim ply m u st,”
“you really o u g h t,” “you ju s t c a n n o t,” etc. So far as so u n d com -
m o n sense is, hap p ily , n o t too ra re a n d n o t en tire ly w ith o u t
effect (pessimists, I know , exist), a ra tio n a l m o tiv e can, in th e
e x u b e ra n t feelin g of buoyancy you get fro m th e transference,
release so m u c h en th u siasm th a t a p a in fu l sacrifice can be risked
w ith a m ig h ty effort of will. If successful— a n d these things som e-
tim es are— th e sacrifice bears blessed fru it, a n d th e erstw hile p a-
tie n t leaps at on e b o u n d in to th e state of b ein g practically cured.
T h e d o cto r is gen erally so d elig h ted th a t he fails to tackle th e
theoretical difficulties co n n ected w ith this little m iracle.
208 If the leap does n o t succeed— a n d it d id n o t succeed w ith m y
p a tie n t— o n e is th e n faced w ith th e p ro b le m of resolving th e

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 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

transference. H e re “ psychoanalytic” th eo ry shrouds itself in a

thick darkness. A p p a ren tly we are to fall back on som e n eb u lo u s
tru st in fate: som ehow o r o th e r th e m a tte r will settle itself. “T h e
transference stops a u to m atica lly w h en th e p a tie n t ru n s o u t of
m o n e y /’ as a slightly cynical colleague once re m a rk ed to me. O r
the in elu cta b le d em an d s of life m ak e it im possible for the p a-
tie n t to lin g er on in th e tran sferen ce— d em ands w hich com pel
the in v o lu n ta ry sacrifice, som etim es w ith a m o re o r less com -
p lete relapse as a result. (O n e m ay look in vain for accounts of
such cases in th e books th a t sing the praises of psychoanalysis!)
2°9 T o be sure, th ere are hopeless cases w here n o th in g helps; b u t
th ere are also cases th a t do n o t get stuck a n d do n o t inevitably
leave the transference situ a tio n w ith b itte r hearts a n d sore
heads. I told myself, at this ju n c tu re w ith my p a tie n t, th a t th ere
m u st be a clear a n d respectable way o u t of the impasse. My p a-
tien t h ad lo n g since r u n o u t of m oney— if in d eed she ever pos-
sessed any— b u t I was cu rio u s to know w h at m eans n a tu re w ould
devise for a satisfactory way o u t of th e tran sferen ce deadlock.
Since I n ev er im ag in ed th a t I was blessed w ith th a t “so u n d com -
m on sense” w hich always knows exactly w h at to do in every
q u an d a ry , a n d since m y p a tie n t knew as little as I, I suggested to
h e r th a t we co u ld at least keep an eye o p en for any m ovem ents
com ing from a sphere of th e psyche u n c o n ta m in a te d by o u r su-
p e rio r w isdom a n d o u r conscious p lan n in g s. T h a t m ea n t first
an d forem ost h e r dream s.
210 D ream s c o n ta in images a n d thought-associations w hich we
do n o t create w ith conscious in te n t. T h e y arise spontaneously
w ith o u t o u r assistance a n d are rep resen tativ es of a psychic activ-
ity w ith d ra w n fro m o u r a rb itra ry will. T h e re fo re the d re am is,
p ro p e rly speaking, a highly objective, n a tu ra l p ro d u c t of th e
psyche, from w hich we m ig h t expect indications, or at least
hints, a b o u t ce rtain basic tren d s in th e psychic process. Now,
since th e psychic process, like any o th e r life-process, is n o t ju st a
causal sequence, b u t is also a process w ith a teleological o rie n ta -
tion, we m ig h t expect dream s to give us ce rtain indicia a b o u t
th e objective causality as well as a b o u t th e objective tendencies,
precisely because dream s are n o th in g less th a n self-representa-
tions of the psychic life-process.
211 O n th e basis of these reflections, th en , we su b jected the
d ream s to a carefu l ex a m in a tio n . I t w o u ld lead too far to q u o te

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 TH E R E L A T IO N S BETW EEN TH E EGO AND TH E U N C O N S C IO U S

w o rd for w ord all the dream s th a t n ow followed. L et it suffice to

sketch th eir m ain character: the m ajo rity re ferred to the person
of the doctor, th a t is to say, the actors w ere u n m ista k ab ly the
d re a m e r herself a n d h er doctor. T h e latter, however, seldom a p -
peared in his n a tu ra l shape, b u t was generally disto rted in a re -
m ark a b le way. Som etim es his figure was of s u p e rn a tu ra l size,
som etim es he seem ed to be extrem ely aged, th e n again he resem -
bled h e r father, b u t was at the sam e tim e curiously w oven in to
n atu re , as in the follow ing d ream : H e r fa th e r {who in reality
was o f sm all stature) was sta n d in g w ith her on a hill that was
covered w ith wheat-fields. She was q u ite tin y beside h im , and he
seem ed to her like a giant. H e lifted her u p fr o m the g r o u n d and
held her in his arms like a little child. T h e w in d sw ep t over the
wheat-fields, an d as the wheat swayed in the w in d , he rocked her
in his arms.
212 F ro m this dre am an d from others like it I co u ld discern v ari-
ous things. Above all I got the im pression th a t h e r unconscious
was h o ld in g u n shak ab ly to th e idea of m y b e in g the father-
lover, so th a t the fatal tie we w ere try in g to u n d o a p p e are d to be
d o u b ly stren g th en ed . M o reover one co u ld h ard ly avoid seeing
th a t th e unconscious placed a special em phasis on th e s u p e rn a t-
u ral, alm ost “d iv in e ” n a tu re of the father-lover, th us ac cen tu a t-
ing still fu r th e r the over-valuation occasioned by th e tran sfer-
ence. I therefore asked myself w h e th e r the p a tie n t h ad still n o t
u n d e rsto o d the w holly fantastic ch aracter of h e r transference, or
w h e th e r perhaps the unconscious co u ld never be re ach e d by u n -
d e rsta n d in g at all, b u t m ust b lin d ly a n d idiotically p u rsu e some
nonsensical chim era. F reu d 's idea th a t the unconscious can “do
n o th in g b u t w ish,” S ch op enh au er's b lin d a n d aimless W ill, th e
gnostic d e m iu rg e w ho in his v anity deem s him self perfect a n d
th e n in th e blindness of his lim ita tio n creates so m eth in g la-
m en tab ly im perfect— all these pessimistic suspicions of an essen-
tially negative b ac k g ro u n d to the w o rld a n d the soul cam e
th re a ten in g ly near. A n d th e re w o u ld in d ee d b e n o th in g to set
against this except a w ell-m eaning “you o u g h t,” rein fo rce d by a
stroke of the axe th a t w o u ld c u t do w n th e w hole p h an tasm ag o ria
for good a n d all.
213 B ut, as I tu r n e d th e dream s over a n d over in m y m in d , th ere
daw n ed on m e a n o th e r possibility. I said to myself: it c a n n o t be
d en ie d th a t th e d ream s c o n tin u e to speak in th e sam e o ld m eta-

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 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

p h o rs w ith w hich o u r conversations have m ad e the p a tie n t as

well as myself sickeningly fam iliar. B u t th e p a tie n t has an u n -
d o u b te d u n d e rs ta n d in g of h e r tran sferen ce fantasy. She knows
th a t I a p p e ar to h e r as a sem i-divine father-1 over, a n d she can, at
least intellectu ally , d istin g u ish this fro m m y factual reality.
T h e re fo re th e d ream s are obviously re ite ra tin g th e conscious
s ta n d p o in t m in u s th e conscious criticism , w h ich they com pletely
ignore. T h e y re ite ra te th e conscious co n ten ts, n o t in toto, b u t
insist o n th e fantastic sta n d p o in t as opposed to “so u n d co m m o n
sense.”
214 I n a tu ra lly asked m yself w h at was th e source of this obstinacy
a n d w h at was its purpose? T h a t it m u st have som e p urposive
m e a n in g I was convinced, for th e re is n o tru ly liv in g th in g th a t
does n o t have a final m ean in g , th a t can in o th e r w ords be ex-
p la in e d as a m ere left-over from a n te c e d e n t facts. B u t th e energy
of th e tran sferen ce is so stro n g th a t it gives on e th e im pression of
a vital in stin ct. T h a t b e in g so, w h at is th e p u rp o se of such fa n ta -
sies? A careful e x a m in a tio n a n d analysis of th e dream s, espe-
cially of th e o n e ju s t q u o te d , revealed a very m a rk e d ten d en cy —
in co n trast to conscious criticism , w h ich always seeks to re d u ce
things to h u m a n p ro p o rtio n s— to en d o w th e person of th e d o cto r
w ith su p e rh u m a n a ttrib u te s. H e h ad to be gigantic, p rim o rd ia l,
h u g e r th a n th e fath er, like th e w in d th a t sweeps over th e e a rth —
was he th e n to b e m ad e in to a god? O r, I said to myself, was it
ra th e r th e case th a t th e unconscious was try in g to create a god
o u t of th e person of th e doctor, as it w ere to free a vision of G o d
from th e veils of th e personal, so th a t th e tran sferen ce to th e
perso n of the d o cto r was n o m o re th a n a m isu n d e rsta n d in g o n
th e p a r t of th e conscious m in d , a s tu p id trick played by “so u n d
co m m o n sense” ? W as th e u rg e of th e unconscious p erh ap s only
a p p a re n tly re ach in g o u t tow ards th e person, b u t in a d ee p er
sense tow ards a god? C o u ld th e lo n g in g fo r a god b e a passion
w ellin g u p fro m o u r darkest, in s tin c tu a l n a tu re , a passion u n -
swayed by any o u tsid e influences, d e e p e r a n d stro n g er p erh ap s
th a n th e love for a h u m a n person? O r was it p erh ap s th e highest
a n d tru est m e a n in g of th a t in a p p ro p ria te love we call “ tran sfer-
ence,” a little b it of real G o tte sm in n e , th a t has b ee n lost to con-
sciousness ever since th e fifteen th century?
215 N o o n e w ill d o u b t th e reality of a passionate lo n g in g fo r a
h u m a n person; b u t th a t a fra g m e n t of relig io u s psychology, a n

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

historical anach ro n ism , in d ee d so m eth in g of a m edieval curios-

ity— we are re m in d e d of M ech tild of M a g d e b u rg — should com e
to lig h t as an im m e d ia te liv in g reality in th e m id d le of th e con-
sulting-room , a n d be expressed in th e prosaic figure of the doc-
tor, seems alm ost too fantastic to be tak en seriously.
216 A g e n u in e ly scientific a ttitu d e m u st b e u n p re ju d ic e d . T h e
sole c rite rio n for th e valid ity of an hypothesis is w h e th e r o r n o t
it possesses an h eu ristic— i.e., ex p la n ato ry — value. T h e q u estio n
no w is, can we re g ard th e possibilities set fo rth above as a valid
hypothesis? T h e r e is n o a p riori reason w hy it sh o u ld n o t be ju st
as possible th a t th e unconscious ten d en cies have a goal beyond
th e h u m a n person, as th a t th e unconscious can “do n o th in g b u t
w ish.” E x p erien ce alo n e can decide w h ich is th e m o re su itable
hypothesis. T h is new hypothesis was n o t e n tire ly plau sib le to m y
very critical p a tie n t. T h e ea rlier view th a t I was the father-lover,
a n d as such p resen ted an ideal so lu tio n of th e conflict, was incom -
p arab ly m o re attractiv e to h e r way of feeling. N evertheless h e r
in tellect was sufficiently keen to ap p recia te th e th eo retical possi-
b ility of th e new hypothesis. M ean w h ile th e dream s c o n tin u e d
to d isin te g rate th e person of th e d o cto r a n d swell h im to ever
vaster p ro p o rtio n s. C o n c u rre n tly w ith this th e re no w o ccurred
s o m eth in g w hich at first I alo n e perceived, a n d w ith th e u tm o st
asto n ish m en t, n am ely a k in d of s u b te rra n e a n u n d e r m in in g of
th e transference. H e r re la tio n s w ith a c e rta in frie n d d eep en ed
p ercep tib ly , n o tw ith s ta n d in g th e fact th a t consciously she still
c lu n g to th e transference. So th a t w h en th e tim e cam e for leav-
in g m e, it was n o catastro p h e, b u t a perfectly reaso n ab le p artin g .
I had th e privilege of b e in g th e o nly w itness d u rin g th e process
o f severance. I saw how th e tran sp erso n al c o n tro l-p o in t devel-
o p ed — I c a n n o t call it an y th in g else— a g u id in g fu n c tio n a n d step
by step g ath e red to itself all th e fo rm e r p erso n al over-valuations;
how, w ith this afflux of energy, it g ain e d influence over th e re -
sisting conscious m in d w ith o u t th e p a tie n t's consciously n o ticin g
w h a t was h ap p e n in g . F ro m this I realized th a t the d ream s were
n o t ju st fantasies, b u t self-representations of unconscious devel-
o p m en ts w hich allow ed th e psyche of th e p a tie n t g rad u ally to
grow o u t of th e pointless perso n al tie.1
2*7 T h is change took place, as I show ed, th ro u g h th e u n c o n -
scious d e v e lo p m e n t of a tran sp e rso n al co n tro l-p o in t; a v irtu al
1 Cf. the “ transcendent fu n c tio n ” in Psychological Types, Def. 51, “Symbol/*

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 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

goal, as it were, th a t expressed itself sym bolically in a fo rm

w h ich can only be described as a vision of G od. T h e dream s
swelled th e h u m a n person of th e d o cto r to s u p e rh u m a n p ro p o r-
tions, m ak in g h im a g igantic p rim o rd ia l fa th e r w ho is a t th e
sam e tim e th e w ind, a n d in whose p ro te c tin g arm s th e d re a m e r
rests like an in fan t. If we try to m ak e th e p a tie n t’s conscious, a n d
tra d itio n a lly C h ristian , idea of G o d resp o n sible for th e d iv in e
im age in th e dream s, we w o u ld still have to lay stress o n th e
d isto rtio n . In religious m atters th e p a tie n t h ad a critical a n d ag-
nostic a ttitu d e , a n d h e r idea of a possible d eity h ad long since
passed in to th e re alm of th e inconceivable, i.e., h ad d w in d led
in to a co m p lete ab stractio n . In c o n tra st to this, th e god-im age of
th e dream s co rresp o n d e d to th e archaic co n cep tio n of a n atu re -
daem o n , so m eth in g lik e W o ta n . 9 eós t 6 wvevfia, ‘G o d is s p irit/
is h ere tran sla te d back in to its o rig in al fo rm w h ere wvtvna m eans
‘w in d ’: G o d is th e w in d , stro n g er a n d m ig h tie r th a n m an , an in -
visible breath -sp irit. As in H e b re w ruah, so in A rab ic ru h m eans
b re a th a n d sp irit.2 O u t o f th e p u re ly perso n al fo rm th e dream s
d evelop a n archaic god-im age th a t is infinitely far from th e co n -
scious idea of G od. I t m ig h t b e o b jected th a t this is sim ply an
in fa n tile im age, a ch ild h o o d m em ory. I w o u ld have n o q u a rre l
w ith this assu m p tio n if we w ere d ea lin g w ith an o ld m an sittin g
o n a g o ld en th ro n e in heaven. B u t th e re is n o trace of any sen ti-
m e n ta lity of th a t k in d ; instead, we have a p rim o rd ia l idea th a t
can co rresp o n d only to an archaic m en tality .
218 T h e s e p rim o rd ia l ideas, of w h ich I have given a g reat m an y
exam ples in m y Sym b o ls o f T r a n sfo r m a tio n , oblige one to m ake,
in re g ard to unconscious m aterial, a d istin c tio n of q u ite a differ-
e n t ch a rac ter from th a t b etw een “ preconscious” a n d “ u n c o n -
scious” o r “su bconscious” a n d “un co n scio u s.” T h e ju stification
for these d istin ctio n s n ee d n o t b e discussed here. T h e y have
th e ir specific v alue a n d are w o rth e la b o ra tin g fu r th e r as p o ints
of view. T h e fu n d a m e n ta l d istin c tio n w h ich ex p erien ce has
forced u p o n m e claim s to be n o m o re th a n that. I t sh o u ld be
ev id e n t from th e fo reg o in g th a t we have to d istin g u ish in th e
unconscious a layer w hich we m ay call th e personal unconscious.
T h e m aterials co n ta in e d in this layer are of a personal n a tu re in
so far as they have the c h a rac ter p artly of acq uisitions d eriv ed
2 For a fuller elaboration of this theme see Symbols of Transformation, index,
s.v. “wind.”

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW E EN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

fro m the in d iv id u a l's life a n d p artly of psychological factors

w hich could ju st as well be conscious. I t can read ily be u n d e r-
stood th a t in c o m p a tib le psychological elem en ts are liab le to r e -
pression a n d th ere fo re becom e unconscious. B u t o n th e o th e r
h a n d this im plies th e possibility of m ak in g a n d k eep in g the re -
pressed co n ten ts conscious once they have b een recognized. W e
recognize th em as p ersonal co n ten ts because th e ir effects, o r th e ir
p a rtia l m an ifestatio n , o r th e ir source can be discovered in o u r
personal past. T h e y are th e in teg ral co m p o n en ts of th e p ersonal-
ity, they b e lo n g to its inventory, a n d th e ir loss to consciousness
produces an in fe rio rity in one respect o r a n o th e r— an inferio rity ,
m oreover, th a t has the psychological ch a rac ter n o t so m u ch of an
organic lesion o r an in b o rn defect as of a lack w hich gives rise
to a feeling of m o ral re sen tm en t. T h e sense of m o ral in ferio rity
always indicates th a t th e m issing e le m e n t is so m eth in g which,
to ju d g e by this feeling a b o u t it, really o u g h t n o t be missing,
o r w hich co u ld be m ad e conscious if only o n e took sufficient tro u -
ble. T h e m o ral in fe rio rity does n o t com e fro m a collision w ith
th e gen erally accepted an d , in a sense, a rb itra ry m o ral law, b u t
fro m th e conflict w ith one's ow n self w hich, for reasons of psy-
chic e q u ilib riu m , d em an d s th a t th e deficit be redressed. W h e n -
ever a sense of m oral in ferio rity appears, it indicates n o t only a
n ee d to assim ilate an unconscious co m p o n e n t, b u t also th e pos-
sibility of such assim ilation. In th e last reso rt it is a m a n ’s m oral
q u alities w hich force him , e ith e r th ro u g h d irec t re co g n itio n of
th e n eed o r in d irec tly th ro u g h a p a in fu l neurosis, to assim i-
late his unconscious self a n d to keep him self fully conscious.
W h o e v er progresses alo n g this ro a d of self-realization m u st in -
evitably b rin g in to consciousness th e co n ten ts of th e personal
unconscious, th u s e n la rg in g th e scope of his personality. I
sh o u ld ad d at once th a t this en la rg e m e n t has to do p rim arily
w ith one's m o ral consciousness, o n e ’s know ledge of oneself, for
th e unconscious co n ten ts th a t are released a n d b ro u g h t in to co n -
sciousness by analysis are usually u n p le a sa n t— w hich is precisely
why these wishes, m em ories, tendencies, plans, etc. w ere re -
pressed. T h e s e are th e co n ten ts th a t are b ro u g h t to lig h t in
m u ch th e sam e way by a th o ro u g h confession, th o u g h to a m u ch
m o re lim ited ex te n t. T h e rest comes o u t as a ru le in d re am an a l-
ysis. I t is o ften very in te re stin g to w atch how th e dream s fetch
u p the essential points, b it by b it a n d w ith the nicest choice.

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 T H E PERSONAL AND T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

T h e total m ateria l th a t is ad d e d to consciousness causes a consid-

erab le w id en in g of th e horizon, a d ee p e n e d self-knowledge
w hich, m o re th a n a n y th in g else, o n e w o u ld th in k , is calcu lated to
h u m an ize a m a n a n d m ake h im m odest. B u t even self-knowl-
edge, assum ed by all wise m en to be th e best a n d m ost effica-
cious, has d ifferen t effects o n d ifferen t characters. W e m ake very
re m a rk a b le discoveries in this respect in practical analysis, b u t I
shall deal w ith this q u estio n in th e n e x t c h a p ter.
219 As m y exam p le of th e archaic idea of G o d shows, th e u n c o n -
scious seems to co n ta in o th e r things besides p ersonal acquisi-
tions a n d belongings. M y p a tie n t was q u ite unconscious of th e
d eriv a tio n of “s p irit” fro m “ w in d ,” o r of th e p arallelism be-
tw een the two. T h is c o n te n t was n o t th e p ro d u c t of h e r th in k -
ing, n o r h ad she ever b ee n ta u g h t it. T h e critical passage in th e
N ew T e s ta m e n t was inaccessible to h e r — t o T v e d f x a i r v e l owov t ï é X e t
— since she kn ew n o G reek. If we m u st take it as a w holly p e r-
sonal acq uisitio n , it m ig h t be a case of so-called cryptom nesia,3
the unconscious reco llectio n of a th o u g h t w hich th e d re a m e r
h ad once re a d som ew here. I have n o th in g against such a possi-
b ility in this p a rtic u la r case; b u t I have seen a sufficient n u m b e r
of o th e r cases— m an y of th em are to be fo u n d in th e b o o k m e n -
tio n ed above— wrh ere cry p to m n esia can b e ex clu d ed w ith cer-
tainty. E ven if it w ere a case of cryptom nesia, w hich seems to m e
very im p ro b ab le, we sh o u ld still have to ex p la in w h a t th e p re -
disp o sitio n was th a t caused ju s t this im age to be re ta in e d a n d
later, as S em on p u ts it, “ e c p h o ra te d ” (expopelv, L a tin efferre, ‘to
p ro d u c e ’). In any case, cry p to m n esia or n o cryptom nesia, we
are d ea lin g w ith a g e n u in e a n d th o ro u g h ly p rim itiv e god-im age
th a t grew u p in th e unconscious of a civilized person a n d p ro -
d u ce d a liv in g effect— an effect w hich m ig h t w ell give th e psy-
chologist of re lig io n food for reflection. T h e r e is n o th in g a b o u t
this im age th a t co u ld be called personal: it is a w holly collective
im age, the eth n ic o rig in of w h ich has lo n g b e e n k n o w n to us.
H e re is an historical im age of w orld-w ide d is trib u tio n th a t has
com e in to existence again th ro u g h a n a tu ra l psychic fu n ctio n .
T h is is n o t so very su rp risin g , since m y p a tie n t was b o rn in to th e
3 Cf. Flournoy, Des Indes à la planète Mars: É tude sur u n cas de so m n am bu lism e
avec glossolalie (trans. by D. B. Verm ilye as From India to the P lanet Mars),
a n d Ju n g , “ Psychology a nd Pathology of So-called O ccult P h e n o m e n a /’ pars.
i 38ff.

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

w o rld w ith a h u m a n b ra in w hich presum ab ly still fu n ctio ns to -

day m u ch as it d id of old. W e are d ea lin g w ith a reactiv ated
archetype, as I have elsew here called these p rim o rd ia l im ages.4
T h e se an c ie n t images are resto red to life by th e p rim itiv e, a n a -
logical m ode of th in k in g p ec u lia r to dream s. I t is n o t a q u estio n
of in h e rite d ideas, b u t of in h e rite d th o u g h t-p attern s.5
220 i n view of these facts we m u st assum e th a t th e unconscious
co n tain s n o t only personal, b u t also im p erso n al collective com -
p o n en ts in the fo rm o f in h e rite d categories0 o r archetypes. I
have th erefo re adv an ced the hypothesis th a t at its d ee p er levels
th e unconscious possesses collective co n ten ts in a relatively ac-
tive state. T h a t is w hy I speak of a collective unconscious.
4 Cf. Psychological T ypes, Def. 26.
5 Consequently, the accusation of “ fanciful mysticism*' levelled a t my ideas is
lacking in foundation.
6 H u b e rt a n d Mauss, M élanges d ’histoire des religions, p. xxix.

2782
 II
PHENOMENA RESULTING FROM
T H E ASSIMILATION OF
T H E UNCONSCIOUS

«21 T h e process of assim ilating th e unconscious leads to some

very re m a rk ab le p h en o m e n a. I t produces in som e p atien ts an
u n m ista k ab le a n d o ften u n p le a sa n t increase of self-confidence
a n d conceit: they are fu ll of themselves, they kno w everything,
they im agine them selves to be fully in fo rm e d of ev eryth in g con -
ce rn in g th e ir unconscious, a n d are p ersu ad ed th a t they u n d e r-
stan d perfectly ev ery th in g th a t comes o u t of it. A t every
in terview w ith the d o cto r they get m o re a n d m o re above th e m -
selves. O th ers o n th e co n tra ry feel them selves m o re a n d m ore
cru shed u n d e r th e con tents of the unconscious, they lose th e ir
self-confidence a n d a b a n d o n them selves w ith d u ll re sig n atio n to
all the e x tra o rd in a ry things th a t th e unconscious produces. T h e
form er, overflow ing w ith feelings of th e ir ow n im p o rtan ce, as-
sum e a respo n sib ility for th e unconscious th a t goes m u ch too far,
b eyo n d all reaso n ab le b o u n d s; th e oth ers finally give u p all sense
of responsibility, overcom e by a sense of the powerlessness of th e
ego against th e fate w o rk in g th ro u g h th e unconscious.
222 If we analyse these two m odes of re actio n m o re deeply, we
find th a t the o p tim istic self-confidence of the first conceals a p ro -
fo u n d sense of im p otence, for w hich th e ir conscious o p tim ism
acts as an unsuccessful com p en satio n ; w hile the pessimistic res-
ig n atio n of the o th ers masks a defiant will to pow er, far surpass-
in g in cocksureness th e conscious o p tim ism of th e first type.
22$ W ith these two m odes of re actio n I have sketched only two
c ru d e extrem es. A finer sh ad in g w o u ld have b ee n tru e r to re al-
ity. As I have said elsew here, every analysand starts by u n c o n -
sciously m isusing his new ly w on know ledge in th e interests of
his a b n o rm a l, n e u ro tic a ttitu d e , unless he is sufficiently freed
fro m his sym ptom s in th e early stages to be ab le to dispense w ith
f u r th e r tre a tm e n t alto g eth er. A very im p o rta n t c o n trib u to ry

2783
 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

factor is th a t in th e early stages ev ery th ing is still u n d ersto o d on

th e objective level, i.e., w ith o u t d istin c tio n b etw een im ago an d
object, so th a t e v ery th in g is re ferred directly to th e object. H en ce
th e m an for w h o m “o th e r p eo p le” are th e objects of p rim e im -
p o rtan c e will co n clu d e from any self-knowledge he m ay have
im b ib e d a t this stage of th e analysis: “Aha! so th a t is w hat o th er
p eo p le are lik e!” H e will th erefo re feel it his duty, according to
his n a tu re , to le ra n t o r otherw ise, to e n lig h te n th e w orld. B u t the
o th e r m an , w ho feels him self to be m o re th e o b ject of his fellows
th a n th e ir subject, w ill be w eighed d o w n by this self-knowledge
a n d becom e co rresp o n d in g ly depressed. (I am n a tu ra lly leaving
o u t of acco u n t those n u m ero u s a n d m o re superficial n atu re s w ho
ex p erien ce these p ro b lem s only by th e way.) In b o th cases th e
re la tio n to th e o b ject is re in fo rce d — in th e first case in an active,
in th e second case in a reactive sense. T h e collective ele m e n t is
m ark e d ly accen tu ated . T h e one ex ten d s th e sp h ere of his action,
th e o th e r th e sphere of his suffering.
224 A d le r has em ployed th e term “godlikeness” to characterize
ce rta in basic features of n e u ro tic p o w er psychology. If I likewise
b o rro w th e sam e term from Faust, I use it h ere m o re in th e sense
of th a t w ell-know n passage w h ere M ep h isto w rites “E ritis sicut
D eus, scientes b o n u m et m a lu m ” in th e stu d e n t's alb u m , a n d
m akes th e follow ing aside:

J u s t fo llo w th e o ld advice
A n d m y c o u sin th e snake.
T h e r e ’ll com e a tim e w h e n y o u r g od lik en ess
W ill m a k e you q u iv e r a n d q u a k e .1

T h e godlikeness ev id en tly refers to know ledge, th e know ledge

of good a n d evil. T h e analysis a n d conscious realization of u n -
conscious co n ten ts en g e n d er a ce rtain su p erio r tolerance, thanks
to w hich even relatively in d ig estib le p o rtio n s of one's u n c o n -
scious ch aracterology can be accepted. T h is tolerance m ay look
very wise a n d su p erio r, b u t o ften it is n o m o re th a n a g ra n d
gesture th a t b rin g s all sorts of consequences in its train . T w o
spheres have b ee n b ro u g h t to g eth er w hich b efore w ere k ep t
anxiously ap a rt. A fte r co n sid erab le resistances have b een over-
come, the u n io n of opposites is successfully achieved, at least to

1 Faust, P a rt I, 3rd scene in F a u st’s study.

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 T H E ASSIM ILATION O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

all appearances. T h e d e e p e r u n d e rs ta n d in g th u s gained, th e

ju x ta p o s itio n of w h a t was before sep arated , a n d h en ce th e a p -
p a r e n t o v erco m in g of th e m o ral conflict, give rise to a feelin g of
s u p erio rity th a t m ay w ell be expressed by th e te rm “g o d lik e-
ness.” B u t this sam e ju x ta p o s itio n of good a n d evil can have a
very d ifferen t effect o n a d ifferen t k in d of te m p e ra m e n t. N o t
everyone w ill feel h im self a su p erm a n , h o ld in g in his h an d s th e
scales of good a n d evil. I t m ay also seem as th o u g h h e w ere a
helpless o b ject c a u g h t b etw e en h a m m e r a n d anvil; n o t in th e
least a H e rcu les at th e p a rtin g of th e ways, b u t ra th e r a ru d d e r -
less sh ip b u ffeted b etw een Scylla a n d C harybdis. F o r w ith o u t
k n o w in g it, h e is c a u g h t u p in p erh ap s th e greatest a n d m o st
a n c ie n t of h u m a n conflicts, ex p e rie n c in g th e th ro es of ete rn a l
p rin cip les in collision. W e ll m ig h t he feel him self lik e a P ro m e -
theus c h a in ed to th e Caucasus, o r as o n e crucified. T h is w o u ld
b e a “godlikeness” in suffering. G odlikeness is certain ly n o t a sci-
entific concept, a lth o u g h it ap tly characterizes th e psychological
state in q u estio n . N o r d o I im ag in e th a t every re a d e r w ill im m e-
d iately grasp th e p e c u lia r state of m in d im p lie d by “go d lik e-
ness.” T h e te rm belongs to o exclusively to th e sphere of belles-
l e t t r e s So I sh o u ld p ro b a b ly b e b e tte r advised to give a m o re
circu m sp ect d esc rip tio n of this state. T h e in sig h t a n d u n d e r -
stan d in g , th en , g ain e d by th e an aly san d u sually reveal m u c h to
h im th a t was b efo re unconscious. H e n a tu ra lly ap p lies this
k n ow ledge to his e n v iro n m e n t; in co n sequ en ce he sees, o r th in k s
h e sees, m an y thin g s th a t b efo re w ere invisible. Since his k n o w l-
edge was h e lp fu l to h im , he re ad ily assum es th a t it w o u ld be
u sefu l also to others. I n this way h e is liab le to b eco m e a rro g an t;
it m ay b e w ell m e a n t, b u t it is no n eth eless a n n o y in g to o th e r
people. H e feels as th o u g h he possesses a key th a t opens m any,
p erh ap s even all, doors. Psychoanalysis itself has this same b la n d
unconsciousness of its lim itatio n s, as can clearly b e seen fro m th e
way it m ed d les w ith w orks of art.
225 Since h u m a n n a tu re is n o t c o m p o u n d e d w holly of lig h t, b u t
also ab o u n d s in shadows, th e in sig h t g ain e d in p ractical analysis
is o ften som ew hat p ain fu l, th e m o re so if, as is gen erally th e case,
o n e has previously neg lected th e o th e r side. H e n c e th ere are
p eo p le w ho take th e ir new ly w on in sig h t very m u c h to h eart, far
too m u c h in fact, q u ite fo rg e ttin g th a t th ey are n o t u n iq u e in
h av in g a shadow-side. T h e y allow them selves to get u n d u ly d e-

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pressed a n d are th e n in c lin e d to d o u b t ev erything, fin d in g n o th -

in g rig h t anyw here. T h a t is w hy m an y ex cellen t analysts w ith
very good ideas can n ev e r b rin g them selves to p u b lish th em , b e -
cause th e psychic p ro b lem , as they see it, is so overw helm ingly
vast th a t it seems to th em alm ost im possible to tackle it scientifi-
cally. O n e m a n ’s o p tim ism makes h im overw eening, w hile a n -
o th e r ’s pessim ism m akes h im over-anxious a n d d esp o n d en t.
Such are th e form s w h ich th e g reat conflict takes w h en re d u ced
to a sm aller scale. B u t even in these lesser p ro p o rtio n s th e es-
sence of th e conflict is easily recognized: th e arro g an ce of th e
on e a n d th e desp o n d en cy of th e o th e r share a co m m o n u n c e r-
ta in ty as to th e ir b o u n d aries. T h e o n e is excessively ex p an d ed ,
th e o th e r excessively co n tracted . T h e i r in d iv id u a l b o u n d arie s
are in som e way o b lite rate d . If we n o w co n sid er th e fact th at, as
a re su lt of psychic co m p en satio n, g re at h u m ility stands very
close to p rid e, a n d th a t “p rid e g oeth b efo re a fall,” we can easily
discover b e h in d th e hau g h tin ess c e rta in traits of an anxious
sense of in ferio rity. In fact we shall see clearly how his u n c e r-
tain ty forces th e en th u siast to puff u p his tru th s, of w hich he
feels n o n e too sure, a n d to w in proselytes to his side in o rd e r th a t
his followers m ay p rove to h im self th e v alue a n d trustw o rth in ess
of his ow n convictions. N o r is h e alto g e th e r so h ap p y in his fu n d
of know ledge as to be ab le to h o ld o u t alone; at b o tto m he feels
isolated by it, a n d th e secret fear of b e in g left alone w ith it in -
duces h im to tro t o u t his o p in io n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s in a n d
o u t of season, because on ly w h en co n v in c in g som eone else does
he feel safe fro m g n aw in g d ou b ts.
226 J t is ju st th e reverse w ith o u r d esp o n d e n t frien d . T h e m o re
h e w ith d raw s a n d hides him self, th e g re ater becom es his secret
n ee d to be u n d e rsto o d a n d recognized. A lth o u g h he speaks of his
in fe rio rity he does n o t really believe it. T h e r e arises w ith in h im
a defiant co n v ictio n of his u n reco g n ized m erits, a n d in conse-
q u en c e he is sensitive to the slightest d isap p ro b a tio n , always
w earin g th e strick en a ir of o n e w ho is m isu n d ersto o d a n d d e-
p riv ed of his rig h tfu l d ue. I n this way he nurses a m o rb id p rid e
a n d an in so len t d isco n ten t— w h ich is th e very last th in g h e w ants
a n d for w hich his e n v iro n m e n t has to pay all th e m o re dearly.
227 B oth are at o n ce too sm all a n d too big; th e ir in d iv id u a l
m ean, n ev er very secure, n o w becom es sh ak ier th a n ever. I t

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sou n d s alm ost g ro tesq u e to describe such a state as “g o d lik e.”

B u t since each in his way steps b ey o n d his h u m a n p ro p o rtio n s,
b o th of th e m are a little “s u p e r h u m a n ” a n d th erefo re, figura-
tively speaking, godlike. If we wish to avoid th e use of this m e ta -
p h o r, I w o u ld suggest th a t we speak in stead of “psychic infla-
tio n .” T h e te rm seems to m e a p p ro p ria te in so far as th e state we
are discussing involves an ex ten sio n of th e p erso n ality b ey o n d
in d iv id u a l lim its, in o th e r words, a state of b e in g puffed u p. In
such a state a m a n fills a space w h ich n o rm a lly he c a n n o t fill. H e
can o nly fill it by a p p ro p ria tin g to him self co n te n ts a n d q u a li-
ties w h ich p ro p e rly exist for them selves alo n e a n d s h o u ld th e re -
fore re m a in ou tsid e o u r b o u n d s. W h a t lies o u tsid e ourselves b e-
longs e ith e r to som eone else, o r to everyone, o r to n o one. Since
psychic in flatio n is by n o m eans a p h e n o m e n o n in d u c e d exclu-
sively by analysis, b u t occurs ju s t as o ften in o rd in ary life, we
can investigate it eq u ally w ell in o th e r cases. A very co m m o n
in stan ce is th e h u m o u rless way in w h ich m an y m en id en tify
them selves w ith th e ir business o r th e ir titles. T h e office I h o ld is
certain ly m y special activity; b u t it is also a collective factor th a t
has com e in to existence h isto rically th ro u g h th e co o p e ratio n of
m an y p eo p le a n d whose d ig n ity rests solely o n collective a p -
proval. W h e n , th erefo re, I id en tify m yself w ith m y office o r title,
1 b eh av e as th o u g h I m yself w ere th e w h o le co m plex of social
factors of w h ich th a t office consists, o r as th o u g h I w ere n o t only
th e b e a re r of th e office, b u t also a n d a t th e sam e tim e th e a p -
proval of society. I have m ad e an e x tra o rd in a ry ex ten sio n of m y-
self a n d have u s u rp e d q u alities w h ich are n o t in m e b u t o utside
m e. L 'é ta t c'est m o i is th e m o tto for such people.
228 i n th e case of in flatio n th ro u g h kn o w led g e we are d ealin g
w ith so m eth in g sim ila r in p rin cip le, th o u g h psychologically
m o re subtle. H e re it is n o t th e d ig n ity of an office th a t causes th e
in flatio n , b u t very significant fantasies. I w ill e x p la in w h a t I
m ea n by a p ractical exam ple, ch o osing a m e n ta l case w h o m I
h a p p e n e d to k n o w p ersonally a n d w h o is also m e n tio n e d in a
p u b lic a tio n by M aed er.2 T h e case is ch aracterized by a h ig h d e -
g ree of inflation. (In m e n ta l cases we can observe all th e p h e -
n o m e n a th a t are p re sen t on ly fleetingly in n o rm a l people, in a
2 M aeder, “Psychologische U n tersuchungen an D em entia-P raecox-K ranken” (1910),
p p . 209ft.

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c ru d e r a n d en la rg ed form .) 3 T h e p a tie n t suffered from p ara-

n o id d e m e n tia w ith m egalom ania. H e was in telep h o n ic com -
m u n ic a tio n w ith th e M o th e r of G o d a n d o th e r g reat ones. In
h u m a n reality h e was a w retch ed lo cksm ith's a p p ren tice w ho at
th e age of n in e te e n h a d becom e in cu ra b ly insane. H e h ad n ev er
b ee n blessed w ith intelligence, b u t he had, a m o n g o th e r things,
h it u p o n th e m ag n ificen t idea th a t th e w o rld was his picture-
book, th e pages of w h ich he co u ld tu r n a t w ill. T h e p ro o f was
q u ite sim ple: he h ad only to tu r n ro u n d , a n d th e re was a new
page for h im to see.
229 T h is is S ch o p en h au er's “w o rld as w ill a n d idea" in u n -
ad o rn ed , p rim itiv e concreteness of vision. A s h a tte rin g idea in -
deed, b o rn of ex tre m e a lie n a tio n a n d seclusion fro m th e w orld,
b u t so naively a n d sim ply expressed th a t a t first one can only
sm ile a t th e grotesqueness of it. A n d yet this p rim itiv e way of
lo o k in g lies a t th e very h e a rt of S c h o p en h a u er's b rillia n t vision
of th e w orld. O n ly a genius o r a m a d m a n c o u ld so d isen tan g le
him self fro m th e b o n d s of re ality as to see th e w o rld as his pic-
ture-book. D id th e p a tie n t actu ally w o rk o u t o r b u ild u p such a
vision, o r d id it ju s t befall him ? O r d id h e p erh ap s fall in to it?
H is path o lo g ical d isin te g ratio n a n d in flatio n p o in t ra th e r to the
latter. I t is n o lo n g er he th a t th in k s a n d speaks, b u t it th in k s a n d
speaks w ith in h im : h e hears voices. So th e difference b etw een
h im a n d S ch o p en h a u er is th at, in h im , th e vision re m a in e d at
th e stage of a m ere sp o n tan eo u s g ro w th , w h ile S ch o p en h au er a b -
stracted it a n d expressed it in lan g u ag e of u n iv ersal validity. In
so d o in g he raised it o u t of its s u b te rra n e a n b eg in n in g s in to th e
clear lig h t of collective consciousness. B u t it w o u ld b e q u ite
w ro n g to suppose th a t the p a tie n t's vision h a d a p u re ly personal
ch a rac ter o r value, as th o u g h it w ere s o m eth in g th a t b elo n g ed to
him . If th a t w ere so, h e w o u ld b e a p h ilo so p h er. A m an is a
p h ilo so p h e r of genius only w h e n h e succeeds in tra n s m u tin g th e
p rim itiv e a n d m erely n a tu ra l vision in to a n ab stra ct id ea be-
3 W h en I was still a doctor a t the psychiatric clinic in Zurich, I once took an
intelligent laym an th ro u g h the sick-wards. H e h a d never seen a lu n atic asylum
from the inside before. W h en we h a d finished o u r ro und, he exclaim ed, “ I tell
you, i t ’s ju st like Z urich in m iniature! A quintessence of th e po p u latio n . I t is as
th ough all the types one m eets every day on the streets h a d been assem bled here
in th eir classical p u rity . N o th in g b u t oddities a n d picked specim ens from top to
bottom of society 1” I h a d never looked a t it from this angle before, b u t my
frien d was n o t fa r wrong.

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lo n g in g to th e co m m o n stock of consciousness. T h is achieve-

m en t, a n d this alone, co n stitu tes his p erso n al value, for w hich he
m ay take cred it w ith o u t necessarily su cc u m b in g to inflation. B u t
th e sick m a n ’s vision is a n im p erso n al value, a n a tu ra l gro w th
against w hich he is powerless to d efen d him self, by w hich he is
actu ally sw allow ed u p a n d “w a fted ” clean o u t of th e w orld. F ar
fro m his m aste rin g th e idea a n d e x p a n d in g it in to a p h ilo so p h i-
cal view of th e w orld, it is tr u e r to say th a t th e u n d o u b te d g ra n -
d e u r of his vision blew h im u p to path o lo g ical p ro p o rtio n s. T h e
perso n al v alue lies en tire ly in th e ph ilo so p h ical achievem ent,
n o t in th e p rim a ry vision. T o th e p h ilo so p h e r as w ell this vision
comes as so m u ch in cre m en t, a n d is sim ply a p a rt of th e co m m o n
p ro p e rty of m a n k in d , in w hich, in p rin cip le, everyone has a
share. T h e g o ld en apples d ro p fro m th e sam e tree, w h e th e r
they be g ath e red by a n im becile lo ck sm ith ’s a p p re n tic e o r by a
S ch o p enh au er.
230 T h e r e is, how ever, yet a n o th e r th in g to b e le a rn t fro m this
exam ple, n am ely th a t these tran sp erso n al co n ten ts are n o t ju st
in e rt o r d ea d m a tte r th a t can b e a n n e x e d at will. R a th e r they
are liv in g en tities w h ich e x e rt an a ttra ctiv e force u p o n th e co n -
scious m in d . Id e n tific atio n w ith o n e ’s office o r o n e ’s title is very
attractiv e in d eed , w h ich is precisely w hy so m an y m en are n o th -
in g m o re th a n th e d ec o ru m accorded to th e m by society. In vain
w o u ld one look for a p erson ality b e h in d th e husk. U n d e rn e a th
all th e p a d d in g o n e w o u ld find a very p itia b le little creatu re.
T h a t is why th e office— or w h a te v er this o u te r hu sk m ay b e— is so
attractiv e: it offers easy co m p e n sa tio n for p ersonal deficiencies.
231 O u te r attractio n s, such as offices, titles, a n d o th e r social rega-
lia are n o t th e only th in g s th a t cause inflation. T h e s e are sim ply
im p erso n al q u a n titie s th a t lie o u tsid e in society, in th e collective
consciousness. B u t ju s t as th e re is a society o u tsid e th e in d iv id -
ual, so th e re is a collective psyche o u tsid e th e perso n al psyche,
n am e ly th e collective unconscious, concealing, as th e above ex-
am p le shows, elem ents th a t are n o w h it less attractive. A n d ju st
as a m an m ay su d d en ly step in to th e w o rld o n his professional
d ig n ity (“ M essieurs, à p ré sen t je suis R o y ”), so a n o th e r m ay
d isap p ea r o u t of it eq u ally su d d en ly w h e n it is his lo t to b e h o ld
on e of those m ig h ty images th a t p u t a new face u p o n th e w orld.
T h e s e are th e m agical représentations collectives w h ich u n d e r-
lie th e slogan, th e catchw ord, an d , o n a h ig h e r level, th e la n -

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guage of th e p o et a n d mystic. I am re m in d e d of a n o th e r m e n ta l
case w ho was n e ith e r a p o et n o r a n y th in g very o u tstan d in g , ju s t
a n a tu ra lly q u ie t a n d ra th e r se n tim e n ta l y o u th . H e h ad fallen in
love w ith a girl an d , as so o ften hap p en s, h ad failed to ascertain
w h e th e r his love was re q u ite d . H is p rim itiv e p articipation m ys-
tiq u e took it for g ra n te d th a t his ag itatio n s w ere p lain ly th e agi-
tations of th e o th er, w hich o n the low er levels of h u m a n
psychology is n a tu ra lly very o ften the case. T h u s he b u ilt u p a
sen tim en tal love-fantasy w hich p recip ita tely collapsed w h en he
discovered th a t th e girl w o u ld have n o n e of him . H e was so des-
p erate th a t he w en t straig h t to th e riv e r to d ro w n himself. I t was
late a t n ig h t, a n d th e stars g leam ed u p at h im from th e d a rk
w ater. I t seem ed to h im th a t th e stars w ere sw im m ing two by
tw o d o w n th e river, a n d a w o n d e rfu l feelin g cam e over him . H e
forgot his suicidal in ten tio n s an d gazed fascinated at the strange,
sweet d ram a. A n d g rad u ally he becam e aw are th a t every star was
a face, a n d th a t all these pairs w ere lovers, w ho w ere ca rried
alo n g locked in a d re a m in g em brace. A n en tire ly new u n d e r-
s ta n d in g cam e to him : all h ad ch an g ed — his fate, his d isa p p o in t-
m en t, even his love, reced ed a n d fell away. T h e m em o ry of th e
girl grew distan t, b lu rre d ; b u t instead, he felt w ith co m p lete
certain ty th a t u n to ld riches w ere p ro m ised h im . H e knew th a t
an im m ense treasu re lay h id d e n for h im in th e n e ig h b o u rin g
observatory. T h e re su lt was th a t he was arrested by th e police at
fo u r o ’clock in th e m o rn in g , a tte m p tin g to b re a k in to the o b -
servatory.
232 W h a t h ad h ap p en ed ? H is p o o r h ead h a d glim psed a D a n -
tesque vision, whose loveliness he co u ld n ev er have grasped
h ad he re ad it in a poem . B u t he saw it, a n d it tran sfo rm ed him .
W h a t h ad h u r t h im m ost was now far away; a new a n d u n -
d ream ed -o f w o rld of stars, tracin g th e ir silen t courses far b ey o n d
this grievous earth , h ad o p en e d o u t to h im th e m o m e n t he
crossed “ P ro se rp in e ’s th re sh o ld .” T h e in tu itio n of u n to ld
w e alth — a n d c o u ld any fail to be to u ch ed by this th o u g h t?— cam e
to h im like a revelatio n . F o r his p o o r tu rn ip -h e a d it was too
m u ch . H e d id n o t d ro w n in th e river, b u t in an e te rn a l im age,
a n d its b ea u ty p erish ed w ith him .
*33 J u s t as o n e m a n m ay d isap p ear in his social role, so a n o th e r
m ay be en g u lfe d in an in n e r vision a n d be lost to his s u rro u n d -
ings. M any fathom less tran sfo rm atio n s of perso n ality , like su d -

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d en conversions a n d o th e r far-reaching changes of m in d , o rig i-

n a te in th e a ttra ctiv e pow er of a collective im age , 4 w hich, as th e
p re se n t ex am p le shows, can cause such a h ig h degree of inflation
th a t th e e n tire p erso n ality is d isin teg rated . T h is d isin te g ratio n
is a m e n ta l disease, of a tran sito ry o r a p e rm a n e n t n a tu re , a
“s p littin g of th e m in d ” o r “sch izo p h ren ia,” in B le u le r’s te rm .5
T h e p athological inflatio n n a tu ra lly d ep en d s o n som e in n ate
weakness of th e p erso n ality against th e a u to n o m y of collective
unconscious c ontents.
234 W e shall p ro b a b ly get n ea rest to th e tr u t h if we th in k of th e
conscious a n d person al psyche as re stin g u p o n th e b ro a d basis of
an in h e rite d a n d u n iv ersal psychic disp o sitio n w h ich is as such
unconscious, a n d th a t o u r personal psyche bears th e sam e re la -
tio n to the collective psyche as th e in d iv id u a l to society.
235 B u t equally, ju st as th e in d iv id u a l is n o t m erely a u n iq u e
a n d separate being, b u t is also a social b eing, so th e h u m a n
psyche is n o t a self-contained a n d w holly in d iv id u a l p h e n o m e -
n o n , b u t also a collective one. A n d ju s t as ce rtain social
fu n ctio n s o r instincts are o pposed to th e interests of single in d i-
viduals, so th e h u m a n psyche ex h ib its ce rta in fu n ctio n s o r te n -
dencies w hich, o n ac co u n t of th e ir collective n a tu re , are opposed
to in d iv id u a l needs. T h e reason for this is th a t every m an is b o rn
w ith a h ig h ly d iffe ren tiate d b ra in a n d is th u s assured of a w ide
ran g e of m en tal fu n c tio n in g w hich is n e ith e r dev elo p ed ontoge-
n etically n o r ac q u ired . B ut, to th e degree th a t h u m a n b ra in s are
u n ifo rm ly d ifferen tiated , th e m en tal fu n c tio n in g th ere b y m ad e
possible is also collective a n d universal. T h is explains, for ex-
am p le, th e in te re stin g fact th a t th e unconscious processes of th e
m ost w idely sep arated peoples a n d races show a q u ite re m a rk a b le
correspo n d en ce, w h ich displays itself, a m o n g o th e r things, in
th e e x tra o rd in a ry b u t w ell-a u th en ticate d analogies b etw een th e
form s a n d m otifs of a u to c h th o n o u s m yths. T h e u n iv ersal sim i-
larity of h u m a n b ra in s leads to th e u n iv ersal possibility of a
u n ifo rm m e n ta l fu n c tio n in g . T h is fu n c tio n in g is th e collective
psyche. In a sm u c h as th e re are d iffe ren tiatio n s c o rresp o n d in g to
race, trib e, a n d even fam ily, th e re is also a collective psyche lim-
4 Cf. Psychological T yp es, Def. 26, “ Im age.” L éon D audet, in L ’H éréd o, calls this
process “autofécondation in té rie u re /' by w hich he m eans the reaw akening of an
ancestral soul.
5 B leuler, D em entia Praecox or the G roup of Schizophrenias (orig. 1911).

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

ite d to race, trib e, a n d fam ily over a n d above th e “u n iv ersa l”

collective psyche. T o b o rro w an expression fro m P ierre J a n e t,6
th e collective psyche com prises th e parties inférieures of th e psy-
chic functions, th a t is to say those deep-rooted, w ell-nigh a u to -
m atic p o rtio n s of th e in d iv id u a l psyche w hich are in h e rite d a n d
are to be fo u n d everyw here, a n d are th u s im p erso n a l or su p ra-
personal. Consciousness plus th e personal u n conscious consti-
tutes th e parties supérieures of th e psychic fu n ction s, those p o r-
tions, th erefo re, th a t are d eveloped o n to g en etically an d
acq u ired . C o n seq u en tly , th e in d iv id u a l w ho an n ex es th e u n c o n -
scious h eritag e of th e collective psyche to w h a t has accru ed to
h im in th e course of his o nto g en etic d ev e lo p m e n t, as th o u g h it
w ere p a rt of th e latter, enlarges th e scope of his p erso n ality in an
ille g itim ate way a n d suffers the consequences. I n so far as th e
collective psyche com prises th e parties inférieures of th e psychic
fu n ctio n s a n d th u s form s the basis of every p erso nality , it has th e
effect of cru sh in g a n d d ev a lu in g th e personality. T h is shows it-
self e ith e r in th e afo re m e n tio n e d stifling of self-confidence o r
else in a n unconscious h e ig h te n in g of th e ego’s im p o rta n c e to
th e p o in t of a p athological w ill to pow er.
*3 6 By raisin g th e p erso n al unconscious to consciousness, th e
analysis m akes th e su b ject aw are of things w h ich he is gen erally
aw are of in others, b u t n ev er in him self. T h is discovery m akes
h im th erefo re less in d iv id u a lly u n iq u e , a n d m o re collective. H is
collectivization is n o t always a step to th e b ad; it m ay som etim es
b e a step to th e good. T h e r e are p eo p le w ho repress th e ir good
q u alities a n d consciously give free re in to th e ir in fa n tile desires.
T h e liftin g of personal repressions at first brin g s p u re ly p erso n al
co n te n ts in to consciousness; b u t a ttac h ed to th e m are th e col-
lective elem ents of th e unconscious, th e ever-present instincts,
qu alities, a n d ideas (images) as w ell as all those “statistical”
q u o tas of average v irtu e a n d average vice w h ich we recognize
w h e n we say, “ E veryone has in h im so m eth in g of th e crim in al,
th e genius, a n d th e sain t.” T h u s a liv in g p ic tu re em erges, co n -
ta in in g p re tty w ell ev ery th in g th a t moves u p o n th e checker-
b o a rd of th e w o rld , th e good a n d th e bad , th e fair a n d th e foul.
A sense of so lid arity w ith th e w o rld is g rad u ally b u ilt up, w hich
is felt by m an y n a tu re s as so m eth in g very positive a n d in ce rtain
cases actu ally is th e d ecid in g facto r in the tre a tm e n t of neurosis.
6 Les Névroses (1898).

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 T H E ASSIM ILATION O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

I have m yself seen cases w ho, in this c o n d itio n , m an a g ed fo r th e

first tim e in th e ir lives to arouse love, a n d even to ex p erien ce it
them selves; or, by d a rin g to leap in to th e u n k n o w n , they get
in v o lv ed in th e very fate for w h ich they w ere suited. I have seen
n o t a few w ho, ta k in g this c o n d itio n as final, re m a in e d for years
in a state of e n te rp ris in g eu p h o ria . I have o ften h e a rd such cases
re fe rre d to as s h in in g exam ples of an alytical th erap y . B u t I m u st
p o in t o u t th a t cases of this eu p h o ric a n d e n te rp ris in g type are so
u tte rly lack in g in d iffe re n tia tio n fro m th e w o rld th a t n o b o d y
co u ld pass th e m as fu n d a m e n ta lly cu red . T o m y way of th in k in g
they are as m u c h c u re d as n o t cu red . I have h a d occasion to fol-
low u p th e lives of such p atien ts, a n d it m u st b e o w ned th a t
m an y of th e m show ed sym ptom s of m a la d ju stm e n t, w hich, if
persisted in, g ra d u ally leads to th e sterility a n d m o n o to n y so
ch aracteristic of those w ho have divested them selves of th e ir
egos. H e re too I am sp eak in g of th e b o rd e r-lin e cases, a n d n o t of
th e less valu ab le, n o rm al, average folk for w h o m th e q u e stio n of
a d a p ta tio n is m o re tech nical th a n p ro b lem a tic al. If I w ere m o re
o f a th e ra p ist th a n an investigator, I w o u ld n a tu ra lly b e u n a b le
to check a c e rta in o p tim ism of ju d g m e n t, because m y eyes w o u ld
th e n b e g lu e d to th e n u m b e r of cures. B u t m y conscience as a n
in v estig ato r is co n c ern e d n o t w ith q u a n tity b u t w ith q u ality .
N a tu r e is aristocratic, a n d o n e p erso n of v alu e outw eighs te n
lesser ones. M y eye follow ed th e v alu a b le people, a n d fro m th e m
I le a rn e d th e d u b io u sn ess of th e results of a p u re ly personal
analysis, a n d also to u n d e rs ta n d th e reasons for this dubiousness.
257 If, th ro u g h assim ilatio n of th e unconscious, w e m ak e th e
m istake of in c lu d in g th e collective psyche in th e in v en to ry of
p erso n al psychic fu n ctio n s, a d isso lu tio n of th e p erso n ality in to
its p a ire d opposites in ev itab ly follows. Besides th e p a ir of o p p o -
sites alread y discussed, m eg a lo m a n ia a n d th e sense of in ferio rity ,
w h ich are so p a in fu lly e v id e n t in neurosis, th e re are m an y
others, fro m w h ich I w ill single o u t o n ly th e specifically m o ral
p a ir of opposites, n am ely g ood a n d evil. T h e specific v irtu es a n d
vices of h u m a n ity are co n ta in e d in th e collective psyche like
ev ery th in g else. O n e m a n arro g ates collective v irtu e to him self
as his p erso n al m erit, a n o th e r takes collective vice as his p ersonal
g u ilt. B o th are as illusory as th e m eg a lo m a n ia a n d th e in fe rio r-
ity, because th e im ag in ary v irtu es a n d th e im ag in ary w icked-
nesses are sim ply th e m o ra l p a ir of opposites c o n ta in e d in th e

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

collective psyche, w h ich have becom e p ercep tib le o r have b ee n

re n d e re d conscious artificially. H o w m u c h these p aire d o p p o -
sites are c o n ta in e d in the collective psyche is exem plified by
p rim itiv es: on e ob serv er w ill extol th e g reatest v irtues in th em ,
w h ile a n o th e r w ill re co rd th e very w orst im pressions of th e self-
sam e trib e. F o r th e p rim itiv e, whose perso n al d iffe ren tiatio n is,
as we know , on ly ju s t b eg in n in g , b o th ju d g m e n ts are tru e, b e -
cause his psyche is essentially collective a n d th ere fo re for th e
m ost p a rt unconscious. H e is still m o re o r less id en tica l w ith the
collective psyche, a n d for th a t reason shares eq u ally in th e
collective v irtu es a n d vices, w ith o u t any p ersonal a ttrib u tio n
a n d w ith o u t in n e r c o n tra d ictio n . T h e c o n tra d ic tio n arises only
w h en th e p erso n al d ev e lo p m e n t of th e psyche begins, a n d w hen
reason discovers th e irreco n cilab le n a tu re of th e opposites. T h e
co nsequence of this discovery is th e conflict of repression. W e
w a n t to b e good, a n d th ere fo re m u st repress evil; a n d w ith th a t
th e paradise of th e collective psyche comes to a n end. R epression
of th e collective psyche was ab solutely necessary fo r th e dev elo p -
m e n t of personality. In p rim itives, d ev e lo p m e n t of personality,
o r m o re accurately, d ev e lo p m e n t of th e person, is a q u e stio n of
m agical prestige. T h e figure of th e m ed icin e-m an o r ch ief leads
th e way: b o th m ak e them selves conspicuous by th e sin g u larity of
th e ir o rn a m e n ts a n d th e ir m o d e of life, expressive of th e ir social
roles. T h e sin g u larity of his o u tw a rd tokens m ark s th e in d iv id -
u al off from th e rest, a n d th e segregation is still fu r th e r en -
h an c ed by th e possession of special ritu a l secrets. By these a n d
sim ila r m eans th e p rim itiv e creates a ro u n d h im a shell, w hich
m ig h t be called a p erso n a (mask). Masks, as we know , are ac tu -
ally used am o n g prim itiv es in to tem cerem onies— for instance, as
a m eans of e n h a n c in g o r ch an g in g th e personality. I n this way
th e o u ts ta n d in g in d iv id u a l is a p p a re n tly re m o v e d fro m th e
sp h ere of th e collective psyche, a n d to th e degree th a t h e suc-
ceeds in id en tify in g him self w ith his persona, he actu ally is re -
m oved. T h is rem o v al m eans m agical prestige. O n e c o u ld easily
assert th a t th e im p e llin g m otive in this d ev e lo p m e n t is th e will
to pow er. B u t th a t w o u ld be to forget th a t th e b u ild in g u p of
prestige is always a p ro d u c t of collective co m p ro m ise: n o t only
m u st th e re be o n e w ho wants prestige, th ere m u st also be a p u b -
lic seeking som ebody o n w h o m to con fer prestige. T h a t b e in g so,
it w o u ld b e in co rrect to say th a t a m a n creates prestige fo r him -

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 T H E ASSIM ILATION O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

self o u t of his in d iv id u a l w ill to pow er; it is o n th e co n tra ry a n

e n tire ly collective affair. Since society as a w hole needs th e m ag i-
cally effective figure, it uses this n ee d of th e w ill to pow er in th e
in d iv id u a l, a n d th e w ill to s u b m it in th e mass, as a vehicle, a n d
th u s brings a b o u t th e creatio n of perso n al prestige. T h e la tte r is
a p h e n o m e n o n w hich, as th e histo ry of po litical in stitu tio n s
shows, is of th e u tm o st im p o rta n c e fo r th e com ity of n ations.
23 8 T h e im p o rta n c e of perso n al prestige can h a rd ly be overesti-
m ated , because th e possibility of regressive d isso lu tion in th e
collective psyche is a very real d an g er, n o t on ly fo r th e o u ts ta n d -
ing in d iv id u a l b u t also for his followers. T h is possibility is m ost
likely to occu r w h en th e goal of prestige— u n iv ersal re co g n itio n
— has b een reached. T h e perso n th e n becom es a collective tru th ,
a n d th a t is always th e b e g in n in g of th e en d . T o g ain prestige is a
positive ac h iev em en t n o t only fo r th e o u tsta n d in g in d iv id u a l
b u t also for th e clan. T h e in d iv id u a l d istinguishes him self by his
deeds, th e m an y by th e ir re n u n c ia tio n of pow er. So lo n g as this
a ttitu d e needs to be fo u g h t fo r a n d d efen d ed against hostile in -
fluences, th e ac h iev em en t re m a in s positive; b u t as soon as th e re
are n o m o re obstacles a n d univ ersal re co g n itio n has b ee n a t-
tain ed , prestige loses its positive v alu e a n d usually becom es a
d ead letter. A schism atic m o v em en t th e n sets in, a n d th e w hole
process begins again fro m th e b e g in n in g .
239 Because p erso n ality is of such p a ra m o u n t im p o rtan ce fo r th e
life o f th e co m m u n ity , e v e ry th in g likely to d is tu rb its d evelop-
m e n t is sensed as a d an g er. B u t th e g reatest d an g e r of all is th e
p re m a tu re disso lu tio n of prestige by an invasion of th e collec-
tive psyche. A b so lu te secrecy is o n e of th e best k n o w n p rim itiv e
m eans of exorcising this dan g er. C ollective th in k in g a n d feeling
a n d collective effort are far less of a strain th a n in d iv id u a l fu n c-
tio n in g a n d effort; h en ce th e re is always a g reat te m p ta tio n to
allow collective fu n c tio n in g to take th e place of in d iv id u a l
d iffe re n tia tio n of th e personality. O n ce the p erso n ality has b een
d iffe ren tiate d a n d safeg u ard ed by m agical prestige, its lev ellin g
d o w n a n d ev en tu al d isso lu tio n in th e collective psyche (e.g., P e-
t e r ’s d en ial) occasion a “loss of so u l” in th e in d iv id u a l, because
a n im p o rta n t personal ach iev em en t has b ee n e ith e r neg lected o r
allow ed to slip in to regression. F o r this reason tab o o in frin g e -
m en ts are follow ed by D ra co n ian p u n ish m e n ts alto g eth e r in
k ee p in g w ith th e seriousness of th e situ atio n . So lo n g as we re-

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW E EN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

g ard these th ings fro m th e causal p o in t of view, as m ere h isto ri-

cal survivals a n d m etastases of th e incest tab o o ,7 it is im possible
to u n d e rs ta n d w h a t all these m easures are for. If, how ever, we
a p p ro ach th e p ro b le m from th e teleological p o in t of view, m u ch
th a t was q u ite in ex p lica b le becom es clear.
«4° jro r th e d ev e lo p m e n t of personality, th en , strict d ifferen tia-
tio n fro m th e collective psyche is absolutely necessary, since p a r-
tial o r b lu rre d d iffe ren tiatio n leads to an im m e d iate m e ltin g
away of th e in d iv id u a l in th e collective. T h e r e is now a d an g e r
th a t in th e analysis of th e unconscious th e collective a n d th e p e r-
sonal psyche m ay be fused together, w ith, as I have in tim a te d ,
hig h ly u n fo rtu n a te results. T h e s e results are in ju rio u s b o th to
th e p a tie n t’s life-feeling a n d to his fellow m en, if h e has any in -
fluence at all o n his en v iro n m e n t. T h r o u g h his id en tificatio n
w ith th e collective psyche he will in fallib ly try to force th e d e-
m an d s of his unconscious u p o n others, for id e n tity w ith the col-
lective psyche always b rin g s w ith it a feeling of un iv ersal v alid -
ity— “godlikeness”— w h ich co m p letely ignores all differences in
th e p ersonal psyche of his fellows. (T h e feelin g of un iv ersal va-
lid ity comes, of course, fro m th e u n iv ersality of th e collective
psyche.) A collective a ttitu d e n a tu ra lly presupposes this same
collective psyche in others. B u t th a t m eans a ru th less d isreg ard
n o t only of in d iv id u a l differences b u t also of differences of a
m o re general k in d w ith in th e collective psyche itself, as fo r ex-
am ple differences of race.8 T h is d isreg ard for in d iv id u a lity o b -
viously m eans th e suffocation of th e single in d iv id u a l, as a conse-
q u en c e of w h ich th e ele m e n t of d iffe ren tiatio n is o b lite ra te d
fro m th e co m m u n ity . T h e ele m e n t of d iffe ren tiatio n is th e in d i-
vid u al. A ll th e h ighest achievem ents of v irtu e, as w ell as th e
7 F reud, T o te m an d T a b o o .
8 T h u s it is a q u ite u n p a rd o n a b le m istake to accept th e conclusions of a Jewish
psychology as generally valid. N obody w ould dream of taking Chinese or In d ian
psychology as b in d in g upo n ourselves. T h e cheap accusation of anti-Sem itism
th a t has been levelled a t m e on the g ro u n d of this criticism is a b o u t as intelligent
as accusing m e of an anti-C hinese prejudice. N o do u b t, on an e arlier a n d deeper
level of psychic developm ent, w here it is still impossible to distinguish betw een
a n A ryan, Semitic, H am itic, o r M ongolian m entality, all h u m a n races have a
com m on collective psyche. B u t w ith th e beginning of racial differentiation
essential differences are developed in the collective psyche as well. F o r this reason
we cannot tran sp la n t th e spirit of a foreign race in globo in to o u r own m entality
w ith b u t sensible in ju ry to the latter, a fact w hich does not, however, d e te r sun-
dry n a tu re s of feeble instinct from affecting In d ia n philosophy a n d th e like.

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blackest villainies, are in d iv id u a l. T h e larg er a co m m u n ity is,

a n d th e m o re th e sum to tal of collective factors p ec u lia r to every
large c o m m u n ity rests o n conservative p reju d ices d e trim e n ta l to
in d iv id u a lity , th e m o re w ill th e in d iv id u a l be m o rally a n d spir-
itu ally crushed, an d , as a resu lt, th e o n e source of m o ral a n d
sp iritu a l progress fo r society is cho k ed u p . N a tu ra lly th e only
th in g th a t can th riv e in such a n atm o sp h ere is sociality a n d
w h atev er is collective in th e in d iv id u a l. E v ery th in g in d iv id u a l
in h im goes u n d e r, i.e., is d o o m ed to repression. T h e in d iv id u a l
elem ents lapse in to th e unconscious, w here, by th e law of neces-
sity, they are tran sfo rm ed in to so m eth in g essentially balefu l, d e -
structive, a n d anarchical. Socially, this evil p rin c ip le shows itself
in th e sp ectacu lar crim es— reg icid e a n d th e like— p e rp e tra te d by
ce rtain p ro p h etically -in clin ed in d iv id u als; b u t in th e g reat mass
of th e c o m m u n ity it re m a in s in th e b a c k g ro u n d , a n d only m a n i-
fests itself in d irec tly in th e in ex o ra b le m o ra l d eg e n era tio n of so-
ciety. I t is a n o to rio u s fact th a t th e m o rality of society as a w hole
is in inverse ra tio to its size; fo r th e g re a te r th e aggregation of
in d iv id u als, th e m o re th e in d iv id u a l factors are b lo tte d ou t, a n d
w ith th em m o rality , w hich rests e n tire ly o n th e m o ral sense of
th e in d iv id u a l a n d th e freed o m necessary fo r this. H e n ce every
m a n is, in a ce rta in sense, unconsciously a worse m a n w h en he is
in society th a n w h en ac tin g alone; fo r he is ca rrie d by society
a n d to th a t e x te n t reliev ed of his in d iv id u a l responsibility. A ny
large co m p an y com posed of w holly a d m ira b le persons has th e
m o rality a n d in tellig e n ce of an u n w ield y , stu p id , a n d v io len t
an im al. T h e b ig g er th e o rgan izatio n , th e m o re u n a v o id a b le is its
im m o rality a n d b lin d s tu p id ity (Senatus bestia, senatores b on i
viri). Society, by au to m atica lly stressing all th e collective q u a li-
ties in its in d iv id u a l representatives, p u ts a p re m iu m o n m ed io c-
rity, o n ev ery th in g th a t settles d o w n to vegetate in an easy, irre -
sp onsible way. In d iv id u a lity w ill in e v itab ly be d riv en to th e
wall. T h is process begins in school, c o n tin u es a t th e university,
a n d rules all d e p a rtm e n ts in w h ich th e State has a h an d . I n a
sm all social body, th e in d iv id u a lity of its m em b ers is b e tte r safe-
g u ard ed , a n d th e g re a te r is th e ir relativ e freed o m a n d th e possi-
b ility of conscious responsibility. W ith o u t freed o m th ere can b e
n o m orality. O u r a d m ira tio n for g reat o rganizations dw indles
w h en once we b ecom e aw are of th e o th e r side of th e w o n d er: th e
trem e n d o u s p ilin g u p a n d ac c e n tu a tio n of all th a t is p rim itiv e

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

in m an , a n d th e u n av o id a b le d e stru c tio n of his in d iv id u a lity in

th e interests of th e m o n stro sity th a t every g re at org an izatio n in
fact is. T h e m an of today, w ho resem bles m o re o r less th e collec-
tive ideal, has m ad e his h e a rt in to a d e n of m u rd erers, as can
easily be p ro v ed by th e analysis of his unconscious, even th o u g h
h e him self is n o t in th e least d is tu rb e d by it. A n d in so far as he
is n o rm ally “a d a p te d ” 9 to his e n v iro n m e n t, it is tru e th a t th e
greatest in fam y on th e p a rt of his g ro u p w ill n o t d is tu rb him , so
lo n g as the m ajo rity of his fellows steadfastly believe in th e ex-
alted m o rality of th e ir social org anizatio n . N ow , all th a t I have
said h ere a b o u t th e influence of society u p o n th e in d iv id u a l is
id en tically tru e of th e influence of th e collective unconscious
u p o n th e in d iv id u a l psyche. B ut, as is a p p a re n t from m y ex am -
ples, th e la tte r influence is as invisible as th e fo rm e r is visible.
H e n ce it is n o t s u rp risin g th a t its in n e r effects are n o t u n d e r-
stood, a n d th a t those to w h o m such things h a p p e n are called
p athological freaks a n d tre a te d as crazy. If on e of th em h a p -
p e n e d to be a real genius, th e fact w o u ld n o t b e n o te d u n til the
n e x t g en e ra tio n o r th e o n e after. So obvious does it seem to us
th a t a m an sh o u ld d ro w n in his ow n d ignity, so u tte rly in com -
p re h en sib le th a t he sh o u ld seek a n y th in g o th e r th a n w h a t th e
m o b w ants, a n d th a t he sh o u ld vanish p e rm a n e n tly fro m view in
this oth er. O n e co u ld wish b o th of th e m a sense of h u m o u r, th a t
— acco rd in g to S ch o p en h a u er— tru ly “d iv in e ” a ttrib u te of m an
w hich alo n e befits h im to m a in ta in his soul in freedom .
*4 * T h e collective instincts a n d fu n d a m e n ta l form s of th in k in g
a n d feelin g whose activity is revealed by th e analysis of th e u n -
conscious co n stitu te, for th e conscious personality, an ac q u isitio n
w hich it c a n n o t assim ilate w ith o u t co n sid erab le d istu rb an c e. I t
is th ere fo re of th e u tm o st im p o rtan ce in practical tre a tm e n t to
k eep th e in te g rity of th e p erso nality co nstan tly in m in d . F or, if
th e collective psyche is tak en to be th e p erso n al possession of th e
in d iv id u a l, it will re su lt in a d isto rtio n o r an o v erlo ad in g of th e
p erso n ality w h ich is very difficult to deal w ith. H e n c e it is im -
p erativ e to m ak e a clear d is tin c tio n b etw een perso n al co n ten ts
a n d those of th e collective psyche. T h is d istin c tio n is far from
easy, because th e personal grows o u t of th e collective psyche a n d
is in tim a te ly b o u n d u p w ith it. So it is difficult to say exactly
w h a t c o n te n ts 'a r e to be called perso n al a n d w h a t collective.
®Cf. “a d ju s tm e n t” a n d “ a d a p ta tio n ” in Psychological T yp es (1923 edn., p. 419).

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 T H E ASSIM ILATION O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

T h e r e is n o d o u b t, for instance, th a t archaic sym bolism s such as

we fre q u e n tly find in fantasies a n d dream s are collective factors.
A ll basic instincts a n d basic form s of th in k in g a n d feelin g are
collective. E v ery th in g th a t all m en agree in re g a rd in g as u n iv e r-
sal is collective, likew ise ev ery th in g th a t is u n iversally u n d e r-
stood, universally fo u n d , universally said a n d do ne. O n closer
e x a m in a tio n o n e is always astonished to see how m u ch of o u r so-
called in d iv id u a l psychology is really collective. So m u ch , in -
deed, th a t th e in d iv id u al traits are co m p letely overshadow ed by
it. Since, how ever, in d iv id u a tio n 10 is a n in elu cta b le psychologi-
cal necessity, we can see fro m th e ascendancy of th e collective
w h a t very special a tte n tio n m u st be p aid to this delicate p la n t
“in d iv id u a lity ” if it is n o t to b e c o m p letely sm oth ered .
242 H u m a n beings have o n e faculty w hich, th o u g h it is of th e
greatest u tility for collective purposes, is m ost p ern icio u s for in -
d iv id u atio n , a n d th a t is th e faculty of im ita tio n . C ollective psy-
chology c a n n o t dispense w ith im ita tio n , for w ith o u t it all mass
organizations, th e State a n d th e social o rd er, are im possible. So-
ciety is organized, in deed , less by law th a n by th e p ro p en sity
to im ita tio n , im p ly in g eq u ally suggestibility, suggestion, a n d
m en tal co ntag io n . B u t we see every day how p eo p le use, o r
r a th e r abuse, th e m ech an ism of im ita tio n for th e p u rp o se of p e r-
sonal d iffe ren tiatio n : they are c o n te n t to ape som e e m in e n t p e r-
sonality, som e strik in g ch aracteristic o r m o d e of b eh av io u r,
th ere b y achieving an o u tw a rd d istin c tio n fro m th e circle in
w hich they m ove. W e co u ld alm o st say th a t as a p u n is h m e n t fo r
this th e u n ifo rm ity of th e ir m in d s w ith those of th e ir n eig h -
b o u rs, alread y real en o u g h , is in tensified in to a n unconscious,
com pulsive b o n d ag e to th e en v iro n m e n t. As a ru le these spe-
cious attem p ts at in d iv id u a l d iffe ren tiatio n stiffen in to a pose,
a n d th e im ita to r re m a in s a t th e sam e level as he always was, only
several degrees m o re sterile th a n before. T o find o u t w h a t is
tru ly in d iv id u a l in ourselves, p ro fo u n d reflection is n eed ed ; a n d
su d d en ly we realize how u n co m m o n ly difficult th e discovery of
in d iv id u a lity is.

10 Ibid., Def. 29: “Individuation is a process of differentiation, having for its

goal the development of the individual personality."—“Since the individual is
not only a single entity, but also, by his very existence, presupposes a collective
relationship, the process of individuation does not lead to isolation, b u t to an
intenser and more universal collective solidarity."

2799
 Ill

THE P E R S O N A AS A S E G M E N T O F
T H E C O L L E C T IV E PSYCHE

243 I n this c h a p te r we com e to a p ro b le m w hich, if overlooked, is

liab le to cause th e g reatest confusion. I t w ill b e re m e m b e re d
th a t in th e analysis of th e p ersonal u n conscious th e first things to
b e ad d e d to consciousness are th e p erso n al co n ten ts, a n d I sug-
gested th a t these contents, w h ich have b e e n rep ressed b u t are
cap ab le of b ec o m in g conscious, sh o u ld be called th e personal u n -
conscious. I also show ed th a t to a n n e x th e d e e p e r layers of the
unconscious, w hich I have called th e collective unconscious, p ro -
duces an en la rg e m e n t of th e p erso nality le a d in g to th e state of
inflation. T h is state is reach ed by sim ply c o n tin u in g th e an aly ti-
cal w ork, as in th e case of th e y o u n g w o m an discussed above. By
c o n tin u in g the analysis we a d d to th e p erso n al consciousness cer-
ta in fu n d a m e n ta l, general, a n d im p erso n al characteristics of h u -
m anity, th ere b y b rin g in g a b o u t th e in flatio n 1 I have ju s t d e-

l T h is phenom enon, w hich results from th e extension of consciousness, is in no

sense specific to analytical treatm en t. I t occurs w henever people are overpow ered
by knowledge o r by some new realization. “K now ledge puffeth u p ,” P a u l writes
to th e C orinthians, for the new knowledge h a d tu rn e d the heads of m any, as in -
deed constantly happens. T h e inflation has n o th in g to do w ith the k in d of
knowledge, b u t sim ply and solely w ith th e fact th a t any new knowledge can so
seize hold of a weak head th a t he no longer sees a n d hears an y th in g else. H e is
hypnotized by it, a n d instantly believes he has solved the rid d le of the universe.
B u t th a t is equivalent to alm ighty self-conceit. T h is process is such a general
reaction th at, in Genesis 2:17, eating of the tree of know ledge is represented as
a deadly sin. I t m ay n ot be im m ediately a p p a re n t why g reater consciousness fol-
lowed by self-conceit should be such a dangerous thing. Genesis represents the
act of becom ing conscious as a taboo infringem ent, as th o u g h knowledge m eant
th a t a sacrosanct b a rrie r had been im piously overstepped. I th in k th a t Genesis
is rig h t in so far as every step towards g re ater consciousness is a k in d of P rom e-
th ea n guilt: th ro u g h knowledge, the gods are as it were ro bbed of th e ir fire,
th a t is, som ething th a t was the p ro p e rty of the unconscious powers is torn o ut
of its n a tu ra l context a n d su b o rd in ated to the whim s of th e conscious m ind. T h e

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 T H E PERSONA AS A SEGM EN T O F T H E COLLECTIVE PSYCHE

scribed, w h ich m ig h t be re g a rd e d as o n e of th e u n p le a sa n t co n -
sequences of b ec o m in g fully conscious.
*44 F ro m this p o in t o f view th e conscious p erso n ality is a m o re o r
less a rb itra ry seg m en t of th e collective psyche. I t consists in a
sum of psychic facts th a t are felt to be personal. T h e a ttrib u te
“p erso n al” m eans: p e rta in in g exclusively to this p a rtic u la r p er-
son. A consciousness th a t is p u re ly p erso n al stresses its p ro p rie -
tary a n d o rig in al rig h t to its co n ten ts w ith a c e rta in anxiety, a n d
in this way seeks to create a w hole. B u t all those co n ten ts th a t
refuse to fit in to this w hole are e ith e r o v erlo o k ed a n d fo rg o tte n
o r repressed a n d d en ied . T h is is on e way of e d u c a tin g oneself,
b u t it is too a rb itra ry a n d too m u c h of a v io latio n . F a r too m u c h
o f o u r co m m o n h u m a n ity has to be sacrificed in th e interests of
an ideal im age in to w h ich o n e tries to m o u ld oneself. H e n ce
these p u re ly “p erso n al” p eo p le are always very sensitive, for
so m eth in g m ay easily h a p p e n th a t w ill b rin g in to consciousness
a n u n w elco m e p o rtio n of th e ir real (“ in d iv id u a l”) ch aracter.
«45 T h is a rb itra ry segm ent of collective psyche— o ften fashioned
w ith co n sid erab le p ains— I have called th e persona. T h e term
persona is really a very a p p ro p ria te expression for this, for o rig i-
nally it m e a n t th e m ask once w o rn by actors to in d icate th e role
they played. If we e n d e a v o u r to d raw a precise d istin c tio n b e-
tw een w h a t psychic m a te ria l sh o u ld b e co n sid ered personal, an d
w h a t im p erso n al, we soon find ourselves in th e g reatest d i-
lem m a, for by d efin itio n we have to say of th e p erso n a ’s co n ten ts
w h a t we have said of th e im p erso n a l unconscious, nam ely, th a t it
is collective. I t is only because th e p erso na rep resen ts a m o re o r
less a rb itra ry a n d fo rtu ito u s seg m en t of th e collective psyche
th a t we can m ak e th e m istak e of re g a rd in g it in toto as som e-
th in g in d iv id u a l. I t is, as its n am e im plies, o nly a m ask of th e
collective psyche, a m ask th a t feigns in d iv id u a lity , m ak in g
o thers a n d oneself believe th a t o n e is in d iv id u a l, w hereas one is
sim ply actin g a ro le th ro u g h w h ich th e collective psyche speaks.

m an who has usu rp e d th e new knowledge suffers, however, a transform ation or

e n largem ent of consciousness, w hich no longer resem bles th a t of his fellow m en.
H e has raised him self above th e h u m a n level of his age (“ye shall become like
u n to God"), b u t in so doing has alienated him self from hu m an ity . T h e p a in of
this loneliness is th e vengeance of the gods, for never again can he re tu rn to
m ankind. H e is, as the m y th says, chained to th e lonely cliffs of the Caucasus,
forsaken of G od a n d m an.

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 T H E RELATIONS fcETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

246 W h e n we analyse th e p erson a we strip off th e mask, a n d dis-

cover th a t w h at seem ed to be in d iv id u a l is a t b o tto m collective;
in o th e r words, th a t th e p erso n a was on ly a m ask of th e collec-
tive psyche. F u n d a m e n ta lly th e persona is n o th in g real: it is a
co m p ro m ise betw een in d iv id u a l a n d society as to w h at a m an
sh o u ld a p p e a r to be. H e takes a nam e, earns a title, exercises a
fu n c tio n , h e is this o r that. In a ce rtain sense all this is real, yet
in re la tio n to th e essential in d iv id u a lity of th e person co n cern ed
it is only a secondary reality, a co m p ro m ise fo rm a tio n , in m ak -
in g w hich o th ers o ften have a g re ater share th a n he. T h e p e r-
sona is a sem blance, a tw o-dim ensional reality, to give it a n ick -
n am e.
*47 I t w o u ld be w ro n g to leave th e m a tte r as it stands w ith o u t
a t th e sam e tim e reco g n izin g th a t th e re is, afte r all, so m eth in g
in d iv id u a l in th e p ec u lia r choice a n d d e lin e a tio n of th e persona,
a n d th a t d espite th e exclusive id e n tity of th e ego-consciousness
w ith the persona th e unconscious self, one's real in d iv id u ality ,
is always p re sen t a n d m akes itself felt in d irec tly if n o t directly.
A lth o u g h th e ego-consciousness is at first id en tica l w ith th e p er-
sona— th a t com p ro m ise ro le in w h ich we p ara d e b efo re the
c o m m u n ity — yet th e unconscious self can n ev e r b e rep ressed to
th e p o in t of ex tin ctio n . Its influence is chiefly m an ife st in the
special n a tu re of the co n tra stin g a n d c o m p e n sa tin g co n ten ts of
th e unconscious. T h e p u re ly personal a ttitu d e of th e conscious
m in d evokes reaction s on th e p a rt of th e unconscious, a n d these,
to g eth er w ith personal repressions, c o n ta in th e seeds of in d iv id -
u a l d ev e lo p m e n t in th e guise of collective fantasies. T h r o u g h
th e analysis of th e p ersonal unconscious, th e conscious m in d b e-
comes suffused w ith collective m ateria l w hich b rin g s w ith it the
elem ents of in d iv id u ality . I am w ell aw are th a t this conclusion
m u st be alm ost u n in te llig ib le to an y o n e n o t fa m ilia r w ith my
views a n d tec h n iq u e , a n d p artic u la rly so to those w ho h ab itu ally
re g ard the unconscious from the sta n d p o in t of F re u d ia n theory.
B u t if th e re ad er will recall m y ex am p le of th e p h ilo so p h y stu -
d en t, he can fo rm a ro u g h idea of w h at I m ean. A t th e b e g in n in g
of th e tre a tm e n t th e p a tie n t was q u ite unconscious of th e fact
th a t h e r re la tio n to h e r fa th e r was a fixation, a n d th a t she was
th ere fo re seeking a m an like h e r fath er, w h o m she co u ld th en
m ee t w ith h e r intellect. T h is in itself w o u ld n o t have b een a
m istake if h e r in te lle c t h a d n o t h ad th a t p ec u lia rly p ro testin g

2802
 T H E PERSONA AS A SEGM EN T O F T H E COLLECTIVE PSYCHE

ch a rac ter such as is u n fo rtu n a te ly o ften en c o u n te re d in in tellec-

tu al w om en. Such an in tellect is always try in g to p o in t o u t
m istakes in others; it is p re-em in en tly critical, w ith a dis-
agreeably perso n al u n d e rto n e , yet it always w ants to be consid-
ered objective. T h is in v ariab ly m akes a m a n b ad -tem p ered , p a r-
ticu larly if, as so o ften h ap p en s, th e criticism touches o n som e
w eak spot w hich, in th e interests of fru itfu l discussion, w ere b et-
te r avoided. B u t far fro m w ishing th e discussion to be fru itfu l, it
is th e u n fo rtu n a te p ecu lia rity of this fe m in in e in tellect to seek
o u t a m an 's w eak spots, fasten o n th em , a n d exasperate him .
T h is is n o t usually a conscious aim , b u t r a th e r has th e u n c o n -
scious p u rp o se of fo rcin g a m a n in to a su p e rio r p o sitio n a n d th u s
m ak in g h im a n o b ject of a d m ira tio n . T h e m a n does n o t as a ru le
n o tice th a t h e is h a v in g th e ro le of th e h ero th ru s t u p o n h im ; he
m erely finds h e r ta u n ts so o dious th a t in fu tu re h e w ill go a lo n g
way to avoid m e e tin g th e lady. I n th e e n d th e only m a n w ho can
stan d h e r is th e o n e w ho gives in a t th e start, a n d th ere fo re has
n o th in g w o n d e rfu l a b o u t him .
248 M y p a tie n t n a tu ra lly fo u n d m u c h to reflect u p o n in all this,
fo r she h a d n o n o tio n of th e gam e she was playing. M o reo ver she
still h a d to g ain in sigh t in to th e re g u la r ro m an c e th a t h a d b een
en acted b etw een h e r a n d h e r fa th e r ever since ch ild ho o d . I t
w o u ld lead us too far to describe in d e ta il how , fro m h e r earliest
years, w ith unconscious sym pathy, she h a d played u p o n th e
shadow-side of h e r fa th e r w h ich h e r m o th e r n ev er saw, a n d how,
far in advance of h e r years, she becam e h e r m o th e r's rival. A ll
this cam e to lig h t in th e analysis of th e p erso n al unconscious.
Since, if only fo r professional reasons, I co u ld n o t allow myself to
be irrita te d , I in ev itab ly b ecam e th e h ero a n d father-lover. T h e
tran sferen ce too consisted at first of c o n te n ts fro m th e personal
unconscious. M y ro le as a h ero was ju s t a sham , a n d so, as it
t u r n e d m e in to th e m erest p h a n to m , she was ab le to play h e r
tra d itio n a l ro le o f th e su p rem ely wise, very grow n-up, all-u n d e r-
s ta n d in g m o th er-d au g h ter-b elo v ed — a n em p ty ro le, a perso n a
b e h in d w hich h e r real a n d a u th e n tic b ein g , h e r in d iv id u a l self,
lay h id d en . In d e ed , to th e e x te n t th a t she a t first com pletely
id en tified herself w ith h e r role, she was alto g eth e r unconscious
of h e r real self. She was still in h e r n e b u lo u s in fa n tile w o rld a n d
h a d n o t yet discovered th e real w o rld at all. B u t as, th ro u g h p ro -
gressive analysis, she b ecam e conscious of th e n a tu re of h e r

2803
 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

transference, th e dream s I spoke of in C h a p te r I began to m a te -

rialize. T h e y b ro u g h t u p bits of th e collective unconscious, a n d
th a t was th e e n d of h e r in fa n tile w o rld a n d of all th e heroics. She
cam e to h erself a n d to h e r ow n real p o ten tialities. T h is is
ro u g h ly th e way things go in m ost cases, if th e analysis is ca rried
far enough. T h a t th e consciousness of h e r in d iv id u a lity sh o u ld
coincide exactly w ith th e re activ atio n of an arch aic god-im age is
n o t ju st an isolated coincidence, b u t a very fr e q u e n t occurrence
w hich, in m y view, corresponds to an unconscious law.
*49 A fter this digression, le t us tu r n back to o u r ea rlier reflec-
tions.
*5 ° O nce th e personal repressions are lifted, th e in d iv id u a lity
a n d th e collective psyche b eg in to em erge in a coalescent state,
th u s releasing th e h ith e rto repressed p ersonal fantasies. T h e fan -
tasies a n d dream s w hich n ow a p p e a r assum e a som ew hat differ-
e n t aspect. A n in fallib le sign of collective im ages seems to b e th e
a p p e ara n ce of th e “cosm ic” elem en t, i.e., th e im ages in th e
d re am o r fantasy are c o n n e cted w ith cosm ic qu alities, such as
tem p o ra l a n d spatial infinity, en o rm o u s speed a n d ex ten sio n of
m o v em en t, “astrological” associations, tellu ric, lu n a r, a n d solar
analogies, changes in th e p ro p o rtio n s of th e body, etc. T h e o b v i-
ous occurrence of m ythological a n d relig io u s m otifs in a d re am
also p o in ts to th e activity of th e collective unconscious. T h e col-
lective e le m e n t is very o ften a n n o u n c e d by p e c u lia r sym ptom s , 2
as fo r ex am p le by dream s w h ere th e d re a m e r is flying th ro u g h
space like a com et, o r feels th a t h e is th e ea rth , o r th e sun, o r a
star; o r else is of im m en se size, o r dw arfishly sm all; o r th a t he is
dead, is in a strange place, is a stran g e r to him self, confused,
m ad, etc. Sim ilarly, feelings of d iso rien tatio n , of dizziness a n d
th e like, m ay a p p e a r alo n g w ith sym ptom s of inflation.
*5 * T h e forces th a t b u rs t o u t of th e collective psyche have a c o n -
fu sin g a n d b lin d in g effect. O n e re s u lt of th e d isso lu tio n of th e
perso n a is a release of in v o lu n ta ry fantasy, w h ich is a p p a ren tly
n o th in g else th a n th e specific activity of th e collective psyche.
T h is activity throw s u p co n ten ts whose existence o n e h a d n ev er
suspected before. B u t as th e influence of th e collective u n c o n -
2 It may not be superfluous to note that collective elements in dreams are not
restricted to this stage of the analytical treatm ent. T here are many psychological
situations in which the activity of the collective unconscious can come to the
surface. But this is not the place to enlarge upon these conditions.

2804
 T H E PERSONA AS A SEGM EN T O F T H E COLLECTIVE PSYCHE

scious increases, so th e conscious m in d loses its p o w er of lea d er-

ship. Im p e rc e p tib ly it becom es th e led, w h ile an unconscious
a n d im p erso n al process g rad u ally takes co n tro l. T h u s , w ith o u t
n o tic in g it, th e conscious p erso n ality is p u sh ed a b o u t like a fig-
u re o n a chess-board by an invisible player. I t is this player w ho
decides th e gam e of fate, n o t th e conscious m in d a n d its plans.
T h is is how th e re so lu tio n of th e transference, a p p a re n tly so im -
possible to th e conscious m in d , was b r o u g h t a b o u t in m y ea rlier
exam ple.
252 T h e p lu n g e in to this process becom es u n a v o id a b le w h en ev er
th e necessity arises of ov erco m in g a n a p p a re n tly in su p era b le
difficulty. I t goes w ith o u t saying th a t this necessity does n o t oc-
c u r in every case of neurosis, since p erh ap s in th e m ajo rity th e
p rim e co n sid eratio n is only th e rem o v al of tem p o ra ry difficulties
of ad a p tatio n . C erta in ly severe cases c a n n o t b e c u re d w ith o u t a
far-reaching change of ch a rac ter o r of a ttitu d e . I n by far th e
g re a te r n u m b e r, a d a p ta tio n to e x te rn a l re ality d em an d s so m u ch
w o rk th a t in n e r a d a p ta tio n to th e collective unconscious c a n n o t
b e co n sid ered fo r a very lo n g tim e. B u t w h e n this in n e r ad a p ta -
tio n becom es a p ro b lem , a strange, irresistib le a ttra c tio n p ro -
ceeds fro m th e unconscious a n d exerts a p o w erfu l influence o n
th e conscious d ire c tio n of life. T h e p re d o m in a n c e of u n c o n -
scious influences, to g eth er w ith th e associated d isin te g ratio n of
th e p erso n a a n d th e d ep o sitio n of th e conscious m in d fro m
pow er, co n stitu te a state of psychic d is e q u ilib riu m w hich, in
an aly tical tre a tm e n t, is artificially in d u c e d for th e th e ra p e u tic
p u rp o se of resolv in g a difficulty th a t m ig h t block fu r th e r d evel-
o p m e n t. T h e r e are of course in n u m e ra b le obstacles th a t can b e
o vercom e w ith good advice a n d a little m o ral su p p o rt, aid ed by
goodw ill a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g o n th e p a rt of th e p a tie n t. Excel-
le n t cu rativ e results can b e o b ta in e d in this way. Cases are n o t
u n c o m m o n w h ere th e re is n o n e e d to b re a th e a w o rd a b o u t th e
u nconscious. B u t again, th e re are difficulties fo r w h ich o n e can
foresee n o satisfactory solu tio n . If in these cases th e psychic e q u i-
lib riu m is n o t already d is tu rb e d b efo re tre a tm e n t begins, it w ill
certain ly b e u p set d u rin g th e analysis, a n d som etim es w ith o u t
an y in terfere n ce by th e doctor. I t o ften seems as th o u g h these
p atien ts h a d on ly b ee n w a itin g to find a tru stw o rth y person in
o rd e r to give u p a n d collapse. Such a loss of b alan ce is sim ilar in
p rin c ip le to a psychotic d istu rb an c e; th a t is, it differs fro m th e

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

in itia l stages of m en tal illness only by th e fact th a t it leads in th e

e n d to g re ater h ealth , w h ile th e la tte r leads to yet g re ater d e-
stru ctio n . I t is a c o n d itio n of panic, a le ttin g go in face of a p p a r-
ently hopeless com plications. M ostly it was p reced ed by d esp er-
ate efforts to m aster th e difficulty by force of w ill; th e n cam e th e
collapse, a n d th e once g u id in g will cru m b les com pletely. T h e
energy thus freed disappears from consciousness a n d falls in to
th e unconscious. As a m a tte r of fact, it is at these m o m en ts th a t
th e first signs of unconscious activity ap p ear. (I am th in k in g of
th e ex am p le of th a t yo u n g m a n w ho was w eak in the head.)
O bviously th e energy th a t fell away fro m consciousness has acti-
vated the unconscious. T h e im m e d iate re su lt is a change of a tti-
tude. O n e can easily im ag in e th a t a stro n g er head w o u ld have
tak en th a t vision of th e stars as a h ea lin g a p p a ritio n , a n d w o u ld
have looked u p o n h u m a n suffering sub specie aeternitatis, in
w hich case his senses w o u ld have b ee n re s to re d .3
253 H a d this h ap p e n ed , an a p p a re n tly in s u rm o u n ta b le obstacle
w o u ld have b een rem oved. H e n ce I re g ard th e loss of b alan ce as
p urposive, since it replaces a defective consciousness by th e
a u to m atic a n d in stin ctiv e activity of th e unconscious, w h ich is
aim in g all th e tim e at the creatio n of a new b alance a n d will
m o reo v er achieve this aim , p ro v id ed th a t th e conscious m in d is
capable of assim ilating th e co n ten ts p ro d u c e d by th e u n c o n -
scious, i.e., of u n d e rs ta n d in g a n d d ig esting them . If th e u n c o n -
scious sim ply rides ro u g h sh o d over th e conscious m in d , a psy-
chotic c o n d itio n develops. If it can n e ith e r co m pletely p rev ail
n o r yet be u n d ersto o d , th e re su lt is a conflict th a t cripples all
fu r th e r advance. B u t w ith this q u estio n , n am ely th e u n d e rs ta n d -
in g of th e collective unconscious, we com e to a fo rm id a b le diffi-
culty w h ich I have m ad e th e th em e of m y n e x t ch ap ter.
s Cf. Flournoy, “Automatisme téléologique antisuicide: un cas de suicide em-
pêché p ar une hallucination’* (1907), 113-37; and Jung, “T h e Psychology of
Dementia Praecox,” pars. 304ff.

2806
 IV
NEGATIVE ATTEMPTS TO FREE
THE INDIVIDUALITY FROM
THE COLLECTIVE PSYCHE

a. R egressive R e sto ra tio n o f the Persona

*54 A collapse of th e conscious a ttitu d e is n o sm all m atter. It

always feels like th e en d of th e w orld, as th o u g h ev ery th in g had
tu m b le d back in to o rig in al chaos. O n e feels d eliv ered u p , d isori-
en ted , like a ru d d erless sh ip th a t is a b a n d o n e d to th e m oods of
th e elem ents. So a t least it seems. In reality, how ever, o n e has
fallen back u p o n th e collective unconscious, w hich now takes
over th e leadership. W e co u ld m u ltip ly exam ples of cases w here,
a t th e critical m o m en t, a “saving” th o u g h t, a vision, an “ in n e r
voice,” cam e w ith an irresistib le po w er of co n v ictio n a n d gave
life a new d irec tio n . P ro b ab ly we co u ld m e n tio n ju s t as m any
cases w h ere th e collapse m e a n t a catastro p h e th a t destroyed life,
fo r at such m o m en ts m o rb id ideas are also liab le to take root, o r
ideals w ith e r away, w hich is n o less disastrous. I n th e o n e case
som e psychic o d d ity develops, o r a psychosis; in the o th er, a state
of d iso rie n ta tio n a n d dem o ralizatio n . B u t once th e unconscious
c o n te n ts b re ak th ro u g h in to consciousness, filling it w ith th e ir
u n c a n n y pow er of conviction, th e q u estio n arises of how the in -
d iv id u a l w ill react. W ill he be o v erp o w ered by these contents?
W ill h e cred u lo u sly accept them ? O r w ill he reject them ? (I am
d isreg a rd in g th e ideal reactio n , n am ely critical u n d ersta n d in g .)
T h e first case signifies p a ran o ia o r schizophrenia; th e second
m ay e ith e r b ecom e an eccentric w ith a taste for prophecy, o r he
m ay re v ert to an in fa n tile a ttitu d e a n d be c u t off fro m h u m a n
society; th e th ird signifies th e regressive restoration of the per-
sona. T h is fo rm u la tio n sounds very technical, a n d the re ad er
m ay justifiably suppose th a t it has so m eth in g to do w ith a com -

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

p licated psychic re actio n such as can be observed in th e course of

analytical tre a tm e n t. I t w ould, how ever, be a m istake to th in k
th a t cases of this k in d m ak e th e ir ap p earan ce only in analytical
tre a tm e n t. T h e process can b e observed ju st as well, a n d o ften
b etter, in o th e r situ atio n s of life, n am ely in all those careers
w h ere th ere has b ee n som e v io len t a n d d estru ctiv e in te rv e n tio n
of fate. Every one, presum ably, has suffered adverse tu rn s of fo r-
tu n e, b u t m ostly they are w ou nd s th a t h eal a n d leave n o c rip -
p lin g m ark. B u t h ere we are co n c ern e d w ith experiences th a t
are destructive, th a t can sm ash a m an co m p letely o r at least c rip -
ple h im for good. L et us take as a n ex am p le a businessm an w ho
takes too g re at a risk a n d co n seq u en tly becom es b a n k ru p t. If he
does n o t allow him self to be d iscouraged by this depressing ex-
p erience, b u t, u n dism ayed, keeps his fo rm e r d arin g , perh ap s
w ith a little salu tary c a u tio n added, his w o u n d will be healed
w ith o u t p e rm a n e n t in ju ry. B u t if, o n th e o th e r h an d , he goes to
pieces, ab ju res all fu r th e r risks, a n d lab o rio u sly tries to p atch u p
his social re p u ta tio n w ith in th e confines of a m u ch m o re lim ite d
personality, d o in g in fe rio r w ork w ith th e m e n ta lity of a scared
child, in a post far below him , th en , technically speaking, he will
have resto red his persona in a regressive way. H e will as a resu lt
of his frig h t have slip p ed back to an ea rlier phase of his p erso n -
ality; he will have d em e an ed him self, p re te n d in g th a t he is as he
was before th e cru cial experience, th o u g h u tte rly u n a b le even to
th in k of re p e a tin g such a risk. F o rm erly p erh ap s he w an ted
m o re th a n h e co u ld accom plish; no w h e does n o t even d are to
a tte m p t w h at he has it in h im to do.
255 Such experiences o ccur in every w alk of life a n d in every
possible form , h en ce in psychological tre a tm e n t also. H e re again
it is a q u estio n of w id en in g th e personality, of tak in g a risk o n
o n e ’s circum stances o r on o n e ’s n a tu re . W h a t th e critical ex p e ri-
ence is in actu al tre a tm e n t can be seen fro m th e case of o u r p h i-
losophy s tu d e n t: it is th e transference. As I have already in d i-
cated, it is possible for th e p a tie n t to slip over th e reef of the
tran sferen ce unconsciously, in w h ich case it does n o t becom e an
exp erience a n d n o th in g fu n d a m e n ta l happens. T h e doctor, for
th e sake of m ere convenience, m ig h t well wish for such patients.
B u t if they are in tellig e n t, th e p atien ts soon discover th e exist-
ence of this p ro b le m fo r them selves. If th e n th e doctor, as in th e
above case, is ex a lte d in to th e father-lover a n d co n seq u en tly has

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 NEGATIVE A T T EM PT S T O F R E E T H E INDIVIDUALITY

a flood of d em an d s let loose against h im , h e m u st perforce th in k

o u t ways a n d m eans of p arry in g th e o n slau g h t, w ith o u t him self
g e ttin g d ra w n in to th e m aelstro m a n d w ith o u t in ju ry to th e p a-
tien t. A v io len t r u p tu r e of th e tran sferen ce m ay b rin g o n a com -
p lete relapse, o r worse; so th e p ro b le m m u st be h a n d le d w ith
g reat tact a n d foresight. A n o th e r possibility is th e pious h o p e
th a t “ in tim e ” th e “n o n sen se” w ill stop of its ow n accord. C er-
tain ly ev ery th in g stops in tim e, b u t it m ay be a n u n co n scio n ab ly
lo n g tim e, a n d th e difficulties m ay b e so u n b e a ra b le for b o th
sides th a t o n e m ig h t as w ell give u p th e id ea of tim e as a h ea lin g
facto r a t once.
256 A far b e tte r in s tru m e n t fo r “c o m b a ttin g ” th e tran sferen ce
w o u ld seem to b e offered by th e F re u d ia n th eo ry of neurosis.
T h e d ep e n d en ce of th e p a tie n t is e x p la in e d as a n in fa n tile sex-
u al d e m a n d th a t takes th e place of a ra tio n a l a p p lica tio n of sex-
uality. S im ilar advantages are offered by th e A d le ria n th eo ry , 1
w hich ex p lain s th e tran sferen ce as a n in fa n tile pow er-aim , a n d
as a “security m easu re.” B o th theories fit th e n e u ro tic m en tality
so n eatly th a t every case of neurosis can b e ex p la in e d by b o th
theories a t o n ce .2 T h is h ig h ly re m a rk a b le fact, w h ich any u n -
p re ju d ic e d observer is b o u n d to co rro b o ra te , can only rest o n
th e circu m stan ce th a t F re u d ’s “ in fa n tile ero ticism ” a n d A d le r’s
“ p ow er d riv e ” are o n e a n d th e sam e th in g , regardless of th e
clash of o p in io n s b etw e en th e tw o schools. I t is sim ply a frag-
m e n t of u n c o n tro lle d , a n d a t first u n c o n tro lla b le , p rim o rd ia l in -
stin ct th a t comes to lig h t in th e p h e n o m e n o n of transference.
T h e archaic fantasy-form s th a t g rad u ally reach th e surface of
consciousness are on ly a f u r th e r p ro o f of this.
257 W e can try b o th theories to m ak e th e p a tie n t see how in fa n -
tile, im possible, a n d a b su rd his d em an d s are, a n d p erh ap s in th e
e n d he will actually com e to his senses again. M y p atien t, ho w -
ever, was n o t the only on e w ho d id n o t do this. T r u e en o u g h ,
th e d o cto r can always save his face w ith these theories a n d e x tri-
cate h im self fro m a p a in fu l s itu a tio n m o re o r less h u m an ely .
T h e r e are in d ee d p atien ts w ith w h o m it is, o r seems to be, u n r e -
w a rd in g to go to g re ater lengths; b u t th ere are also cases w here
these p ro ced u res cause senseless psychic in ju ry . I n th e case of m y
s tu d e n t I d im ly felt so m eth in g of th e sort, a n d I th ere fo re aban-
1 Adler, T he Neurotic Constitution (orig. 1912).
2 Cf. supra, pars. 44ft., for an example of such a ease.

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

d o n ed m y ra tio n a listic attem p ts in o rd e r— w ith ill-concealed

m istru st— to give n a tu re a chance to co rrect w h a t seem ed to m e
to be h er ow n foolishness. As already m en tio n ed , this ta u g h t m e
so m eth in g e x tra o rd in a rily im p o rta n t, n am ely th e existence of
an unconscious self-regulation. N o t only can th e unconscious
“w ish,” it can also cancel its ow n wishes. T h is realization, of
such im m ense im p o rtan ce for th e in teg rity of th e personality,
m u st re m a in sealed to any o n e w ho c a n n o t get over th e idea th a t
it is sim ply a q u estio n of in fantilism . H e w ill tu r n ro u n d on th e
th resh o ld of this realizatio n a n d tell him self: “ I t was all n o n -
sense of course. I am a crazy visionary! T h e best th in g to do
w o u ld be to b u ry th e unconscious o r th ro w it o v erb o ard w ith all
its w orks.” T h e m ea n in g a n d p u rp ose he so eagerly desired he
will see only as in fa n tile m au n d erin g s. H e will u n d e rs ta n d th a t
his lo n g in g was ab su rd ; he learns to be to le ra n t w ith him self,
resigned. W h a t can he do? R a th e r th an face th e conflict he will
tu r n back an d , as best he can, regressively resto re his sh attered
persona, d isco u n tin g all those hopes a n d ex p ectatio n s th a t h a d
blossom ed u n d e r the transference. H e w ill becom e sm aller,
m o re lim ited , m o re ratio n alistic th a n he was before. O n e co u ld
n o t say th a t this re su lt w o u ld be an u n q u a lifie d m isfo rtu n e in all
cases, for th ere are all too m an y who, o n ac co u n t of th e ir n o to ri-
ous in e p titu d e , th riv e b e tte r in a ra tio n a listic system th a n in
freedom . F reed o m is o n e of the m ore difficult things. T h o se w ho
can stom ach this way o u t can say w ith F aust:

This earthly circle I know well enough.

Towards the Beyond the view has been cut off;
Fool—who directs that way his dazzled eye,
Contrives himself a double in the sky!
Let him look round him here, not stray beyond;
T o a sound m an this world must needs respond.
T o roam into eternity is vain!
W hat he perceives, he can attain.
T h u s let him walk along his earthlong day;
T h o u g h phantom s h au n t him, let him go his way .3

258 Such a so lu tio n w o u ld be p erfect if a m an w ere really able to

shake off th e unconscious, d ra in it of its energy a n d re n d e r it
inactive. B u t ex p erien ce shows th a t the unconscious can be de-
3 Faust, trans. by Louis MacNeice, p. 283 (Part II, Act V).

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 NEGATIVE A T T E M PT S T O FR E E T H E INDIVIDUALITY

p riv ed of its energy only in p a rt: it rem ain s co n tin u ally active,
fo r it n o t only co n tain s b u t is itself th e source of the lib id o from
w h ich th e psychic elem ents flow. I t is th ere fo re a d elu sio n to
th in k th a t by som e k in d of m agical th eo ry o r m e th o d the u n c o n -
scious can be finally e m p tie d of lib id o a n d thus, as it w ere, elim -
in ated . O n e m ay for a w hile play w ith this delu sio n , b u t th e day
comes w h en o n e is forced to say w ith F aust:

But now such spectredom so throngs the air

T h a t none knows how to dodge it, none knows where.
T h ough one day greet us with a rational gleam,
T h e night entangles us in webs of dream.
W e come back happy from the fields of spring—
And a bird croaks. Croaks what? Some evil thing.
Enmeshed in superstition night and morn,
It forms and shows itself and comes to warn.
And we, so scared, stand w ithout friend or kin,
And the door creaks—and nobody comes in.4

N o body, of his ow n free w ill, can strip th e unconscious of its

effective pow er. A t best, o n e can m erely deceive oneself o n this
p o in t. For, as G o e th e says:

U nheard by the outward ear

In the heart I whisper fear;
Changing shape from h our to hour
I employ my savage power.5

O n ly o n e th in g is effective against th e unconscious, a n d th a t is

h a rd o u te r necessity. (T h o se w ith r a th e r m o re know ledge of the
unconscious will see b e h in d th e o u te r necessity th e sam e face
w h ich once gazed at th em from w ith in .) A n in n e r necessity can
ch an g e in to an o u te r one, a n d so lo n g as th e o u te r necessity is
real, a n d n o t ju s t faked, psychic p ro b lem s re m a in m o re o r less
ineffective. T h is is why M ep h isto offers F aust, w ho is sick of th e
“m adness of m agic,” th e follow ing advice:

Right. T here is one way that needs

No money, no physician, and no witch.
4 Ibid., p. 281 (Part II, Act V).
5 Ibid., p. 282 (Part II, Act V), modified.

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

Pack up your things and get back to the land

And there begin to dig and ditch;
Keep to the narrow round, confine your mind,
And live on fodder of the simplest kind,
A beast among the beasts; and do n 't forget
T o use your own dung on the crops you set! 6

I t is a w ell-know n fact th a t th e “sim ple life” c a n n o t be faked,

a n d th erefo re th e u n p ro b le m a tic a l existence of a p o o r m an , w ho
really is d eliv ered over to fate, ca n n o t be b o u g h t by such cheap
im itatio n s. O n ly th e m an w ho lives such a life n o t as a m ere
possibility, b u t is actually d riv en to it by th e necessity of his ow n
n a tu re , w ill b lin d ly pass over the p ro b le m of his soul, since he
lacks th e capacity to grasp it. B u t once he has seen th e F au stian
p ro b lem , th e escape in to th e “sim ple life” is closed for ever.
T h e r e is of course n o th in g to stop h im from ta k in g a two-room
cottage in th e co u ntry , o r from p o tte rin g a b o u t in a g ard en an d
ea tin g raw tu rn ip s. B u t his soul laughs at th e deception. O nly
w h at is really oneself has th e p o w er to heal.
259 T h e regressive re sto ratio n of th e perso n a is a possible course
only fo r th e m an w ho owes th e critical failu re of his life to his
ow n inflatedness. W ith d im in ish e d personality, he tu rn s back to
th e m easure h e can fill. B u t in every o th e r case resig n atio n a n d
self-b elittlem en t are an evasion, w hich in th e lo n g ru n can be
k ep t u p only at th e cost of n e u ro tic sickliness. F ro m th e co n -
scious p o in t of view of th e perso n concerned, his c o n d itio n does
n o t look like an evasion at all, b u t seems to b e d u e to th e im pos-
sibility of co p in g w ith th e p ro b lem . U sually he is a lonely figure,
w ith little o r n o th in g to h elp h im in o u r present-day c u ltu re .
Even psychology has only p u re ly re d u ctiv e in te rp re ta tio n s to
offer, since it in ev itab ly u n d e rlin e s th e archaic a n d in fa n tile
ch a rac ter of these tran sitio n al states a n d m akes th em u n ac cep t-
ab le to h im . T h e fact th a t a m edical th eo ry m ay also serve th e
p u rp o se of en a b lin g the d o cto r to p u ll his ow n head m o re o r less
elegantly o u t of th e noose does n o t occur to h im . T h a t is p re -
cisely why these re d u ctiv e theories fit th e essence of neurosis so
b ea u tifu lly — because they are of such g re at service to th e doctor.
6 Ibid., p. 67 (P art I, W itc h ’s Kitchen scene), modified.

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 NEGATIVE A T T E M PT S T O FR E E T H E INDIVIDUALITY

b. Id e n tific a tio n w ith th e C ollective Psyche

260 T h e second way leads to id en tificatio n w ith th e collective

psyche. T h is w o u ld a m o u n t to an acceptance of inflation, b u t
now ex alted in to a system. T h a t is to say, one w o u ld be th e for-
tu n a te possessor of the g reat tr u th w hich was only w a itin g to
be discovered, of th e eschatological know ledge w h ich spells th e
h ea lin g of th e nation s. T h is a ttitu d e is n o t necessarily m egalo-
m an ia in d irec t form , b u t in the m ild e r a n d m o re fa m iliar form
of p ro p h e tic in sp ira tio n a n d desire for m arty rd o m . F o r weak-
m in d e d persons, w ho as o ften as n o t possess m o re th a n th e ir fair
share of a m b itio n , vanity, a n d m isplaced naïveté, th e d an g e r of
y ield in g to this te m p ta tio n is very great. Access to th e collective
psyche m eans a ren ew al of life for th e in d iv id u a l, n o m a tte r
w h e th e r this renew al is felt as pleasant o r u n p lea sa n t. E verybody
w o u ld like to h o ld fast to this renew al: o n e m a n because it e n -
hances his life-feeling, a n o th e r because it prom ises a rich harvest
of know ledge, a th ird because he has discovered th e key th a t will
tran sfo rm his w hole life. T h e re fo re all those w h o do n o t wish to
d ep riv e them selves of th e g reat treasures th a t lie b u rie d in th e
collective psyche w ill strive by every m eans possible to m a in ta in
th e ir new ly w on co n n e ctio n w ith th e p rim a l source of life.7
Id e n tific atio n w o u ld seem to b e th e sh o rtest ro a d to this, for th e
disso lu tio n of th e perso n a in th e collective psyche positively in -
vites o n e to wed oneself w ith th e abyss a n d b lo t o u t all m em o ry
in its em brace. T h is piece of m ysticism is in n a te in all b e tte r
m en as th e “ lo n g in g for the m o t h e r / ' th e nostalgia fo r th e
source from w hich we cam e.
261 As I have show n in m y b o o k o n lib id o , th e re lie a t th e ro o t of
th e regressive longing, w h ich F re u d conceives as “ in fa n tile fixa-
tio n " o r th e “ incest w ish," a specific v alue a n d a specific n e e d
w h ich are m ad e ex p licit in m yths. I t is precisely th e strongest
a n d best a m o n g m en , th e heroes, w h o give way to th e ir regres-
7 I w ould like to call a tte n tio n h ere to an in terestin g rem ark of K a n t’s. In his
lectures on psychology (Vorlesungen ü ber Psychologie, Leipzig, 1889) he speaks
of th e “ treasure lying w ithin th e field of dim representations, th a t deep abyss of
h u m a n knowledge forever beyond o u r reach.” T h is treasure, as I have dem o n -
strated in my Sym bols o f Transform ation, is th e aggregate of all those p rim o r-
dial images in w hich the libido is invested, o r ra th e r, w hich are self-represen-
tatio n s of th e libido.

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

sive lo n g in g a n d purposely expose them selves to th e d an g e r of

b ein g d ev o u red by th e m o n ster of th e m a te rn a l abyss. B u t if a
m an is a hero, he is a h ero because, in th e final reck o n in g , he d id
n o t let th e m o n ster d ev o u r him , b u t s u b d u e d it, n o t once b u t
m any times. V ictory over th e collective psyche alone yields th e
tru e value— th e c a p tu re of th e hoard, th e in v in cib le w eapon, th e
m agic talism an, o r w h atev er it be th a t th e m y th deem s m ost d e-
sirable. A nyone w ho identifies w ith th e collective psyche— or, in
m ythological term s, lets him self b e d ev o u red by th e m o n ster—
a n d vanishes in it, attain s the treasu re th a t th e d rag o n guards,
b u t he does so in spite of him self a n d to his ow n greatest h arm .
262 P ro b ab ly n o one w ho was conscious of th e ab su rd ity of this
iden tificatio n w o u ld have th e courage to m ak e a p rin c ip le of it.
B u t th e d an g e r is th a t very m an y p eo p le lack th e necessary h u -
m o u r, o r else it fails th em at this p a rtic u la r ju n c tu re ; they are
seized by a sort of pathos, ev ery th in g seems p re g n a n t w ith m e a n -
ing, a n d all effective self-criticism is checked. I w o u ld n o t den y
in general th e existence of g en u in e p ro p h ets, b u t in th e n am e of
c a u tio n I w o u ld beg in by d o u b tin g each in d iv id u a l case; for it is
far too serious a m a tte r for us lightly to accept a m an as a g e n u -
in e p ro p h e t. Every respectable p ro p h e t strives m an fu lly against
th e unconscious preten sio n s of his role. W h e n th ere fo re a
p ro p h e t appears at a m o m e n t’s notice, we w o u ld be b e tte r a d -
vised to c o n te m p la te a possible psychic d is e q u ilib riu m .
263 B u t besides th e possibility of b eco m in g a p ro p h e t, th e re is
a n o th e r a llu rin g joy, su b tle r a n d a p p a re n tly m o re leg itim ate:
th e joy of b eco m in g a p ro p h e t’s disciple. T h is , for th e vast m a-
jo rity of people, is an a lto g eth e r ideal tech n iq u e. Its advantages
are: th e o d iu m dignitatis, th e s u p e rh u m a n resp o n sib ility of th e
p ro p h e t, tu rn s in to th e so m u ch sw eeter o tiu m in d ig n ita tis. T h e
disciple is u n w o rth y ; m odestly he sits a t th e M aster’s feet a n d
g uards against h av in g ideas of his ow n. M e n ta l laziness becom es
a v irtu e ; o n e can a t least bask in th e su n of a sem id iv in e being.
H e can enjoy th e archaism a n d in fan tilism of his unconscious
fantasies w ith o u t loss to him self, fo r all resp o n sib ility is laid at
th e M aster’s door. T h r o u g h his deification of th e M aster, th e
disciple, a p p a ren tly w ith o u t n o tic in g it, waxes in statu re ; m o re-
over, does h e n o t possess th e great tr u th — n o t his ow n discovery,
o f course, b u t received straig h t fro m th e M aster’s hands? N a tu -
rally th e disciples always stick together, n o t o u t of love, b u t fo r

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th e very u n d e rs ta n d a b le p u rp o se of effortlessly confirm ing th e ir

ow n convictions by e n g e n d erin g an a ir of collective agreem ent.
264 N ow this is an id en tificatio n w ith th e collective psyche th a t
seems a lto g eth e r m o re co m m en d ab le: som ebody else has the
h o n o u r of b e in g a p ro p h e t, b u t also th e d an g erou s resp o n sib il-
ity. F o r o n e ’s ow n part, on e is a m ere disciple, b u t nonetheless a
jo in t g u a rd ia n of th e g reat trea su re w hich th e M aster has found.
O n e feels th e full d ig n ity an d b u rd e n of such a position, d eem -
in g it a solem n d u ty a n d a m oral necessity to revile o thers n o t of
a like m in d , to en ro l proselytes an d to hold u p a light to the
G entiles, exactly as th o u g h on e w ere th e p ro p h e t oneself. A n d
these people, w ho creep a b o u t b e h in d an ap p a re n tly m odest
persona, are th e very ones who, w h en inflated by id en tificatio n
w ith th e collective psyche, su d d en ly b u rs t u p o n th e w o rld scene.
For, ju s t as th e p ro p h e t is a p rim o rd ia l im age fro m the collective
psyche, so also is th e disciple of th e p ro p h e t.
265 In b o th cases in flatio n is b ro u g h t a b o u t by th e collective u n -
conscious, a n d th e in d e p e n d en ce of the in d iv id u a lity suffers in -
ju ry . B u t since by n o m eans all in d iv id u a lities have the stren g th
to be in d e p e n d e n t, th e disciple-fantasy is p erh ap s th e best they
can accom plish. T h e gratifications of th e accom panying infla-
tio n at least do so m eth in g to m ake u p for the loss of sp iritu al
freedom . N o r sh o u ld we u n d e re stim a te th e fact th a t th e life of a
real o r im ag in ed p ro p h e t is fu ll of sorrows, d isap p o in tm en ts,
a n d privatio n s, so th a t th e h o san n a-sh o u tin g b a n d of disciples
has th e v alue of a co m p en satio n . A ll this is so h u m a n ly u n d e r -
stan d ab le th a t it w o u ld b e a m a tte r fo r a sto n ish m en t if it led to
any fu r th e r d e s tin a tio n w hatever.

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 PART TW O

IN D IV ID U A T IO N

THE FUNCTION OF THE UNCONSCIOUS

866 T h e r e is a d estin atio n , a possible goal, b ey o n d th e a lte rn a -

tive stages d ea lt w ith in o u r last ch ap ter. T h a t is th e way of in -
d iv id u atio n . In d iv id u a tio n m eans b eco m in g a n “ in -d iv id u al,”
an d , in so far as “in d iv id u a lity ” em braces o u r in n erm o st, last,
a n d in co m p arab le u n iq u en ess, it also im p lies b ec o m in g o n e ’s
o w n self. W e c o u ld th ere fo re tran sla te in d iv id u a tio n as “co m in g
to selfh o o d ” o r “self-realization.”
267 T h e possibilities of d ev e lo p m e n t discussed in th e p re ced in g
ch ap ters were, a t b o tto m , a lien a tio n s of th e self, ways of divest-
in g th e self of its re ality in fa v o u r of an e x te rn al ro le o r in fa-
v o u r of an im ag in ed m ean in g . I n th e fo rm e r case th e self retires
in to th e b ac k g ro u n d a n d gives place to social reco g n itio n ; in th e
latter, to th e auto-suggestive m e a n in g of a p rim o rd ia l image. In
b o th cases th e collective has th e u p p e r h an d . S elf-alienation in
fa v o u r of th e collective corresponds to a social ideal; it even
passes for social d u ty a n d v irtu e, a lth o u g h it can also b e m isused
fo r egotistical purposes. Egoists are called “selfish,” b u t this, n a t-
u rally , has n o th in g to d o w ith th e co n cep t of “self” as I am using
it here. O n th e o th e r h an d , self-realization seems to stan d in o p -
p o sitio n to self-alienation. T h is m isu n d e rs ta n d in g is q u ite g en -
eral, because we do n o t sufficiently d istin g u ish b etw een in d iv id -
u alism a n d in d iv id u a tio n . In d iv id u a lism m eans d elib erately
stressing a n d giv in g p ro m in e n c e to som e su p posed p ecu liarity
ra th e r th a n to collective co n sid eratio n s a n d obligations. B u t in -
d iv id u a tio n m eans precisely th e b e tte r a n d m o re co m p lete ful-

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 T H E FU N CTIO N O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

film en t of th e collective q u alities of th e h u m a n b eing, since ade-

q u a te co n sid eratio n of th e p ecu liarity of th e in d iv id u a l is m o re
conducive to a b e tte r social p erfo rm an c e th a n w h en the p ecu l-
iarity is neglected o r suppressed. T h e idiosyncrasy of an in d iv id -
u al is n o t to be u n d e rsto o d as any strangeness in his substance o r
in his com ponents, b u t ra th e r as a u n iq u e co m b in atio n , o r g ra d -
u a l d ifferen tiatio n , of fu n ctio n s a n d faculties w hich in th e m -
selves are universal. Every h u m a n face has a nose, two eyes, etc.,
b u t these universal factors are variable, a n d it is this v aria b ility
w hich m akes in d iv id u a l peculiarities possible. In d iv id u a tio n ,
therefore, can only m ean a process of psychological d ev e lo p m e n t
th a t fulfils the in d iv id u a l q u alities given; in o th e r words, it is a
process by w hich a m a n becom es th e definite, u n iq u e b ein g he
in fact is. In so d o in g he does n o t becom e “selfish” in th e o rd i-
n ary sense of th e w ord, b u t is m erely fu lfillin g th e p ecu liarity of
his n a tu re , an d this, as we have said, is vastly d ifferen t fro m ego-
tism o r in d iv id u alism .
268 N ow in so far as the h u m a n in d iv id u a l, as a liv in g u n it, is
com posed of p u re ly u n iv ersal factors, he is w holly collective a n d
th erefo re in n o sense opposed to collectivity. H e n c e th e in d iv id -
ualistic em phasis on one's ow n p ec u lia rity is a co n tra d ic tio n of
this basic fact of th e living being. In d iv id u a tio n , o n th e o th e r
h an d , aim s at a liv in g co-operation of all factors. B u t since th e
universal factors always a p p e a r only in in d iv id u a l form , a full
con sid eratio n of th em w ill also p ro d u ce an in d iv id u a l effect, a n d
o n e w hich ca n n o t be surpassed by a n y th in g else, least of all by
in d ivid u alism .
269 T h e aim of in d iv id u a tio n is n o th in g less th a n to divest th e
self of th e false w rap p in g s of th e persona o n th e o n e h an d , a n d of
the suggestive pow er of p rim o rd ia l im ages on th e o th er. F ro m
w h at has been said in th e previous ch ap ters it sh o u ld be suffi-
ciently clear w hat th e persona m eans psychologically. B u t w hen
we tu rn to th e o th e r side, n am ely to th e influence of th e collec-
tive unconscious, we find we are m o v in g in a d ark in te rio r w o rld
th at is vastly m o re difficult to u n d e rs ta n d th a n th e psychology of
the persona, w hich is accessible to everyone. E veryone knows
w hat is m ean t by “p u ttin g on official airs” o r “ p lay in g a social
ro le .” T h ro u g h the persona a m an tries to a p p e a r as this o r that,
o r he hides b e h in d a mask, o r he m ay even b u ild u p a definite
persona as a barricad e. So th e p ro b le m of th e p erso n a sh o u ld

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 T H E RELA TIO NS B E TW E EN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

p re sen t n o g re at in tellectu a l difficulties.

27° I t is, how ever, a n o th e r th in g to describe, in a way th a t can be
gen erally u n d ersto o d , those su b tle in n e r processes w hich invade
th e conscious m in d w ith such suggestive force. P erhaps we can
best p o rtra y these influences w ith th e h elp of exam ples of m e n -
tal illness, creativ e in sp iratio n , a n d relig io u s conversion. A m ost
ex cellen t ac co u n t— tak en from life, so to speak— of such an in n e r
tra n sfo rm a tio n is to be fo u n d in H . G. W e lls’ C hristina A lb e r -
ta's F ather* C hanges of a sim ilar k in d are described in L éo n
D a u d e t’s e m in e n tly re a d a b le L 'H é r é d o . A w ide ran g e of m a te -
rial is co n ta in e d in W illia m Ja m e s ’ Varieties of R elig iou s E x p e -
rience. A lth o u g h in m an y cases of this k in d th ere are ce rtain
e x te rn al factors w hich e ith e r d irectly c o n d itio n the change, o r at
least p ro v id e th e occasion fo r it, yet it is n o t always th e case th a t
th e ex te rn al factor offers a sufficient e x p la n a tio n of these
changes of p ersonality. W e m u st recognize th e fact th a t they can
also arise from subjective in n e r causes, o p inions, convictions,
w h ere e x te rn a l stim u li play n o p a rt at all, o r a very insignificant
one. In path o lo g ical changes of p erso n ality this can even be said
to b e th e ru le. T h e cases of psychosis th a t p re sen t a clear a n d
sim ple re actio n to som e o v erw h elm in g o u tsid e event b e lo n g to
th e exceptions. H ence, fo r psychiatry, th e essential aetiological
factor is th e in h e rite d o r a c q u ire d path o lo g ical disposition. T h e
sam e is p ro b a b ly tru e of m ost creative in tu itio n s, for we are
h a rd ly likely to suppose a p u re ly causal co n n ectio n betw een the
fa llin g ap p le a n d N e w to n ’s th eo ry of grav itatio n . Sim ilarly all
relig io u s conversions th a t c a n n o t be traced back d irectly to sug-
gestion a n d contagious ex am p le rest u p o n in d e p e n d e n t in te rio r
processes c u lm in a tin g in a change of personality. As a ru le these
processes have th e p ec u lia rity of b e in g su b lim in a l, i.e., u n c o n -
scious, in th e first place a n d of re a c h in g consciousness only g ra d -
ually. T h e m o m e n t of irru p tio n can, how ever, b e very sudden,
so th a t consciousness is in stan tan eo u sly flooded w ith extrem ely
stran g e a n d a p p a re n tly q u ite u n su sp ec te d contents. T h a t is how
it looks to th e lay m an a n d even to th e person concerned, b u t th e
ex p e rien c ed observer knows th a t psychological events are n ev er
su d d en . I n reality th e ir r u p tio n has b ee n p re p a rin g for m any
years, o ften for h alf a lifetim e, a n d alread y in ch ild h o o d all sorts
a [Concerning the origin of this novel in a conversation between Wells and Jung,
cf. Bennet, W hat Jung Really Said, p. 93.—E d i t o r s .]

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW E EN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

of re m a rk a b le signs co u ld have b ee n d ete cted w hich, in m o re o r

less sym bolic fashion, h in te d at a b n o rm a l fu tu re d evelopm ents.
I am re m in d e d , for instance, of a m e n ta l case w ho refu sed all
n o u ris h m e n t a n d create d q u ite e x tra o rd in a ry difficulties in co n -
n ec tio n w ith nasal feeding. I n fact an an aesth etic was necessary
b efo re th e tu b e co u ld be in serted . T h e p a tie n t was ab le in som e
re m a rk a b le way to swallow his to n g u e by pressing it back in to
th e th ro at, a fact th a t was q u ite new a n d u n k n o w n to m e a t th e
tim e. I n a lu cid in terv al I o b ta in e d th e follo w in g history fro m
th e m an. As a boy h e h a d o ften revolved in his m in d th e id ea of
how he co u ld take his life, even if every conceivable m easu re
w ere em ployed to p re v e n t h im . H e first trie d to d o it by h o ld in g
his b re a th , u n til he fo u n d th a t by th e tim e h e was in a sem i-
conscious state h e h a d alread y b e g u n to b re a th e again. So h e
gave u p these attem p ts a n d th o u g h t: p erh ap s it w o u ld w o rk if h e
refu sed food. T h is fantasy satisfied h im u n t i l h e discovered th a t
fo o d co u ld be p o u re d in to h im th ro u g h th e nasal cavity. H e
th ere fo re co n sid ered ho w this e n tra n c e m ig h t b e closed, a n d
th u s it was th a t he h it u p o n th e id ea of pressing his to n g u e back-
w ards. A t first h e was unsuccessful, a n d so h e b eg an a re g u la r
tra in in g , u n til a t last he succeeded in sw allow ing his to n g u e in
m u c h th e sam e way as som etim es h ap p e n s accid en tally d u rin g
anaesthesia, ev id en tly in his case by artificially re la x in g th e m u s-
cles at th e ro o t of th e to n g u e.
*7 * In this stran ge m a n n e r th e boy p aved th e way fo r his fu tu re
psychosis. A fte r th e second attack h e b ecam e in c u ra b ly insane.
T h is is* only o n e ex a m p le am o n g m an y others, b u t it suffices to
show how th e su b seq u e n t, a p p a re n tly s u d d e n irru p tio n of alien
co n ten ts is really n o t s u d d en at all, b u t is r a th e r th e re su lt of a n
u nconscious d e v e lo p m e n t th a t has b ee n g o in g o n fo r years.
272 T h e g re at q u estio n n o w is: in w h a t d o these unconscious
processes consist? A n d how are they co n stitu ted ? N a tu ra lly , so
lo n g as they are unconscious, n o th in g can b e said a b o u t them .
B u t som etim es th ey m an ifest them selves, p a rtly th ro u g h sym p-
tom s, p artly th ro u g h actions, o p in io n s, affects, fantasies, a n d
dream s. A id ed by such o b serv atio n al m a te ria l we can d ra w in d i-
re c t conclusions as to th e m o m e n ta ry state a n d c o n stitu tio n of
th e unconscious processes a n d th e ir d ev elo p m en t. W e sh o u ld
n o t, how ever, la b o u r u n d e r th e illu sio n th a t we have n o w dis-

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 T H E FU N C T IO N O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

covered th e real n a tu r e of th e unconscious processes. W e n ev er

succeed in g e ttin g f u r th e r th a n th e h y p o th etica l “as if.”
273 “ N o m o rta l m in d can p lu m b th e d ep th s of n a tu r e ”— n o r
even th e d ep th s of th e unconscious. W e do know , how ever, th a t
th e unconscious n ev e r rests. I t seems to be always at w ork, for
even w h e n asleep we d ream . T h e r e are m an y p eo p le w ho d e-
clare th a t th ey n e v e r d ream , b u t th e p ro b a b ility is th a t they
sim ply do n o t re m e m b e r th e ir dream s. I t is significant th a t p eo -
p le w ho talk in th e ir sleep m ostly have n o reco llectio n e ith e r of
th e d re a m w h ich starte d th e m talking, o r even of th e fact th a t
they d re a m e d a t all. N o t a day passes b u t we m ak e some slip of
th e to n g u e, o r so m eth in g slips o u r m em o ry w hich at o th e r tim es
we k n o w perfectly well, o r we are seized by a m o o d whose cause
we c a n n o t trace, etc. T h e s e things are all sym ptom s of som e co n -
sistent unconscious activity w h ich becom es directly visible at
n ig h t in dream s, b u t only occasionally b reaks th ro u g h th e in h i-
b itio n s im posed by o u r d ay tim e consciousness.
274 So far as o u r p re sen t ex p erien ce goes, we can lay it dow n th a t
th e unconscious processes stan d in a co m p en sato ry re la tio n to
th e conscious m in d . I expressly use th e w o rd “co m p en sato ry ”
a n d n o t th e w o rd “c o n tra ry ” because conscious a n d unconscious
are n o t necessarily in o p p o sitio n to o n e a n o th e r, b u t co m p le-
m e n t o n e a n o th e r to fo rm a to tality, w hich is th e self. A ccording
to this d efin itio n th e self is a q u a n tity th a t is su p ra o rd in a te to
th e conscious ego. I t em braces n o t only th e conscious b u t also
th e unconscious psyche, a n d is th erefo re, so to speak, a p erso n al-
ity w hich we also are. I t is easy en o u g h to th in k of ourselves as
possessing part-souls. T h u s we can, for instance, see ourselves as
a p erso n a w ith o u t too m u c h difficulty. B u t it transcends o u r
pow ers of im ag in atio n to fo rm a clear p ic tu re of w h a t we are as a
self, fo r in this o p e ra tio n th e p a r t w o u ld have to c o m p re h e n d
th e w hole. T h e r e is little h o p e of o u r ever b ein g able to reach
even a p p ro x im a te consciousness of th e self, since how ever m u ch
we m ay m ak e conscious th e re w ill always exist an in d e te rm in a te
a n d in d e te rm in a b le a m o u n t of unco n scio u s m ateria l w h ich b e-
longs to th e to tality of th e self. H e n c e th e self will always re m a in
a s u p ra o rd in a te q u an tity .
275 T h e unconscious processes th a t co m p en sate th e conscious
ego c o n ta in all those elem en ts th a t are necessary for th e self-

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re g u la tio n of th e psyche as a w hole. O n th e personal level, these

are the n o t consciously recognized perso n al m otives w h ich a p -
p e a r in dream s, o r th e m eanings of daily situ atio n s w h ich we
have overlooked, o r conclusions we have failed to draw , o r
affects we have n o t p e rm itte d , o r criticism s we have sp ared o u r-
selves. B u t th e m o re we becom e conscious of ourselves th ro u g h
self-knowledge, a n d act accordingly, th e m o re th e layer of th e
personal unconscious th a t is su p erim p o sed o n the collective u n -
conscious w ill be d im in ish ed . In this way th ere arises a co n -
sciousness w hich is n o lo n g er im p riso n ed in th e petty, oversensi-
tive, personal w orld of th e ego, b u t p artic ip a tes freely in th e
w id er w o rld of objective interests. T h is w id en e d consciousness is
n o lo n g er th a t touchy, egotistical b u n d le of personal wishes,
fears, hopes, a n d am b itio n s w hich always has to be co m p en sated
o r co rrected by unconscious co u n ter-ten d en cies; instead, it is a
fu n c tio n of re la tio n sh ip to th e w o rld of objects, b rin g in g th e
in d iv id u a l in to absolute, b in d in g , a n d in d isso lu b le c o m m u n io n
w ith th e w o rld a t large. T h e co m p licatio n s arisin g at this stage
are n o lo n g er egotistic wish-conflicts, b u t difficulties th a t co n -
cern o thers as m u c h as oneself. A t this stage it is fu n d a m e n ta lly a
q u estio n of collective p roblem s, w h ich have activ ated th e collec-
tive unconscious because they re q u ire collective ra th e r th a n p e r-
sonal co m p en satio n . W e can now see th a t the unconscious p ro -
duces co n ten ts w hich are valid n o t o n ly fo r th e person co n cern ed ,
b u t for o th ers as well, in fact for a g reat m an y p eo p le a n d pos-
sibly for all.
276 T h e E lgonyi, natives of th e E lgon forests, of ce n tral A frica,
ex p la in e d to m e th a t th ere are two k in d s of dream s: th e o rd i-
n ary d re am of th e little m an , a n d th e “b ig v isio n” th a t only th e
g reat m an has, e.g., th e m ed icin e-m an o r chief. L ittle d ream s are
of n o account, b u t if a m an has a “ b ig d re a m ” he su m m o n s th e
w hole trib e in o rd e r to tell it to everybody.
277 H o w is a m an to k now w h e th e r his d re am is a “ b ig ” o r a
“little ” one? H e know s it by an in stin ctiv e feelin g of signifi-
cance. H e feels so o v erw h elm ed by th e im pression it m akes th a t
he w o u ld n ev er th in k of k ee p in g th e d re a m to him self. H e has
to tell it, on the psychologically correct assu m p tio n th a t it is of
g eneral significance. Even w ith us th e collective d re am has a
feelin g of im p o rtan ce a b o u t it th a t im pels co m m u n ica tio n . I t
springs from a conflict of re la tio n sh ip a n d m u st th erefo re be

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 T H E FU N C T IO N OF T H E UNCONSCIOUS

b u ilt in to o u r conscious relations, because it com pensates these

a n d n o t ju st som e in n e r personal q u irk .
27 8 T h e processes of th e collective unconscious are co n cern ed
n o t on ly w ith th e m o re o r less personal re la tio n s of an in d iv id -
u al to his fam ily o r to a w id er social g ro u p , b u t w ith his relatio n s
to society a n d to th e h u m a n co m m u n ity in g eneral. T h e m o re
g en eral a n d im p erso n al th e c o n d itio n th a t releases th e u n c o n -
scious reactio n , th e m o re significant, b izarre, a n d o v erw h elm in g
w ill be th e co m pensatory m an ifestatio n . I t im pels n o t ju st p ri-
vate co m m u n ica tio n , b u t drives p eo p le to rev elatio ns a n d co n -
fessions, a n d even to a d ra m a tic re p re s e n ta tio n of th e ir fantasies.
2 79 I will e x p la in by an ex am p le how th e unconscious m anages
to co m p en sate relationships. A som ew hat a rro g a n t g e n tlem a n
once cam e to m e for tre a tm e n t. H e ra n a business in p a rtn e rs h ip
w ith his y o u n g er b ro th e r. R elatio n s b etw een th e two b ro th ers
w ere very strain ed , a n d this was o n e of th e essential causes of m y
p a tie n t’s neurosis. F ro m th e in fo rm a tio n he gave m e, th e real
reason for th e ten sio n was n o t alto g e th e r clear. H e h ad all kinds
of criticism s to m ak e of his b ro th e r, whose gifts he certain ly d id
n o t show in a very fav o u rab le light. T h e b ro th e r fre q u e n tly
cam e in to his dream s, always in th e ro le of a B ism arck, N a p o -
leon, o r J u liu s Caesar. H is house lo o k ed like th e V atican o r Yil-
diz Kiosk. M y p a tie n t’s unconscious ev id en tly h ad th e n ee d to
ex a lt th e ra n k of th e y o u n g er b ro th e r. F ro m this I co n clu d ed
th a t he was se ttin g h im self too h ig h a n d his b ro th e r too low.
T h e fu r th e r course of analysis e n tire ly ju stified this inference.
280 A n o th e r p a tie n t, a y o u n g w o m an w ho c lu n g to h e r m o th e r
in a n ex trem ely se n tim e n ta l way, always h ad very sin ister
dream s a b o u t her. She a p p e a re d in th e dream s as a w itch, as a
ghost, as a p u rs u in g d em o n . T h e m o th e r h a d sp o ilt h e r b ey o n d
all reason a n d h ad so b lin d e d h e r by tenderness th a t th e d a u g h -
te r h ad n o conscious idea of h e r m o th e r’s h a rm fu l influence.
H e n c e th e com pensatory criticism exercised by the unconscious.
281 I m yself once h a p p e n e d to p u t too low a v alu e o n a p atien t,
b o th in tellectu a lly a n d m orally. I n a d re a m I saw a castle
p e rc h e d o n a h ig h cliff, a n d o n the to p m o st to w er was a balcony,
a n d th e re sat m y p atien t. I d id n o t h esitate to tell h e r this d re a m
a t once, n a tu ra lly w ith th e best results.
282 W e all k n o w how a p t we are to m ak e fools of ourselves in
fro n t of th e very p eo p le we have u n ju stly u n d e rra te d . N a tu ra lly

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

th e case can also be reversed, as once h a p p e n e d to a frie n d of

m ine. W h ile still a callow s tu d e n t he h a d w ritte n to V irchow ,
th e pathologist, craving an au d ie n ce w ith “ H is Excellency/*
W h e n , q u a k in g w ith fear, he p resen ted him self a n d trie d to give
his nam e, he b lu rte d o u t, “ My n a m e is V irc h o w /' W h e re u p o n
H is Excellency, sm iling m ischievously, said, “Ah! So y o u r n am e
is V irchow too?" T h e feelin g of his ow n n u llity was ev id en tly
too m u ch for th e unconscious of m y frien d , a n d in consequence
it in stan tly p ro m p te d h im to p re se n t h im self as eq ual to V ir-
chow in g ra n d eu r.
283 In these m o re personal relatio n s th e re is of course n o n ee d
fo r any very collective com pensations. O n th e o th e r h an d , the
figures em ployed by th e unconscious in o u r first case are of a
definitely collective n a tu re : they are u n iversally recognized h e-
roes. H e re th ere are two possible in te rp re ta tio n s: e ith e r m y p a -
tie n t’s y o u ng er b ro th e r is a m a n of acknow ledged a n d far-
re ach in g collective im p o rtan ce , o r m y p a tie n t is o v erestim ating
his ow n im p o rtan ce n o t m erely in re la tio n to his b ro th e r b u t in
re la tio n to everybody else as well. F o r th e first assu m p tio n th e re
was n o s u p p o rt at all, w hile fo r th e second th e re was th e evi-
dence of o n e ’s ow n eyes. Since th e m a n ’s e x tre m e arrogance
affected n o t only him self, b u t a far w id er social g ro u p , the com -
p en satio n availed itself of a collective im age.
284 T h e sam e is tru e of th e second case. T h e “w itc h ” is a collec-
tive im age; h ence we m u st co n clu d e th a t th e b lin d d ep e n d en ce
of th e yo u n g w om an a p p lie d as m u c h to th e w id er social g ro u p
as it d id to h e r m o th e r personally. T h is was in d ee d th e case, in
so far as she was still liv in g in an exclusively in fa n tile w orld,
w h ere the w o rld was id en tical w ith h e r parents. T h e s e exam ples
deal w ith relatio n s w ith in the personal o rb it. T h e r e are, how -
ever, im p erso n al relatio n s w hich occasionally n ee d unconscious
com p en satio n . In such cases collective images a p p e a r w ith a
m o re o r less m ythological ch aracter. M oral, p hilosophical, an d
religious p ro b lem s are, on acco u n t of th e ir u n iv ersal validity,
th e m ost likely to call for m ythological co m p en satio n . In th e
a fo rem en tio n ed novel by H . G. W ells we find a classical type of
co m p en satio n : M r. P reem by, a m id g et p ersonality, discovers
th a t he is really a re in c a rn a tio n of Sargon, K ing of Kings. H a p -
pily, th e genius of the a u th o r rescues p o o r old Sargon fro m p a th -
ological ab su rd ity , a n d even gives th e re a d e r a chance to a p p re -

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 T H E FU N C T IO N O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

ciate th e tragic a n d ete rn a l m e a n in g in this la m e n ta b le affray.

M r. P reem by, a co m p lete n o n e n tity , recognizes him self as th e
p o in t of in terse ctio n of all ages past a n d fu tu re . T h is know ledge
is n o t too d early b o u g h t at th e cost of a little m adness, p ro v id ed
th a t P ree m b y is n o t in th e e n d d ev o u red by th a t m o n ster of a
p rim o rd ia l im age— w hich is in fact w h at n early h ap p en s to him .
285 T h e u n iversal p ro b le m of evil a n d sin is a n o th e r aspect of
o u r im p erso n al re la tio n s to th e w orld. A lm ost m o re th a n any
o th er, therefo re, this p ro b le m p roduces collective com pensa-
tions. O n e of m y p atien ts, aged sixteen, h a d as th e in itia l sym p-
to m of a severe co m p u lsio n n eurosis th e follow ing d re am : H e is
w a lkin g a long an u n fa m ilia r street. I t is dark, an d he hears steps
co m in g b e h in d h im . W ith a fe e lin g o f fear he q u ick en s his pace.
T h e fo otsteps com e nearer, a n d his fear increases. H e begins to
ru n . B u t th e footsteps seem to be o ve rta k in g h im . F inally he
turns r o u n d , a n d th ere he sees the d e v il. I n deathly terror he
leaps into th e air a n d hangs there s u sp e n d e d . T h is d re a m was
re p e a te d twice, a sign of its special urgency.
286 i t is a n o to rio u s fact th a t th e c o m p u lsio n neuroses, by reason
of th e ir m eticulousness a n d ce rem o n ial p u n ctilio , n o t only have
th e surface ap p e ara n ce of a m o ral p ro b le m b u t are in d ee d brim -
fu ll of in h u m a n beastliness a n d ruth less evil, against th e in te -
g ra tio n of w h ich th e very d elicately organized p erso nality pu ts
u p a d esp erate struggle. T h is ex p lains w hy so m an y things have
to be p e rfo rm e d in cerem o n ially “c o rre c t” style, as th o u g h to
c o u n te ra c t th e evil h o v e rin g in th e b ac k g ro u n d . A fte r this
d re a m th e n eurosis started , a n d its essential fe atu re was th a t th e
p a tie n t had, as he p u t it, to keep him self in a “ p ro v isio n al” or
“u n c o n ta m in a te d ” state of p u rity . F o r this pu rp o se he e ith e r
severed o r m ad e “ in v a lid ” all co n tact w ith th e w o rld a n d w ith
ev ery th in g th a t re m in d e d h im of th e tran sito rin ess of h u m a n
existence, by m eans of lu n a tic form alities, scru p u lo u s cleansing
cerem onies, a n d th e an x io u s observance of in n u m e ra b le rules
a n d re g u la tio n s of an u n b e lie v a b le com plexity. E ven before th e
p a tie n t h ad any suspicion of th e h ellish existence th a t lay before
h im , th e d re a m show ed h im th a t if he w a n te d to com e d o w n to
e a rth again th e re w o u ld have to b e a pact w ith evil.
287 E lsew here I have d escrib ed a d re a m th a t illu strates th e com -
p en sa tio n of a religious p ro b le m in a y o u n g theological s tu d e n t.1
1 “A rc h e ty p e s o f th e C o lle c tiv e U n c o n s c io u s /' p a r . 71 .

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW E EN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

H e was involved in all sorts of difficulties of belief, a n o t u n -

co m m o n occu rren ce in th e m a n of today. In his d re a m he was
th e p u p il of th e “w h ite m ag ician ,” w ho, how ever, was dressed in
black. A fter h av in g in stru c te d h im u p to a certain point, th e
w h ite m agician to ld h im th a t they no w n ee d ed th e “ black m ag i-
c ia n .” T h e black m agician ap p eared , b u t clad in a w h ite ro b e.
H e declared th a t h e h ad fo u n d th e keys of paradise, b u t n ee d ed
th e w isdom of th e w h ite m agician in o rd e r to u n d e rs ta n d how to
use them . T h is d re am obviously co n tain s th e p ro b le m of o p p o -
sites w hich, as we know , has fo u n d in T a o is t philo sop h y a so lu -
tio n very d ifferen t from th e views p re v ailin g in th e W est. T h e
figures em ployed by th e d re am are im p erso n al collective images
co rresp o n d in g to th e n a tu re of th e im p erso n al religious p ro b -
lem . In co n trast to the C h ristia n view, th e d re am stresses th e
re la tiv ity of good a n d evil in a way th a t im m e d iately calls to
m in d th e T a o is t sym bol of Yin a n d Yang.
288 W e sh o u ld certain ly n o t co n clu de fro m these co m pensations
th at, as th e conscious m in d becom es m o re deep ly engrossed in
u n iv ersal p roblem s, th e unconscious w ill b rin g fo rth co rre-
s p o n d in g ly far-reaching com pensations. T h e r e is w h a t o n e
m ig h t call a leg itim ate a n d a n ille g itim ate in tere st in im p e r-
sonal p roblem s. E xcursions of this k in d are leg itim a te only
w h e n they arise from th e deepest a n d tru e st needs of th e in d i-
v id u al; illeg itim ate w h e n they are e ith e r m e re in tellectu a l c u ri-
osity o r a flight fro m u n p le a sa n t reality. I n th e la tte r case th e
unconscious produces all too h u m a n a n d p u re ly p ersonal com -
pensations, whose m an ifest aim is to b rin g th e conscious m in d
back to o rd in a ry reality. P eo p le w ho go illeg itim ately m o o n in g
a fte r th e in fin ite o ften have ab su rd ly b a n a l d ream s w h ich e n -
d ea v o u r to d a m p d o w n th e ir eb u llien ce. T h u s , fro m th e n a tu re
of th e co m p en satio n , we can a t once d ra w conclusions as to th e
seriousness a n d rightness of th e conscious strivings.
289 T h e r e are certain ly n o t a few p eo p le w ho are afra id to a d m it
th a t th e unconscious co u ld ever have “b ig ” ideas. T h e y will o b -
ject, “ B u t do you really believe th a t th e unconscious is capable
of offering a n y th in g like a co nstru ctiv e criticism of o u r W e ste rn
m en tality ?” O f course, if we take th e p ro b le m in tellectu a lly a n d
im p u te ra tio n a l in ten tio n s to th e unconscious, th e th in g b e-
comes absu rd . B u t it w o u ld n ev e r do to foist o u r conscious psy-
chology u p o n th e unconscious. Its m e n ta lity is a n in stin ctiv e

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 T H E FU N C T IO N O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

o n e; it has n o d iffe ren tiate d fu n ction s, a n d it does n o t “ th in k ” as

we u n d e rs ta n d “ th in k in g .” I t sim ply creates an im age th a t a n -
swers to th e conscious situ atio n . T h is im age co n tain s as m u c h
th o u g h t as feeling, a n d is a n y th in g r a th e r th a n a p ro d u c t of ra -
tio n alistic reflection. Such an im age w o u ld be b e tte r d escribed
as an a rtis t’s vision. W e te n d to fo rg et th a t a p ro b le m like th e
o n e w hich u n d erlie s th e d re a m last m e n tio n e d can n o t, even to
th e conscious m in d of th e d re am er, b e an in te lle c tu a l p ro b lem ,
b u t is p ro fo u n d ly em o tio n al. F o r a m o ral m a n th e ethical p ro b -
lem is a passionate q u e stio n w h ich has its roots in th e deepest
in stin c tu a l processes as well as in his m ost idealistic aspirations.
T h e p ro b le m fo r h im is devastatingly real. I t is n o t su rp risin g ,
th erefo re, th a t th e answ er likewise springs from th e d ep th s of his
n a tu re . T h e fact th a t everyone th in k s his psychology is th e m eas-
u re of all things, an d , if he also h ap p en s to be a fool, w ill inevi-
tably th in k th a t such a p ro b le m is b e n e a th his notice, sh o u ld n o t
tro u b le th e psychologist in th e least, fo r he has to take things
o bjectively, as he finds th em , w ith o u t tw istin g th e m to fit his
subjective suppositions. T h e ric h e r a n d m o re capacious n atu re s
m ay leg itim ately b e g rip p e d by an im p erso n al p ro b lem , a n d to
th e e x te n t th a t this is so, th e ir unconscious can answ er in th e
sam e style. A n d ju st as th e conscious m in d can p u t th e qu estio n ,
“ W h y is th e re this frig h tfu l conflict b etw een good a n d evil?,” so
th e unconscious can reply, “ L ook closer! E ach needs th e o th er.
T h e best, ju st because it is th e best, holds th e seed of evil, a n d
th e re is n o th in g so b ad b u t good can com e of it.”
*9 ° I t m ig h t th e n daw n o n th e d re a m e r th a t the a p p a re n tly in -
so lu b le conflict is, perhaps, a p reju d ice, a fram e of m in d co n d i-
tio n e d by tim e a n d place. T h e seem ingly co m p lex dream -im age
m ig h t easily reveal itself as p lain , instin ctiv e co m m o n sense, as
th e tin y germ of a ra tio n a l idea, w hich a m a tu re r m in d co u ld
ju s t as well have th o u g h t consciously. A t all events C hinese p h i-
losophy th o u g h t of it ages ago. T h e sin g u larly apt, plastic config-
u ra tio n of th o u g h t is th e p rero g ativ e of th a t p rim itiv e, n a tu ra l
sp irit w h ich is alive in all of us a n d is only o b scu red by a o n e-
sided conscious d ev elo p m en t. If we co n sid er th e unconscious
co m p en satio n s from this angle, we m ig h t justifiably be accused
of ju d g in g th e unconscious too m u ch from th e conscious stan d -
p o in t. A n d in d eed , in p u rs u in g these reflections, I have always
sta rte d from th e view th a t th e unconscious sim ply reacts to th e

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conscious contents, a lb e it in a very significant way, b u t th a t it

lacks initiativ e. I t is, how ever, far from m y in te n tio n to give th e
im pression th a t th e unconscious is m erely reactive in all cases.
O n th e co n trary , th ere is a host of experiences w h ich seem to
prove th a t th e unconscious is n o t only sp o n tan eo u s b u t can ac-
tu ally take th e lead. T h e r e are in n u m e ra b le cases of p eo p le w ho
lin g ere d on in a p ettifo g g in g unconsciousness, only to becom e
n e u ro tic in th e end. T h a n k s to th e neurosis co n triv e d by th e
unconscious, they are shaken o u t of th e ir apathy, a n d this in
spite of th e ir ow n laziness a n d o ften desp erate resistance.
291 Yet it w ould, in m y view, be w ro n g to suppose th a t in such
cases th e unconscious is w o rk in g to a d e lib e ra te a n d co ncerted
p lan a n d is striv in g to realize ce rtain d efinite ends. I have fo u n d
n o th in g to s u p p o rt this assum ption. T h e d riv in g force, so far as
it is possible for us to grasp it, seems to be in essence only an
u rg e tow ards self-realization. If it w ere a m a tte r of som e g en eral
teleological plan , th en all in d iv id u als w ho enjoy a su rp lu s of u n -
consciousness w o u ld necessarily be d riv e n tow ards h ig h er co n -
sciousness by an irresistib le urge. T h a t is p lain ly n o t th e case.
T h e r e are vast masses of th e p o p u la tio n who, d esp ite th e ir n o -
to rio u s unconsciousness, n ev er get an y w here n e a r a neurosis.
T h e few w ho are sm itte n by such a fate are really persons of th e
“h ig h e r” type who, for o n e reason o r a n o th e r, have re m a in e d
too long on a p rim itiv e level. T h e i r n a tu re does n o t in th e long
r u n to lerate persistence in w h a t is for th em an u n n a tu ra l to rpo r.
As a re su lt of th e ir n a rro w conscious o u tlo o k a n d th e ir cram p ed
existence they save energy; b it by b it it accum ulates in th e u n -
conscious a n d finally explodes in th e form of a m o re o r less acu te
neurosis. T h is sim ple m ech an ism does n o t necessarily conceal a
“ p la n .” A perfectly u n d e rs ta n d a b le u rg e tow ards self-realization
w o uld p ro v id e a q u ite satisfactory e x p la n atio n . W e co u ld also
speak of a re ta rd e d m a tu ra tio n of th e personality.
292 Since it is h ighly p ro b a b le th a t we are still a lo n g way from
th e su m m it of ab so lu te consciousness, p re su m a b ly everyone is
cap ab le of w id er consciousness, a n d we m ay assum e accordingly
th a t th e unconscious processes are co n stan tly su p p ly in g us w ith
con ten ts w hich, if consciously recognized, w o u ld e x te n d th e
ran g e of consciousness. L o o k ed at in this way, th e unconscious
appears as a field of ex p erien ce of u n lim ite d ex te n t. If it were
m erely reactive to th e conscious m in d , we m ig h t ap tly call it a

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psychic m irro r-w o rld . In th a t case, th e real source of all contents

a n d activities w o u ld lie in th e conscious m in d , a n d th ere w o u ld
be ab so lu tely n o th in g in th e unconscious except the d isto rted
reflections of conscious contents. T h e creative process w o u ld b e
sh u t u p in th e conscious m in d , a n d a n y th in g new w o u ld be
n o th in g b u t conscious in v e n tio n o r cleverness. T h e em p irical
facts give th e lie to this. Every creative m an knows th a t spon-
tan eity is the very essence of creative th o u g h t. Because the
unconscious is n o t ju st a reactive m irror-reflection, b u t an in -
d e p e n d e n t, p ro d u c tiv e activity, its realm of ex p erien ce is a self-
co n ta in e d w orld, h av in g its ow n reality, of w hich we can only
say th a t it affects us as we affect it— precisely w h a t we say a b o u t
o u r ex p erience of th e o u te r w orld. A n d ju s t as m ateria l objects
are th e c o n s titu e n t elem en ts of this w orld, so psychic factors
co n stitu te th e objects of th a t o th e r w orld.
»93 T h e idea of psychic objectivity is by no m eans a new discov-
ery. I t is in fact o n e of the earliest a n d m ost universal acquisi-
tions of h u m a n ity : it is n o th in g less th a n th e co n v ictio n as to th e
co n crete existence of a spirit-w orld. T h e sp irit-w o rld was cer-
tain ly n ev er an in v e n tio n in th e sense th a t fire-boring was an
in v e n tio n ; it was far ra th e r th e experience, th e conscious accept-
ance of a reality in n o way in fe rio r to th a t of th e m ateria l w orld.
1 d o u b t w h e th e r p rim itiv es exist an y w h ere w ho are n o t ac-
q u a in te d w ith m agical influence o r a m agical substance. (“ M ag-
ical” is sim ply a n o th e r w o rd for “ psychic.”) It w o u ld also ap -
p e a r th a t practically all p rim itiv es are aw are of the existence of
s p irits .2 “S p irit” is a psychic fact. J u s t as we d istin g u ish o u r ow n
bodiliness from bodies th a t are strange to us, so prim itiv es— if
they have any n o tio n of “souls” at all— d istin g u ish b etw een th e ir
ow n souls a n d th e spirits, w hich are felt as strange a n d as “n o t
b elo n g in g .” T h e y are objects of o u tw a rd p ercep tio n , w hereas
th e ir ow n soul (or one of several souls w h ere a p lu ra lity is as-
sum ed), th o u g h believed to b e essentially a k in to th e spirits, is
n o t usually an ob ject of so-called sensible p ercep tio n . A fter
d e a th th e soul (or one of th e p lu ra lity of souls) becom es a sp irit
w h ich survives th e d ead m an, a n d o ften it shows a m ark e d dete-
2 In cases of reports to the contrary, it m ust always be borne in m ind th a t the
fear of spirits is sometimes so great th a t people will actually deny th a t there are
any spirits to fear. I have come across this myself am ong the dw ellers on M ount
Elgon.

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

rio ra tio n of ch aracter th a t p artly co n trad icts the n o tio n of p e r-

sonal im m o rtality . T h e B ataks ,3 of S um atra, go so far as to assert
th a t th e p eople w ho w ere good in this life tu r n in to m alig n a n d
dan g ero u s spirits. N early ev ery th in g th a t th e p rim itiv es say
a b o u t th e tricks w hich th e spirits play on th e living, a n d th e
g en eral p ic tu re they give of the revenants, corresponds d o w n to
th e last detail w ith th e p h e n o m e n a established by sp iritu alistic
experience. A n d ju st as th e c o m m u n ica tio n s from th e “ B ey o n d ”
can be seen to be th e activities of broken-off bits of th e psyche, so
these p rim itiv e spirits are m an ifestatio n s of unconscious co m -
plexes .4 T h e im p o rtan ce th a t m o d e rn psychology attaches to the
“p a re n ta l c o m p lex ” is a d irec t c o n tin u a tio n of p rim itiv e m an 's
exp erien ce of th e d an g ero u s pow er of the ancestral spirits. Even
th e e rro r of ju d g m e n t w hich leads h im u n th in k in g ly to assum e
th a t the spirits are realities of th e e x te rn al w o rld is c a rried on in
o u r assu m p tio n (which is only p a rtia lly correct) th a t the real
p aren ts are resp o n sib le for th e p are n ta l com plex. In th e o ld
tra u m a th eory of F re u d ia n psychoanalysis, a n d in o th e r q u a rte rs
as well, this assu m p tio n even passed fo r a scientific e x p la n atio n .
(It was in o rd e r to avoid this con fu sio n th a t I advocated th e
term “p a re n ta l im ago.” 5)
294 T h e sim ple soul is of course q u ite u n aw are of th e fact th a t
his n earest relatio n s, w ho exercise im m e d iate influence over
h im , create in h im a n im age w h ich is only p artly a rep lica of
themselves, w hile its o th e r p a rt is c o m p o u n d e d of elem ents d e-
riv ed fro m him self. T h e im ago is b u ilt u p of p a re n ta l influences
plu s th e specific reactio n s of th e child; it is th ere fo re an im age
th a t reflects th e object w ith very co nsid erab le qualifications.
N atu rally , th e sim ple soul believes th a t his p aren ts are as he sees
th em . T h e im age is unconsciously pro jected , a n d w h en th e p a r-
ents die, th e p ro jec ted im age goes on w o rk in g as th o u g h it w ere
a sp irit ex istin g o n its own. T h e p rim itiv e th e n speaks of p a-
re n ta l spirits w ho r e tu r n by n ig h t (revenants), w h ile th e m o d -
e rn m a n calls it a fa th e r o r m o th e r com plex.
*95 T h e m o re lim ite d a m an 's field of consciousness is, th e m o re

3 W arnecke, Die R eligion der B atak (1909).

4 Cf. “T h e Psychological Foundations of Belief in Spirits."
5 [T his te rm was taken u p by psychoanalysis, b u t in analytical psychology it
has been largely replaced by “p rim o rd ia l im age of the p a re n t’* o r “p a re n ta l
archetype.”— E d i t o r s .]

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 T H E FU N C T IO N O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

n u m e ro u s th e psychic co n ten ts (imagos) w h ich m e e t h im as

quasi-external a p p a ritio n s, e ith e r in th e fo rm of spirits, o r as
m agical potencies p ro jec ted u p o n liv in g p eo p le (magicians,
witches, etc.). A t a ra th e r h ig h e r stage of d ev elo p m en t, w h ere
th e idea of th e soul alread y exists, n o t all th e im agos c o n tin u e to
be p ro jec ted (w here this hap p en s, even trees a n d stones talk),
b u t on e o r th e o th e r co m p lex has com e n e a r e n o u g h to co n -
sciousness to be felt as n o lo n g er strange, b u t as som ehow “b e -
lo n g in g /' N evertheless, th e feeling th a t it “b elongs" is n o t at
first sufficiently stro n g for the co m p lex to be sensed as a subjec-
tive co n te n t of consciousness. I t rem ain s in a sort of n o m an 's
lan d b etw een conscious a n d unconscious, in th e half-shadow, in
p a rt b elo n g in g o r a k in to th e conscious subject, in p a rt an a u -
to n o m o u s being, a n d m e e tin g consciousness as such. A t all
events it is n o t necessarily o b e d ie n t to th e subject's in ten tio n s, it
m ay even be of a h ig h e r o rd er, m o re o ften th a n n o t a source of
in sp ira tio n o r w arn in g , o r of “s u p e rn a tu ra l" in fo rm a tio n . Psy-
chologically such a c o n te n t co u ld be ex p la in e d as a p artly a u to n -
om ous com p lex th a t is n o t yet fully in teg ra te d . T h e archaic
souls, th e ba a n d ka of th e E gyptians, are com plexes of this kind.
A t a still h ig h e r level, a n d p a rtic u la rly am o n g th e civilized peo-
ples of th e W est, this co m p lex is in v aria b ly of th e fe m in in e gen-
d e r— a n im a a n d ypvxv— a fact for w h ich d e e p e r a n d cogent re a -
sons a re n o t lacking.

2831
 II
ANIMA AND ANIMUS

*96 A m o n g all possible spirits th e spirits of th e p aren ts are in

p ractice th e m ost im p o rta n t; hence th e u n iversal in cid en ce of
th e ancestor cult. In its o rig in al fo rm it served to co n ciliate th e
revenants, b u t on a h ig h e r level of c u ltu re it becam e an essen-
tially m o ral a n d ed u c atio n al in stitu tio n , as in C hina. F o r th e
child, th e p aren ts are his closest a n d m ost in flu en tial relations.
B u t as he grows o ld er this influence is sp lit off; co nseq u en tly the
p a re n ta l imagos becom e increasingly sh u t away from conscious-
ness, a n d on acco u n t of th e restrictiv e influence they som etim es
c o n tin u e to exert, they easily a c q u ire a negative aspect. In this
way th e p a re n ta l im agos re m a in as alien elem ents som ew here
“o u tsid e ” th e psyche. In place of th e paren ts, w om an now takes
u p h e r po sitio n as th e m ost im m e d ia te e n v iro n m e n ta l influence
in th e life of th e a d u lt m an. She becom es his co m p an io n , she
belongs to h im in so far as she shares his life a n d is m o re o r less
of th e sam e age. She is n o t of a s u p e rio r o rd er, e ith e r by v irtu e of
age, au th o rity , o r physical stren g th . She is, how ever, a very influ-
en tial factor and, like th e parents, she produces an im ago of a
relatively au to n o m o u s n a tu re — n o t an im ago to be sp lit off like
th a t of th e parents, b u t o n e th a t has to be k e p t associated w ith
consciousness. W o m a n , w ith h e r very dissim ilar psychology, is
a n d always has b ee n a source of in fo rm a tio n a b o u t things for
w hich a m an has n o eyes. She can b e his in sp iratio n ; h e r in tu i-
tive capacity, o ften su p e rio r to m an's, can give h im tim ely w a rn -
ing, a n d h e r feeling, always d irec ted tow ards th e personal, can
show h im ways w hich his ow n less personally accented feeling
w o u ld n ev er have discovered. W h a t T a c itu s says a b o u t th e G e r-
m an ic w om en is exactly to th e p o in t in this resp ect .1
297 H e re, w ith o u t a d o u b t, is on e of th e m a in sources for th e
fe m in in e q u a lity of the soul. B u t it does n o t seem to be th e only
1 G erm ania (Loeb edn.), pars. 18, 19.

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 A N IM A AND A N IM US

source. N o m a n is so en tire ly m asculine th a t h e has n o th in g fem -

in in e in him . T h e fact is, ra th e r, th a t very m asculine m en have—
carefully g u a rd e d a n d h id d e n — a very soft em o tio n al life, o ften
in co rrectly describ ed as “fe m in in e .” A m an counts it a v irtu e to
repress his fe m in in e traits as m u ch as possible, ju st as a w om an,
a t least u n til recently, co n sid ered it u n b e c o m in g to be “m a n -
n ish .” T h e rep ressio n of fe m in in e traits a n d in clin atio n s n a tu -
rally causes these con trasex u al d em an ds to accu m u late in the
unconscious. N o less n atu ra lly , the im ago of w o m an (the soul-
image) becom es a receptacle for these dem ands, w hich is why a
m an, in his love-choice, is strongly te m p te d to w in th e w om an
who best corresponds to his ow n unconscious fe m in in ity — a
w om an, in short, w ho can u n h esitatin g ly receive the p ro jectio n
of his soul. A lth o u g h such a choice is o ften re g ard e d a n d felt as
a lto g e th e r ideal, it m ay t u r n o u t th a t th e m a n has m anifestly
m a rrie d his ow n w orst weakness. T h is w o u ld e x p la in some
highly re m a rk a b le c o n ju n ctio n s.
298 It seems to m e, th erefo re, th a t a p a rt from the influence of
w o m an th ere is also th e m an 's ow n fe m in in ity to ex p lain the
fe m in in e n a tu re of th e soul-com plex. T h e r e is n o q u estio n here
of any lin g u istic “ac cid en t,” of th e k in d th a t makes the sun fem -
in in e in G e rm an a n d m asculine in o th e r languages. W e have, in
this m atter, the testim o n y of a rt from all ages, a n d besides th a t
th e fam ous q u estio n : habet m u lie r anim am ? M ost m en, p ro b a -
bly, w ho have any psychological in sig h t at all w ill know w hat
R id e r H ag g ard m eans by “She-who-m ust-be-obeyed,” a n d will
also recognize th e c h o rd th a t is stru ck w hen they re ad B enoit's
d escrip tio n of A n tin é a .2 M o reo v er they k now at once th e k in d
of w om an w ho m ost read ily em bodies this m ysterious factor, of
w hich they have so vivid a p re m o n itio n .
299 T h e w ide reco g n itio n accorded to such books shows th a t
th ere m ust be som e su p ra -in d iv id u a l q u a lity in this im age of the
a n im a , 3 so m eth in g th a t does n o t owe a fleeting existence sim ply
to its in d iv id u a l un iq u en ess, b u t is far m o re typical, w ith roots
th a t go d ee p er th a n th e obvious surface attach m en ts I have
p o in te d out. B o th R id e r H a g g ard a n d B en o ît give u n m ista k -
2 Cf. R id er H aggard, She; Benoît, L ’A tlantide.
3 Cf. Psychological Types, Def. 48, “ Soul.” [Also “ Concerning the Archetypes, w ith
Special R eference to the A nim a C oncept” and “T h e Psychological Aspects of the
Kore.”— E d i t o r s .]

2833
 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

ab le u tte ra n c e to this su p p o sitio n in the historical aspect of th e ir

a n im a figures.
3 °° As we know , th ere is n o h u m a n experience, n o r w o u ld ex p e-
rien ce be possible at all, w ith o u t the in te rv e n tio n of a subjective
a p titu d e . W h a t is this subjective ap titu d e? U ltim a tely it consists
in an in n a te psychic stru c tu re w hich allows m an to have ex p e ri-
ences of this k ind. T h u s th e w hole n a tu re of m an presupposes
w om an, b o th physically a n d sp iritually. H is system is tu n e d in to
w o m an from th e start, ju s t as it is p re p a re d for a q u ite definite
w o rld w here th ere is w ater, light, air, salt, carbohydrates, etc.
T h e fo rm of th e w o rld in to w hich he is b o rn is already in b o rn in
h im as a v irtu a l image. Likew ise parents, wife, ch ild re n , b irth ,
a n d d ea th are in b o rn in h im as v irtu a l images, as psychic a p ti-
tudes. T h e s e a p riori categories have by n a tu re a collective ch a r-
acter; they are images of parents, wife, a n d c h ild re n in general,
a n d are n o t in d iv id u a l p red estin atio n s. W e m u st th erefo re th in k
of these im ages as lacking in solid co n te n t, hence as unconscious.
T h e y only ac q u ire solidity, influence, a n d ev en tu al conscious-
ness in th e e n c o u n te r w ith em p irical facts, w hich to u ch the u n -
conscious a p titu d e a n d q u ic k e n it to life. T h e y are in a sense th e
deposits of all o u r ancestral experiences, b u t they are n o t th e
experiences themselves. So at least it seems to us, in th e p resen t
lim ite d state of o u r know ledge. (I m u st confess th a t I have never
yet fo u n d in fallib le evidence for th e in h e rita n c e of m em o ry im -
ages, b u t I do n o t re g ard it as positively p re c lu d e d th a t in a d d i-
tio n to these collective deposits w hich co n ta in n o th in g specifi-
cally in d iv id u a l, th e re m ay also be in h e rite d m em ories th a t are
in d iv id u a lly dete rm in e d .)
3 01 A n in h e rite d collective im age of w o m an exists in a m a n ’s
unconscious, w ith th e h elp of w hich he a p p reh en d s th e n a tu re
of w om an. T h is in h e rite d im age is th e th ird im p o rta n t source
for the fe m in in ity of th e soul.
3 °2 As th e re ad er will have grasped, we are n o t co n cern ed h ere
w ith a philosophical, m u ch less a religious, co n cep t of th e soul,
b u t w ith th e psychological re co g n itio n of th e existence of a
sem iconscious psychic com plex, h av in g p a rtia l au to n o m y of
fu n c tio n . C learly, this reco g n itio n has as m u ch o r as little to do
w ith p h ilo sop h ical o r religious conceptions of th e soul, as psy-
chology has as m u ch o r as little to do w ith philosophy o r re li-
gion. I have n o wish to em b a rk h ere o n a “ b a ttle of th e facul-

2834
 A N IM A AND AN IM US

ties,” n o r do I seek to d em o n stra te e ith e r to th e p h ilo so p h er o r

to th e th eo lo g ian w h at exactly he m eans by “so u l.” I m ust, how -
ever, re strain b o th of th em fro m p re scrib in g w h a t th e psycholo-
gist o u g h t to m ean by “so u l.” T h e q u a lity of perso n al im m o rta l-
ity so fondly a ttrib u te d to th e soul by re lig io n is, for science, n o
m o re th a n a psychological in d ic iu m w h ich is alread y in clu d ed in
th e idea of au to n o m y . T h e q u a lity of p erso n al im m o rtality is by
n o m eans a co n stan t a ttr ib u te of th e soul as th e p rim itiv e sees it,
n o r even im m o rta lity as such. B u t settin g this view aside as al-
to g eth er inaccessible to science, th e im m e d iate m ea n in g of “im -
m o rta lity ” is sim ply a psychic activity th a t transcends th e lim its
of consciousness. “ B eyond th e grave” or “ o n th e o th e r side of
d e a th ” m eans, psychologically, “ b ey o n d consciousness.” T h e r e is
positively n o th in g else it co u ld m ean , since statem en ts a b o u t im -
m o rta lity can only be m ad e by th e living, who, as such, are n o t
exactly in a p o sitio n to pontificate a b o u t co n d itio n s “ b eyond th e
g rave.”
3°3 T h e au to n o m y of th e soul-com plex n a tu ra lly lends su p p o rt
to th e n o tio n of an invisible, p ersonal e n tity th a t ap p a ren tly
lives in a w o rld very d ifferen t fro m ours. C o n seq u en tly , once th e
activity of th e soul is felt to be th a t of a n au to n o m o u s en tity
h av in g n o ties w ith o u r m o rta l substance, it is b u t a step to im ag-
in in g th a t this en tity m u st lead an e n tire ly in d e p e n d e n t exist-
ence, p erhap s in a w o rld of in v isib le things. Yet it is n o t im m e-
diately clear w hy th e in visib ility of this in d e p e n d e n t en tity
sh o u ld sim ultan eo u sly im ply its im m o r ta lity . T h e q u ality of im -
m o rta lity m ig h t easily d eriv e fro m a n o th e r fact to w hich I have
already allu d ed , nam ely th e ch aracteristically h istorical aspect of
th e soul. R id e r H a g g ard has given o n e of th e best descriptions of
this in She. W h e n the B u d dhists say th a t progressive p erfectio n
th ro u g h m e d ita tio n aw akens m em ories of fo rm e r incarn atio n s,
they are n o d o u b t re fe rrin g to th e sam e psychological reality, the
o n ly difference b e in g th a t they ascribe th e historical factor n o t
to th e soul b u t to th e Self (atm ari). I t is alto g eth e r in keep ing
w ith th e th o ro u g h ly ex tra v erte d a ttitu d e of th e W e ste rn m in d
so far, th a t im m o rta lity sh o u ld be ascribed, b o th by feeling a n d
by trad itio n , to a soul w hich we d istin g u ish m o re o r less from
o u r ego, a n d w hich also differs fro m th e ego o n acco u n t of its
fe m in in e q ualities. I t w o u ld be e n tire ly logical if, by d e e p en in g
th a t neglected, in tro v e rte d side of o u r sp iritu a l cu ltu re , th ere

2835
 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

w ere to take place in us a tran sfo rm atio n m o re ak in to th e East-

e rn fram e of m in d , w h ere th e q u a lity of im m o rtality w o u ld
tran sfer itself from th e am b ig u o u s figure of the soul (anima) to
the self. F o r it is essentially th e o v erv alu atio n of th e m aterial
ob ject w ith o u t th a t constellates a sp iritu a l a n d im m o rtal figure
w ith in (obviously for th e p u rp o se of co m p en satio n a n d self-
reg u latio n ). F u n d am en tally , th e historical factor does n o t a t-
tach only to th e arch ety p e of the fem in ine, b u t to all archetypes
w hatsoever, i.e., to every in h e rite d u n it, m en tal as well as physi-
cal. O u r life is in d ee d th e same as it ever was. A t all events, in
o u r sense of th e w o rd it is n o t tran sito ry ; for the same physio-
logical a n d psychological processes th a t have b een m a n ’s for
h u n d re d s of tho u san d s o f years still e n d u re , in stillin g in to o u r
in m ost hearts this p ro fo u n d in tu itio n of th e “ e te rn a l'’ c o n tin u -
ity of the living. B u t th e self, as a n inclusive te rm th a t em braces
o u r w hole liv in g organism , n o t on ly co n tain s th e d ep o sit a n d
to tality of all past life, b u t is also a p o in t of d e p a rtu re , th e fertile
soil from w hich all fu tu re life will spring. T h is p re m o n itio n of
fu tu rity is as clearly im pressed u p o n o u r in n e rm o st feelings as is
th e h istorical aspect. T h e id ea of im m o rta lity follows leg iti-
m ately fro m these psychological prem ises.
3°4 In th e E astern view th e co n cep t of th e an im a, as we have
stated it here, is lacking, a n d so, logically, is th e concept of a
persona. T h is is certain ly n o accident, for, as I have already in d i-
cated, a co m p en sato ry re la tio n sh ip exists b etw een p erso n a a n d
anim a.
3°5 T h e perso n a is a co m p licated system of re la tio n s b etw een the
in d iv id u a l consciousness a n d society, fittingly en o u g h a k in d of
m ask, designed on th e one h a n d to m ak e a d efinite im pression
u p o n others, and, on th e o th er, to conceal th e tru e n a tu re of the
in d iv id u a l. T h a t th e la tte r fu n c tio n is superfluous co u ld be
m a in ta in e d only by one w ho is so id en tified w ith his persona
th a t he n o lo n g er know s him self; a n d th a t th e fo rm e r is unneces-
sary c o u ld only occur to o n e w h o is q u ite unconscious of th e tru e
n a tu re of his fellows. Society expects, a n d in d ee d m u st expect,
every in d iv id u a l to play th e p a rt assigned to h im as perfectly as
possible, so th a t a m a n w ho is a p arso n m u st n o t on ly carry o u t
his official fu n ctio n s objectively, b u t m u st a t all tim es a n d in all
circum stances play th e ro le of parso n in a flawless m an n e r. So-
ciety d em a n d s this as a k in d of surety; each m u st stan d a t his

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post, h ere a co b b ler, th ere a poet. N o m an is ex p ected to be

b oth. N o r is it advisable to b e b o th , for th a t w o u ld be “o d d .”
Such a m a n w o u ld be “d iffe ren t” fro m o th e r people, n o t q u ite
reliab le. In th e academ ic w o rld h e w o u ld be a d ile tta n te , in p o l-
itics an “u n p re d ic ta b le ” q u a n tity , in re lig io n a free-th in k e r— in
short, he w o u ld always be suspected of u n re lia b ility a n d in co m -
petence, because society is p ersu ad ed th a t only th e co b b le r w ho
is n o t a p o et can supply w o rk m a n lik e shoes. T o p resen t an u n -
equivocal face to th e w o rld is a m a tte r of p ractical im p o rtan ce:
the average m a n — th e only k in d society knows an y th in g a b o u t—
m u st keep his nose to one th in g in o rd e r to achieve an y th in g
w o rth w hile, two w o u ld be too m u ch . O u r society is u n d o u b t-
edly set o n such an ideal. I t is th ere fo re n o t su rp risin g th a t
everyone w ho w ants to get o n m u st take these ex p ectations in to
account. O bviously n o on e co u ld co m pletely su b m erg e his in d i-
v id u ality in these expectations; hence th e co n stru c tio n of an a r-
tificial p erso n ality becom es an u n av o id a b le necessity. T h e d e -
m an d s of p ro p rie ty a n d good m an n e rs are an ad d ed in d u c e m e n t
to assum e a b ec o m in g m ask. W h a t goes on b e h in d th e m ask is
th e n called “ p riv ate life.” T h is p a in fu lly fa m iliar division of
consciousness in to two figures, o ften p reposterously different, is
an incisive psychological o p e ra tio n th a t is b o u n d to have re p e r-
cussions on th e unconscious.
3 °6 T h e co n stru c tio n of a collectively su itab le persona m eans a
fo rm id a b le concession to th e ex te rn al w orld, a g e n u in e self-
sacrifice w hich drives th e ego straig h t in to id en tificatio n w ith
th e persona, so th a t p eople really do exist w ho believe they are
w h a t they p re te n d to be. T h e “soullessness” of such an a ttitu d e
is, how ever, only a p p a re n t, for u n d e r n o circum stances will the
unconscious to lera te this sh iftin g of th e ce n tre of gravity. W h e n
we ex am in e such cases critically, we find th a t th e excellence of
th e m ask is co m p en sated by th e “ p riv ate life” going on b e h in d
it. T h e pious D ru m m o n d once lam en te d th a t “ bad tem p er is the
vice of th e v irtu o u s.” W h o e v er b u ild s u p too good a persona for
him self n a tu ra lly has to pay for it w ith irritab ility . B ism arck
h ad hysterical w eep in g fits, W a g n e r in d u lg e d in corresp o nd en ce
a b o u t the belts of silk dressing-gowns, N ietzsche w rote letters to
his “d ear lam a,” G o e th e h eld conversations w ith E ck erm an n ,
etc. B u t th ere are s u b tle r things th a n th e banal lapses of heroes.
I once m ad e the a c q u ain tan ce of a very ven erab le personage— in

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fact, o n e m ig h t easily call h im a saint. I stalked ro u n d h im for

th re e w hole days, b u t n ev er a m o rta l failin g d id I find in him .
M y feeling of in ferio rity grew om inous, a n d I was b e g in n in g to
th in k seriously of how I m ig h t b e tte r myself. T h e n , o n th e
fo u rth day, his wife cam e to co n su lt me. . . . W ell, n o th in g of
th e sort has ever h a p p e n e d to m e since. B u t this I d id learn : th a t
any m an w ho becom es one w ith his persona can ch eerfu lly let all
d istu rb an ces m anifest them selves th ro u g h his w ife w ith o u t h e r
n o tic in g it, th o u g h she pays fo r h e r self-sacrifice w ith a b ad n e u -
rosis.
3°7 T h e s e identifications w ith a social ro le are a very fru itfu l
source of neuroses. A m an c a n n o t get rid of him self in fav o u r of
a n artificial p erso nality w ith o u t p u n ish m e n t. E ven th e a tte m p t
to do so brin g s on, in all o rd in ary cases, unconscious reactions in
th e form of b ad m oods, affects, phobias, obsessive ideas, backslid-
ings, vices, etc. T h e social “stro n g m a n ” is in his p riv ate life
o ften a m ere ch ild w here his ow n states of feeling are co n cern ed ;
his d iscip lin e in p u b lic (w hich he d em an d s q u ite p a rtic u la rly of
others) goes m iserably to pieces in p rivate. H is “happiness in his
w o rk ” assumes a w oeful c o u n te n a n c e at hom e; his “spotless”
p u b lic m o rality looks strange in d ee d b e h in d th e m ask— we will
n o t m e n tio n deeds, b u t only fantasies, a n d th e wives of such m en
w o u ld have a p re tty tale to tell. As to his selfless altru ism , his
c h ild re n have d ecided views a b o u t that.
3 °8 T o th e degree th a t th e w o rld invites th e in d iv id u a l to id e n -
tify w ith th e mask, h e is d eliv ered over to influences from w ith in .
“ H ig h rests on low ,” says Lao-tzu. A n opposite forces its way u p
fro m inside; it is exactly as th o u g h th e unconscious suppressed
th e ego w ith th e very sam e p o w er w hich drew th e ego in to th e
persona. T h e absence of resistance o u tw ard ly against th e lu re of
th e perso n a m eans a sim ilar weakness in w ard ly against th e influ-
ence of th e unconscious. O u tw a rd ly an effective a n d p o w erfu l
ro le is played, w h ile in w ard ly an effem inate weakness develops
in face of every influence co m in g fro m th e unconscious. M oods,
vagaries, tim id ity , even a lim p sexuality (c u lm in atin g in im p o -
tence) g rad u ally gain th e u p p e r han d .
3°9 T h e persona, th e ideal p ic tu re of a m a n as he sh o u ld be, is
in w ard ly co m p en sated by fe m in in e weakness, a n d as th e in d i-
v id u al o u tw ard ly plays th e stro n g m an , so he becom es in w ard ly
a w om an, i.e., th e an im a, for it is th e a n im a th a t reacts to th e

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persona. B u t because the in n e r w o rld is d ark a n d invisible to th e

e x tra v erte d consciousness, a n d because a m an is all the less ca-
p ab le of conceiving his weaknesses th e m o re he is id en tified w ith
th e persona, th e p erso n a’s c o u n te rp a rt, th e anim a, rem ain s com -
pletely in th e d a rk a n d is a t on ce pro jected , so th a t o u r hero
comes u n d e r th e heel of his w ife’s slipper. If this results in a
con sid erab le increase of h e r pow er, she will ac q u it herself n o n e
too well. She becom es in ferio r, th u s p ro v id in g h er h u sb an d w ith
th e w elcom e p ro o f th a t it is n o t he, th e hero, w ho is in ferio r in
p rivate, b u t his wife. In r e tu r n th e wife can cherish the illusion,
so a ttra ctiv e to m any, th a t at least she has m a rrie d a hero, u n p e r-
tu rb e d by h e r ow n uselessness. T h is little gam e of illu sio n is of-
ten tak en to be th e w hole m e a n in g of life.
3 10 J u s t as, for th e p u rpo se of in d iv id u a tio n , o r self-realization,
it is essential for a m an to d istin g u ish betw een w h at he is an d
how he appears to him self a n d to others, so it is also necessary for
th e sam e p u rp o se th a t he sh o u ld becom e conscious of his invisi-
b le system of relatio n s to the unconscious, a n d especially of the
an im a, so as to be ab le to d istin g u ish him self from her. O n e can -
n o t of course d istin g u ish oneself from so m eth in g unconscious.
In th e m a tte r of th e persona it is easy en o u g h to m ake it clear to
a m a n th a t he a n d his office are two d ifferen t things. B u t it is
very difficult fo r a m a n to d istin g u ish him self from his anim a,
th e m o re so because she is invisible. In d e ed , he has first to co n -
te n d w ith th e p re ju d ic e th a t ev ery th in g co m in g from inside h im
springs fro m th e tru est d ep th s of his being. T h e “stro n g m a n ”
w ill p erh ap s concede th a t in p riv ate life he is singularly u nd isci-
p lin ed , b u t th at, he says, is ju s t his “w eakness” w ith which, as it
w ere, he proclaim s his solidarity. N o w th ere is in this ten d en cy a
c u ltu ra l legacy th a t is n o t to be despised; for w h en a m an recog-
nizes th a t his ideal perso n a is resp o n sib le fo r his an y th in g b u t
ideal an im a, his ideals are sh attered , th e w o rld becom es a m b ig u -
ous, he becom es am b ig u o u s even to him self. H e is seized by
d o u b ts a b o u t goodness, a n d w h a t is worse, he d o u b ts his ow n
good in ten tio n s. W h e n o n e considers how m u ch o u r p riv ate idea
of good in te n tio n s is b o u n d u p w ith vast historical assum ptions,
it w ill read ily b e u n d e rs to o d th a t it is p leasan ter a n d m o re in
k ee p in g w ith o u r p re sen t view of th e w o rld to d ep lo re a p e r-
sonal weakness th a n to sh a tte r ideals.
3 11 B u t since th e u nconscious factors act as d e te rm in a n ts n o less

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

th a n th e factors th a t reg u late th e life of society, a n d are n o less

collective, I m ig h t ju s t as well le a rn to distin g u ish b etw een w h at
I w an t a n d w h at th e unconscious thru sts u p o n m e, as to see w h at
m y office d em an d s of m e a n d w hat I myself desire. A t first the
only th in g th a t is at all clear is th e in co m p atib ility of th e d e-
m an d s co m in g from w ith o u t a n d fro m w ith in , w ith th e ego
stan d in g betw een them , as b etw een h a m m e r an d anvil. B u t over
against this ego, tossed like a sh u ttleco ck b etw een th e o u te r a n d
in n e r dem ands, th ere stands som e scarcely defin ab le arb ite r,
w h ich I w o u ld on n o acco u n t lab el w ith th e deceptive n am e
“conscience,” alth o u g h , tak en in its best sense, th e w o rd fits th a t
a rb ite r very ap tly indeed. W h a t we have m ade of this “co n -
science” S p itteler has d escribed w ith un surp assab le h u m o u r .4
H e n ce we sh o u ld stren u o u sly avoid this p a rtic u la r signification.
W e sh o u ld do far b e tte r to realize th a t th e tragic co u n te rp lay
betw een inside a n d o utsid e (depicted in J o b a n d Faust as th e
w ager w ith G od) represents, a t b o tto m , th e energetics of th e life
process, th e p o lar ten sio n th a t is necessary for self-regulation.
H o w ev er d ifferent, to all in ten ts a n d purposes, these opp o sin g
forces m ay be, th e ir fu n d a m e n ta l m e a n in g a n d desire is th e life
of th e in d iv id u a l: they always fluctuate ro u n d this ce n tre of b al-
ance. J u s t because they are in sep arab ly re la te d th ro u g h o pposi-
tio n , they also u n ite in a m ed iato ry m ean in g , w hich, w illingly o r
un w illin g ly , is b o rn o u t of th e in d iv id u a l a n d is th ere fo re d i-
v in ed by him . H e has a stro n g feelin g of w h at sh o u ld be an d
w h a t co u ld be. T o d e p a rt fro m this d iv in a tio n m eans erro r,
a b e rra tio n , illness.
3 1* I t is p ro b a b ly n o accid en t th a t o u r m o d e rn n o tio n s of “p e r-
so n al” a n d “ p erso n ality ” derive fro m th e w o rd persona. I can
assert th a t m y ego is personal o r a personality, a n d in exactly th e
sam e sense I can say th a t m y perso n a is a p erso n ality w ith w hich
I id en tify m yself m o re o r less. T h e fact th a t I th e n possess two
personalities is n o t so re m a rk ab le , since every a u to n o m o u s or
even relatively au to n o m o u s co m p lex has th e p e c u lia rity of a p -
p e a rin g as a personality, i.e., of b e in g personified. T h is can be
observed m ost readily in the so-called sp iritu alistic m an ifesta-
tions of au to m atic w ritin g a n d th e like. T h e sentences p ro d u c ed
are always p ersonal statem ents a n d are p ro p o u n d e d in th e first
person singular, as th o u g h b e h in d every u tte ra n c e th ere stood
* Psychological T ypes (1923 edn., pp. 2i2f.).

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 A N IM A AND AN IM US

an actual perso n ality . A n aiv e in tellig en ce a t once th in k s of

spirits. T h e sam e sort of th in g is also observable in th e h allu ci-
n atio n s of th e insane, a lth o u g h these, m o re clearly th a n th e first,
can often b e recognized as m ere th o u g h ts o r fragm ents of
th o u g h ts w hose co n n e ctio n w ith th e conscious p erso n ality is im -
m ed iately a p p a re n t to everyone.
3 !3 T h e ten d en cy of th e relativ ely au to n o m o u s co m p lex to d i-
rect p erso n ificatio n also ex p lain s w hy th e p erso n a exercises such
a “p e rso n a l” effect th a t th e ego is all too easily deceived as to
w hich is th e “ tr u e ” personality.
3*4 N ow , e v e ry th in g th a t is tru e of th e p erso n a a n d of all a u to n -
o m ous com plexes in g en eral also holds tru e of th e an im a. She
likewise is a personality, a n d this is why she is so easily p ro jected
u p o n a w om an. So lo n g as th e a n im a is unconscious she is always
p ro jected , for ev ery th in g unconscious is p ro jected . T h e first
b e a re r of th e soul-im age is always th e m o th e r; la te r it is b o rn e by
those w o m en w ho arouse th e m a n ’s feelings, w h e th e r in a posi-
tive o r a n eg ativ e sense. Because th e m o th e r is th e first b e a re r of
th e soul-im age, sep a ratio n fro m h e r is a delicate a n d im p o r-
ta n t m a tte r of th e g reatest ed u c atio n al significance. A ccordingly
am o n g p rim itiv es we find a large n u m b e r of rites d esigned to
organize this sep aratio n . T h e m ere fact of b ec o m in g a d u lt, a n d
o f o u tw a rd sep aratio n , is n o t en o u g h ; im pressive in itia tio n s in to
th e “m e n ’s h o u se” a n d cerem onies of re b ir th are still n ee d ed in
o rd e r to m ak e th e sep a ratio n fro m th e m o th e r (and h ence fro m
ch ild h o o d ) e n tire ly effective.
3 J5 J u s t as th e fa th e r acts as a p ro te c tio n against th e dangers of
th e e x te rn a l w o rld a n d th u s serves his son as a m o d el persona, so
th e m o th e r protects h im against th e dangers th a t th re a te n from
th e darkness of his psyche. I n th e p u b e rty rites, therefore, th e
in itia te receives in stru c tio n a b o u t these th in g s of “ th e o th e r
side,” so th a t he is p u t in a p o sitio n to dispense w ith his m o th e r’s
p ro tec tio n .
3 l6 T h e m o d e rn civilized m a n has to forgo this p rim itiv e b u t
nonetheless a d m ira b le system of ed u catio n . T h e consequence is
th a t th e an im a, in th e fo rm of the m other-im ago, is tran sferred
to the wife; a n d th e m an , as soon as h e m arries, becom es c h ild -
ish, sen tim en tal, d e p e n d e n t, a n d subservient, o r else tru c u le n t,
ty ran n ical, hypersensitive, always th in k in g a b o u t th e prestige of
his s u p e rio r m asculinity. T h e last is of course m erely th e reverse

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

of th e first. T h e safeguard against th e unconscious, w h ich is

w h a t his m o th e r m e a n t to h im , is n o t rep laced by a n y th in g in
th e m o d e rn m an 's edu catio n ; unconsciously, th erefo re, his ideal
of m arriag e is so a rran g e d th a t his wife has to take o v er th e m ag -
ical ro le of the m o th er. U n d e r th e cloak of th e ideally exclusive
m arriag e he is really seeking his m o th e r's p ro tec tio n , a n d th u s
h e plays in to th e h ands of his wife's possessive instincts. H is fear
o f the d a rk in calcu lab le pow er of th e unconscious gives his wife
a n illeg itim ate a u th o rity over h im , a n d forges such a d an g e r-
ously close u n io n th a t th e m arriag e is p e rm a n e n tly o n th e b rin k
of explosion from in te rn a l ten sio n— or else, o u t of p rotest, he
flies to th e o th e r extrem e, w ith th e sam e results.
3*7 I am of th e o p in io n th a t it is absolutely essential for a ce rta in
type of m o d e rn m a n to recognize his d istin c tio n n o t only fro m
th e persona, b u t fro m th e a n im a as well. F o r th e m ost p a rt o u r
consciousness, in tru e W e ste rn style, looks outw ards, a n d th e in -
n e r w o rld rem ain s in darkness. B u t this difficulty can be over-
com e easily en o u g h , if only we will m ak e the effort to ap p ly th e
sam e co n c e n tra tio n a n d criticism to th e psychic m a te ria l w hich
m anifests itself, n o t outside, b u t in o u r p riv ate lives. So accus-
to m ed are we to keep a sham efaced silence a b o u t this o th e r side
— we even tre m b le before o u r wives, lest they b etra y us!— an d , if
fo u n d ou t, to m ak e ru e fu l confessions of “weakness," th a t th ere
w o u ld seem to be only o n e m e th o d of ed u catio n , nam ely, to
crush o r repress th e weaknesses as m u ch as possible o r a t least
h id e th em from th e p u b lic. B u t th a t gets us n o w h ere.
3 18 P erh ap s I can best ex p la in w h a t has to be d o n e if I use th e
perso n a as an exam ple. H e re ev ery th in g is p lain a n d straig h tfo r-
w ard, w hereas w ith th e a n im a all is dark, to W e ste rn eyes any-
way. W h e n the an im a c o n tin u ally thw arts th e good in te n tio n s of
th e conscious m in d , by c o n triv in g a p riv ate life th a t stands in
sorry co n trast to th e dazzling persona, it is exactly th e sam e as
w h e n a n aive in d iv id u a l, w ho has n o t th e ghost of a persona, en -
c o u n te rs th e m ost p a in fu l difficulties in his passage th ro u g h th e
w orld. T h e r e are in d ee d p eo p le w ho lack a d ev elo p ed p erso n a—
“ C an ad ian s w ho k now n o t E u ro p e 's sham p o liten ess"— b lu n d e r-
in g fro m o n e social solecism to th e n ex t, perfectly harm less a n d
in n o ce n t, so u lfu l bores o r ap p e a lin g ch ild re n , or, if th ey are
w om en, spectral C assandras d re a d e d fo r th e ir tactlessness, e te r-
n ally m isu n d ersto o d , n ev er k n o w in g w h a t they are a b o u t, al-

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 A N IM A AND AN IM U S

ways ta k in g forgiveness for g ra n te d , b lin d to th e w orld, hopeless

dream ers. F ro m th e m we can see how a neglected perso n a works,
a n d w h a t o n e m u st do to re m e d y th e evil. Such p eo ple can avoid
d isap p o in tm en ts a n d an infin ity of sufferings, scenes, a n d social
catastrophes only by le a rn in g to see how m e n behave in th e
w orld. T h e y m u st learn to u n d e rs ta n d w h at society expects of
th em ; they m u st realize th a t th e re are factors a n d persons in th e
w o rld far above th em ; they m u st k now th a t w h a t they do has a
m e a n in g for others, a n d so fo rth . N a tu ra lly all this is child's play
for o n e w ho has a p ro p e rly d ev elo p ed persona. B u t if we reverse
th e p ic tu re a n d c o n fro n t th e m an w ho possesses a b rillia n t p e r-
sona w ith th e an im a, an d , fo r th e sake of com parison, set h im
beside th e m a n w ith n o persona, th e n we shall see th a t th e latter
is ju st as w ell in fo rm e d a b o u t th e a n im a a n d h e r affairs as th e
fo rm e r is a b o u t th e w orld. T h e use w hich e ith e r m akes of his
kn o w led g e can ju s t as easily be abused, in fact it is m o re th a n
likely th a t it w ill be.
3*9 T h e m an w ith th e p erso n a is b lin d to th e existence of in n e r
realities, ju s t as th e o th e r is b lin d to th e reality of th e w orld,
w hich fo r h im has m erely th e v alue of an a m u sin g o r fantastic
p lay g ro u n d . B u t th e fact of in n e r realities a n d th e ir u n q u alified
re co g n itio n is obviously th e sine qua n o n fo r a serious considera-
tio n of th e a n im a p ro b lem . If th e e x te rn a l w o rld is, for m e, sim -
ply a p h an tasm , how sh o u ld I take th e tro u b le to establish
a co m p licated system of re la tio n s h ip a n d a d a p ta tio n to it?
E q u ally, th e “n o th in g b u t fantasy" a ttitu d e w ill n ev er p ersu ad e
m e to re g ard m y a n im a m an ifestatio n s as a n y th in g m o re th a n
fatu o u s weakness. If, how ever, I take th e lin e th a t th e w o rld is
o u tsid e an d inside, th a t re ality falls to th e share of b o th , I m u st
logically accept th e upsets a n d annoyances th a t com e to m e from
inside as sym ptom s of faulty a d a p ta tio n to th e co n d itio n s of th a t
in n e r w orld. N o m o re th a n th e blows ra in e d on th e in n o ce n t
a b ro ad can be h ealed by m o ral repression will it h elp h im r e -
signedly to catalo gu e his “weaknesses.’' H e re are reasons, in te n -
tions, consequences, w hich can be tackled by will a n d u n d e r-
standing. T a k e , fo r exam ple, th e “spotless” m an of h o n o u r a n d
p u b lic b en efacto r, w hose ta n tru m s a n d explosive m oodiness te r-
rify his wife a n d c h ild re n . W h a t is th e a n im a d o in g here?
320 W e can see it a t once if we ju s t allow things to take th e ir
n a tu ra l course. W ife a n d c h ild re n will becom e estranged; a vac-

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u u m w ill fo rm a b o u t him . A t first he w ill bew ail th e h a r d -

heartedness of his family, a n d will behave if possible even m o re
vilely th a n before. T h a t w ill m ak e th e e stra n g em en t absolute. If
th e good spirits have n o t u tte rly forsaken him , he w ill a fte r a
tim e n otice his isolation, a n d in his loneliness he w ill b eg in to
u n d e rs ta n d how he caused th e estran g em en t. P erhaps, aghast at
him self, he w ill ask, “W h a t sort of devil has got in to m e?”— w ith -
o u t of course seeing th e m e a n in g of this m etap h o r. T h e n follow
rem orse, reco n ciliatio n , obliv io n , repression, an d , in n e x t to n o
tim e, a new explosion. C learly, th e a n im a is try in g to enforce a
sep aratio n . T h is tendency is in n o b o d y ’s interest. T h e a n im a
comes betw een th em like a jealous m istress w ho tries to alien a te
th e m an from his family. A n official post o r an y o th e r ad v a n -
tageous social p o sitio n can do th e sam e th in g , b u t th e re we can
u n d e rs ta n d th e force of th e attra ctio n . W h e n c e does th e a n im a
o b ta in th e p o w er to w ield such e n c h an tm en t? O n th e analogy
w ith th e persona th ere m u st be values o r som e o th e r im p o rta n t
a n d in flu en tial factors lying in the b ac k g ro u n d like seductive
prom ises. In such m atters we m u st g u a rd against ra tio n a liz a-
tions. O u r first th o u g h t is th a t th e m a n of h o n o u r is o n th e look-
o u t for an o th e r w om an. T h a t m ig h t b e— it m ig h t even be a r-
ra n g ed by th e a n im a as th e m ost effective m eans to th e desired
end. Such an a rra n g e m e n t sh o u ld n o t be m isco n stru ed as an en d
in itself, for th e blam eless g e n tlem a n w ho is co rrectly m a rrie d
acco rd in g to th e law can be ju st as correctly div o rced according
to the law, w hich does n o t alte r his fu n d a m e n ta l a ttitu d e one
iota. T h e old p ic tu re has m erely received a new fram e.
321 As a m a tte r of fact, this a rra n g e m e n t is a very co m m o n
m e th o d of im p le m e n tin g a sep a ratio n — a n d of h a m p e rin g a final
so lu tio n . T h e re fo re it is m o re reaso n ab le n o t to assum e th a t such
a n obvious possibility is th e en d -pu rp o se of th e separation.
W e w o u ld be b e tte r advised to investigate w h a t is b e h in d th e
tendencies of th e an im a. T h e first step is w h a t I w o u ld call th e
o b jec tiv a tio n of th e an im a, th a t is, th e strict refusal to re g ard
th e tre n d tow ards sep aratio n as a weakness of o n e ’s ow n. O n ly
w h en this has b ee n d o n e can o n e face th e a n im a w ith th e q u es-
tio n , “W h y do you w a n t this sep aratio n ?” T o p u t th e q u e stio n
in this personal way has th e g reat advantage of recognizing th e
a n im a as a personality, a n d of m ak in g a re la tio n sh ip possible.
T h e m o re p ersonally she is tak e n th e b etter.

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322 T o an y o n e accustom ed to p ro ceed p u re ly in tellectu a lly a n d

ratio n ally , this m ay seem a lto g eth e r too rid icu lo u s. I t w o u ld in -
d eed b e th e h eig h t of a b su rd ity if a m an tried to have a co n v er-
sation w ith his persona, w h ich h e recognized m erely as a psycho-
logical m eans of re latio n sh ip . B u t it is ab su rd only fo r th e m an
w ho has a persona. If he has n o n e, he is in this p o in t n o d ifferen t
from th e p rim itiv e w ho, as we know , has only o ne foot in w h a t
we co m m o n ly call reality. W ith th e o th e r foot he stands in a
w o rld of spirits, w h ich is q u ite real to him . O u r m o d el case b e-
haves, in th e w orld, like a m o d e rn E u ro p e a n ; b u t in th e w o rld
of spirits he is th e ch ild of a troglodyte. H e m u st th erefo re su b -
m it to liv ing in a k in d of p re h isto ric k in d e rg a rte n u n til he has
got th e rig h t idea of th e pow ers a n d factors w h ich ru le th a t o th e r
w orld. H e n ce he is q u ite rig h t to tre a t th e a n im a as an a u to n o -
m ous p erson ality a n d to address p ersonal q u estio n s to her.
323 I m ean this as an actu al tec h n iq u e . W e k now th a t practically
every o n e has n o t only th e pecu liarity , b u t also th e faculty, of
h o ld in g a co n v ersatio n w ith him self. W h e n e v e r we are in a p re -
d ica m e n t we ask ourselves (or w h o m else?), “W h a t shall I do?”
e ith e r alo u d o r b e n e a th o u r b re ath , a n d we (or w ho else?) su p -
ply th e answer. Since it is o u r in te n tio n to le a rn w h at we can
a b o u t th e fo u n d a tio n s of o u r b eing, this little m a tte r of liv in g in
a m e ta p h o r sh o u ld n o t b o th e r us. W e have to accept it as a sym-
bol of o u r p rim itiv e backw ardness (or of such natu raln ess as is
still, m ercifully, left to us) th a t we can, like th e N egro, discourse
perso n ally w ith o u r “snake.” T h e psyche n o t b e in g a u n ity b u t
a c o n tra d icto ry m u ltip lic ity of com plexes, th e dissociation re -
q u ire d for o u r dialectics w ith th e a n im a is n o t so te rrib ly diffi-
cult. T h e a r t of it consists only in allow ing o u r invisible p a rtn e r
to m ak e herself h eard , in p u ttin g th e m ech an ism of expression
m o m e n ta rily a t h e r disposal, w ith o u t b e in g overcom e by th e dis-
taste one n a tu ra lly feels a t p lay in g such a n a p p a re n tly lud icro u s
gam e w ith oneself, o r by d o u b ts as to th e genuineness of the
voice of o n e ’s in te rlo c u to r. T h is la tte r p o in t is technically very
im p o rta n t: we are so in th e h a b it of id en tify in g ourselves w ith
th e th o u g h ts th a t com e to us th a t we in v ariab ly assum e we have
m ade them . C u rio u sly en o u g h , it is precisely th e m ost im possi-
b le th o u g h ts for w h ich we feel th e greatest subjective responsi-
bility. If we w ere m o re conscious of th e inflexible u n iv ersal laws
th a t govern even th e w ildest a n d m ost w a n to n fantasy, we

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m ig h t p erh ap s be in a b e tte r po sitio n to see these th o u g h ts

above all o th ers as objective occurrences, ju s t as we see dream s,
w h ich n o b o d y supposes to be d elib erate o r a rb itra ry in v entio n s.
I t certain ly re q u ire s th e greatest objectivity a n d absence of
p re ju d ic e to give th e “o th e r sid e” th e o p p o rtu n ity for p ercep -
tib le psychic activity. As a re su lt of th e repressive a ttitu d e of th e
conscious m in d , th e o th e r side is d riv en in to in d ire c t a n d p u re ly
sy m p to m atic m anifestations, m ostly of an em o tio n al k in d , a n d
o nly in m o m en ts of o v erw h elm in g affectivity can frag m en ts of
th e unconscious com e to th e surface in th e fo rm of th o u g h ts o r
images. T h e in ev itab le accom panying sym ptom is th a t th e ego
m o m en tarily identifies w ith these utterances, only to revoke
th em in th e sam e b reath . A nd, indeed, th e things o n e says w h en
in the g rip of an affect som etim es seem very stran g e a n d d arin g .
B u t they are easily forgotten, o r w holly d en ied . T h is m ech an ism
of d ep reca tio n a n d d e n ia l n a tu ra lly has to be reck o n ed w ith if
o n e w ants to a d o p t an objective attitu d e . T h e h a b it of ru sh in g
in to correct a n d criticize is already stro n g e n o u g h in o u r tra d i-
tion, a n d it is as a ru le fu rth e r rein fo rced by fear— a fear th a t can
be confessed n e ith e r to oneself n o r to others, a fear of in sidious
tru th s, of dan g ero u s know ledge, of disagreeable verifications, in
a w ord, fear of all those things th a t cause so m an y of us to flee
fro m b ein g alo n e w ith ourselves as from th e plague. W e say th a t
it is egoistic o r “m o rb id ” to be p reo ccu p ied w ith oneself; o n e ’s
ow n co m p an y is th e worst, “ it m akes you m elan c h o ly ”— such are
th e glow ing testim onials accorded to o u r h u m a n m ake-up. T h e y
are ev iden tly deeply in g ra in e d in o u r W e ste rn m inds. W h o e v e r
th in ks in this way has obviously n ev er asked him self w h a t possi-
b le p leasu re o th e r p eo p le co u ld find in th e co m p an y of such a
m iserab le cow ard. S tartin g from th e fact th a t in a state of affect
o n e o ften su rre n d ers in v o lu n ta rily to th e tru th s of th e o th e r
side, w o u ld it n o t be far b e tte r to m ake use of an affect so as to
give th e o th e r side an o p p o rtu n ity to speak? I t co u ld th ere fo re
b e said ju s t as tru ly th a t o n e sh o u ld cu ltiv ate th e a rt of convers-
in g w ith oneself in th e settin g p ro v id ed by an affect, as th o u g h
th e affect itself w ere speaking w ith o u t re g a rd to o u r ra tio n a l
criticism . So lo n g as th e affect is speaking, criticism m u st be
w ith h eld . B u t once it has p re sen ted its case, we sh o u ld b eg in
criticizing as conscientiously as th o u g h a real p erso n closely co n -
n ec ted w ith us w ere o u r in terlo cu to r. N o r sh o u ld th e m a tte r

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rest th ere, b u t statem en t a n d answ er m u st follow o n e a n o th e r

u n til a satisfactory e n d to th e discussion is reached. W h e th e r th e
resu lt is satisfactory o r no t, only subjective feeling can decide.
A ny h u m b u g is of course q u ite useless. S crupulous honesty w ith
oneself a n d n o rash a n tic ip a tio n of w h at th e o th e r side m ig h t
conceivably say are th e in d isp en sab le co n d itio n s of this tech -
n iq u e for e d u c atin g th e an im a.
324 T h e r e is, however, so m eth in g to b e said for this ch aracteris-
tically W e ste rn fear of th e o th e r side. I t is n o t en tirely w ith o u t
justification, q u ite a p a rt fro m th e fact th a t it is real. W e can
u n d e rs ta n d a t once th e fear th a t th e c h ild a n d th e p rim itiv e
have of th e great u n k n o w n . W e have the sam e childish fear of
o u r in n e r side, w h ere we likewise to u ch u p o n a g reat u n k n o w n
w orld. All we have is th e affect, th e fear, w ith o u t k n o w in g th a t
this is a w orld-fear— for th e w o rld of affects is invisible. W e have
e ith e r p u re ly th eo retical p reju d ices against it, o r su p erstitio u s
ideas. O n e c a n n o t even talk a b o u t th e unconscious before m any
ed u cated p eople w ith o u t b e in g accused of mysticism . T h e fear is
leg itim ate in so far as o u r ra tio n a l W elta n sc h a u u n g w ith its sci-
entific a n d m o ral certitu d e s— so h o tly b elieved in because so
deeply q u estio n ab le— is sh attered by th e facts of th e o th e r side. If
only o n e co u ld avoid them , th e n th e em p h a tic advice of the
P h ilistin e to “let sleeping dogs lie ” w o u ld be th e only tr u th
w o rth advocating. A n d h ere I w o u ld expressly p o in t o u t th a t I
am n o t re c o m m e n d in g th e above te c h n iq u e as e ith e r necessary
o r even useful to any person n o t d riv en to it by necessity. T h e
stages, as I said, are m any, a n d th e re are greybeards w ho die as
in n o c e n t as babes in arm s, a n d in this year of grace troglodytes
are still b e in g b o rn . T h e r e are tru th s w h ich b elo n g to the fu-
tu re, tru th s w h ich b elo n g to th e past, a n d tru th s w hich belo n g
to n o tim e.
325 I can im ag ine som eone usin g this te c h n iq u e o u t of a k in d of
holy inquisitiveness, som e y outh, perhaps, w ho w o u ld like to set
wings to his feet, n o t because of lam eness, b u t because he yearns
for th e sun. B u t a g ro w n m an, w ith too m an y illusions dissi-
pated, will su b m it to this in n e r h u m ilia tio n a n d s u rre n d e r only
if forced, for why sh o u ld he let th e terro rs of ch ild h o o d again
have th e ir way w ith him ? I t is n o lig h t m a tte r to stan d b etw een a
day-w orld of e x p lo d e d ideals a n d d iscred ited values, a n d a n ight-
w o rld of a p p a re n tly senseless fantasy. T h e w eirdness of this

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s ta n d p o in t is in fact so great th a t th e re is p ro b a b ly n o b o d y w ho
does n o t reach o u t for security, even th o u g h it be a re ach in g
b ack to th e m o th e r w ho sh ield ed his ch ild h o o d fro m th e terro rs
of n ig h t. W h o e v e r is afraid m u st needs b e d e p e n d e n t; a w eak
th in g needs su p p o rt. T h a t is w hy th e p rim itiv e m in d , fro m deep
psychological necessity, b eg o t relig io u s in stru c tio n a n d e m b o d -
ied it in m agician a n d priest. E x tr a ecclesiam n u lla salus is
still a valid tr u th today— for those w h o can go back to it. F o r th e
few w ho can no t, th e re is only d e p e n d en ce u p o n a h u m a n being,
a h u m b le r a n d a p ro u d e r d ep en d en ce, a w eak er a n d a stro n g er
su p p o rt, so it seems to m e, th a n any oth er. W h a t can o n e say of
th e P ro testan t? H e has n e ith e r c h u rc h n o r priest, b u t only G o d—
a n d even G o d becom es d o u b tfu l.
326 T h e re a d e r m ay ask in som e co n stern atio n , “ B u t w h a t o n
ea rth does th e an im a do, th a t such d o u b le insurances are n ee d ed
b efo re one can com e to term s w ith her?” I w o u ld re co m m en d
my re a d e r to study th e co m p arativ e h istory of re lig io n so in -
ten tly as to fill these d ead chronicles w ith th e e m o tio n al life of
those w ho lived these religions. T h e n he w ill g et som e idea of
w h a t lives o n th e o th e r side. T h e o ld religions w ith th e ir su b -
lim e a n d rid icu lo u s, th e ir frie n d ly a n d fiendish sym bols d id n o t
d ro p from th e blu e, b u t w ere b o rn of this h u m a n soul th a t
dwells w ith in us at this m o m en t. A ll those things, th e ir p rim a l
form s, live o n in us a n d m ay a t any tim e b u rs t in u p o n us w ith
a n n ih ila tin g force, in the guise of mass-suggestions against w hich
th e in d iv id u a l is defenceless. O u r fearsom e gods have only
chan g ed th e ir nam es: they n ow rh y m e w ith ism . O r has anyone
th e n erv e to claim th a t th e W o rld W a r o r B olshevism was an
ing en io u s in v en tio n ? J u s t as o u tw ard ly we live in a w o rld w h ere
a w hole c o n tin e n t m ay be su b m erg ed at any m o m en t, o r a pole
be shifted, o r a n ew pestilence b re a k o u t, so in w ard ly we live in
a w o rld w h ere a t any m o m e n t so m eth in g sim ilar m ay occur, a l-
b e it in th e form of an idea, b u t n o less d an g ero u s a n d u n tr u s t-
w o rth y for that. F ailu re to a d a p t to this in n e r w o rld is a neg li-
gence e n ta ilin g ju s t as serious consequences as ig n o ran ce a n d
in e p titu d e in the o u te r w orld. I t is after all only a tin y fractio n of
h u m a n ity , liv in g m ain ly on th a t thickly p o p u la te d p en in su la of
Asia w hich ju ts o u t in to th e A tlan tic O cean, a n d callin g th e m -
selves “c u ltu re d ,” who, because they lack all co n tact w ith n a -
tu re , have h it u p o n th e id ea th a t re lig io n is a p ec u lia r k in d of

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m en tal d istu rb a n c e of u n d isco v erab le p u rp o rt. V iew ed fro m a

safe distance, say fro m ce n tral A frica o r T ib e t, it w o u ld certain ly
look as if this fractio n h ad p ro jec ted its ow n unco n scio u s m e n ta l
d eran g em e n ts u p o n n atio n s still possessed of h ea lth y instincts.
327 Because th e things of th e in n e r w o rld influence us all th e
m ore p o w erfu lly for b e in g unconscious, it is essential for an y o n e
w ho in te n d s to m ak e progress in self-culture (and does n o t all
c u ltu re b eg in w ith th e in dividual?) to o b jectivate th e effects of
th e a n im a a n d th e n try to u n d e rs ta n d w h a t co n ten ts u n d e rlie
those effects. I n this way he adapts to, a n d is p ro tected against,
th e invisible. N o a d a p ta tio n can re s u lt w ith o u t concessions to
b o th w orlds. F ro m a co n sid eratio n of th e claim s of th e in n e r a n d
o u te r w orlds, o r ra th e r, fro m th e conflict b etw een them , th e
possible a n d th e necessary follows. U n fo rtu n a te ly o u r W e ste rn
m in d , lack in g all c u ltu re in this respect, has n ev e r yet devised a
concept, n o r even a n am e, for th e u n io n o f opposites thro ug h
the m id d le p ath , th a t m ost fu n d a m e n ta l item of in w ard ex p e ri-
ence, w h ich co u ld respectably be set against th e C hinese concept
of T a o . I t is a t once th e m ost in d iv id u a l fact a n d th e m ost u n i-
versal, th e m ost leg itim ate fu lfilm en t of th e m e a n in g of th e in d i-
v id u a l’s life.
328 In th e course of m y ex p o sitio n so far, I have k e p t exclusively
to m asculin e psychology. T h e an im a, b ein g of fe m in in e gender,
is exclusively a figure th a t com pensates th e m asculine conscious-
ness. I n w o m an th e co m p e n sa tin g figure is of a m ascu lin e ch ar-
acter, a n d can th ere fo re a p p ro p ria te ly b e te rm e d the anim us. If
it was n o easy task to describe w h a t is m e a n t by th e anim a, th e
difficulties becom e alm ost in su p era b le w h en we set o u t to d e-
scribe th e psychology of th e an im u s.
329 T h e fact th a t a m a n naively ascribes his a n im a reactions to
him self, w ith o u t seeing th a t he really c a n n o t id en tify him self
w ith an au to n o m o u s com plex, is re p e a te d in fe m in in e psychol-
ogy, th o u g h if possible in even m o re m a rk e d form . T h is id en tifi-
cation w ith an a u to n o m o u s co m p lex is th e essential reason why
it is so difficult to u n d e rs ta n d a n d describe th e p ro b lem , q u ite
a p a rt fro m its in h e re n t obscurity a n d strangeness. W e always
s ta rt w ith th e n aiv e assu m p tio n th a t we are m asters in o u r ow n
house. H en ce we m u st first accustom ourselves to th e th o u g h t
th at, in o u r m ost in tim a te psychic life as well, we live in a k in d
of house w hich has doors a n d w indow s to th e w orld, b u t th at,

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a lth o u g h th e objects o r co n ten ts of this w o rld act u p o n us, they

d o n o t b elo n g to us. F o r m an y p eo p le this hypothesis is by n o
m eans easy to conceive, ju st as they do n o t find it a t all easy to
u n d e rs ta n d a n d to accept th e fact th a t th e ir n e ig h b o u r's psy-
chology is n o t necessarily id en tical w ith th e ir own. M y re a d e r
m ay th in k th a t th e last re m a rk is so m eth in g of an exaggeration,
since in general one is aw are of in d iv id u a l differences. B u t it
m u st be re m e m b e re d th a t o u r in d iv id u a l conscious psychology
develops o u t of an orig in al state of unconsciousness a n d th e re -
fore of n o n -d ifferen tiatio n (term ed by L evy-B ruhl pa rticip a tio n
m y stiq u e ). C onsequently, consciousness of d iffe ren tiatio n is a
relativ ely late ach iev em en t of m a n k in d , a n d p resu m ab ly b u t a
relatively sm all sector of th e in d efin itely large field of o rig in al
id en tity . D ifferen tiatio n is the essence, th e sin e qua n o n of
consciousness. E v ery th in g unconscious is u n d iffe re n tia te d , a n d
ev ery th ing th a t h ap p en s unconsciously proceeds o n th e basis of
n o n -d iffere n tia tio n — th a t is to say, th e re is n o d e te rm in in g
w h e th e r it belongs o r does n o t b elo n g to oneself. I t c a n n o t be
established a p rio ri w h e th e r it concerns m e, o r a n o th e r, o r b o th .
N o r does feeling give us any sure clues in this respect.
33 ° A n in fe rio r consciousness c a n n o t eo ipso b e ascribed to
w om en; it is m erely d ifferen t fro m m ascu lin e consciousness.
B ut, ju s t as a w o m an is o ften clearly conscious of th in gs w h ich a
m a n is still g ro p in g for in th e dark, so th e re are n a tu ra lly fields
of ex p erien ce in a m an w hich, for w o m an , are still w ra p p e d in
th e shadows of n o n -differen tiatio n , chiefly things in w h ich she
has little interest. P ersonal relatio n s are as a ru le m o re im p o r-
ta n t a n d in te re stin g to h e r th a n o bjective facts a n d th e ir in te r-
connections. T h e w ide fields of com m erce, politics, technology,
a n d science, th e w hole realm of th e a p p lie d m ascu lin e m in d , she
relegates to th e p e n u m b ra of consciousness; w hile, o n th e o th e r
h an d , she develops a m in u te consciousness of p erso n al re la tio n -
ships, th e in fin ite nuances of w hich u sually escape th e m a n e n -
tirely.
331 W e m u st th ere fo re expect th e unconscious of w o m an to show
aspects essentially d ifferen t fro m those fo u n d in m an . If I w ere
to a tte m p t to p u t in a n u tsh e ll th e difference b etw een m a n a n d
w o m an in this respect, i.e., w h a t it is th a t characterizes th e a n i-
m us as opposed to th e an im a, I co u ld on ly say this: as th e a n im a
p ro d u ces m oods, so th e a n im u s produces o p in io n s; a n d as th e

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m oods of a m a n issue fro m a shadow y b ack g ro u n d , so th e o p in -

ions of a w o m an rest o n e q u a lly unconscious p rio r assum ptions.
A n im u s o p in io n s very o ften have th e ch aracter of solid convic-
tions th a t are n o t lightly shaken, o r of p rin cip les whose valid ity
is seem ingly unassailable. If we analyse these o p inions, we im -
m ed iately com e u p o n unconscious assum ptions whose existence
m u st first be in ferred ; th a t is to say, th e o p in io n s are ap p a re n tly
conceived as th o u g h such assu m ptions existed. B u t in re ality th e
o p in io n s are n o t th o u g h t o u t at all; they exist read y m ade, a n d
they are h e ld so positively a n d w ith so m u ch co n viction th a t th e
w o m an n ev er has th e shadow of a d o u b t a b o u t them .
332 O n e w o u ld be in c lin e d to suppose th a t th e anim us, like th e
an im a, personifies itself in a single figure. B u t this, as ex p erien ce
shows, is tru e on ly u p to a p o in t, because a n o th e r factor u n e x -
pectedly m akes its ap p earan ce, w h ich b rin g s a b o u t an essentially
d ifferen t s itu a tio n from th a t ex istin g in a m an . T h e an im u s does
n o t a p p e a r as o n e person, b u t as a p lu ra lity of persons. In H . G.
W ells’ novel C hristina A lb erta 's F ather, th e h ero in e, in all th at
she does o r does n o t do, is co n stan tly u n d e r th e surveillance of a
su p re m e m o ra l au th o rity , w h ich tells h e r w ith rem orseless p reci-
sion a n d d ry m atter-of-factness w h a t she is d o in g a n d fo r w h a t
motives. W ells calls this a u th o rity a “ C o u rt of C onscience.” T h is
collection of co n d e m n ato ry judges, a so rt of C ollege of P recep -
tors, corresp o n d s to a personification of th e an im u s. T h e a n im u s
is ra th e r like a n assem bly of fathers o r d ig n ita ries of som e k in d
w ho lay d o w n in co n testab le, “ra tio n a l,” ex cathedra ju d g m en ts.
O n closer e x a m in a tio n these ex actin g ju d g m e n ts tu r n o u t to b e
largely sayings a n d o p in io n s scraped to g eth er m o re or less u n -
consciously fro m c h ild h o o d on, a n d com pressed in to a can o n of
average tru th , justice, a n d reasonableness, a c o m p e n d iu m of
p reco n cep tio n s w hich, w h e n ev er a conscious a n d c o m p e te n t
ju d g m e n t is lack in g (as n o t in fre q u e n tly h appens), in stan tly
obliges w ith an o p in io n . Som etim es these o p in io n s take th e
fo rm o f so-called s o u n d co m m o n sense, som etim es they a p p e a r
as p rin cip les w h ich are lik e a travesty of e d u c atio n : “ P eo p le
have always d o n e it like this,” o r “ E verybody says it is like th a t.”
333 I t goes w ith o u t saying th a t th e an im u s is ju st as o ften p ro -
jec te d as th e an im a. T h e m en w h o are p artic u la rly s u ite d to
these pro jectio n s are e ith e r w a lk in g replicas of G o d him self,
w h o know all a b o u t everything, o r else they are m isu n d ersto o d

2851
 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

w ord-addicts w ith a vast a n d w in d y v o cab u lary at th e ir com -

m an d , w ho tran slate co m m o n o r g ard en reality in to th e te rm i-
n ology of th e sublim e. I t w o u ld be insufficient to ch aracterize
th e an im u s m erely as a conservative, collective conscience; he is
also a neologist who, in flagrant c o n tra d ic tio n to his co rrect
o p inions, has an ex tra o rd in a ry weakness for difficult a n d u n fa -
m ilia r words w hich act as a pleasan t s u b stitu te for th e o dious
task of reflection.
334 L ik e th e an im a, th e an im u s is a jealo u s lover. H e is an a d e p t
a t p u ttin g , in place of th e real m an , an o p in io n a b o u t him , th e
exceedingly d isp u tab le g ro u n d s for w h ich are n ev er su b m itte d
to criticism . A n im u s o p in io n s are in v aria b ly collective, a n d they
o v errid e ind iv id u als a n d in d iv id u a l ju d g m e n ts in exactly th e
sam e way as th e an im a th ru sts h e r e m o tio n al a n ticip a tio n s a n d
p ro jectio n s b etw een m a n a n d wife. If th e w o m an h ap p en s to b e
p retty , these an im u s o p in io n s have fo r th e m a n so m eth in g
r a th e r to u c h in g a n d ch ild lik e a b o u t th em , w h ich m akes h im
a d o p t a b en ev o len t, fatherly, professorial m a n n e r. B u t if the
w o m an does n o t stir his sen tim en tal side, a n d co m p eten ce is ex-
p ected of h e r ra th e r th a n ap p e a lin g helplessness a n d stu p id ity ,
th e n h e r an im u s o p in io n s irrita te th e m a n to d ea th , chiefly b e -
cause they are based on n o th in g b u t o p in io n fo r o p in io n 's sake,
a n d “everybody has a rig h t to his ow n o p in io n s." M en can be
p re tty ven o m o u s here, for it is an inescapable fact th a t th e a n i-
m u s always plays u p th e a n im a — a n d vice versa, of course— so
th a t all fu r th e r discussion becom es pointless.
335 In in tellectu a l w o m en th e a n im u s encourages a critical dis-
putatio u sn ess a n d w ould-be high b ro w ism , w hich, how ever, co n -
sists essentially in h a rp in g o n som e irre le v a n t w eak p o in t a n d
nonsensically m ak in g it th e m a in one. O r a p erfectly lu cid dis-
cussion gets tan g led u p in th e m ost m a d d e n in g way th ro u g h th e
in tro d u c tio n of a q u ite d ifferen t a n d if possible perverse p o in t
of view. W ith o u t k n o w in g it, such w o m en are solely in te n t u p o n
e x asp eratin g th e m a n a n d are, in consequence, th e m o re com -
p letely a t th e m ercy of th e an im u s. “ U n fo rtu n a te ly I am always
rig h t," o n e of these creatu res once confessed to me.
336 H ow ever, all these traits, as fa m ilia r as they are unsavoury,
are sim ply a n d solely d u e to th e extrav ersió n of th e an im u s. T h e
a n im u s does n o t b elo n g to th e fu n c tio n of conscious re la tio n -
ship; his fu n c tio n is ra th e r to facilitate re la tio n s w ith th e u n c o n -

2852
 A N IM A AND AN IM U S

scious. In stea d of th e w o m an m erely associating o p in io n s w ith

ex te rn al situ atio n s— situ atio n s w h ich she o u g h t to th in k a b o u t
consciously— th e an im u s, as a n associative fu n ctio n , sh o u ld be
d irec ted inw ards, w here it c o u ld associate the co n ten ts of th e
unconscious. T h e te c h n iq u e of co m in g to term s w ith the an im u s
is the same in p rin c ip le as in th e case of th e an im a; only h ere th e
w om an m u st learn to criticize a n d h o ld h e r o p in io n s at a dis-
tance; n o t in o rd e r to repress them , b u t, by in v estigating th e ir
origins, to p e n e tra te m o re deeply in to th e b ack g ro u n d , w here
she will th en discover th e p rim o rd ia l images, ju st as th e m an
does in his dealings w ith th e an im a. T h e an im u s is th e deposit,
as it were, of all w o m an 's ancestral experiences of m a n — a n d n o t
only that, he is also a creative a n d p ro creativ e being, n o t in the
sense of m ascu lin e creativity, b u t in th e sense th a t he brin g s
fo rth so m eth in g we m ig h t call th e \oyos cnrepiuLaTiKos, th e sp er-
m atic w ord. J u s t as a m a n b rin g s fo rth his w ork as a co m p lete
creatio n o u t of his in n e r fe m in in e n a tu re , so the in n e r m ascu-
lin e side of a w om an brin g s fo rth creative seeds w hich have the
p ow er to fertilize th e fe m in in e side of th e m an. T h is w o u ld be
th e fe m m e inspiratrice w ho, if falsely cu ltiv ated , can tu r n in to
th e w orst k in d of do g m atist a n d h ig h -h an d e d pedagogue— a reg -
u la r “ a n im u s h o u n d ," as one of m y w o m en p atien ts aptly ex-
pressed it.
337 A w o m an possessed by th e an im u s is always in d an g e r of los-
in g h e r fe m in in ity , h er ad a p te d fe m in in e persona, ju s t as a m an
in like circum stances ru n s th e risk of effem inacy. T h e s e psychic
changes of sex are d u e en tire ly to th e fact th a t a fu n c tio n w hich
belongs inside has b een tu rn e d outside. T h e reason for this p e r-
version is clearly th e fa ilu re to give a d e q u a te re co g n itio n to an
in n e r w o rld w hich stands au to n o m o u sly opposed to th e o u te r
w orld, a n d m akes ju s t as serious d em an d s on o u r capacity for
ad a p tatio n .
338 W ith re g ard to th e p lu ra lity of th e an im u s as distin g u ish ed
fro m w h at we m ig h t call the “u n i-p erso n ality " of the anim a, this
re m a rk ab le fact seems to m e to be a co rrelate of th e conscious
a ttitu d e . T h e conscious a ttitu d e of w o m an is in g eneral far m o re
exclusively personal th a n th a t of m an . H e r w o rld is m ad e u p of
fathers a n d m others, b ro th e rs a n d sisters, h u sb an d s a n d ch il-
d re n . T h e rest of th e w o rld consists likewise of fam ilies, w ho
n o d to each o th e r b u t are, in th e m ain , in tere ste d essentially in

2853
 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

them selves. T h e m a n ’s w o rld is th e n a tio n , th e state, business

concerns, etc. H is fam ily is sim ply a m eans to an en d , o n e of th e
fo u n d a tio n s of th e state, a n d his w ife is n o t necessarily the
w o m an fo r h im (at any ra te n o t as the w o m an m eans it w h en she
says “m y m a n ”). T h e g en eral m eans m o re to h im th a n th e p e r-
sonal; his w o rld consists of a m u ltitu d e of co -o rd in ated factors,
w hereas h e r w orld, o u tsid e h e r h u sb an d , te rm in a te s in a so rt of
cosmic m ist. A passionate exclusiveness th ere fo re attaches to th e
m a n ’s an im a, a n d an in d efin ite variety to th e w o m a n ’s anim us.
W h ereas th e m an has, floating b efo re h im , in clear o u tlin es, th e
a llu rin g fo rm of a C irce o r a Calypso, th e an im u s is b e tte r ex-
pressed as a bevy of F lying D u tc h m e n o r u n k n o w n w an d erers
from over the sea, n ev er q u ite clearly grasped, p ro tea n , given to
p ersisten t a n d v io len t m o tio n . T h e s e personifications a p p e a r es-
pecially in dream s, th o u g h in co n crete re ality they can be fam ous
tenors, b o x in g cham pions, o r g reat m e n in far-away, u n k n o w n
cities.
339 T h e s e two crep u scu lar figures fro m th e d a rk h in te rla n d of
th e psyche— tru ly th e sem i-grotesque “g u ard ia n s of th e th re sh -
o ld ,” to use th e pom p o u s jarg o n of theosophy— can assum e an
alm ost in ex h a u stib le n u m b e r of shapes, e n o u g h to fill w hole
volum es. T h e i r co m p licated tran sfo rm atio n s are as ric h a n d
stran g e as th e w orld itself, as m an ifo ld as th e lim itless variety of
th e ir conscious correlate, th e persona. T h e y in h a b it th e tw ilig h t
sphere, an d we can ju s t m ake o u t th a t th e a u to n o m o u s co m p lex
o f a n im a a n d an im u s is essentially a psychological fu n c tio n th a t
has u su rp e d , o r ra th e r re ta in ed , a “ p e rso n ality ” only because
this fu n c tio n is itself au to n o m o u s a n d u n d ev elo p ed . B u t already
we can see how it is possible to b re a k u p th e personifications,
since by m ak in g th em conscious we co n v ert th e m in to bridges to
th e unconscious. I t is because we are n o t usin g th em p u rp o se-
fully as fu n ctio n s th a t they re m a in personified com plexes. So
lo n g as they are in this state they m u st be accepted as relatively
in d e p e n d e n t personalities. T h e y c a n n o t b e in te g ra te d in to co n -
sciousness w hile th e ir co n ten ts re m a in u n k n o w n . T h e p u rp o se
of th e dialectical process is to b rin g these c o n te n ts in to the lig h t;
a n d only w h e n this task has b ee n co m p leted , a n d the conscious
m in d has b ecom e sufficiently fa m iliar w ith th e unconscious
processes reflected in th e an im a, will th e a n im a be felt sim ply as
a fu n ctio n .

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 A N IM A AND AN IM US

340 I d o n o t ex p ect every re a d e r to grasp rig h t away w h at is

m e a n t by a n im u s a n d an im a. B u t I h o p e he will at least have
g ain ed th e im pression th a t it is n o t a q u estio n of a n y th in g “m e t-
aphysical,” b u t far ra th e r of em p irica l facts w hich co u ld equ ally
w ell be expressed in ra tio n a l a n d ab stract language. I have p u r -
posely avoided too ab stra ct a term in o lo g y because, in m atters of
this k in d , w h ich h ith e rto have b e e n so inaccessible to o u r ex p e-
rien ce, it is useless to p re se n t th e re a d e r w ith an in tellectu al for-
m u la tio n . I t is far m o re to th e p o in t to give h im some concep-
tio n of w h a t th e ac tu al possibilities of exp erien ce are. N o b o d y
can really u n d e rs ta n d these things unless he has ex p erien ced
th em him self. I am th ere fo re m u c h m o re in tere ste d in p o in tin g
o u t th e possible ways to such ex p erien ce th a n in devising in te l-
lectual fo rm u la e w hich, fo r lack of ex p erien ce, m u st necessarily
re m a in an em p ty w eb of words. U n fo rtu n a te ly th e re are all too
m an y w ho lea rn th e w ords by h e a rt a n d ad d th e experiences in
th e ir heads, th e re a fte r a b a n d o n in g them selves, acco rd in g to
te m p e ra m e n t, e ith e r to cre d u lity o r to criticism . W e are co n -
c e rn ed h ere w ith a new q u estio n in g , a n ew — a n d yet age-old—
field of psychological experience. W e shall b e ab le to establish
relativ ely v alid theories a b o u t it only w h en th e co rresp o n d in g
psychological facts are k n o w n to a sufficient n u m b e r of people.
T h e first thin g s to be discovered are always facts, n o t theories.
T h e o ry -b u ild in g is th e o u tco m e of discussion am o n g m any.

2855
 Ill

THE TECHNIQUE OF DIFFERENTIATION

BETWEEN THE EGO AND
THE FIGURES OF THE
UNCONSCIOUS

341 I owe it to th e re a d e r to give h im a d e ta ile d ex am p le of th e

specific activity of an im u s a n d an im a. U n fo rtu n a te ly this m a te -
rial is so en o rm o u s a n d d em an d s so m u c h e x p la n a tio n of sym-
bols th a t I c a n n o t in clu d e such an ac co u n t w ith in th e com pass of
this essay. I have, how ever, p u b lish e d som e of these p ro d u c ts
w ith all th e ir sym bolical associations in a separate w o rk , 1 a n d to
this I m u st re fer th e read er. In th a t b o o k I said n o th in g a b o u t
th e an im u s, because a t th a t tim e this fu n c tio n was still u n k n o w n
to me. N evertheless, if I advise a w om an p a tie n t to associate h e r
u n conscious contents, she w ill always p ro d u c e th e sam e k in d of
fantasy. T h e m ascu lin e h ero figure w ho alm ost u n fa ilin g ly a p -
pears is th e anim us, a n d th e succession of fantasy-experiences
d em o n strates the g ra d u al tra n sfo rm a tio n a n d d isso lu tio n of th e
au to n o m o u s com plex.
342 T h is tra n sfo rm a tio n is th e aim of th e analysis of th e u n c o n -
scious. I f th e re is n o tran sfo rm atio n , it m eans th a t th e d e te rm in -
in g influence of th e unconscious is u n a b a te d , a n d th a t it w ill in
som e cases persist in m a in ta in in g n e u ro tic sym ptom s in spite of
all o u r analysis a n d all o u r u n d e rsta n d in g . A ltern ativ ely , a com -
p ulsive tran sferen ce w ill take hold, w hich is ju s t as b ad as a n e u -
rosis. O bviously in such cases n o a m o u n t of suggestion, good
w ill, a n d p u re ly re d u ctiv e u n d e rs ta n d in g has h e lp e d to b re ak
th e pow er of th e unconscious. T h is is n o t to say— once again I
w o u ld like to em phasize this p o in t very clearly— th a t all psycho-
th e ra p e u tic m eth o d s are, by a n d large, useless. I m erely w a n t to
stress th e fact th a t th e re are n o t a few cases w h e re th e d o cto r has
to m ak e u p his m in d to d eal fu n d a m e n ta lly w ith th e un co n-
1 Sym bols o f T ran sform atio n.

2856
 T H E T E C H N IQ U E O F D IF FE R E N T IA T IO N

scious, to com e to a real se ttle m e n t w ith it. T h is is of course

so m eth in g very d ifferen t fro m in te rp re ta tio n . In th e la tte r case
it is tak en fo r g ra n te d th a t th e d o cto r kno w s b efo reh a n d , so as to
be ab le to in te rp re t. B u t in th e case of a real se ttle m e n t it is n o t
a q u estio n of in te rp re ta tio n : it is a q u estio n of releasin g u n c o n -
scious processes a n d le ttin g th e m com e in to th e conscious m in d
in th e fo rm of fantasies. W e can try o u r h a n d at in te rp re tin g
these fantasies if we like. In m an y cases it m ay be q u ite im p o r-
ta n t for th e p a tie n t to have som e id ea of th e m e a n in g of th e
fantasies p ro d u ced . B u t it is of v ital im p o rtan ce th a t he sh o u ld
ex p erien ce th em to th e fu ll an d , in so far as in tellectu a l u n d e r-
s ta n d in g belongs to th e to tality of experience, also u n d e rs ta n d
them . Yet I w o u ld n o t give p rio rity to u n d e rsta n d in g . N a tu ra lly
th e d o cto r m u st b e ab le to assist th e p a tie n t in his u n d e rs ta n d -
ing, b u t, since he will n o t a n d in d ee d c a n n o t u n d e rs ta n d every-
thing, th e d o cto r sh o u ld assiduously g u a rd against clever feats of
in te rp re ta tio n . F o r th e im p o rta n t th in g is n o t to in te rp r e t a n d
u n d e rs ta n d th e fantasies, b u t p rim a rily to ex p erien ce them .
A lfred K u b in has given a very good d e sc rip tio n of th e u n c o n -
scious in his b o o k D ie andere Seite; th a t is, he has described
w h a t he, as an artist, ex p e rien c ed of th e unconscious. I t is an
artistic ex p erien ce w hich, in th e d ee p e r m e a n in g of h u m a n ex-
perience, is inco m p lete. I w o u ld like to re co m m en d an atte n tiv e
re a d in g of this b o o k to everybody w ho is in tere ste d in these
q u estions. H e will th e n discover th e in com pleteness I speak of:
th e vision is ex p e rien c ed artistically, b u t n o t h u m an ly . By “h u -
m a n ” ex p erien ce I m ea n th a t th e p erso n of th e a u th o r sh o u ld
n o t ju s t be in c lu d e d passively in th e vision, b u t th a t he sh o u ld
face th e figures of th e vision actively a n d reactively, w ith fu ll
consciousness. I w o u ld level th e sam e criticism a t th e authoress
of th e fantasies d ea lt w ith in th e b o o k m e n tio n e d above; she,
too, m erely stands o p p osite th e fantasies fo rm in g them selves o u t
of th e unconscious, p erceiv in g th em , o r at b est passively e n d u r-
in g them . B u t a re al se ttle m e n t w ith th e unconscious d em an d s a
firm ly o pposed conscious s tan d p o in t.
343 I w ill try to e x p la in w h a t I m ea n by a n exam ple. O n e of m y
p atien ts h ad th e fo llow ing fantasy: H e sees his fiancée r u n n in g
d o w n the road towards the river. I t is w in te r , and th e river is
fr o z e n . She runs o u t on the iceJ a n d he follow s her. She goes
rig h t o u t, a n d th en th e ice breaks, a dark fissure appears, a n d he

2857
 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

is afraid she is go in g to j u m p i n . A n d that is w ha t happens: she

ju m p s in to the crack, a n d he w atches h er sadly.
344 T h is frag m en t, a lth o u g h to rn o u t of its co n tex t, clearly
shows th e a ttitu d e of th e conscious m in d : it perceives a n d pas-
sively en d u res, th e fantasy-im age is m erely seen a n d felt, it is tw o-
dim ensio n al, as it w ere, because th e p a tie n t is n o t sufficiently in -
volved. T h e re fo re the fantasy rem ain s a flat im age, concrete a n d
ag itatin g perhaps, b u t u n re al, like a d ream . T h is u n re a lity
com es fro m th e fact th a t h e him self is n o t p lay in g an active p art.
If th e fantasy h a p p e n e d in reality, he w o u ld n o t be at a loss fo r
som e m eans to p re v en t his fiancée from c o m m ittin g suicide. H e
could, fo r instance, easily overtake h e r a n d re strain h e r b o d ily
fro m ju m p in g in to th e crack. W e re h e to act in re ality as h e
acted in th e fantasy, he w o u ld obviously b e paralysed, e ith e r
w ith h o rro r, o r because of th e unconscious th o u g h t th a t h e
really has n o o b jectio n to h e r c o m m ittin g suicide. T h e fact th a t
h e re m a in s passive in th e fantasy m erely expresses his a ttitu d e to
th e activity of th e unconscious in general: he is fascinated a n d
stupefied by it. I n reality h e suffers from all sorts of depressive
ideas a n d convictions; he th in k s he is n o good, th a t he has som e
hopeless h e re d ita ry tain t, th a t his b ra in is d eg en eratin g , etc.
T h e s e negative feelings are so m an y auto-suggestions w h ich he
accepts w ith o u t arg u m e n t. In tellectu ally , h e can u n d e rs ta n d
th e m perfectly a n d recognize th em as u n tru e , b u t nevertheless
th e feelings persist. T h e y ca n n o t b e attack ed by th e in tellect b e -
cause they have n o in tellectu a l o r ra tio n a l basis; they are ro o te d
in an unconscious, irra tio n a l fantasy-life w hich is n o t am e n ab le
to conscious criticism . I n these cases th e unconscious m u st b e
given a n o p p o rtu n ity to p ro d u c e its fantasies, a n d th e above
fra g m e n t is ju s t such a p ro d u c t of unconscious fantasy activity.
Since th e case was o n e of psychogenic depression, th e depression
itself was d u e to fantasies of whose existence th e p a tie n t was to -
tally unconscious. In g e n u in e m elan ch o lia, ex tre m e ex h au stio n ,
poisoning, etc., th e situ atio n w o u ld be reversed: th e p a tie n t has
such fantasies because he is in a depressed co n d itio n . B u t in a
case of psychogenic depression h e is depressed because he has
such fantasies. M y p a tie n t was a very clever y o u n g m a n w ho h ad
b e e n in tellectu ally e n lig h te n e d as to th e cause of his neurosis by
a len g th y analysis. H ow ever, in tellectu a l u n d e rs ta n d in g m ad e
n o difference to his depression. I n cases of this so rt th e d o c to r

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sh o u ld spare h im self th e useless tro u b le of d elv in g still fu rth e r

in to th e causality; for, w h e n a m o re o r less exh au stiv e u n d e r-
s ta n d in g is of n o avail, th e discovery of yet a n o th e r little b it of
causality will be of n o avail eith er. T h e u nconscious has sim ply
g ain ed an unassailable ascendency; it wields an a ttra ctiv e force
th a t can in v alid ate all conscious c o n te n ts— in o th e r words, it can
w ith d raw lib id o fro m th e conscious w o rld a n d th ere b y p ro d u c e
a “d epression,” an abaissem ent d u n iveau m e n ta l (Janet). B u t
as a resu lt of this we m ust, acco rd in g to th e law of energy, ex p ect
an ac cu m u latio n of v alue— i.e., lib id o — in th e unconscious.
345 L ib id o can n ev e r be a p p re h e n d e d ex cep t in a d efinite form ;
th a t is to say, it is id en tica l w ith fantasy-images. A n d we can only
release it fro m th e g rip of the unconscious by b rin g in g u p the
c o rresp o n d in g fantasy-images. T h a t is why, in a case like this, we
give th e unco n sciou s a chance to b rin g its fantasies to th e su r-
face. T h is is how th e foregoing frag m en t was p ro d u ced . I t is a
single episode fro m a lo n g a n d very in tric a te series of fantasy-
images, co rresp o n d in g to th e q u o ta of energy th a t was lost to the
conscious m in d a n d its contents. T h e p a tie n t’s conscious w o rld
has becom e cold, em pty, a n d grey; b u t his unconscious is acti-
vated, po w erfu l, a n d rich. I t is ch aracteristic of th e n a tu re of th e
u nconscious psyche th a t it is sufficient u n to itself a n d know s n o
h u m a n co nsiderations. O nce a th in g has fallen in to th e u n c o n -
scious it is re ta in e d th ere, regardless of w h e th e r th e conscious
m in d suffers o r n ot. T h e la tte r can h u n g e r a n d freeze, w hile
e v e ry th in g in th e unconscious becom es v e rd a n t a n d blossoms.
346 So at least it ap p ears at first. B u t w h e n we look d eep er, we
find th a t this u n c o n c e rn of th e unconscious has a m ean in g , in -
d eed a p u rp o se a n d a goal. T h e r e are psychic goals th a t lie b e-
y o n d th e conscious goals; in fact, they m ay even b e in im ical to
th em . B u t we find th a t th e u n conscious has a n in im ic al o r r u t h -
less b ea rin g tow ards th e conscious on ly w h en th e la tte r ad o p ts a
false o r p re te n tio u s a ttitu d e .
347 T h e conscious a ttitu d e of m y p a tie n t is so one-sidedly in te l-
lectu al a n d ra tio n a l th a t n a tu re h erself rises u p against h im a n d
a n n ih ilates his w h o le w o rld of conscious values. B u t h e ca n n o t
de-intellectualize h im self a n d m ak e him self d e p e n d e n t o n a n -
o th e r fu n c tio n , e.g., feeling, for th e very sim ple reaso n th a t he
has n o t got it. T h e u n conscious has it. T h e re fo re we have n o
altern ativ e b u t to h a n d o v er th e lea d ersh ip to th e unconscious

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a n d give it th e o p p o rtu n ity of b eco m in g a conscious c o n te n t in

th e fo rm of fantasies. If, form erly, m y p a tie n t clu n g to his in te l-
lectu al w o rld a n d d efen d ed h im self w ith ratio n alizatio n s against
w h a t he re g ard e d as his illness, he m u st now yield h im self u p to
it en tirely , a n d w h en a fit of depression comes u p o n h im , he
m u s t n o lo n g er force him self to som e k in d of w o rk in o rd e r to
forget, b u t m u st accept his d epression a n d give it a h earin g .
348 N ow this is th e d irec t o pposite of su cc u m b in g to a m ood,
w h ich is so typical of neurosis. I t is n o weakness, n o spineless
s u rre n d e r, b u t a h a rd achievem ent, th e essence of w hich consists
in k ee p in g y o u r o b jectivity d espite th e tem p tatio n s of th e m ood,
a n d in m a k in g th e m o o d y o u r object, in stead of allo w in g it to
b ecom e in you th e d o m in a tin g subject. So th e p a tie n t m u s t try
to get his m o o d to speak to him ; his m o o d m u st tell h im all
a b o u t itself a n d show h im th ro u g h w h at k in d of fantastic an a lo -
gies it is expressing itself.
349 T h e fo reg o in g frag m en t is a b it of visualized m ood. If h e h a d
n o t suceeded in k eep in g his o b jectiv ity in re la tio n to his m ood,
h e w o u ld have had, in place of th e fantasy-im age, o n ly a c rip -
p lin g sense th a t ev ery th in g was go in g to th e devil, th a t he was
in cu ra b le, etc. B u t because he gave his m o o d a chance to express
itself in a n im age, h e succeeded in co n v e rtin g a t least a sm all
su m of lib id o, of unconscious creative energy in eid etic form ,
in to a conscious c o n te n t a n d th u s w ith d ra w in g it fro m th e
sp h ere of th e unconscious.
35 ° B u t this effort is n o t en o u g h , fo r th e fantasy, to b e com -
p letely ex p erien ced , d em an d s n o t ju st p e rcep tio n a n d passivity,
b u t active p artic ip a tio n . T h e p a tie n t w o u ld com ply w ith this d e-
m a n d if he co n d u c te d him self in th e fantasy as h e w o u ld d o u b t-
less co n d u c t him self in reality. H e w o u ld n ev er re m a in an idle
sp ectato r w hile his fiancée trie d to d ro w n herself; h e w o u ld leap
u p a n d stop her. T h is sh o u ld also h a p p e n in th e fantasy. If he
succeeds in b eh a v in g in th e fantasy as he w o u ld beh av e in a sim i-
la r s itu a tio n in reality, he w o u ld p rove th a t he was ta k in g the
fantasy seriously, i.e., assigning ab so lu te re ality v alu e to th e u n -
conscious. I n this way he w o u ld have w o n a victory o v er his o n e-
sided in tellectu a lism an d , in d irectly , w o u ld have asserted th e
v alid ity of th e irra tio n a l sta n d p o in t of th e unconscious.
351 T h a t w o u ld be th e co m p lete ex p erien ce of th e unconscious

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d e m a n d e d of h im . B u t o n e m u st n o t u n d e re s tim a te w h a t th a t
actu ally m eans: y o u r w hole w o rld is m en aced by fantastic irre al-
ity. It is alm o st in su p era b ly difficult to forget, even fo r a m o -
m en t, th a t all this is on ly fantasy, a figm ent of the im ag in atio n
th a t m u st strik e on e as a lto g e th e r a rb itra ry a n d artificial. H o w
can one assert th a t a n y th in g of this k in d is “re a l” a n d tak e it
seriously?
352 W e can h ard ly b e ex p ected to believe in a sort of d o u b le life,
in w hich we c o n d u c t ourselves o n one p lan e as m odest average
citizens, w h ile on a n o th e r we have u n b eliev a b le ad v en tu res a n d
p erfo rm h ero ic deeds. I n o th e r words, we m u st n o t concretize
o u r fantasies. B u t th e re is in m a n a strange p ro p en sity to do ju st
this, a n d all his aversion to fantasy a n d his critical d ep recia tio n
of th e unconscious com e solely fro m th e d eep -ro o ted fear of this
tendency. C o n cretizatio n a n d the fear of it are b o th p rim itiv e su-
p erstitions, b u t they still survive in th e liveliest form am o n g so-
called e n lig h te n e d people. In his civic life a m an m ay follow the
trad e of a shoem aker, b u t as th e m e m b e r of a sect he p u ts o n th e
d ig n ity of an archangel. T o all ap p earan ces he is a sm all trades-
m an, b u t am o n g th e freem asons h e is a m ysterious grandee. A n -
o th e r sits all day in his office; at evening, in his circle, he is a
re in c a rn a tio n of J u liu s C aesar, fallib le as a m an , b u t in his offi-
cial capacity in fallib le. T h e s e are all u n in te n tio n a l concretiza-
tions.
353 As against this, th e scientific cred o of o u r tim e has d eveloped
a su p erstitio u s p h o b ia a b o u t fantasy. B u t th e real is w h at works.
A n d th e fantasies of th e unconscious w ork, th ere can be n o
d o u b t a b o u t th at. E ven th e cleverest p h ilo so p h er can b e th e vic-
tim of a th o ro u g h ly id io tic ag o rap ho b ia. O u r fam ous scientific
reality does n o t afford us th e slightest p ro te c tio n against th e so-
called irre a lity of th e unconscious. S o m eth in g w orks b e h in d the
veil of fantastic images, w h e th e r we give this so m eth in g a good
n am e o r a b ad . I t is so m eth in g real, a n d fo r this reason its m a n i-
festations m u st b e tak e n seriously. B u t first th e tendency to co n -
cretizatio n m u st be overcom e; in o th e r words, we m u st n o t take
th e fantasies lite rally w h en we ap p ro ach th e q u estio n of in te r-
p re tin g them . W h ile we are in th e g rip of th e actual exp erien ce,
th e fantasies ca n n o t be tak e n lite rally enough. B u t w h e n it
com es to u n d e rs ta n d in g th em , we m u st o n n o acco u n t m istake

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th e sem blance, th e fantasy-im age as such, fo r th e o p erativ e p ro c-

ess u n d e rly in g it. T h e sem blance is n o t th e th in g itself, b u t only
its expression.
354 T h u s m y p a tie n t is n o t ex p e rien c in g th e suicide scene “o n
a n o th e r p la n e ” (th o u g h in every o th e r respect it is ju s t as co n -
crete as a re al suicide); h e ex periences so m eth in g re al w h ich
looks like a suicide. T h e two o p p o sin g “realities,” th e w o rld of
th e conscious a n d th e w o rld of th e unconscious, do n o t q u a rre l
fo r suprem acy, b u t each m akes th e o th e r relative. T h a t th e re al-
ity of th e unconscious is very re la tiv e in d ee d w ill p resu m ab ly
arouse n o v io len t co n tra d ictio n ; b u t th a t th e re ality of th e co n -
scious w o rld co u ld b e d o u b te d w ill b e accepted w ith less alac-
rity. A n d yet b o th “re alitie s” are psychic ex p erien ce, psychic
sem blances p a in te d o n a n in scru tab ly d a rk back-cloth. T o th e
critical intelligence, n o th in g is left of absolute reality.
355 O f th e essence of things, of ab so lu te being, we k n o w n o th in g .
B u t we ex p erien ce various effects: from “o u tsid e ” by way of th e
senses, fro m “ in sid e” by way of fantasy. W e w o u ld n ev e r th in k
of asserting th a t th e c o lo u r “g re e n ” h a d an in d e p e n d e n t exist-
ence; sim ilarly we o u g h t n ev er to im ag ine th a t a fantasy-
exp erien ce exists in a n d for itself, a n d is th ere fo re to be tak e n
q u ite literally. I t is an expression, an ap p earan ce sta n d in g for
so m eth in g u n k n o w n b u t real. T h e fantasy-fragm ent I have m e n -
tio n e d coincides in tim e w ith a wave of depression a n d d espera-
tio n , a n d this ev en t finds expression in th e fantasy. T h e p a tie n t
really does have a fiancée; fo r h im she rep resen ts th e o n e em o -
tio n a l lin k w ith th e w orld. Snap th a t lin k , a n d it w o u ld be th e
e n d of his re la tio n to th e w orld. T h is w o u ld b e an a lto g eth e r
hopeless aspect. B u t his fiancée is also a sym bol for his anim a,
th a t is, fo r his re la tio n to th e unconscious. H e n c e th e fantasy
sim u ltan eo u sly expresses th e fact th at, w ith o u t any h in d ra n c e o n
his p art, his a n im a is d isap p ea rin g again in to th e unconscious.
T h is aspect shows th a t once again his m o o d is stro n g er th a n he
is. I t throw s ev ery th in g to th e winds, w h ile h e looks o n w ith o u t
liftin g a h an d . B u t h e co u ld easily step in a n d arrest the
an im a.
35 6 I give p referen ce to this la tte r aspect, because th e p a tie n t is
a n in tro v e rt whose life-relationship is ru le d by in n e r facts. W e re
he a n ex trav ert, I w o u ld have to give p referen ce to th e first as-
pect, because for th e ex tra v e rt life is g o v ern ed p rim a rily by his

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re la tio n to h u m a n beings. H e m ig h t in th e tro u g h of a m o o d do

away w ith his fiancée a n d him self too, w hereas th e in tro v e rt
harm s h im self m ost w hen he casts off his re la tio n to th e anim a,
i.e., to th e o b ject w ith in .
357 So m y p a tie n t’s fantasy clearly reveals th e negative m ove-
m e n t of th e unconscious, a ten d e n cy to recoil from th e conscious
w orld so en ergetically th a t it sucks away th e lib id o fro m co n -
sciousness a n d leaves th e la tte r em pty. B u t, by m ak in g the fantasy
conscious, we stop this process fro m h a p p e n in g unconsciously. If
the p a tie n t w ere him self to p a rtic ip a te actively in th e way d e -
scribed above, he w o u ld possess h im self of th e lib id o invested in
th e fantasy, a n d w o u ld th u s g ain a d d e d influence over th e u n -
conscious.
35 8 C o n tin u a l conscious realizatio n of unconscious fantasies, to -
g eth e r w ith active p a rtic ip a tio n in th e fantastic events, has, as I
have w itnessed in a very large n u m b e r of cases, th e effect firstly
of e x te n d in g th e conscious h o rizo n by th e in clu sio n of n u m e r-
ous unconscious co n ten ts; secondly of g ra d u ally d im in ish in g th e
d o m in a n t influence of th e unconscious; a n d th ird ly of b rin g in g
a b o u t a change of personality.
359 T h is change of p erso n ality is n a tu ra lly n o t an a lte ra tio n of
th e o rig in al h ered itary d isposition, b u t ra th e r a tran sfo rm atio n
of th e g en eral a ttitu d e . T h o s e sh arp cleavages a n d antagonism s
b etw een conscious a n d unconscious, such as we see so clearly in
th e endless conflicts of n e u ro tic n atu re s, n ea rly always re st o n a
n o ticea b le one-sidedness of th e conscious a ttitu d e , w hich gives
ab so lu te p reced en ce to o n e o r tw o fu n ction s, w h ile th e o thers
are u n ju stly th ru s t in to th e back g ro u n d . C onscious realizatio n
a n d ex p erien ce of fantasies assim ilates th e unconscious in ferio r
fu n ctio n s to th e conscious m in d — a process w hich is n atu ra lly
n o t w ith o u t far-reaching effects o n th e conscious a ttitu d e .
36° F o r th e m o m e n t I w ill re fra in fro m discussing th e n a tu re of
this change of p ersonality, since I only w a n t to em phasize th e
fact th a t an im p o rta n t change does take place. I have called this
change, w hich is th e aim of o u r analysis of th e unconscious, th e
tran sc en d en t fu n c tio n . T h is re m a rk ab le capacity of th e h u m a n
psyche for change, expressed in th e tran sc en d en t fu n c tio n , is th e
p rin cip a l o b ject of late m edieval alchem ical philosophy, w here
it was expressed in term s of alchem ical sym bolism . H e r b e r t Sil-
b erer, in his very ab le b o o k P ro b lem s of M ysticism a n d Its S y m -

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bolism , has already p o in te d o u t th e psychological c o n te n t of al-

chem y. I t w o u ld be an u n p a rd o n a b le e rro r to accept the c u r re n t
view a n d re d u ce these “alchym ical” strivings to a m ere m a tte r of
alem bics a n d m elting-pots. T h is side certain ly existed; it re p re -
sen ted th e ten tativ e b eg in n in g s of exact chem istry. B u t alchem y
also h a d a s p iritu al side w hich m u st n o t be u n d e re s tim a te d a n d
whose psychological v alue has n o t yet b ee n sufficiently ap p reci-
ated: th ere was an “alchym ical” philosophy, th e g ro p in g p re c u r-
sor of th e m ost m o d e rn psychology. T h e secret of alchem y was in
fact th e tran sc en d en t fu n ctio n , the tra n sfo rm a tio n of p erso n ality
th ro u g h th e b le n d in g a n d fusion of th e n o b le w ith th e base
co m p o n en ts, of the d iffe ren tiate d w ith th e in fe rio r fu n ctio n s, of
th e conscious w ith th e unconscious.
361 B ut, ju s t as th e b eg in n in g s of scientific ch em istry w ere h o p e -
lessly d isto rted a n d confused by fantastic conceits a n d w h im si-
calities, so alchem ical philosophy, h a m p e re d by th e in ev itab le
concretizations of th e still cru d e a n d u n d iffe re n tia te d intellect,
n ev er advanced to any clear psychological fo rm u la tio n , despite
th e fact th a t th e liveliest in tu itio n of p ro fo u n d tru th s k e p t th e
m edieval th in k e r passionately attac h ed to th e p ro b lem s of al-
chem y. N o o n e w ho has u n d e rg o n e th e process of assim ilating
th e unconscious w ill d en y th a t it g rip p e d his very vitals a n d
ch ang ed h im .
362 I w o u ld n o t b lam e m y re a d e r at all if h e shakes his h ead
d u b io u sly at this p o in t, b ein g q u ite u n a b le to im ag in e how such
a q u a n tité négligeable as th e fo o tlin g fantasy given above co u ld
ever have th e slightest influence o n anybody. I a d m it a t on ce th a t
in co n sid erin g th e tra n sc e n d e n t fu n c tio n a n d th e e x tra o rd in a ry
influence a ttrib u te d to it, th e fra g m e n t we have q u o te d is any-
th in g b u t illu m in a tin g . B u t it is— a n d h ere I m u st ap p eal to th e
b en e v o len t u n d e rs ta n d in g of m y re a d e r— exceedingly difficult to
give any exam ples, because every ex am p le has th e u n fo rtu n a te
characteristic of b ein g im pressive a n d significant only to th e in -
d iv id u a l co ncerned. T h e re fo re I always advise m y p atien ts n o t
to cherish th e naïve b elief th a t w h at is of th e g reatest signifi-
cance to th em personally also has objective significance.
363 T h e vast m ajo rity of peo p le are q u ite in cap ab le of p u ttin g
them selves in d iv id u a lly in to th e m in d of a n o th e r. T h is is in d eed
a sin g u larly ra re art, and, tr u th to tell, it does n o t take us very
far. E ven th e m a n w h o m we th in k we k n o w best a n d w ho assures

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us him self th a t we u n d e rs ta n d h im th ro u g h a n d th ro u g h is a t
b o tto m a stran g e r to us. H e is d iffe re n t. T h e m ost we can do,
a n d the best, is to have a t least som e in k lin g of his otherness, to
respect it, a n d to g u a rd against th e o u trag eo u s stu p id ity of w ish-
in g to in te rp r e t it.
364 I can, th erefo re, p ro d u ce n o th in g convincing, n o th in g th a t
w o u ld convince th e re ad er as it convinces th e m an whose d ee p -
est ex p erien ce it is. W e m u st sim ply believe it by reason of its
analogy w ith o u r ow n exp erien ce. U ltim ately , w h en all else
fails, th e en d-result is p la in b ey o n d a d o u b t: th e p ercep tib le
change of personality. W ith these reservations in m in d , I w ould
like to p resen t th e re a d e r w ith a n o th e r fantasy-fragm ent, this
tim e fro m a w om an. T h e difference from th e previous exam ple
leaps to th e eye: here th e ex perien ce is total, th e observer takes
an active p a rt a n d thus m akes th e process h e r own. T h e m aterial
in this case is very extensive, c u lm in a tin g in a p ro fo u n d tran s-
fo rm a tio n of personality. T h e frag m en t comes from a late phase
of p ersonal d ev elo p m e n t a n d is an organic p a rt of a lon g an d
c o n tin u o u s series of tran sfo rm atio n s w hich have as th eir goal the
a tta in m e n t of th e m id -p o in t of th e personality.
365 I t m ay n o t be im m ed iately a p p a re n t w h at is m e a n t by a
“m id -p o in t of th e p erso n ality .” I w ill th erefo re try to o u tlin e
this p ro b le m in a few words. If we p ic tu re the conscious m in d ,
w ith th e ego as its centre, as b ein g opposed to the unconscious,
a n d if we now ad d to o u r m en tal p ic tu re th e process of assim ilat-
in g th e unconscious, we can th in k of this assim ilation as a k in d
of a p p ro x im a tio n of conscious a n d unconscious, w here the
c e n tre of th e to tal p erso nality n o lo n g er coincides w ith the ego,
b u t w ith a p o in t m idw ay b etw een th e conscious a n d th e u n c o n -
scious. T h is w o u ld be th e p o in t of new e q u ilib riu m , a new cen-
te rin g of th e to tal personality, a v irtu al cen tre w hich, on ac-
c o u n t of its focal po sitio n b etw een conscious a n d unconscious,
ensures for th e p erso n ality a new a n d m o re solid fo u n d a tio n . I
freely a d m it th a t visualizations of this k in d are n o m o re th a n the
clum sy attem p ts of th e u n sk illed m in d to give expression to in -
expressible, a n d w ell-nigh in d escrib ab le, psychological facts. I
co u ld say th e sam e th in g in th e w ords of St. P aul: “Yet n o t I
live, b u t C h rist liv eth in m e .” O r I m ig h t invoke Lao-tzu an d
a p p ro p ria te his co n c ep t of T a o , th e M id d le W ay a n d creative
c e n tre of all things. In all these th e sam e th in g is m ean t. Speak-

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in g as a psychologist w ith a scientific conscience, I m u st say at

once th a t these things are psychic factors of u n d e n ia b le pow er;
they are n o t th e in ven tio n s of an idle m in d , b u t definite psychic
events obeying definite laws a n d h av in g th e ir leg itim ate causes
a n d effects, w h ich can be fo u n d am o n g th e m ost w idely d iffering
peoples a n d races today, as th o u san d s of years ago. I have n o
th eo ry as to w h a t co n stitu tes th e n a tu re of these processes. O n e
w o u ld first have to know w h a t co n stitu tes th e n a tu re of th e
psyche. I am c o n te n t sim ply to state th e facts.
366 C o m in g now to o u r ex am p le: it concerns a fantasy of in -
tensely visual character, so m eth in g w h ich in th e language of th e
ancients w o u ld b e called a “vision." N o t a “vision seen in a
d re am ," b u t a vision perceived by intense c o n c e n tra tio n o n th e
b ac k g ro u n d of consciousness, a te c h n iq u e th a t is perfected only
a fte r long p ractice.2 T o l d in h e r ow n words, this is w h a t th e
p a tie n t saw:
' 7 c lim b e d the m o u n ta in a n d came to a place w here I saw
seven red stones in fr o n t o f m e, seven on e ith er side, a nd seven
b e h in d m e . I sto od in the m id d le of this qu adrangle. T h e stones
w ere flat like steps. I tried to lift th e fo u r stones nearest m e. I n
d oin g so I discovered that these stones w ere the pedestals of fo u r
statues o f gods bu ried up side d ow n in the earth. I d u g th e m u p
and arranged th e m a b o u t m e so that I was stan d in g in the m id -
dle o f th e m . S u d d e n ly they leaned towards one a n o th e r u n til
their heads touched, fo r m in g s o m e th in g like a te n t over m e. I
m yself fell to the g r o u n d a nd said, ‘Fall u p o n m e if y o u m u st! I
am tir e d / T h e n I saw that beyond, encircling the fo u r gods, a
rin g o f flam e had fo rm ed . A f t e r a tim e I g o t u p fr o m the
g r o u n d a n d o verthrew th e statues o f the gods. W h e r e they fell,
f o u r trees shot up. A t that blue flames leapt u p fr o m th e rin g of
fire a n d began to b u rn the foliage o f the trees. S eeing this I said,
‘T h is m u s t stop. I m u s t go in to the fire m yself so that th e leaves
shall n o t be b u r n e d ! T h e n I step p ed into the fire. T h e trees
va nished a n d th e fiery ring drew together to one im m e n se blue
flam e that carried m e u p fr o m the earth.”
3*>7 H e re th e vision ended. U n fo rtu n a te ly I c a n n o t see how I can
m ake conclusively clear to th e re a d e r th e e x tra o rd in a rily inter-
2 [T his technique is elsewhere called “active im agination.” Cf. “T h e T ra n sc e n d -
e n t F unction,” pars. i66ff., a n d M ysterium Coniunctionis, pars. 706 a nd 749s.
— Ed it o r s .]

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esting m e a n in g of this vision. T h e frag m en t is an ex c erp t from a

lo n g sequence, a n d one w o u ld have to e x p la in ev ery th in g th a t
h a p p e n e d b efo re a n d afterw ards, in o rd e r to grasp th e signifi-
cance of th e p ictu re. A t all events th e u n p re ju d ic e d re a d e r will
recognize at once the idea of a “m id -p o in t” th a t is reach ed by a
k in d of clim b (m o u n ta in e e rin g , effort, struggle, etc.). H e w ill
also recognize w ith o u t difficulty th e fam ous m edieval c o n u n -
d ru m of th e s q u a rin g of th e circle, w hich belongs to th e field of
alchem y. H e re it takes its rig h tfu l place as a sym bol of in d iv id -
u atio n . T h e to tal p erso n ality is in d icate d by th e fo u r card inal
points, th e fo u r gods, i.e., th e fo u r fu n ctio n s w hich give bearings
in psychic space, a n d also by th e circle enclosing th e w hole.
O v erco m in g th e fo u r gods w ho th re a te n to sm o th er th e in d iv id -
u a l signifies lib e ra tio n fro m id en tificatio n w ith th e fo u r fu n c-
tions, a fo u rfo ld n ird va n d va (“free fro m opposites”) follow ed
by a n a p p ro x im a tio n to th e circle, to u n d iv id e d wholeness. T h is
in its tu rn leads to fu r th e r e x a lta tio n .
3 68 I m u st c o n te n t myself w ith these h in ts. A ny o n e w ho takes
th e tro u b le to reflect u p o n th e m a tte r w ill be ab le to form a
ro u g h id ea of how th e tran sfo rm atio n of p erso n ality proceeds.
T h r o u g h h e r active p a rtic ip a tio n th e p a tie n t m erges herself in
th e u nconscious processes, a n d she gains possession of th e m by
allo w in g th em to possess her. In this way she joins th e conscious
to th e unconscious. T h e re su lt is ascension in th e flame, tran s-
m u ta tio n in th e alchem ical heat, th e genesis of th e “su b tle
sp irit.” T h a t is th e tra n sc e n d e n t fu n c tio n b o rn of th e u n io n of
opposites.
369 I m u st recall at this p o in t a serious m isu n d e rsta n d in g to
w hich m y read ers o ften succum b, a n d doctors m ost com m only.
T h e y in v aria b ly assum e, fo r reasons u n k n o w n , th a t I n ev er
w rite a b o u t a n y th in g except m y m e th o d of tre a tm e n t. T h is is
fa r from b e in g th e case. I w rite a b o u t psychology. I m u st th ere-
fore expressly em phasize th a t m y m e th o d of tre a tm e n t does n o t
consist in causing m y p atien ts to in d u lg e in strange fantasies for
the p u rp o se of ch a n g in g th e ir personality, a n d o th e r nonsense of
th a t k in d . I m erely p u t it o n re c o rd th a t th e re are certain cases
w h ere such a d e v e lo p m e n t occurs, n o t because I force an y o n e to
it, b u t because it springs fro m in n e r necessity. F o r m any of my
p atien ts these things are a n d m u st re m a in d o u b le D u tch . I n -
deed, even if it w ere possible for th em to trea d this p ath , it

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w o u ld be a disastrously w ro n g tu rn in g , a n d I w o u ld be th e first
to h o ld th em back. T h e way of th e tra n sc e n d e n t fu n c tio n is an
in d iv id u a l destiny. B u t o n n o acco u n t sh o u ld o n e im ag in e th a t
this way is eq u iv a le n t to th e life of a psychic an ch o rite, to alien a-
tio n fro m th e w orld. Q u ite th e co n trary , for such a way is possi-
b le a n d p ro fitab le only w h e n th e specific w o rld ly tasks w h ich
these in d iv id u als set them selves are c a rried o u t in reality. F a n ta -
sies are n o su b stitu te fo r living; th ey are fru its of th e sp irit
w hich fall to h im w ho pays his trib u te to life. T h e sh irk er ex p e-
riences n o th in g b u t his ow n m o rb id fear, a n d it yields h im n o
m ean ing . N o r will this way ever be k n o w n to th e m an w ho has
fo u n d his way back to M o th e r C h u rch . T h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t
th e m y ste riu m m a g n u m is h id d e n in h e r forms, a n d in these he
can live his life sensibly. F inally, th e n o rm a l m a n w ill n ev e r be
b u rd e n e d , eith er, w ith this know ledge, for he is everlastingly
co n te n t w ith th e little th a t lies w ith in his reach. W h e re fo re I
e n tre a t m y re a d e r to u n d e rs ta n d th a t I w rite a b o u t thin g s w h ich
actually h ap p e n , a n d am n o t p ro p o u n d in g m eth o d s of tre a t-
m en t.
37 ° T h e s e tw o exam ples of fantasy re p re se n t th e positive activity
of a n im a a n d an im u s. T o th e degree th a t th e p a tie n t takes an
active p art, th e personified figure of a n im a o r an im u s will d isap-
pear. I t becom es th e fu n c tio n of re la tio n s h ip b etw e en conscious
a n d unconscious. B u t w h en th e unconscious co n ten ts— these
sam e fantasies— are n o t “realized ,” they give rise to a negative
activity a n d personification, i.e., to th e au to n o m y of an im u s a n d
anim a. Psychic ab n o rm a lities th e n develop, states of possession
ra n g in g in d egree fro m o rd in a ry m oods a n d “ ideas” to psy-
choses. A ll these states are ch aracterized by o n e a n d th e sam e fact
th a t an u n k n o w n “s o m eth in g ” has ta k e n possession of a sm aller
o r g re a te r p o rtio n of th e psyche arid asserts its h ate fu l a n d h a rm -
fu l existence u n d e te rre d by all o u r insight, reason, a n d energy,
th ere b y p ro c la im in g th e p o w er of th e unconscious o ver th e con-
scious m in d , th e sovereign pow er of possession. I n this state the
possessed p a r t of th e psyche gen erally develops an an im u s or
an im a psychology. T h e w o m an 's in cu b u s consists of a host of
m asculine dem ons; th e m an 's succubus is a vam p ire.
371 T h is p a rtic u la r co n cep t of a soul w hich, acco rd in g to th e
conscious a ttitu d e , e ith e r exists by itself o r d isappears in a fu n c-

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tio n , has, as an y o n e can see, n o t th e rem o test co n n e ctio n w ith

th e C h ristia n co n cep t of th e soul.
372 T h e second fantasy is a typical ex am p le of the k in d of co n -
te n t p ro d u c ed by th e collective unconscious. A lth o u g h th e form
is en tire ly su b jectiv e a n d in d iv id u a l, th e substance is n o n e th e
less collective, b ein g com posed of u n iv ersal im ages a n d ideas
co m m o n to th e g en erality of m en , com ponents, th erefo re, by
w hich th e in d iv id u a l is assim ilated to th e rest of m a n k in d . If
these co n ten ts re m a in unconscious, th e in d iv id u a l is, in them ,
unconsciously co m m in g led w ith o th e r in d iv id u als— in o th e r
words, h e is n o t d ifferen tiated , n o t in d iv id u a ted .
373 H e re on e m ay ask, p erhaps, why it is so d esirab le th a t a m an
sh o u ld be in d iv id u a te d . N o t only is it desirable, it is absolutely
in d isp en sab le because, th ro u g h his c o n ta m in a tio n w ith others,
he falls in to situ atio n s a n d co m m its actions w h ich b rin g h im
in to d ish arm o n y w ith him self. F ro m all states of unconscious
c o n ta m in a tio n a n d n o n -d iffere n tia tio n th e re is b eg o tten a com -
p u lsio n to b e a n d to act in a way co n tra ry to o n e ’s ow n n a tu re .
A ccordingly a m a n can n e ith e r be at one w ith him self n o r accept
resp o n sib ility for him self. H e feels him self to be in a d egrading,
u n free, u n eth ica l co n d itio n . B u t th e d ish arm o n y w ith him self is
precisely th e n e u ro tic a n d in to le ra b le c o n d itio n fro m w hich he
seeks to be delivered, a n d d eliv eran ce fro m this c o n d itio n will
com e only w h en h e can be a n d act as he feels is co n fo rm ab le
w ith his tru e self. P eople have a feeling for these things, d im a n d
u n c e rta in at first, b u t g ro w in g ever stro n g er a n d clearer w ith
progressive d ev elo p m en t. W h e n a m an can say of his states a n d
actions, “As I am , so I act,” he can be a t o ne w ith him self, even
th o u g h it be difficult, a n d he can accept resp o n sib ility for h im -
self even th o u g h he struggle against it. W e m u st recognize th a t
n o th in g is m o re difficult to b ea r w ith th a n oneself. (“You
so u g h t th e heaviest b u rd e n , a n d fo u n d yourself,” says N ie -
tzsche.) Yet even this m ost difficult of achievem ents becom es pos-
sible if we can d istin g u ish ourselves from th e unconscious co n -
tents. T h e in tro v e rt discovers these co n ten ts in him self, th e
ex tra v e rt finds th em p ro jec ted u p o n h u m a n objects. In b o th cases
th e unconscious co n ten ts are th e cause of b lin d in g illusions
w hich falsify ourselves a n d o u r relatio n s to o u r fellow m en, m ak -
in g b o th u n re al. F o r these reasons in d iv id u a tio n is indispen-

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sable for certain people, n o t only as a th e ra p e u tic necessity, b u t

as a h ig h ideal, an idea of the best we can do. N o r sh o u ld I o m it
to re m a rk th a t it is a t th e sam e tim e th e p rim itiv e C h ristia n
ideal of th e K in g do m of H e av en w hich “ is w ith in y o u .” T h e
idea at th e b o tto m of this ideal is th a t rig h t actio n comes fro m
rig h t th in k in g , a n d th a t th ere is n o cu re a n d no im p ro v in g of
th e w o rld th a t does n o t b eg in w ith the in d iv id u a l him self. T o
p u t the m a tte r drastically: th e m an w ho is p a u p e r o r parasite
w ill n ev er solve th e social q u estio n .

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THE MANA-PERSONALITY

374 M y in itia l m ateria l for th e discussion th a t now follows is

taken from cases w h ere th e c o n d itio n th a t was p resented in the
previous c h a p te r as th e im m e d iate goal has been achieved,
n am ely th e co n q u e st of th e a n im a as an au to n o m o u s com plex,
a n d h e r tran sfo rm atio n in to a fu n c tio n of re la tio n sh ip betw een
the conscious a n d the unconscious. W ith th e a tta in m e n t of this
goal it becom es possible to disengage th e ego from all its e n -
tan g lem en ts w ith collectivity a n d th e collective unconscious.
T h r o u g h this process the a n im a forfeits th e d aem o n ic pow er of
an a u to n o m o u s com plex; she can n o lo n g er exercise th e pow er
of possession, since she is d e p o te n tia te d . She is n o lo n g er the
g u a rd ia n of treasures u n k n o w n ; n o longer K u n d ry , d aem o n ic
M essenger of the G rail, h alf d iv in e.an d h alf an im al; n o lo n ger is
th e soul to be called “ M istress,” b u t a psychological fu n c tio n of
an in tu itiv e n a tu re , ak in to w h at th e p rim itiv es m ean w hen they
say, “ H e has gone in to th e forest to talk w ith th e sp irits” o r “ My
snake spoke w ith m e ” or, in th e m ythological language of in -
fancy, “A little b ird to ld m e .”
375 T h o s e of m y readers w ho k n o w R id e r H ag g ard 's descriptio n
of “ She-who-m ust-be-obeyed” will surely recall th e m agical
p o w er of this personality. “She” is a m ana-personality, a b eing
full of som e occult a n d b ew itc h in g q u a lity (maria), endow ed
w ith m agical k n ow ledge a n d pow er. A ll these a ttrib u te s n a tu -
rally have th e ir source in th e naïve p ro jec tio n o f an unconscious
self-knowledge w hich, expressed in less poetic term s, w o u ld r u n
som ew hat as follows: “I recognize th a t th ere is some psychic fac-
to r active in m e w h ich eludes m y conscious will in th e m ost in -
c red ib le m an n e r. It can p u t e x tra o rd in a ry ideas in to m y head,
in d u ce in m e u n w a n te d a n d u n w elco m e m oods an d em otions,
lead m e to astonishing actions for w hich I can accept no resp o n -
sibility, upset m y relatio n s w ith o th e r peop le in a very irrita tin g

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way, etc. I feel powerless against this fact and, w h at is worse, I

am in love w ith it, so th a t all I can do is m arv el.” (Poets o ften
call this th e “artistic te m p e ra m e n t,” u n p o etica l folk excuse
them selves in o th e r ways.)
37 6 N ow w h en th e a n im a loses h e r m ana, w h at becom es of it?
C learly the m an w ho has m astered th e an im a acquires h e r m ana,
in accordance w ith th e p rim itiv e b elief th a t w h en a m an kills
th e m ana-person he assim ilates his m a n a in to his ow n body.
377 W e ll th en : w ho is it th a t has in te g ra te d th e anim a? O b v i-
ously the conscious ego, a n d th ere fo re th e ego has tak en over th e
m ana. T h u s th e ego becom es a m ana-personality. B u t th e m ana-
p erso n ality is a d o m in a n t of th e collective unconscious, th e well-
k n o w n arch ety p e of th e m ig h ty m a n in th e fo rm of hero, chief,
m agician, m edicine-m an, saint, th e r u le r of m en a n d spirits, th e
frie n d of God.
37 8 T h is m ascu lin e collective figure w ho now rises o u t of th e
d ark b a c k g ro u n d a n d takes possession of th e conscious p erso n al-
ity entails a psychic d an g e r of a su b tle n a tu re , for by inflating
th e conscious m in d it can destroy ev ery th in g th a t was g ain ed by
co m in g to term s w ith th e anim a. I t is th ere fo re of n o little p rac-
tical im p o rtan ce to k n o w th a t in th e h iera rch y of th e unconscious
th e a n im a occupies the lowest ra n k , only on e o f m an y pos-
sible figures, a n d th a t h e r su b jectio n constellates a n o th e r collec-
tive figure w h ich n o w takes o ver h e r m ana. A ctu ally it is th e
figure of th e m agician, as I will call it for short, w ho attracts th e
m an a to him self, i.e., th e au to n o m o u s valency of th e anim a.
O n ly in so far as I unconsciously id en tify w ith his figure can I
im ag in e th a t I m yself possess th e a n im a ’s m an a. B u t I w ill in fal-
libly do so u n d e r these circum stances.
379 T h e figure of the m agician has a n o less d an g ero u s eq u iv a-
le n t in w om en: a sublim e, m atria rc h a l figure, th e G re at M o th er,
th e A ll-M erciful, w ho u n d ersta n d s everything, forgives every-
th in g , w ho always acts for th e best, liv in g only for others, a n d
n ev er seeking h e r ow n interests, th e discoverer of th e g reat love,
ju s t as th e m agician is th e m o u th p ie c e of th e u ltim a te tru th .
A n d ju s t as th e g reat love is n ev er ap p reciated , so th e g reat wis-
d o m is n ev er u n d ersto o d . N e ith e r, of course, can stan d the sight
of the o th er.
38° H e re is cause fo r serious m isu n d erstan d in g , for w ith o u t a
d o u b t it is a q u estio n of inflation. T h e ego has a p p ro p ria te d

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so m eth in g th a t does n o t b elo n g to it. B u t how has it a p p ro p ri-

ated th e m ana? If it was really th e ego th a t co n q u e re d th e anim a,
th en the m an a does in d eed b elo n g to it, a n d it w o u ld be correct
to co n clu d e th a t one has b ecom e im p o rta n t. B u t w hy does n o t
this im p o rtan ce, the m an a , w o rk u p o n others? T h a t w o u ld
surely be an essential c rite rio n ! I t does n o t w ork because o n e has
n o t in fact becom e im p o rta n t, b u t has m erely becom e a d u lte r-
ated w ith an archetype, a n o th e r unconscious figure. H e n ce we
m u st co nclude th a t th e ego n ev er c o n q u e re d th e an im a at all
an d th erefo re has n o t a c q u ire d th e m ana. A ll th a t has h a p p e n e d
is a new a d u lte ra tio n , this tim e w ith a figure of th e sam e sex
co rresp o n d in g to th e father-im ago, a n d possessed of even g reater
pow er.

From the power that binds all creatures none is free

Except the m an who wins self-mastery ! 1

T h u s he becom es a su p erm an , s u p e rio r to all powers, a dem igod

at th e very least. “ I a n d th e F a th e r are o n e ”— this m ig h ty avowal
in all its aw ful am b ig u ity is b o rn of ju s t such a psychological
m o m en t.
3 Sl In th e face of this, o u r p itia b ly lim ite d ego, if it has b u t a
spark of self-knowledge, can o nly d raw back a n d ra p id ly d ro p
all p re te n ce of p o w er a n d im p o rtan ce. I t was a delu sio n : th e
conscious m in d has n o t becom e m aster of th e unconscious, a n d
th e a n im a has fo rfeited h e r ty ran n ical pow er only to th e e x te n t
th a t th e ego was ab le to com e to term s w ith th e unconscious.
T h is acco m m o d atio n , how ever, was n o t a victory of th e co n -
scious over th e unconscious, b u t th e estab lish m en t of a balance
of pow er b etw een th e two w orlds.
3 8* H e n ce th e “m ag icia n ” co u ld take possession of the ego only
because the ego d re a m e d of victory over th e anim a. T h a t d re am
was an en cro ach m en t, a n d every en c ro ac h m en t of th e ego is fol-
low ed by an e n c ro ac h m en t fro m th e unconscious:

Changing shape from ho u r to hour

I employ my savage power .2

1 Goethe, “Die Geheimnisse: E in F rag m en t,” lines 191-92.

2 Faust, trans. by Louis MacNeice, p. 282 (P a rt II, Act V), modified.

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C on seq u en tly , if th e ego drops its claim to victory, possession by

th e m agician ceases au to m atically . B u t w h at h ap p en s to th e
m ana? W h o o r w h at becom es m a n a w h en even th e m agician can
n o lo n g er w ork magic? So far we only know th a t n e ith e r th e
conscious n o r th e unconscious has m ana, for it is ce rta in th a t
w h en th e ego m akes n o claim to pow er th ere is n o possession,
th a t is to say, th e unconscious too loses its ascendency. In this
s itu a tio n th e m an a m u st have fallen to so m eth in g th a t is b o th
conscious a n d unconscious, o r else n eith er. T h is so m eth in g is
th e desired “m id -p o in t” of th e personality, th a t ineffable som e-
th in g b etw ix t th e opposites, o r else th a t w h ich u n ites them , or
th e re su lt of conflict, o r th e p ro d u c t of energic ten sio n : th e com -
in g to b ir th of personality, a p ro fo u n d ly in d iv id u a l step for-
w ard, th e n e x t stage.
3 83 I do n o t expect th e re a d e r to have follow ed this ra p id survey
o f th e w hole p ro b le m in all its parts. H e m ay reg ard it as a k in d
of p re lim in a ry s tatem en t lea d in g u p to th e m o re closely re a -
soned analysis w h ich now follows.
384 T h e startin g -p o in t of o u r p ro b le m is th e c o n d itio n w hich re -
sults w h en th e unconscious co n ten ts th a t are th e efficient cause
of th e an im u s a n d a n im a p h e n o m e n o n have becom e sufficiently
assim ilated to the conscious m in d . T h is can best be re p rese n te d
in th e follow ing way: th e unconscious co n ten ts are, in th e first
instance, things b elo n g in g to th e p ersonal sphere, sim ilar p e r-
haps to th e fantasy of th e m ale p a tie n t q u o te d above. Subse-
q u en tly , fantasies fro m th e im p erso n al unconscious develop,
c o n ta in in g essentially collective sym bols m o re o r less sim ilar to
th e vision of m y w om an p atien t. T h e s e fantasies are n o t so w ild
a n d u n re g u la te d as a n aiv e in tellig en ce m ig h t th in k ; they p u r -
sue definite, unconscious lines of d ire c tio n w hich converge u p o n
a definite goal. W e co u ld th ere fo re m ost fittingly describe these
la te r series of fantasies as processes of in itia tio n , since these form
th e closest analogy. A ll p rim itiv e g rou p s a n d tribes th a t are in
any way organized have th e ir rites of in itia tio n , o ften very
hig h ly developed, w hich play an e x tra o rd in a rily im p o rta n t p a rt
in th e ir social a n d relig io u s life .3 T h r o u g h these cerem onies
boys are m ad e m en, a n d girls w om en. T h e K avirondos stigm a-
tize those w ho do n o t s u b m it to circu m cisio n a n d excision as
“an im als.” T h is shows th a t th e in itia tio n cerem onies are a mag-
8 Cf. W ebster, P rim itive Secret Societies (1908).

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 T H E M ANA-PERSONA LITY

ical m eans of lea d in g m an from th e an im al state to th e h u m a n

state. T h e y are clearly tra n sfo rm a tio n m ysteries of th e greatest
sp iritu al significance. V ery o ften th e in itia n d s are su b jected to
e x c ru cia tin g trea tm e n t, a n d at th e sam e tim e th e trib a l m yster-
ies are im p a rte d to th em , th e laws a n d hierarch y of th e trib e on
th e one h an d , a n d o n th e o th e r th e cosm ogonic a n d m ythical
doctrines. In itia tio n s have survived am o n g all cultures. In
G reece th e a n c ie n t E leu sin ian m ysteries w ere preserved, it
seems, rig h t in to th e seventh c e n tu ry of o u r era. R o m e was
flooded w ith m ystery religions. O f these C h ristia n ity was one,
a n d even in its p re sen t fo rm it still preserves th e old in itia tio n
cerem onies, som ew hat fad ed a n d d eg en erated , in th e rites of
b aptism , co n firm atio n, a n d co m m u n io n . H e n ce n o b o d y is in a
p o sitio n to d eny th e e n o rm o u s historical im p o rtan ce of in itia -
tions.
B85 M o d ern m e n have ab solutely n o th in g to co m p are w ith this
(consider th e testim onies of th e ancients in re g ard to th e E le u -
sin ian m ysteries). F reem asonry, VEglise g n o stiq u e de la France,
leg end ary R osicrucians, theosophy, a n d so fo rth are all feeble
su b stitu tes fo r so m eth in g th a t w ere b e tte r m ark e d u p in re d let-
ters o n th e histo rical casualty list. T h e fact is th a t th e w hole
sym bolism of in itia tio n rises u p , clear a n d u n m istak ab le, in th e
unconscious contents. T h e o b jec tio n th a t this is a n tiq u a te d su-
p erstitio n a n d a lto g e th e r unscientific is a b o u t as in te llig e n t as
re m a rk in g , in th e presence of a cho lera epidem ic, th a t it is
m erely an in fectio u s disease a n d exceedingly u n h ygienic. T h e
p o in t is n o t— I c a n n o t be too e m p h a tic a b o u t this— w h e th e r th e
in itia tio n sym bols are o bjective tru th s, b u t w h e th e r these u n -
conscious co n ten ts are o r are n o t th e eq u iv alen ts of in itia tio n
practices, a n d w h e th e r they do o r do n o t influence th e h u m a n
psyche. N o r is it a q u estio n of w h e th e r they are d esirab le o r not.
I t is e n o u g h th a t they exist a n d th a t they w ork.
386 Since it is n o t possible in this co n n e ctio n to p u t b efore th e
re a d e r in d etail these som etim es very len g th y sequences of im -
ages, I tru s t he w ill b e c o n te n t w ith th e few exam ples already
given and, for th e rest, accept m y s tatem en t th a t they are logi-
cally co n stru cted , p u rp o siv e sequences. I m u st ow n th a t I use
th e w o rd “ p u rp o siv e” w ith som e h esitation. T h is w o rd needs
to be used cautiously a n d w ith reserve. F o r in m e n ta l cases
we com e across dream -sequences, a n d in n eu rotics fantasy-

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sequences, w h ich r u n o n in them selves w ith n o a p p a re n t aim o r

purpose. T h e y o u n g m an whose suicide fantasy I gave above was
in a fair way to p ro d u ce a s trin g of aimless fantasies, unless he
co u ld le a rn to take an active p a rt a n d to in terv e n e consciously.
O n ly th u s co u ld th e re be o rie n ta tio n to a goal. F ro m o n e p o in t
of view th e unconscious is a p u re ly n a tu ra l process w ith o u t d e-
sign, b u t fro m a n o th e r it has th a t p o te n tia l directedness w h ich is
characteristic of all energy processes. W h e n th e conscious m in d
particip ates actively a n d experiences each stage of th e process, o r
at least u n d ersta n d s it in tu itiv ely , th e n th e n e x t im age always
starts off o n th e h ig h e r level th a t has b een w on, a n d p u rp o siv e-
ness develops.
387 T h e im m e d iate goal of th e analysis of th e unconscious,
th erefo re, is to reach a state w h ere th e unconscious co n ten ts n o
lo n g er re m a in unconscious a n d n o lo n g er express them selves in -
d irectly as an im u s a n d a n im a p h e n o m e n a ; th a t is to say, a state
in w h ich an im u s a n d a n im a becom e fu n ction s of re la tio n sh ip to
th e unconscious. So lo n g as they are n o t this, they are a u to n o -
m ous com plexes, d is tu rb in g factors th a t b re a k th ro u g h th e con-
scious c o n tro l a n d act lik e tru e “d istu rb ers of th e peace." Be-
cause this is such a w ell-know n fact m y te rm “co m p lex ," as used
in this sense, has passed in to co m m o n speech. T h e m o re “com -
plexes" a m a n has, th e m o re he is possessed; a n d w h e n we try to
form a p ic tu re of th e p erso n ality w hich expresses itself th ro u g h
his com plexes we m u st a d m it th a t it resem bles n o th in g so m u ch
as an hysterical w o m an — i.e., th e anim a! B u t if such a m a n m akes
him self conscious of his unconscious contents, as they ap p e a r
firstly in th e factual co nten ts of his p ersonal unconscious, a n d
th e n in th e fantasies of th e collective unconscious, he w ill get to
th e roots of his com plexes, aiid in this way r id him self of his
possession. W ith th a t th e a n im a p h e n o m e n o n comes to a stop.
388 T h a t su p e rio r pow er, how ever, w h ich caused th e possession
— fo r w h a t I ca n n o t shake off m u st in som e sense be su p erio r to
m e— should, logically, d isap p ear w ith th e an im a. O n e sh o u ld
th e n b e “com plex-free," psychologically house-trained, so to
speak. N o th in g m o re sh o u ld h a p p e n th a t is n o t san ctio ned by
th e ego, a n d w h en th e ego w ants so m ething, n o th in g sh o u ld be
cap ab le of in terferin g . T h e ego w o u ld th u s be assured of an im -
p re g n ab le position, th e steadfastness of a su p e rm a n o r th e su b -
lim ity of a p erfect sage. B o th figures are ideal images: N a p o le o n

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on th e o n e h an d , Lao-tzu o n th e other. B oth are consistent w ith

the idea of “ th e e x tra o rd in a rily p o te n t,” w h ich is th e te rm th a t
L e h m a n n , in his ce leb ra te d m o n o g ra p h ,4 uses for his definition
of m ana. I therefo re call such a personality sim ply th e mana-
personality. I t corresponds to a d o m in a n t of th e collective u n -
conscious, to an arch ety p e w h ich has tak en shape in th e h u m a n
psyche th ro u g h u n to ld ages of ju st th a t k in d of experience.
P rim itiv e m a n does n o t analyse a n d does n o t w ork o u t w hy a n -
o th e r is s u p e rio r to him . If a n o th e r is cleverer a n d stro n g er th a n
he, th e n he has m ana, he is possessed of a stro n ger pow er; a n d by
th e sam e to k en he can lose this pow er, p erh ap s because som eone
has w alked over h im in his sleep, o r step p ed on his shadow.
B89 H istorically, th e m an a-p erso n ality evolves in to the h ero a n d
th e go d lik e b e in g , 5 whose e a rth ly fo rm is th e priest. H o w very
m u c h th e d o c to r is still m a n a is th e w hole p la in t of th e analyst!
B u t in so far as th e ego a p p a re n tly draw s to itself th e pow er
b elo n g in g to th e an im a, th e ego does becom e a m ana-personal-
ity. T h is d e v e lo p m e n t is an alm ost re g u la r p h en o m e n o n . I have
n ev er yet seen a fairly advanced d ev e lo p m e n t of this k in d w here
at least a tem p o ra ry id en tificatio n w ith th e archetype of the
m an a-p erso nality d id n o t take place. I t is th e m ost n a tu ra l th in g
in th e w o rld th a t this sh o u ld h ap p e n , for n o t only does o n e ex-
p ect it oneself, b u t everybody else expects it too. O n e can
scarcely h e lp a d m irin g oneself a little fo r h a v in g seen m o re
d eeply in to things th a n others, a n d th e oth ers have such an u rg e
to find a tan g ib le h ero som ew here, o r a s u p e rio r wise m an, a
lead er a n d fath er, som e u n d is p u te d au th o rity , th a t they b u ild
tem ples to little tin gods w ith th e g reatest p ro m p titu d e a n d
b u r n incense u p o n th e altars. T h is is n o t ju s t th e lam en ta b le
stu p id ity of id o laters in cap ab le of ju d g in g fo r themselves, b u t a
n a tu ra l psychological law w hich says th a t w h at has once b een
w ill always be in th e fu tu re . A n d so it will be, unless conscious-
ness p u ts an e n d to th e n aiv e con cretizatio n of p rim o rd ia l im -
ages. I do n o t k n o w w h e th e r it is d esirab le th a t consciousness
sh o u ld a lte r th e ete rn al laws; I only k n o w th a t occasionally it
does alter th em , a n d th a t this m easure is a vital necessity for
som e people— w hich, how ever, does n o t always p re v e n t these
4 L ehm ann, M ana (1922).
5 According to p o p u la r belief, th e Most C hristian King could cure epilepsy w ith
his m ana by the laying on of hands.

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 T H E RELATIONS BETW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

sam e people from settin g them selves u p on th e fa th e r’s th ro n e

a n d m ak in g th e o ld ru le com e true. I t is in d ee d h a rd to see how
on e can escape th e sovereign pow er of th e p rim o rd ia l images.
39 ° A ctually I do n o t believe it can be escaped. O n e can only
alte r o n e ’s a ttitu d e a n d thus save oneself fro m naively fallin g
in to an arch ety p e a n d b ein g forced to act a p a rt at th e expense of
o n e ’s h u m an ity . Possession by a n arch ety p e tu rn s a m an in to a
flat collective figure, a m ask b e h in d w hich he can n o lo n g er d e -
velop as a h u m a n being, b u t becom es increasingly stu n ted . O n e
m u st th ere fo re bew are of th e d an g e r of fallin g v ictim to th e
d o m in a n t of th e m ana-personality. T h e d an g er lies n o t only in
oneself b eco m in g a father-m ask, b u t in b e in g ov erpo w ered by
this m ask w h en w o rn by a n o th e r. M aster a n d p u p il are in the
sam e b o at in this respect.
391 T h e disso lu tio n of th e a n im a m eans th a t we have g ain ed in -
sight in to th e d riv in g forces of th e unconscious, b u t n o t th a t we
have m ad e these forces ineffective. T h e y can attack us a t any
tim e in n ew form . A n d they will in fallib ly do so if th e conscious
a ttitu d e has a flaw in it. I t ’s a q u estio n of m ig h t against m ight. If
th e ego presum es to w ield pow er o ver th e unconscious, th e u n -
conscious reacts w ith a su b tle attack, d ep lo y in g the d o m in a n t of
th e m ana-personality, whose en o rm o u s prestige casts a spell over
th e ego. A gainst this the only defence is fu ll confession of o n e ’s
weakness in face of th e pow ers of th e unconscious. By opp o sin g
n o force to th e unconscious we do n o t p rovoke it to attack.
39 2 I t m ay so u n d ra th e r com ical to th e re a d e r if I speak of th e
unconscious in this p ersonal way. I h o p e I shall n o t arouse th e
p re ju d ic e th a t I re g ard th e unconscious as so m eth in g personal.
T h e unconscious consists of n a tu ra l processes th a t lie o u tsid e th e
sphere of th e h u m a n personality. O n ly o u r conscious m in d is
“ p erso n al.” T h e re fo re w h en I speak of “p ro v o k in g ” th e u n c o n -
scious I do n o t m ean th a t it is offended a n d — like th e gods of
old— rises u p to sm ite th e offender in jealo u s an g e r o r revenge.
W h a t I m ea n is m o re like an e rro r in psychic d ie t w hich upsets
th e e q u ilib riu m of m y digestion. T h e unconscious reacts a u to -
m atically like m y stom ach w hich, in a m a n n e r of speaking,
w reaks its revenge u p o n m e. W h e n I p re su m e to have pow er
o ver th e unconscious, th a t is like a d ietary solecism, an unseem ly
a ttitu d e w hich in th e interests of o n e ’s ow n w ell-being w ere b e t-
ter avoided. M y u n p o etica l co m p ariso n is, if an y th in g , far too

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m ild in view of the far-reaching a n d devastating m oral effects of

a d iso rd ered unconscious. In this reg ard it w ould be m ore fitting
to speak of the w rath of offended gods.
393 In d iffe ren tiatin g th e ego fro m th e archetype of th e m ana-
p ersonality o n e is now forced, exactly as in th e case of th e an im a,
to m ake conscious those co n ten ts w hich are specific of th e m ana-
personality. H istorically, the m an a-p erso n ality is always in pos-
session of th e secret n am e, o r of som e esoteric know ledge, or has
th e prero g ativ e of a special way of actin g— q u o d licet Jovi, n o n
licet bovi— in a w ord, it has an in d iv id u a l d istinction. Conscious
realizatio n of th e co n ten ts com posing it m eans, for the m an, th e
second a n d real lib e ra tio n from th e father, and, for th e w om an,
lib e ra tio n from th e m o th er, a n d w ith it comes th e first g en u in e
sense of his o r h e r tru e in d iv id u a lity . T h is p a rt of th e process
corresponds exactly to th e aim of th e concretistic p rim itiv e in iti-
ations u p to a n d in clu d in g b aptism , nam ely, severance from th e
“c a rn a l” (or an im al) parents, a n d re b irth in n o va m in fa n tia m ,
in to a co n d itio n of im m o rtality a n d s p iritu a l ch ild h o o d , as
fo rm u la te d by ce rta in m ystery religions of th e a n c ien t w orld,
am o n g th em C h ristian ity .
394 I t is no w q u ite possible th at, instead of id e n tify in g w ith th e
m ana-personality, on e w ill concretize it as an e x tra m u n d a n e
“ F ath er in H e a v e n ,” co m p lete w ith the a ttrib u te of absoluteness
— som eth in g th a t m an y p eople seem very p ro n e to do. T h is
w o u ld be ta n ta m o u n t to giving th e unconscious a suprem acy
th a t was ju s t as ab so lu te (if one's fa ith co u ld be pu sh ed th a t
far!), so th a t all v alue w o u ld flow over to th a t side.6 T h e logi-
cal re su lt is th a t th e only th in g left b e h in d h ere is a m iserable,
inferior, w orthless, a n d sinful little h eap of h u m an ity . T h is so-
ft “ Absolute" m eans “cut o ff/’ “detached.” T o assert th a t God is absolute am ounts
to placing him outside all connection w ith m ank ind. M an cannot affect him,
o r he m an. Such a G od w ould be of no consequence at all. W e can in fairness
only speak of a God w ho is relative to m an, as m an is to God. T h e C hristian idea
of God as a “ F a th er in H eav en ” p u ts G o d ’s relativity in exquisite form. Q uite
a p a rt from the fact th a t a m an can know even less ab o u t God th an an a n t can
know of the contents of the B ritish M useum , this urge to regard God as “ abso-
lu te ” derives solely from the fear th at God m ig h t become “ psychological.” T h is
w ould natu rally be dangerous. An absolute God, on the other hand, does not
concern us in the least, whereas a “psychological” God would be real. T h is kind
of God could reach m an. T h e C hu rch seems to be a magical in stru m e n t for
protecting m an against this eventuality, since it is w ritten: “ It is a fearful th in g
to fall in to the han ds of the living G od.”

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lu tio n , as we know , has becom e an historical w o rld view. As I

am m o v ing here on psychological g ro u n d only, a n d feel n o in -
c lin a tio n w h atev er to dictate m y ete rn al tru th s to th e w o rld at
large, I m u st observe, by way of criticizin g this so lu tio n , th a t if I
shift all th e highest values over to th e side of th e unconscious,
th u s c o n v e rtin g it in to a s u m m u m b o n u m , I am th en placed in
th e u n fo rtu n a te p o sitio n of h av in g to discover a devil of eq u al
w eig h t a n d dim ensions w ho co u ld act as th e psychological
co u n te rb alan c e to m y s u m m u m b o n u m . U n d e r n o circ u m -
stances, how ever, w ill m y m odesty allow m e to id en tify myself
w ith th e devil. T h a t w o u ld be alto g eth e r too p re su m p tu o u s an d
w ould, m oreover, b rin g m e in to u n b e a ra b le conflict w ith my
highest values. N o r, w ith m y m o ral deficit, can I possibly afford
it.
395 O n psychological gro u n d s, th erefo re, I w o u ld reco m m en d
th a t n o G o d be co n stru c ted o u t of the arch ety p e of th e m ana-
personality. In o th e r words, he m u st n o t be concretized, for only
th us can I avoid p ro je c tin g m y values a n d non-values in to G od
a n d Devil, a n d only th u s can I preserve m y h u m a n dignity, my
specific gravity, w hich I n ee d so m u ch if I am n o t to becom e the
u n re sistin g sh u ttleco ck of unconscious forces. In his dealings
w ith th e visible w orld, a m a n m u st certain ly be m ad to suppose
th a t he is m aster of this w orld. H e re we follow, q u ite n a tu ra lly ,
th e p rin cip le of non-resistance to all su p e rio r forces, u p to a cer-
tain in d iv id u a l lim it, b ey o n d w hich th e m ost peaceful citizen
becom es a bloody rev olutio n ary . O u r b o w in g d ow n b efore law
a n d o rd e r is a co m m en d a b le ex am p le of w h a t o u r g en eral a tti-
tu d e to th e collective unconscious sh o u ld be. (“ R e n d e r u n to
Caesar. . . .”) T h u s far o u r obeisance w o u ld n o t be too diffi-
cult. B u t th ere are o th e r factors in the w o rld to w h ich o u r co n -
science does n o t give u n q u a lifie d assent— a n d yet we bow to
them . W hy? Because in p ractice it is m o re e x p e d ie n t th a n the
reverse. S im ilarly th ere are factors in th e unconscious w ith re -
g ard to w hich we m u st be worldly-wise (“ Resist n o t e v i l / ’
“ M ake to yourselves frien d s of the m a m m o n of u n rig h te o u s-
ness.” “T h e c h ild re n of this w o rld are in th e ir g en e ratio n wiser
th a n the c h ild re n of lig h t.” Ergo: “ Be ye th ere fo re wise as ser-
pents an d harm less as doves.”)
39 6 T h e m an a-perso nality is o n o n e side a b e in g of su p erio r wis-

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dom , on th e o th e r a b ein g of s u p e rio r will. By m a k in g conscious

th e co n ten ts th a t u n d e rlie this personality, we find ourselves
obliged to face th e fact th a t we have le a rn t m o re a n d w a n t m o re
th a n o th e r people. T h is u n c o m fo rta b le k in sh ip w ith th e gods, as
we know , stru ck so d ee p in to p o o r A ngelus Silesius’ bones th a t it
sent him flying o u t of his su p er-P ro testan tism , past th e p re cari-
ous halfw ay house of th e L u th e ra n s, back to th e n e th e rm o st
w om b of th e d a rk M o th e r— u n fo rtu n a te ly very m u ch to th e d e t-
rim e n t of his lyrical gifts a n d th e h e a lth of his nerves.
397 A n d yet C hrist, a n d P au l afte r h im , w restled w ith these same
problem s, as a n u m b e r of clues still m ak e evident. M eister Eck-
h art, G o eth e in his Faust, N ietzsche in his Z arathustra, have
again b ro u g h t this p ro b le m som ew hat closer to us. G o eth e a n d
N ietzsche try to solve i t by th e idea of m astery, th e fo rm er
th ro u g h th e figure of th e m ag ician a n d ru th less m a n of w ill w ho
makes a pact w ith th e devil, th e la tte r th ro u g h th e m asterm an
an d su p re m e sage w h o know s n e ith e r G od n o r devil. W ith N ie -
tzsche m an stands alone, as he him self did, n eu ro tic , financially
d e p e n d e n t, godless, a n d worldless. T h is is n o ideal for a real m an
w ho has a fam ily to su p p o rt a n d taxes to pay. N o th in g can argue
th e re ality of th e w o rld o u t of existence, th ere is n o m iracu lo u s
way ro u n d it. Sim ilarly, n o th in g can arg u e th e effects of th e u n -
conscious o u t of existence. O r can th e n e u ro tic p h ilo so p h er
prove to us th a t h e has n o neurosis? H e ca n n o t prove it even to
him self. T h e r e fo r e we stan d w ith o u r soul susp en d ed b etw een
fo rm id a b le influences from w ith in a n d from w ith o u t, a n d som e-
how we m u st b e fa ir to b o th . T h is we can do only a fte r the m eas-
u re of o u r in d iv id u a l capacities. H e n ce we m u st b e th in k o u r-
selves n o t so m u c h of w h a t we “o u g h t” to do as of w h at we can
a n d m u st do.
39 8 T h u s th e d isso lu tio n of the m ana-personality th ro u g h co n -
scious assim ilation of its co n ten ts leads us, by a n a tu ra l ro u te,
back to ourselves as an actual, living som ething, poised betw een
two w orld-pictures a n d th e ir d ark ly discerned potencies. T h is
“so m eth in g ” is strange to us a n d yet so n ear, w holly ourselves
a n d yet u n k n o w a b le , a v irtu a l ce n tre of so m ysterious a c o n stitu -
tio n th a t it can claim a n y th in g — k in sh ip w ith beasts an d gods,
w ith crystals a n d w ith stars— w ith o u t m oving us to w o n d er,
w ith o u t even ex c itin g o u r d isap p ro b a tio n . T h is “so m e th in g ”

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

claim s all th a t a n d m ore, a n d h av in g n o th in g in o u r h an ds th a t

co u ld fairly be opposed to these claims, it is surely w iser to listen
to this voice.
399 I have called this ce n tre th e self. In tellec tu ally th e self is n o
m o re th a n a psychological concept, a co n stru ct th a t serves to ex-
press an u n k n o w a b le essence w hich we c a n n o t grasp as such,
since by d efin itio n it transcends o u r pow ers of co m p reh en sio n .
I t m ig h t eq u ally well be called th e “ G od w ith in us.” T h e b eg in -
nings of o u r w hole psychic life seem to b e in ex trica b ly ro o te d in
this p o in t, a n d all o u r highest a n d u ltim a te purposes seem to b e
striv in g tow ards it. T h is p arad o x is u n av o id ab le, as always, w h en
we try to define so m eth in g th a t lies b ey o n d th e b o u rn of o u r
u n d ersta n d in g .
400 I ho p e it has becom e sufficiently clear to th e a tte n tiv e re a d e r
th a t the self has as m u ch to do w ith th e ego as th e su n w ith th e
earth . T h e y are n o t in terch an g eab le. N o r does it im p ly a deifica-
tio n of m an o r a d e th ro n e m e n t of G od. W h a t is b ey o n d o u r u n -
d ersta n d in g is in any case b ey o n d its reach. W h e n , th erefo re, we
m ak e use of th e co n cep t of a G o d we are sim ply fo rm u la tin g a
definite psychological fact, n am ely th e in d ep e n d en ce a n d sover-
eignty of certain psychic co n tents w hich express them selves by
th e ir pow er to th w a rt o u r will, to obsess o u r consciousness a n d
to influence o u r m oods a n d actions. W e m ay b e o u tra g e d at th e
idea of an in ex p licab le m ood, a n erv o us diso rd er, o r an u n c o n -
tro llab le vice being, so to speak, a m an ife sta tio n of G od. B u t it
w o u ld be an irre p a ra b le loss for religious ex p erien ce if such
things, p erh ap s even evil things, w ere artificially segregated
from th e sum of a u to n o m o u s psychic contents. I t is an apotro-
p aic e u p h e m ism 7 to dispose of these thin g s w ith a “n o th in g
b u t ” ex p lan atio n . In th a t way they are m erely repressed, a n d as
a ru le only an a p p a re n t advantage is gained, a new tw ist given to
illusion. T h e p erso n ality is n o t en ric h ed by it, only im p o v er-
ished a n d sm othered. W h a t seems evil, o r at least m eaningless
a n d valueless to co n te m p o rary ex p erien ce a n d know ledge,
m ig h t on a h ig h er level of ex p erien ce a n d k now ledge a p p e a r as
the source of the best— ev ery th in g d ep e n d in g , n atu ra lly , o n th e
use one m akes of o n e ’s seven devils. T o ex p la in th em as m e a n -
ingless robs th e p ersonality of its p ro p e r shadow, a n d w ith this it
loses its form . T h e living fo rm needs d eep shadow if it is to
7 Giving a bad th ing a good nam e in o rd e r to avert its disfavour.

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a p p e a r plastic. W ith o u t shadow it rem ain s a tw o-dim ensional

p h an to m , a m o re or less well b ro u g h t-u p child.
4 01 H e re I am a llu d in g to a p ro b le m th a t is far m o re significant
th a n these few sim ple w ords w o u ld seem to suggest: m a n k in d is,
in essentials, psychologically still in a state of ch ild h o o d — a stage
th a t c a n n o t be skipped. T h e vast m ajo rity needs au th o rity , g u id -
ance, law. T h is fact c a n n o t b e overlooked. T h e P a u lin e over-
com in g of th e law falls only to th e m a n w ho knows how to p u t
his soul in th e place of conscience. V ery few are capable of this
(“ M any are called, b u t few are ch o sen ”). A n d these few tread
this p a th only from in n e r necessity, n o t to say suffering, for it is
sh arp as th e edge of a razor.
4°2 T h e co n c ep tio n of G o d as an au to n o m o u s psychic co n te n t
m akes G o d in to a m o ral p ro b le m — a n d th at, ad m itted ly , is very
u n co m fo rtab le. B u t if this p ro b le m does n o t exist, G od is n o t
real, for n o w h e re can he to u c h o u r lives. H e is th e n e ith e r an
h isto rical a n d in tellectu a l bogey o r a ph iloso p h ical s en tim en tal-
ity.
4°3 If we leave th e idea of “d iv in ity ” q u ite o u t of acco u n t a n d
speak o nly of “a u to n o m o u s co n te n ts,” we m a in ta in a positio n
th a t is in tellectu a lly a n d em p irically correct, b u t we silence a
n o te w hich, psychologically, sh o u ld n o t be missing. By using th e
concept of a d iv in e b e in g we give a p t expression to th e p ec u lia r
way in w h ich we ex perien ce th e w orkings of these a u to n o m o u s
contents. W e co u ld also use th e te rm “d ae m o n ic ,” p ro v id ed th a t
this does n o t im p ly th a t we are still h o ld in g u p o u r sleeves some
concretized G o d w ho conform s exactly to o u r wishes a n d ideas.
O u r in tellectu a l c o n ju rin g tricks do n o t h elp us to m ake a re al-
ity of th e G o d we desire, any m o re th a n th e w o rld accom m odates
itself to o u r expectations. T h e re fo re , by affixing th e a ttrib u te
“d iv in e ” to th e w orkings of au to n o m o u s contents, we are a d m it-
tin g th e ir relativ ely s u p e rio r force. A n d it is this su p e rio r force
w hich has a t all tim es co n stra in ed m e n to p o n d e r the inconceiv-
able, a n d even to im pose th e greatest sufferings u p o n them selves
in o rd e r to give these w orkings th e ir d ue. I t is a force as real as
h u n g e r a n d th e fear of d eath .
4°4 T h e self co u ld be ch aracterized as a k in d of co m p en satio n of
th e conflict betw een inside a n d outside. T h is fo rm u la tio n w o u ld
n o t be u n fittin g , since th e self has som ew hat the ch a rac ter of a
resu lt, of a goal a tta in e d , so m eth in g th a t has com e to pass very

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 T H E RELATIONS B E TW EEN T H E EGO AND T H E UNCONSCIOUS

g rad u ally a n d is ex p e rien c ed w ith m u c h travail. So too th e self is

o u r life’s goal, for it is th e co m p letest expression of th a t fateful
c o m b in a tio n we call in d iv id u a lity , th e full flow ering n o t only of
th e single in d iv id u a l, b u t of th e g ro u p , in w h ich each adds his
p o rtio n to th e w hole.
4°5 Sensing th e self as so m eth in g irra tio n a l, as a n in d efin ab le ex-
istent, to w h ich th e ego is n e ith e r opp o sed n o r subjected, b u t
m erely attach ed , a n d a b o u t w h ich it revolves very m u c h as th e
e a rth revolves r o u n d th e su n — th u s we com e to th e goal of in d i-
v id u atio n . I use th e w o rd “sensing” in o rd e r to in d icate th e a p -
percep tiv e ch a rac ter of th e re la tio n b etw e en ego a n d self. In this
re la tio n n o th in g is k now able, because we can say n o th in g a b o u t
th e co n ten ts of th e self. T h e ego is th e only c o n te n t of th e self
th a t we do know . T h e in d iv id u a te d ego senses itself as th e o b jec t
of an u n k n o w n a n d su p ra o rd in a te subject. I t seems to m e th a t
o u r psychological in q u iry m u st com e to a stop h ere, for th e id ea
of a self is itself a tran sc en d en ta l p o stu late w hich, a lth o u g h ju s ti-
fiable psychologically, does n o t allow of scientific proof. T h is
step b ey o n d science is a n u n c o n d itio n a l re q u ir e m e n t of th e psy-
chological d ev e lo p m e n t I have so u g h t to d epict, because w ith -
o u t this p o stu late I co u ld give n o a d e q u a te fo rm u la tio n of the
psychic processes th a t o ccu r em pirically. A t th e very least, th e re -
fore, th e self can claim th e v alu e of a n hypothesis analogous to
th a t of th e s tru c tu re of th e atom . A n d even th o u g h we sh o u ld
once again b e en m esh ed in a n im age, it is n o n e th e less p o w er-
fully alive, a n d its in te rp re ta tio n q u ite exceeds m y powers. I
have n o d o u b t a t all th a t it is an im age, b u t o n e in w h ich we are
c o n tain ed .
4°6 I am deeply conscious th a t in this essay I have m ad e n o o rd i-
n a ry d em an d s o n th e u n d e rs ta n d in g of m y re ad er. T h o u g h I
have d o n e m y u tm o st to sm o o th th e p a th of u n d e rsta n d in g ,
th e re is one g reat difficulty w h ich I co u ld n o t elim in ate, n am ely
th e fact th a t th e experiences w h ich fo rm th e basis of m y discus-
sion are u n k n o w n to m ost p eo p le a n d are b o u n d to seem
strange. C o n seq u en tly I c a n n o t ex p ect m y read ers to follow all
m y conclusions. A lth o u g h every a u th o r n a tu ra lly prefers to be
u n d e rsto o d by his p u b lic, yet th e in te rp re ta tio n of m y observa-
tions is of less m o m e n t to m e th a n th e disclosure of a w ide field of
exp erien ce, a t p re se n t h a rd ly ex plo red , w h ich it is th e aim of
th is b o o k to b rin g w ith in reach of m any. I n this field, h ith e rto so

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 T H E M A NA-PERSONA LITY

dark, it seems to m e th a t th ere lie th e answers to m an y rid -

dles w hich th e psychology of consciousness has n ev er even a p -
proached. I w o u ld n o t p re te n d to have fo rm u la te d these answers
w ith any degree of finality. I shall, th erefo re, be well satisfied if
m y essay m ay be c o u n te d as a te n ta tiv e a tte m p t at an answer.

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APPENDICES
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 I
NEW PATHS IN PSYCHOLOGY1

4°7 L ik e all sciences, psychology has gone th ro u g h its epoch of

scholasticism, a n d so m eth in g of this sp irit has lasted o n in to th e
p resent. A gainst this k in d of ph ilo so p hical psychology it m u st be
o bjected th a t it decides ex cathedra how th e psyche shall be co n -
s titu te d , a n d w h a t q u a litie s m u s t b elo n g to it in this w o rld a n d
in th e n ex t. T h e sp irit of m o d e rn scientific investigation has to a
large e x te n t disposed of these fantasies a n d p u t in th e ir place an
exact em p irica l m e th o d . F ro m this th e re arose th e e x p e rim en tal
psychology of today, o r w h a t th e F ren c h call “psychophysiol-
ogy.” T h e fa th e r of th is m o v em en t was th e d u al-m in d ed Fech-
n er, w ho, in his E le m e n te der P sycho p hysik, d a re d to in tro d u c e
th e physical p o in t of view in to th e c o n c ep tio n of psychic p h e-
n o m en a. T h is idea [, a n d n o t least th e b rillia n t errors in this
i [First p ub lish ed as “N eue B a h nen d e r Psychologie” in Raschers Jahrbuch fu r
Schweizer A rt und K unst (Zurich, 1912); trans. as “ New P aths in Psychology,”
Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology (1st edn., L ondon, 1916). Subsequently
revised a n d e x panded (more th a n threefold) a n d p ub lish ed u n d e r the title Die
Psychologie der unbewussten Prozesse (Zurich, 1917); trans. as “T h e Psychology
of the Unconscious Processes,” Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology (2nd
edn., L ondon, 1917; New York, 1920). T h is work, afte r fu rth e r revision a n d ex-
pansion (see Prefaces, supra, p p . 3-7), finally a p peared as Ueber die Psychologie
des Unbewussten (Zurich, 1943), a tran slation of w hich form s P a rt I of the pres-
ent volume.
[In rew orking “ N eue B a h n en d e r Psychologie” fo r the first ( 1 9 1 7 ) e dition o f
Die Psychologie der unbewussten Prozesse, the a u th o r deleted or m odified a
n u m b e r of passages, a n d these passages were sim ilarly treated in th e tex t of
“ New Paths in Psychology” as it a p p ea red in th e first ed ition of the present
volum e. (It should be no ted that, except fo r pars. 4 4 0 a nd 4 4 1 a nd a few o th er
b rief passages, they were n o t d eleted in th e e qu ivalen t op ening section of “T h e
Psychology of the Unconscious Processes” in th e 1 9 1 7 ed ition of Collected Papers
on Analytical Psychology.) In this revised e dition of Collected Works, vol. 7,
the deleted passages have been restored a n d a re indicated by square brackets.
T h e y are sim ilarly b u t n o t identically trea ted in Vol. 7 of the Gesammelte
Werke (Zurich, 1 9 6 4 ) . — E d i t o r s .]

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 A PPEN D ICES

work,] was a fertilizin g force. F e c h n e r’s y o u n g er c o n te m p o rary

and , we m ig h t say, th e p erfecter of his w ork, was W u n d t, whose
g reat e ru d itio n , in du stry, a n d gen iu s for devising n ew m eth o ds
of e x p e rim e n ta l research have create d th e d o m in a n t tre n d in
m o d e rn psychology.
4 °8 U n til q u ite recen tly e x p e rim e n ta l psychology was essentially
academ ic. T h e first n o ta b le a tte m p t to enlist a t least som e of its
n u m e ro u s e x p e rim e n ta l m eth o d s in th e service of p ractical psy-
chology cam e fro m th e psychiatrists of the fo rm e r H e id e lb e rg
school (K raepelin, A schaffenburg, a n d others); for, as m ay eas-
ily b e im ag in ed , th e psychiatrist was th e first to feel th e press-
in g n e e d fo r exact kn o w led g e of th e psychic processes. N e x t
cam e pedagogy, m a k in g its ow n d em an d s o n psychology. F ro m
this th ere has recently g ro w n u p a n “ex p e rim e n ta l pedagogy,”
in w hich field M e u m a n n in G e rm an y a n d B in e t in F ran ce have
re n d e re d signal service.
4°9 If he w ants to h e lp his p a tie n t, th e d o ctor, a n d above all th e
“specialist fo r n erv ou s diseases,” m u st have psychological k n o w l-
edge; fo r n erv o us disorders a n d all th a t is em b ra ce d by th e term s
“nervousness,” hysteria, etc. a re of psychic o rig in a n d th ere fo re
logically re q u ir e psychic trea tm e n t. C o ld w ater, light, fresh air,
electricity, a n d so fo rth have a t b est a tran sito ry effect a n d som e-
tim es n o n e a t all. O fte n th ey are d is re p u ta b le artifices, calcu-
la te d to w o rk u p o n suggestibility. B u t th e p a tie n t is sick in
m in d , in th e hig hest a n d m ost co m p lex of th e m in d 's functions,
a n d these can h ard ly b e said to b e lo n g an y m o re to th e p ro v ince
of m ed icin e. H e re th e d o c to r m u st also be a psychologist, w h ich
m eans th a t h e m u st have know ledge of th e h u m a n psyche. T h e
d o cto r c a n n o t evade this d em a n d . So h e n a tu ra lly tu rn s for h e lp
to psychology, since his psychiatry text-books have n o th in g to
offer him . T h e e x p e rim e n ta l psychology of today, how ever, does
n o t even b eg in to give h im an y c o h e re n t in sig ht in to w h a t are,
practically, th e m ost im p o rta n t psychic processes. T h a t is n o t its
aim : it tries to isolate th e very sim plest a n d m ost elem en tary
processes w hich b o rd e r o n physiology, a n d studies th e m in isola-
tio n. I t is ill-disposed tow ards th e in fin ite variety a n d m o b ility
of in d iv id u a l psychic life, a n d fo r this reaso n its findings a n d its
facts are so m an y details lack in g org an ic cohesion. T h e r e fo r e
any o ne w ho w ants to kn o w th e h u m a n psyche w ill lea rn n e x t to
n o th in g fro m e x p e rim e n ta l psychology. H e w o u ld be b e tte r ad -

2890
 N E W PA TH S IN PSYCHOLOGY

vised to [a b an d o n exact science] p u t away his scholar's gow n, b id

farew ell to his study, a n d w a n d e r w ith h u m a n h e a rt th ro u g h th e
w orld. T h e r e , in th e h o rro rs of prisons, lu n atic asylum s a n d hos-
pitals, in d ra b s u b u rb a n pubs, in b ro th els a n d gam bling-hells, in
th e salons of th e elegant, th e Stock Exchanges, Socialist m ee t-
ings, churches, revivalist gath erin g s a n d ecstatic sects, th ro u g h
love an d hate, th ro u g h th e ex p e rien c e of passion in every form
in his ow n body, he w o u ld re a p ric h e r stores of know ledge th a n
text-books a foot th ick c o u ld give him , a n d he w ill know how to
d o cto r the sick w ith real kn ow ledg e of th e h u m a n soul. H e m ay
b e p a rd o n e d if his resp ect fo r th e so-called cornerstones of ex p e r-
im en tal psychology is n o lo n g er excessive. F o r b etw een w h a t sci-
ence calls psychology a n d w h a t th e practical needs of daily life
d e m a n d from psychology th e re is a g re at g u lf fixed.
4 10 T h is deficiency b ecam e th e startin g -p o in t for a n ew psychol-
ogy, whose in c e p tio n we owe first a n d forem o st to S ig m u n d
F re u d of V ienn a, th e b rillia n t physician a n d in vestig ato r of
fu n c tio n a l nervo u s disorders. O n e co u ld describe th e psychology
in a u g u ra te d by h im as “analytical psychology." B leu ler has sug-
gested the n a m e “ d e p th psychology," 2 in o rd e r to in d icate th a t
F re u d ia n psychology was co n c ern e d w ith th e d ee p er regions o r
h in te rla n d of the psyche, also called th e unconscious. F re u d
h im self was c o n te n t ju s t to n a m e his m e th o d of investig atio n : he
called it psychoanalysis. A n d such is th e n a m e by w hich this
m o v em en t is gen erally k no w n .
411 B efore we e n te r u p o n a closer p re se n ta tio n of o u r subject,
so m eth in g m u st be said a b o u t its re la tio n to science as k n o w n
h ith e rto . H e re we e n c o u n te r a cu rio u s spectacle w hich proves
yet again th e t r u t h of A n a to le France's re m a rk , “ Les savants ne
so n t pas c u rie u x ." T h e first w o rk of any m a g n itu d e 3 in this field
aw akened o nly th e faintest echo, in spite of the fact th a t it in tro -
d u ce d an en tire ly n ew a n d fu n d a m e n ta l co n cep tio n of th e n e u -
roses. A few w riters spoke of it ap preciativ ely a n d then, o n th e
n e x t page, p ro ceed ed to ex p la in th e ir hysterical cases in th e
same old way. T h e y b eh av ed very m u ch like a m an who, h av in g
eulogized th e idea o r fact th a t th e e a rth was a sphere, calm ly
con tin ues to re p re se n t it as flat. F r e u d ’s n e x t p u b licatio n s 4 re-
2 [“Die Psychoanalyse F reu d s” (1910).]
3 B reuer a n d Freud, Studies on H ysteria (orig. 1895).
4 Early Psycho-Analytic P ublications (orig. 1906), S tandard E dition, vol. 3.

2891
 APPEN D ICES

m a in e d ab solutely u n n o ticed , alth o u g h they p u t fo rw ard obser-

vations w hich w ere of in calcu lab le im p o rtan ce fo r psychiatry.
W h e n , in th e year 1899, F re u d w rote th e first real psychology of
d re am s5 (a Stygian darkness h ad h ith e rto re ig n e d over this
field), p eop le began to laugh, a n d w h e n a b o u t th e m id d le of th e
last decade he started to th ro w lig h t on th e psychology of sexual-
ity itself,6 [and at th e sam e tim e th e Z u rich school d ecided to
ra n g e itself o n his side,] la u g h te r tu rn e d to insult, som etim es of
th e nastiest k in d , a n d this has lasted u n til very recently. [Even a
laym an like F orster in sin u a te d him self am o n g the d en ig rators.
(I h o p e th e ugliness a n d im p e rtin e n c e of his to n e cam e from his
ig no rance of th e actual facts.) A t th e last South-W est G e rm a n
Congress of A lienists th e ad h e ren ts of th e new psychology also
h ad th e pleasure of h e a rin g H oche, U n iv ersity Professor of Psy-
ch iatry a t F re ib u rg im Breisgau, describe th e m o v em en t in a
lo n g a n d lou d ly a p p la u d e d address as an ep id em ic of insanity
am o ng doctors. T h e old adage “ M edicus m ed icu m n o n d e c im a t”
was h ere q u ite p u t to sham e.] H o w carefully th e works h ad b ee n
stu d ied is show n by the naïve re m a rk of o n e of th e m ost e m i-
n e n t n eurologists of Paris at an In te rn a tio n a l Congress in 1907,
w hich I h e a rd w ith m y ow n ears: “ I have n o t re ad F reu d 's
w orks" (he knew n o G e rm an ) “ b u t as for his theories, they are
n o th in g b u t a m auvaise plaisanterie!* [F reud, th e dignified old
m aster, once said to m e: “ I first becam e clearly conscious of w h at
I h ad discovered w hen it was m et everyw here w ith resistance
an d in d ig n atio n , a n d since th a t tim e I have le a rn t to ju d g e the
value of m y w ork by th e degree of resistance it provoked. I t is
th e sexual theory th a t raises th e greatest outcry, so it w o u ld seem
th a t th e re in lies m y best work. P erh ap s after all th e real benefac-
tors of m a n k in d are its false teachers, for o pp o sitio n to th e false
teachings pushes m en willy-nilly in to tru th . Y our tru th -te lle r is
a p ernicio us fellow, he drives m en in to e rro r.”]
4*2 [T h e re a d e r m u st now calm ly accept the idea th a t in this
psychology he is d ea lin g w ith so m eth in g q u ite u n iq u e , if n o t
in d eed some alto g eth e r irra tio n a l, sectarian, o r occult wisdom ;
for w h at else cou ld possibly provoke all th e scientific au th o rities
to pooh-pooh it from the start?]
4 i3 A ccordingly we m ust look m o re closely in to this n ew psy-
& T h e Interpretation o f Dreams (orig. 1900).
6 “T h re e Essays on the T h eo ry of Sexuality" (orig. 1905).

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chology. A lready in C h arc o t’s tim e it was kno w n th a t the n e u -

ro tic sym ptom is “ psychogenic,” i.e., originates in the psyche. It
was also k now n, thank s m ain ly to th e w ork of th e N ancy school,
th a t all hysterical sym ptom s can be p ro d u c ed in exactly th e same
way by suggestion. B u t it was n o t k n o w n how an hysterical
sym ptom originates in th e psyche; th e psychic causal factors
w ere com pletely u n k n o w n . I n th e early eighties D r. B reuer, an
o ld V iennese p ra ctitio n e r, m ade a discovery w hich becam e the
real startin g -p o in t of th e new psychology. H e had a young, very
in te llig e n t w o m an p a tie n t suffering from hysteria, w ho m a n i-
fested th e follow ing sym ptom s am o n g others: she h ad a spastic
(rigid) paralysis of the rig h t arm , a n d occasional fits of ab se n t-
m in d ed n ess o r tw ilig h t states; she h ad also lost th e p ow er of
speech in asm u ch as she c o u ld n o lo n g er c o m m an d h e r m o th e r
to n g u e b u t co u ld only express herself in English (systematic
aphasia). T h e y trie d at th a t tim e, a n d still try, to accou n t for
these disorders w ith an a to m ic al theories, a lth o u g h th e cortical
ce n tre for th e arm fu n c tio n is as little d is tu rb e d here as in th e
c o rresp o n d in g ce n tre of a n o rm a l p erson [who gives som ebody a
b o x on th e ears]. T h e sym ptom atology of hysteria is full of an a-
tom ical im possibilities. O n e lady, w ho h ad com pletely lost h e r
h e a rin g because of an hysterical affection, o ften used to sing.
O nce, w h en she was singing, h e r d o cto r seated him self u n o b -
served a t th e p ian o a n d softly accom p an ied her. In passing from
o n e stanza to th e n e x t he m ade a su d d en change of key, w h ere-
u p o n th e p atien t, w ith o u t n o ticin g it, w en t on singing in th e
ch an g ed key. T h u s she hears— a n d does n o t hear. T h e various
form s of system atic b lindness offer sim ilar p h en o m e n a: a m a n
suffering from to tal hysterical b lindness recovered his sight in
th e course of trea tm e n t, b u t it was only p artia l at first a n d re-
m a in e d so for a lo n g tim e. H e co u ld see ev ery thin g w ith th e
ex c ep tio n of p e o p le ’s heads. H e saw all th e p eo p le ro u n d h im
w ith o u t heads. T h u s he sees— a n d does n o t see. F ro m a large
n u m b e r of like experiences it has lon g b ee n co nclu ded th a t only
th e conscious m in d of th e p a tie n t does n o t see a n d hear, b u t th a t
th e sense-function is otherw ise in w o rk in g order. T h is state of
affairs directly co ntradicts th e n a tu re of an organic disorder,
w hich always affects th e fu n c tio n in som e way.
4*4 A fte r this digression, let us com e back to th e B re u e r case.
T h e r e w ere n o organic causes for th e disorder, so it h a d to be

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re g ard e d as hysterical, i.e., psychogenic. B reu er h ad observed

th a t if, d u rin g h e r tw ilig h t states (w heth er sp on taneo us o r a r ti-
ficially induced), he got th e p a tie n t to tell h im of th e re m in is-
cences a n d fantasies th a t th ro n g e d in u p o n her, h e r c o n d itio n
was eased for several h o u rs afterw ards. H e m ad e system atic use
of this discovery for fu r th e r trea tm e n t. T h e p a tie n t devised the
a p p ro p ria te n am e “ talk in g c u re ” for it, or, jokingly, “chim ney-
sw eeping.”
415 T h e p a tie n t h a d becom e ill w h en n u rs in g h er fa th e r in his
fatal illness. N a tu ra lly h er fantasies w ere chiefly co n cern ed w ith
these d is tu rb in g days. R em iniscences of this p erio d cam e to th e
surface d u rin g h e r tw ilig h t states w ith p h o to g rap h ic fidelity; so
vivid w ere they, do w n to th e last detail, th a t we can h ard ly as-
sum e th e w akin g m em o ry to have b een capable of such plastic
a n d exact re p ro d u c tio n . (T h e n am e “h y p erm n e sia” has b een
given to this intensification of th e powers of m em ory w hich may
easily occur in re stric ted states of consciousness.) R em a rk a b le
things now cam e to light. O n e of the m any stories to ld ra n som e-
w h a t as follows:
O n e n ig h t, w atch in g by th e sick m an , w ho h ad a hig h fever,
she was tense w ith an x iety because a surgeon was expected from
V ien n a to p erfo rm an o p eratio n . H e r m o th e r h ad left th e roo m
fo r a w hile, a n d A nn a, th e p a tien t, sat by th e sick-bed w ith h er
rig h t arm h an g in g over th e back of th e chair. She fell in to a sort
of w ak in g d re am a n d saw a black snake com ing, ap p a re n tly o u t
of the wall, tow ards th e sick m a n as th o u g h to b ite him . (It is
q u ite likely th a t th e re really w ere snakes in th e m eadow at the
back of th e house, w hich h ad already given th e girl a frig h t a n d
w hich now p ro v id ed th e m ateria l fo r th e h allu cin a tio n .) She
w a n te d to d riv e the cre a tu re away, b u t felt paralysed; h e r rig h t
arm , h an g in g over th e back of the chair, h ad “gone to sleep” : it
h ad becom e an aesth etic a n d paretic, a n d as she looked at it, the
fingers chan ged in to little serpents w ith d e a th ’s-heads [the fin-
gernails]. P ro b ab ly she m ad e efforts to d riv e away th e snake
w ith h er paralysed rig h t h an d , so th a t th e anaesthesia a n d p aral-
ysis becam e associated w ith th e snake h a llu c in a tio n . W h e n th e
snake had disappeared, she was so frig h te n e d th a t she w an ted to
pray; b u t all speech failed her, she co u ld n o t u tte r a w ord u n til
finally she re m e m b e re d an English n u rsery rh ym e, a n d th e n she
was ab le to go on th in k in g a n d p ra y in g in English.

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416 Such was th e scene in w hich th e paralysis a n d th e speech dis-

tu rb a n c e orig in ated , a n d w ith the n a rra tio n of this scene the dis-
tu rb a n c e itself was rem oved. In this m a n n e r th e case was finally
cured.
4*7 I m u st c o n te n t myself w ith this one exam ple. In the book I
have m e n tio n e d by B reu e r a n d F re u d th ere is a w ealth of sim ilar
exam ples. It can readily be u n d ersto o d th a t scenes of this k in d
m ake a p ow erful im pression, a n d people are th ere fo re in clin ed
to im p u te causal significance to th em in th e genesis of th e sym p-
tom . T h e view of hysteria th en c u rre n t, w hich d eriv ed from th e
English theory of th e “nervous shock” en ergetically c h a m p io n e d
by C harcot, was well q u alified to ex p la in B re u e r’s discovery.
H e n ce th ere arose th e so-called tra u m a theory, w hich says th a t
th e hysterical sym ptom , and, in so far as th e sym ptom s co n stitu te
th e illness, hysteria in general, derive from psychic in ju ries o r
tra u m a ta whose im p rin t persists unconsciously for years. F reud ,
now c o llab o ratin g w ith B reu er, was ab le to fu rn ish a b u n d a n t
co n firm atio n of this discovery. I t tu rn e d o u t th a t n o n e of th e
h u n d re d s of hysterical sym ptom s arose by chance— they were al-
ways caused by psychic occurrences. So far the new con ception
o p en e d u p an extensive field for em p irical w ork. B u t F re u d ’s
in q u irin g m in d co u ld n o t re m a in long o n this superficial level,
for already d ee p er a n d m o re difficult p ro b lem s w ere b eg in n in g
to em erge. It is obvious e n o u g h th a t m o m en ts of ex trem e a n x i-
ety such as B re u e r’s p a tie n t ex p e rien c ed m ay leave an ab id in g
im pression. B u t how d id she com e to exp erience th em at all,
since they already clearly b ea r a m o rb id stam p? C o u ld th e strain
of n u rs in g b rin g this ab o ut? If so, th e re o u g h t to be m an y m o re
occurrences of th e k in d , for th e re are u n fo rtu n a te ly very m any
ex h a u stin g cases to nurse, a n d th e nervous h ea lth of the n u rse is
n o t always of the best. T o this p ro b le m m ed icin e gives an excel-
le n t answer: “T h e x in the ca lcu latio n is p red isp o sitio n .” O n e is
ju s t “pred isp o sed ” th a t way. B u t for F re u d th e p ro b lem was:
w h a t constitu tes the predisposition? T h is q u estio n leads logi-
cally to an e x a m in a tio n of th e previous history of th e psychic
trau m a . It is a m a tte r of co m m o n o bservation th a t ex citing
scenes have q u ite d ifferen t effects o n th e various persons in -
volved, or th a t things w hich are in d ifferen t o r even agreeable to
o n e person arouse the greatest h o rro r in others— witness frogs,
snakes, m ice, cats, etc. T h e r e are cases of w om en w ho w ill assist

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at bloody o p eratio n s w ith o u t tu rn in g a hair, w hile they tre m b le

all over w ith fear a n d lo a th in g at th e to uch of a cat. I re m e m b e r
a y o u n g w om an w ho suffered from acute hysteria follow ing a
su d d en fright. She h ad b ee n to an ev en in g p arty a n d was o n h e r
way h om e a b o u t m id n ig h t in th e com pany of several a c q u a in t-
ances, w h e n a cab cam e u p b e h in d th em a t fu ll trot. T h e others
got o u t of th e way, b u t she, as th o u g h sp ellb o u n d w ith terro r,
k ep t to the m id d le of th e ro a d a n d ra n alo n g in fro n t of th e
horses. T h e cab m an cracked his w h ip a n d swore; it was n o
good, she ra n do w n th e w hole len g th of th e road, w hich led
across a b rid ge. T h e r e h e r stren g th deserted her, a n d to avoid
b ein g tra m p le d on by th e horses she w o u ld in h e r d esp e ratio n
have leap t in to th e riv e r h ad n o t th e passers-by p re v e n te d her.
N ow , this same lady h ad h a p p e n e d to be in St. P e te rsb u rg o n th e
blo o dy tw enty-second of J a n u a ry [1905], in th e very street
w hich was cleared by th e volleys of th e soldiers. All ro u n d h er
peop le w ere falling to the g ro u n d d ead o r w o u n d e d ; she, how -
ever, q u ite calm a n d clear-headed, espied a gate lead in g in to a
yard th ro u g h w hich she m ad e h e r escape in to a n o th e r street.
T h e se d re ad fu l m o m en ts caused h e r n o fu r th e r ag itatio n . She
felt perfectly well afterw ards— indeed, ra th e r b e tte r th a n usual.
418 T h is failu re to react to an a p p a re n t shock can fre q u e n tly be
observed. H e n ce it necessarily follows th a t th e in ten sity of a
tra u m a has very little p ath og enic significance in itself; every-
th in g d ep en d s on th e p a rtic u la r circum stances. H e re we have
th e key to the pred ispo sition [, or a t least to one of its anteroom s].
W e have th ere fo re to ask ourselves: w h a t are th e p a rtic u la r
circum stances of th e scene w ith th e cab? T h e p a tie n t's fear b e-
gan w ith th e so u n d of th e tro ttin g horses; for an in sta n t it
seem ed to h e r th a t this p o rte n d e d som e te rrib le d o om — h e r
d ea th , or so m eth in g as d read fu l; th e n e x t m o m e n t she lost all
sense of w h at she was doing.
4*9 T h e real shock evidently cam e from th e horses. T h e p atien t's
p re d isp ositio n to react in so u n ac c o u n ta b le a way to this u n re -
m ark a b le in c id en t m ig h t th erefo re consist in the fact th a t horses
have som e special significance for her. W e m ig h t co njectu re, for
instance, th a t she once h ad a d an g ero u s acciden t w ith horses.
T h is was actually fo u n d to be th e case. As a ch ild of a b o u t seven
she was o u t for a d riv e w ith the coachm an, w h en sudd en ly th e
horses took frig h t a n d at a w ild gallop m ad e for the p re cip ito u s

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b a n k of a d ee p river-gorge. T h e coachm an ju m p e d d o w n a n d
sh o u ted to h e r to do likewise, b u t she was in such deadly fear
th a t she c o u ld h ard ly m ak e u p h e r m in d . N evertheless she
j u m p e d in th e n ick of tim e, w hile th e horses crashed w ith the
carriage in to th e d ep th s below. T h a t such an even t w o u ld leave
a very d e e p im pression scarcely needs proof. Yet it does n o t ex-
p lain why a t a later d a te such an insensate reactio n sho u ld fol-
low a perfectly harm less stim ulus. So far we know only th a t the
later sym ptom h ad a p re lu d e in ch ild h oo d , b u t the pathological
aspect of it still rem ain s in th e dark. In o rd e r to p e n e tra te this
mystery, f u r th e r know ledge is needed. F o r it h ad becom e clear
w ith increasing ex perien ce th a t in all th e cases analysed so far,
th ere existed, a p a rt from th e tra u m a tic experiences, an o th e r,
special class of d istu rb an c e w hich can only be described as a dis-
tu rb a n c e in th e p ro v ince of love. A d m itte d ly “ love” is an elastic
con cep t th a t stretches from heaven to hell a n d com bines in itself
good a n d evil, hig h a n d low.7 W ith this discovery F re u d ’s views
u n d e rw e n t a con sid erable change. If, m o re o r less u n d e r th e
spell of B re u e r’s tra u m a theory, he h ad form erly sought the
cause of th e neurosis in tra u m a tic experiences, now the centre of
gravity of the p ro b le m shifted to an en tire ly d ifferen t p o int.
T h is m ay be best illu stra te d by o u r case: we can u n d e rs ta n d well
e n o u g h why horses sh ou ld play a special p a rt in th e life of the p a-
tien t, b u t we do n o t u n d e rs ta n d th e later reaction, so exagger-
ated a n d u n ca lle d for. T h e p athological p ecu liarity of this story
does n o t lie in th e fact th a t she is frig h te n e d of horses. R e m e m -
b e rin g the em p irical discovery m e n tio n e d above, th a t besides
th e tra u m a tic experiences th ere is [invariably] a d istu rb an ce in
th e pro v ince of love, we m ig h t in q u ire w h e th e r perh ap s th ere is
so m eth in g n o t q u ite in o rd e r in this co nn ectio n .
4 20 T h e ] a ( j y knows a y o u ng m an to w h o m she th in k s of b ecom -
in g engaged; she loves h im a n d hopes to be hap py w ith him . A t
first n o th in g m o re is discoverable. B u t it w o u ld n ev er do to be
d e te rre d from investigation by th e negative results of the p re -
lim in a ry qu estio n in g . T h e r e are in d irec t ways of reach in g the
goal w h en the d irec t way fails. W e th ere fo re re tu r n to th a t sin-
7 W e may apply to love the old mystic saying: "H eaven above, heaven below,
sky above, sky below, all above, all below, accept this and rejoice.” [M ephi-
stopheles expresses the same idea w hen h e speaks of the “power th a t produces
good w hilst ever scheming evil.”]

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g u la r m o m e n t w h e n the lady ra n h ea d lo n g in fro n t of th e horses.

W e in q u ire a b o u t h e r co m p an io n s a n d w hat sort of festive occa-
sion it was in w hich she h ad ju st tak en part. I t h a d b ee n a fare-
well party for h e r best friend , w ho was g oing ab ro ad to a h ea lth
reso rt on a c c o u n t of h e r nerves. T h is frie n d is m a rrie d and, we
are told, happily; she is also th e m o th e r of a child. W e m ay take
leave to d o u b t th e statem en t th a t she is happy; for, w ere she
really so, she w o u ld presu m ab ly have n o reason to be “n erv o u s”
a n d in n ee d of a cure. S h iftin g m y angle of app ro ach, I lea rn ed
th a t afte r h e r friends h ad rescued h e r they b ro u g h t th e p a tie n t
back to th e house of h e r host, as this was th e nearest shelter.
T h e r e she was ho sp itab ly received in h e r ex h au sted state. A t this
p o in t the p a tie n t b ro k e off h e r n arrativ e, becam e em barrassed,
fidgeted, a n d trie d to change th e subject. E v id en tly some disa-
g reeable rem iniscence h ad su dd en ly b o b b e d u p. A fter th e m ost
o b stin ate resistance h a d b ee n overcom e, it a p p e are d th a t yet a n -
o th e r very re m a rk a b le in c id e n t had o ccu rred th a t n ig h t: th e a m i-
able host h ad m ad e h e r a fiery d ec lara tio n of love, thus p re c ip i-
tatin g a s itu atio n w hich, in th e absence of th e lady of th e house,
m ig h t well be con sid ered b o th difficult a n d distressing. O stensi-
bly this d eclaratio n of love cam e to h e r like a b o lt from the blue.
[A sm all dose of criticism teaches us th a t these things n ev er do
d ro p from th e sky b u t always have th e ir previous history.] I t was
n o w th e task of th e n e x t few weeks to dig o u t b it by b it a lon g
love story, u n til at last a co m p lete p ictu re em erg ed w hich I a t-
te m p t to o u tlin e som ew hat as follows:
As a ch ild th e p a tie n t h ad b een a re g u la r tom boy, carin g
only for w ild boys' games, scorning h e r ow n sex a n d av o idin g all
fe m in in e ways a n d occupations. A fter p u b erty , w h e n th e erotic
p ro b le m m ig h t have com e too close, she began to sh u n all soci-
ety, h ate d a n d despised ev eryth in g th a t even rem otely re m in d e d
h e r of th e biological destiny of w om an, a n d lived in a w o rld of
fantasies w hich h ad n o th in g in co m m o n w ith ru d e reality. T h u s ,
u n til a b o u t h e r tw enty -fo u rth year, she evaded all those little
adventures, hopes, a n d expectations w hich o rd in arily m ove a
girl's h e a rt a t this age. (In these m atters w om en are o ften amaz-
ingly insincere w ith them selves a n d w ith the doctor.) T h e n she
got to know two m e n w ho w ere destin ed to b re ak th ro u g h th e
th o rn y hedge th a t h ad grow n u p a ro u n d her. M r. A was h e r best
frie n d 's h u sb an d , a n d M r. B was his b ac h elo r friend . She lik ed

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 N E W PA TH S IN PSYCHOLOGY

th em b o th . N evertheless it soon began to look as th o u g h she

lik ed M r. B a vast deal b etter. A n in tim acy q u ickly spran g u p
b etw een th e m a n d before long th e re was talk of a possible e n -
g agem ent. T h r o u g h h e r rela tio n s w ith M r. B a n d th ro u g h h e r
frie n d she o ften cam e in to co n tact w ith M r. A, whose presence
som etim es d is tu rb e d h e r in th e m ost u n ac c o u n ta b le way a n d
m ad e h e r nervous. A b o u t this tim e th e p a tie n t w en t to a large
party. H e r friends w ere also there. She becam e lost in th o u g h t
a n d was d ream ily p laying w ith h e r rin g w hen it su d denly
slip p ed off h e r finger a n d ro lled u n d e r the table. B oth g en tle-
m e n look ed for it a n d M r. B succeeded in fin din g it. H e placed
th e rin g o n h e r finger w ith an arch sm ile a n d said, “You know
w hat th a t m ean s!” O vercom e by a strange a n d irresistible feel-
ing, she tore th e rin g fro m h e r finger a n d flung it th ro u g h th e
o p en w indow . A p a in fu l m o m e n t ensued, as m ay be im agined,
a n d soon she left th e p arty in d eep dejection. N o t long afte r this,
so-called chance b ro u g h t it a b o u t th a t she sh o u ld spend h e r
s u m m e r holidays at a h e a lth re so rt w here M r. a n d Mrs. A were
also staying. Mrs. A th e n began to grow visibly nervous, a n d fre-
q u e n tly stayed indoors because she felt o u t of sorts. T h e p a tie n t
was th u s in a position to go o u t for walks alo ne w ith M r. A. O n
on e occasion they w e n t bo ating . So b oisterous was she in h e r
m e rr im e n t th a t she su d d en ly fell o verboard. She co u ld n o t
swim, a n d it was only w ith g reat difficulty th a t M r. A p u lle d h e r
half-unconscious in to th e boat. A n d th e n it was th a t he kissed
her. W ith this ro m a n tic episode th e b o nd s w ere tie d fast. T o
excuse herself in h e r ow n eyes she p u rs u e d h e r en g ag em en t to
M r. B all th e m o re energetically, tellin g herself every day th a t it
was M r. B w hom she loved. N a tu ra lly this cu rio u s little gam e
h a d n o t escaped the k een glances of wifely jealousy. M rs. A, h er
frie n d , h ad guessed th e secret a n d fretted accordingly, so th a t
h e r nerves only got worse. H e n ce it becam e necessary for Mrs. A
to go a b ro ad for a cure. A t th e farew ell p arty th e evil s p irit
step p ed u p to o u r p a tie n t a n d w h ispered in h e r ear, “T o n ig h t
h e is alone. S o m eth in g m u st h a p p e n to you so th a t you can go to
his house.” A n d so in deed it h a p p e n e d : th ro u g h h e r ow n strange
b e h a v io u r she cam e back to his house, a n d thus she a tta in e d h e r
desire.
421 A fte r this ex p la n a tio n everyone will p ro b a b ly be in clin ed to
assum e th a t only a devilish su b tlety co u ld devise such a ch ain of

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circum stances a n d set it to w ork. T h e r e is n o d o u b t a b o u t th e

subtlety, b u t its m o ral ev a lu atio n rem ains a d o u b tfu l m atter,
because I m u st em phasize th a t th e m otives lea d in g to this d ra -
m atic d é n o u e m e n t w ere in n o sense conscious. T o th e p atien t,
th e w hole story seem ed to h a p p e n of itself, w ith o u t h e r b ein g
conscious of any m otive. B u t th e previous history m akes it p e r-
fectly clear th a t ev ery th ing was [most ingeniously] d irected to
this end, w hile th e conscious m in d was stru g g lin g to b rin g a b o u t
th e en gag em ent to M r. B. T h e unconscious drive in the o th e r
d irec tio n was stronger.
422 So once m o re we r e tu r n to o u r o rig in al q u estion , nam ely,
w hence comes th e pathological (i.e., p ec u lia r o r exaggerated)
n a tu re of th e re actio n to th e traum a? O n th e basis of a co nclu -
sion d ra w n from analogous experiences we c o n je ctu red th a t in
this case too th ere m u st be, in a d d itio n to th e trau m a , a d is tu rb -
ance in the erotic sphere. T h is co n je ctu re has b een en tire ly co n -
firm ed, a n d we have lea rn ed th a t th e trau m a , th e ostensible
cause of th e illness, is n o m o re th a n an occasion for so m ethin g
previously n o t conscious to m an ifest itself, i.e., an im p o rta n t
erotic conflict. A ccordingly th e tra u m a loses its p ath o gen ic sig-
nificance a n d is rep laced by a m u ch d ee p er a n d m o re c o m p re-
hensive co n cep tio n w h ich sees the p ath o g en ic agen t as an erotic
conflict. [T h is co n cep tio n m ig h t be called th e sexual theory of
neurosis.]
423 I often h ea r th e q u estio n : w hy sh o u ld th e ero tic conflict be
the cause of th e neurosis r a th e r th a n any o th e r conflict? T o this
we can only answ er: n o o n e asserts th a t it m u st b e so, b u t in
p o in t of fact it [always] is so [, n o tw ith s ta n d in g all th e cousins
a n d aunts, parents, g o dparents, a n d teachers w ho rage against
it]. In spite of all in d ig n a n t p ro testatio n s to th e contrary, th e
fact rem ains th a t love ,8 its p ro b lem s a n d its conflicts, is of fu n -
d a m e n ta l im p o rtan ce in h u m a n life, an d , as careful in q u iry con-
sistently shows, is of fa r g re ater significance th a n th e in d iv id u a l
suspects.
424 T h e tra u m a th eo ry has th ere fo re b ee n a b a n d o n e d as a n ti-
q u a te d ; for w ith th e discovery th a t n o t th e tra u m a b u t a h id d e n
erotic conflict is th e [true] ro o t of th e neurosis, th e tra u m a com -
pletely loses its p ath o g e n ic significance.
8 Using th e w ord in the w ider sense which belongs to it by rig h t a n d embraces
m ore th a n sexuality.

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 N E W PA TH S IN PSYCHOLOGY

425 [T h e th eo ry was th us shifted o n to an en tire ly different

plane.] T h e q u e stio n of th e tra u m a was solved a n d disposed of;
b u t in its place th e investigator was faced w ith th e p ro b le m of
th e ero tic conflict, w hich, as o u r ex am p le shows, con tain s a
w ealth of a b n o rm a l elem ents a n d ca n n o t at first sight be com -
p a re d w ith an o rd in a ry ero tic conflict. W h a t is p ecu liarly strik -
in g a n d alm ost in cre d ib le is th a t only th e pose sh o u ld b e co n -
scious, w hile th e p a tie n t’s re al passion re m a in e d h id d e n from
her. I n this case certainly, it is b e y o n d d isp u te th a t th e real
erotic re la tio n s h ip was sh ro u d e d in darkness, w hile th e pose
largely d o m in a te d th e field of consciousness. If we fo rm u la te
these facts theoretically, we arriv e at th e follow ing resu lt: th ere
are in a neurosis two [erotic] ten den cies stan d in g in strict o p p o -
sition to o ne a n o th e r, on e of w h ich a t least is unconscious.
[Against this fo rm u la it m ig h t be o b jected th a t it obviously fits
only this p a rtic u la r case a n d th ere fo re lacks g eneral validity.
T h e o b jec tio n will be u rg e d the m o re read ily because n o o ne is
w illin g to a d m it th a t th e ero tic conflict is of universal preva-
lence. O n th e co n trary , it is assum ed th a t th e erotic conflict b e-
longs m o re p ro p e rly to th e sphere of novels, since it is generally
u n d e rs to o d as so m eth in g in th e n a tu re of such ex tra-m arital ad -
v en tu re s as are described in the novels of K arin M ichaelis, or by
F orel in T h e S exu a l Q u e stio n . B u t this is n o t so at all, for we
k no w th a t the w ildest a n d m ost m o v in g dram as are played n o t in
th e th e a tre b u t in th e hearts of o rd in a ry m e n a n d w om en w ho
pass by w ith o u t ex c itin g a tte n tio n , a n d w ho b etray to th e w o rld
n o th in g of th e conflicts th a t rage w ith in th em except possibly by
a n ervo u s b reak d o w n . W h a t is so difficult for th e laym an to
grasp is th e fact th a t in m ost cases the p atien ts them selves have
n o suspicion w hatever of th e in te rn e c in e w ar rag in g in th e ir u n -
conscious. If we re m e m b e r th a t th ere are m any p eople w ho u n -
d ersta n d n o th in g at all a b o u t them selves, we shall be less su r-
p rised at th e re alizatio n th a t th e re are also people w ho are
u tte rly u n aw are of th e ir actual conflicts.]
426 [N ow even if th e re ad er is ready to a d m it th e possible exist-
ence of p athogenic, a n d p erh ap s even of unconscious conflicts,
he will still pro test th a t they are n o t erotic conflicts. If this k in d
re a d e r sh o u ld h a p p e n him self to be som ew hat nervous, th e m ere
suggestion will arouse his in d ig n a tio n ; for we are all accus-
tom ed, th ro u g h o u r ed u c a tio n at school a n d at hom e, to cross

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 APPEN D ICES

ourselves th ree tim es w h en we m eet w ords like “ e ro tic” a n d

“sex ual”— a n d so we are co n v enien tly able to th in k th a t n o th in g
of the sort exists, o r a t least very seldom , a n d at a g re at distance
fro m ourselves. B u t it is ju st this a ttitu d e th a t b rin g s a b o u t n e u -
ro tic conflicts in th e first place.]
427 T h e g ro w th of c u ltu re consists, as we know , in a progressive
s u b ju g atio n of the a n im al in m an. I t is a process of d o m estica-
tio n w hich ca n n o t be accom plished w ith o u t re b e llio n on th e
p a rt of th e an im al n a tu re th a t thirsts for freedom . F ro m tim e to
tim e th ere passes as it w ere a wave of frenzy th ro u g h the ran k s of
m e n too long co n strain ed w ith in th e lim itatio n s of th e ir c u ltu re .
A n tiq u ity ex p erienced it in th e D ionysian orgies th a t surged
over from the East a n d becam e an essential a n d characteristic
in g re d ie n t of classical c u ltu re . T h e sp irit of these orgies c o n trib -
u te d n o t a little tow ards th e d ev e lo p m e n t of th e stoic ideal of
asceticism in the in n u m e ra b le sects a n d p hilosophical schools of
th e last c e n tu ry b efo re C hrist, w hich p ro d u c e d from th e poly-
theistic chaos of th a t epoch th e tw in ascetic religions of M ith ra-
ism a n d C hristian ity . A second wave of D ionysian licentiousness
sw ept over th e W est at th e R enaissance. I t is difficult to gauge
th e sp irit of o n e ’s ow n tim e; b u t, if we observe th e tre n d of art,
of style, a n d of p u b lic taste, a n d see w h a t p eo p le re ad a n d w rite,
w h a t sort of societies they fo u n d , w h a t “q u estio n s” are th e o rd e r
of th e day, w h at th e P h ilistin es fight against, we shall find th a t in
th e long catalogue of o u r p re sen t social questio ns by n o m eans
th e last is th e so-called “sexual q u e s tio n .” T h is is discussed by
m en a n d w o m en w ho challenge th e existing sexual m o rality a n d
w ho seek to th ro w off th e b u rd e n of m o ra l g u ilt w hich past cen -
tu ries have h ea p ed u p o n Eros. O n e ca n n o t sim ply den y th e ex-
istence of these end eavo u rs n o r co n d e m n th e m as indefensible;
they exist, a n d p ro b a b ly have a d e q u a te g ro u n d s for th e ir exist-
ence. I t is m o re in te re stin g a n d m o re useful to e x a m in e care-
fully the u n d e rly in g causes o f these co n te m p o ra ry m ovem ents
th a n to jo in in th e lam en ta tio n s of th e professional m o u rn e rs of
m o rality w ho [w ith hysterical u n ctio n ] prop h esy th e m o ral
dow nfall of h u m an ity . I t is th e way of m oralists n o t to p u t th e
slightest tru st in G od, as if they th o u g h t th a t th e good tree of
h u m a n ity flourished only by d in t of b e in g p ru n e d , tied back,
a n d tra in e d o n a trellis; w hereas in fact F a th e r S un a n d M o th e r

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E a rth have allo w ed it to grow for th e ir d elig h t in accordance

w ith deep, wise laws.
4 «8 S erious-m inded p eople k now th a t th e re is so m eth in g of a
sexual p ro b le m today. T h e y k n o w th a t th e ra p id d ev e lo p m e n t
of th e towns, w ith the specialization of w ork b ro u g h t a b o u t by
the e x tra o rd in a ry division of lab o u r, th e increasing in d u s tria l-
ization of th e countryside, a n d th e gro w in g sense of insecurity,
d ep riv e m e n of m any o p p o rtu n itie s for giving v en t to th e ir
affective energies. T h e p ea san t’s a lte rn a tin g rh y th m of w ork se-
cures h im unconscious satisfactions th ro u g h its sym bolical co n -
te n t— satisfactions w hich th e factory w orkers a n d office em ploy-
ees do n o t kn o w a n d can n ev er enjoy. W h a t d o these kn o w of his
life w ith n a tu re , of those g ra n d m o m en ts w hen, as lo rd a n d fru c-
tifier of th e ea rth , he drives his p lo u g h th ro u g h th e soil, a n d
w ith a kingly gesture scatters th e seed for th e fu tu re harvest; of
his rig h tfu l fear of the destru ctiv e p ow er of th e elem ents, of his
joy in the fruitfu ln ess of his wife w ho bears h im the d aug h ters
a n d sons w ho m ean increased w orking-pow er a n d prosperity?
[Alas!] F ro m all this we city-dwellers, we m o d e rn m achine-
m in ders, are far rem oved. Is n o t the fairest a n d m ost n a tu ra l of
all satisfactions b e g in n in g to fail us, w h e n we can no lo n ger re -
g ard w ith u n m ix e d joy the harvest of o u r ow n sowing, th e
“ blessing” of ch ild ren? [M arriages w here n o artifices are re -
sorted to are rare. Is n o t this an all-im p o rta n t d e p a rtu re from
th e joys w hich M o th e r N a tu re gave h e r first-born son?] C an
such a state of affairs b rin g satisfaction? See how m en slink to
w ork, only observe th e faces in trains at 7:30 in th e m o rn in g !
O n e m an m akes his little wheels go ro u n d , a n o th e r w rites things
th a t in terest h im n o t at all. W h a t w o n d e r th a t nearly every m an
belongs to as m any clubs as th e re are days in the week, o r th a t
th ere are flourishing little societies for w om en w here they can
p o u r out, on th e h ero of the latest cult, those in a rtic u la te long-
ings w hich th e m an drow ns at th e p u b in big talk a n d small
beer? T o these sources of d isco n ten t th ere is add ed a fu rth e r an d
graver difficulty. N a tu r e has arm e d defenceless a n d weaponless
m an w ith a vast store of energy, to en a b le h im n o t only passively
to e n d u re the rig o urs of existence b u t also to overcom e them .
She has e q u ip p e d h e r son for trem e n d o u s hardships [and has
placed a costly p re m iu m o n the o v ercom ing of them , as Scho-

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 APPENDICES

p e n h a u e r well u n d ersto o d w hen he said th a t happiness is m erely

th e cessation of unhapp in ess]. As a ru le we are p ro tec ted from
the m ost pressing necessities, a n d for th a t reason we are daily
te m p te d to excess; for th e a n im al in m an always becom es ra m -
p a n t unless h a rd necessity presses. B u t if we are high-spirited, in
w h at orgiastic feasts an d revels can we let off o u r su rp lu s of e n -
ergy? O u r m o ral views fo rb id this ou tlet.
42 9 [Let us reck on u p th e m any sources of discon ten t: th e d en ia l
of c o n tin u a l p ro c rea tio n a n d giving b irth , for w hich purpo se n a -
tu re has endow ed us w ith vast q u a n titie s of energy; th e m o n o t-
ony of o u r highly d ifferen tiated m ethods of lab o ur, w hich ex -
clud e any in terest in th e w o rk itself; o u r effortless security
against war, lawlessness, ro b b ery , plague, ch ild a n d fem ale m o r-
tality— all this gives a sum of su rplu s energy w hich needs m u st
find an o utlet. B u t how? R elatively few create q u asi-natu ral
dangers for them selves in reckless sport; m an y m ore, seeking for
some e q u iv a le n t of the h a rd life in o rd e r to sip h on off dang erou s
accu m u lation s of energy th a t m ig h t b u rs t o u t even m o re crazily,
are d riv en to alcoholic excess, o r e x p e n d them selves in th e ru sh
of m oney-m aking, o r in th e frenzied p erfo rm an ce of duties, o r in
p e rp e tu a l overw ork. It is for such reasons th a t we have today a
sexual q u estion . T h e p en t-u p energy w o u ld like to get o u t here,
as it has d o n e since tim e im m em o rial in periods of security a n d
a b u n d an ce. U n d e r such circum stances it is n o t only ra b b its th a t
m u ltip ly ; m en an d w om en, too, are m ad e th e spo rt of these
w him s of n a tu re — th e sport, because th e ir m o ral views have sh u t
th em u p in a n arro w cage, the excessive narrow ness of w hich was
n o t felt so long as harsh necessity pressed w ith even g re ater co n -
strain t. B u t now it is too tig h t even for th e city-dweller. T e m p -
tatio n su rro u n d s h im on all sides, a n d like an invisible p ro c u re r
th e re slinks th ro u g h society the know ledge of th e preventive
m eth od s th a t m ake ev ery th in g u n h ap p e n ed .]
43 ° W h y th e n th e m o ral restriction? O u t of religious considera-
tio n for a w ra th fu l God? Irrespective of th e w idesp read u n b e -
lief, even th e believer m ig h t q u ietly ask him self w h eth er, if he
w ere God, he w o u ld p u n ish every Jack-and-Jill escapade w ith
everlasting d a m n a tio n . Such ideas are n o lo n g er co m p a tib le
w ith o u r co m fortab le co n cep tio n of G od. O u r G o d is far too
to le ra n t to m ake a great fuss a b o u t it. [M ean-m indedness a n d
hypocrisy are a th o u san d times worse.] T h u s th e ascetically in -

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 N E W PA TH S IN PSYCHOLOGY

sp ired a n d m ark e d ly hypocritical 9 sexual m o ra lity of o u r tim e

is ro b b e d of any effective back g ro u n d . O r can we say th a t we are
p ro tec ted fro m excess by o u r su p e rio r w isdom a n d o u r insight
in to th e n u llity of h u m a n beh avio u r? U n fo rtu n a te ly we are very
far from that. [T h e h y p n o tic pow er of tra d itio n still holds us in
th rall, a n d o u t of cow ardice a n d thoughtlessness th e h e rd goes
tru d g in g alo ng th e same old path.] B u t m a n possesses in th e
unconscious a fine flair for th e sp irit of his tim e; he divines his
possibilities a n d feels in his h e a rt th e in stab ility of present-day
m orality, n o lo n g er su p p o rte d by liv ing religious conviction.
H e re is th e source of m ost of o u r [erotic] conflicts. T h e u rg e to
freedom beats u p o n th e w e ak en in g b arriers of m o rality: we are
in a state of tem p ta tio n , we w a n t a n d do n o t w ant. A n d because
we w a n t a n d yet ca n n o t th in k o u t w h at it is we really w ant, th e
[erotic] conflict is largely unconscious, a n d th en ce comes n e u -
rosis. N eurosis, th erefo re, is in tim a te ly b o u n d u p w ith th e p ro b -
lem of o u r tim e a n d really represen ts an unsuccessful a tte m p t o n
th e p a rt of the in d iv id u a l to solve th e g en eral p ro b le m in his
ow n person. N eurosis is self-division. I n m ost peop le th e cause of
th e division is th a t th e conscious m in d w ants to h a n g o n to its
m o ral ideal, w hile th e unconscious strives after its— in the
c o n te m p o ra ry sense— u n m o ra l ideal w h ich th e conscious m in d
[steadfastly] tries to deny. M en of this type w a n t to b e m o re re -
spectable th a n they really are. B u t th e conflict can easily be the
o th e r way a b o u t: th e re are m en w ho to all appearances are very
d is re p u ta b le a n d do n o t p u t th e least re s tra in t u p o n [th eir sexu-
ality], b u t at b o tto m this is only a pose of wickedness [assum ed
for heaven knows w hat reasons], for in th e b ac k g ro u n d they
have [a h ighly resp ectab le soul] w h ich has fallen in to th e u n -
conscious ju st as surely as th e im m o ral side in th e case of th e
m o ral m an. (E xtrem es sh o u ld th ere fo re be avoided as far as pos-
sible, because they always arouse suspicion of th e ir opposite.)
431 T h is g eneral discussion was necessary in o rd e r to clarify th e
idea of an “erotic conflict” [in analytical psychology, for it is th e
® [T h e abolition of houses of p ro stitu tio n is also one of the hypocritical pests of
o u r famous sexual m orality. P rostitu tio n exists anyway; the less it is organized
a nd looked after, the m ore scandalous a nd dangerous it becomes. Since this evil
nevertheless exists a n d always will, we should be m ore tolerant and m ake the
th in g as hygienic as possible. If people h a d n ot worn m oral blinkers, syphilis
w ould have been p u t dow n long ago.] [Note o m itted in both editions of CoU
lected Papers.— E d i t o r s .]

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 APPENDICES

key to th e w hole co ncep tio n of neurosis]. T h e n c e we can p ro -

ceed to discuss firstly the te c h n iq u e of psychoanalysis a n d secondly
the q u estio n of therapy. [O bviously the latte r q u estio n w o uld
involve us in details a n d co m plicated case m ateria l w hich far
exceed th e scope of this sh o rt in tro d u c tio n . W e m u st th erefo re
be c o n te n t to cast a glance a t th e te c h n iq u e of psychoanalysis.]
432 O bviously the great q u estio n for this te c h n iq u e is: H o w are
we to arrive by the shortest a n d best p ath at a know ledge of w h at
is h a p p e n in g in th e unconscious of th e patient? T h e original
m eth o d was hypnotism : e ith e r in te rro g a tio n in a state of h y p-
n otic co n c en tra tio n o r else th e sp on taneou s p ro d u c tio n of fan -
tasies by the p a tie n t w hile in this state. T h is m eth o d is still occa-
sionally em ployed, b u t co m p a red w ith th e presen t te c h n iq u e it
is too p rim itiv e a n d th ere fo re unsatisfactory. A second m e th o d
was evolved by the Psychiatric C linic, in Z urich, th e so-called
association m e th o d ,10 th e value of w hich is p rim a rily theoretical
a n d ex p e rim en tal. Its results give o ne a co m p reh en siv e th o u g h
superficial grasp of the unconscious conflict o r “co m p lex .” 11
T h e m o re p e n e tra tin g m eth o d is th at of dream -analysis, discov-
ered by [the genius of Sigm und] F reu d .
433 O f the dream it can ind eed be said th a t “ the stone w hich the
b u ild ers rejected has becom e the h ead of th e c o rn e r.” I t is only
in m o d e rn tim es th at the dream , this fleeting a n d insignificant-
loo k in g p ro d u c t of th e psyche, has m et w ith such p ro fo u n d co n -
tem p t. F o rm erly it was esteem ed as a h a rb in g e r of fate, a p o rte n t
an d com forter, a m essenger of the gods. N ow we see it as an
emissary of the unconscious, whose task it is to reveal the secrets
[which o u r unconscious jealously hides] from the conscious
m in d , a n d this it does w ith a sto u n d in g com pleteness.
434 F ro m the analytical study of the d re am it was fo u n d th a t th e
dream , as it appears to us, is only a façade w hich conceals th e
in te rio r of the house. If, however, w hile observing ce rtain tech-
nical rules, we in d u ce th e d re a m e r to talk a b o u t th e details of
his d ream , it soon becom es ev id en t th a t his associations te n d in a
p a rtic u la r d irec tio n a n d g ro u p them selves r o u n d p a rtic u la r to p -
ics. T h e s e a p p e a r to be of personal significance a n d yield a
10 Ju n g a n d others, Studies in W ord Association, trans. by M. D. E der.
11 T h e theory of complexes is set o u t in Ju n g , “T h e Psychology of D em entia
Praecox.”

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 N E W PA TH S IN PSYCHOLOGY

m ea n in g w hich co uld n ev er have b ee n co n je ctu red to lie b e h in d

the d ream , b u t w hich, as carefu l com pariso n has show n, stands
in an ex trem ely delicate a n d m eticu lo usly exact [symbolic] re la-
tio n to th e d re am façade.12 T h is p a rtic u la r com plex of ideas,
w h e rein are u n ite d all th e th read s of th e dream , is th e conflict
we are lo o k in g for, or ra th e r a varia tio n of it c o n d itio n ed by cir-
cum stances. T h e p ain fu l a n d in co m p atib le elem ents in th e con -
flict are in this way so covered u p o r o b lite ra te d th a t o ne m ay
speak of a “w ish-fulfilm ent” ; th o u g h we m u st im m ed iately add
th a t th e wishes fulfilled in th e d re am do n o t seem to be ours, b u t
are of a k in d th a t often ru n s directly c o u n te r to them . T h u s , for
instance, a d a u g h te r loves h e r m o th e r tenderly, b u t dream s to
h e r g reat distress th a t h e r m o th e r is dead. Such dream s, in w hich
th ere is a p p a re n tly n o trace of w ish-fulfilm ent, are in n u m e ra b le ,
a n d are a co n stan t stum blin g -blo ck to o u r lea rn ed critics, for
[— in c re d ib le to re la te— ] they still ca n n o t grasp the elem en tary
d istin c tio n b etw een the m an ifest a n d the la ten t c o n te n t of the
dream . W e m u st g u a rd against this erro r: th e conflict w orked
o u t in th e d re a m is unconscious, a n d so is th e re s u lta n t wish for
a solution. O u r d re a m e r does in fact have the wish to be rid of
h e r m o th er; expressed in th e language of th e unconscious, she
w ants h e r m o th e r to die. N ow we know th a t a ce rtain c o m p a rt-
m e n t of the unconscious co ntains ev ery th in g th a t has passed b e-
y on d th e recall of m em ory, in c lu d in g all those in fan tile instinc-
tu al im pulses w hich co uld find no o u tle t in a d u lt life, th a t is, a
succession o f ru th less childish desires. W e can say th a t the b u lk
of w hat comes o u t of th e unconscious has an in fan tile character,
as for instance this wish, w hich is sim plicity itself: “W h e n
M u m m y dies you will m arry me, w o n ’t you, D addy?” T h is ex-
pression of an in fan tile wish is the s u b stitu te for a re cen t desire
to m arry, a desire in this case p ain fu l to the d ream er, for reasons
still to be discovered. T h e idea of m arriage, o r ra th e r th e seri-
ousness of th e c o rresp o n d in g im pulse, is, as they say, “repressed
in to the u nco n scio u s” a n d from th ere m u st necessarily express
itself in an in fa n tile fashion, because th e m aterial at th e disposal
*2 [T he rules of dream analysis, the laws governing the stru ctu re of the dream ,
a nd its symbolism together form alm ost a science, or at any rate one of the most
im p o rta n t chapters of the psychology of the unconscious and one re q u irin g p a r -
ticularly ard uou s study.]

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 A PPENDICES

of the unconscious consists largely of in fan tile rem iniscences.

[As th e latest researches of th e Z u rich school have show n,13 b e-
sides the in fa n tile rem iniscences th ere are also “race m em o ries”
ex te n d in g far beyo n d th e lim its of th e individual.]
435 [T h is is n o t th e place to elu cid ate th e ex tra o rd in a rily co m -
p licated field of d re am analysis. W e m u st c o n te n t ourselves w ith
th e results of research: dream s are a sym bolic su b stitu te for a
p ersonally im p o rta n t wish w hich was n o t sufficiently a p p re c i-
ated d u rin g th e day a n d was “repressed.” In consequence of the
p re d o m in a n t m oral tendencies, th e insufficiently a p p recia te d
wishes th a t strive to realize them selves sym bolically in dream s
are, as a ru le, erotic ones. I t is th erefo re inadvisable to tell o n e ’s
d ream s to a kn ow ledgeable person, for th e sym bolism is o ften
q u ite tra n s p a re n t to one w ho know s th e rules. T h e clearest in
this respect are anx iety dream s, w hich are so co m m on , a n d
w hich in v ariably sym bolize a stro ng erotic wish.]
436 T h e d re am is o ften o ccupied w ith a p p a re n tly very silly d e-
tails, thus p ro d u c in g an im pression of ab su rd ity, o r else it is on
th e surface so u n in te llig ib le as to leave us th o ro u g h ly bew ild-
d ered. H e n ce we always have to overcom e a c e rtain resistance b e -
fore we can seriously set a b o u t d isen tan g lin g th e [symbolic]
w eb th ro u g h p a tie n t work. B u t w h en at last we p e n e tra te to its
real m ean in g , we find ourselves d eep in th e d re a m e r’s secrets
a n d discover w ith asto n ish m en t th a t an a p p a re n tly q u ite sense-
less d re am is in the highest degree significant, a n d th a t in reality
it speaks only of e x tra o rd in arily im p o rta n t a n d serious things of
th e soul. T h is discovery com pels ra th e r m o re respect for the old
sup erstitio n th a t dream s have a m eanin g , to w hich the ra tio n a l-
istic te m p e r of o u r age has h ith e rto given s h o rt shrift.
437 As F re u d says, dream -analysis is th e via regia to th e u n c o n -
scious. I t leads straig h t to the deepest p erso n al secrets, a n d is,
therefore, an in v alu ab le in s tru m e n t in th e h a n d of th e physician
an d ed u c ato r of the soul. T h e attacks of th e o p p o sitio n against
this m e th o d are, as m ig h t b e expected, based u p o n arg u m en ts
w hich— settin g aside the u n d e rc u rre n ts of p erso nal feeling—
d eriv e chiefly from the very stron g scholastic streak th a t still ex-
ists in the le a rn e d th o u g h t of o u r day. D ream -analysis above all
else m ercilessly uncovers the lying m o rality a n d hypocritical
pretences of m an, show ing him , for once, th e o th e r side of his
13 (Jung, W andlungen u n d Sym bole der Libido.]

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 N E W PA TH S IN PSYCHOLOGY

ch aracter in th e m ost vivid light; can we w o n d e r if m an y feel

th a t th e ir toes have b ee n heavily tro d d e n u po n ? I n this connec-
tio n I am always re m in d e d of th e strik in g statu e of C arn al
Pleasure o u tsid e Basel C ath ed ral, th e fro n t e x h ib itin g th e sweet
archaic sm ile, th e re a r covered w ith toads a n d serpents. D ream -
analysis reverses the p ic tu re a n d shows th e o th e r side. T h e e th i-
cal value of this reality-corrective can h ard ly be den ied . I t is a
p ain fu l b u t ex trem ely useful o p e ra tio n w hich m akes g reat d e-
m an d s o n b o th do ctor a n d p atien t. Psychoanalysis, considered
as a th e ra p e u tic tec h n iq u e , consists in th e m ain of n u m e ro u s
dream -analyses. I n the course of tre a tm e n t th e dream s succes-
sively th ro w u p th e dregs of th e unconscious in o rd e r to expose
th em to th e d isin fectin g pow er of daylight, a n d in this way
m u ch th a t is v alu able a n d b eliev ed lost is fo u n d again. I t is a
catharsis of a special kin d , so m eth in g like th e m aieutics of Soc-
rates, th e “a rt of th e m id w if e /’ I t is only to be ex p ected th a t for
m an y peo ple w ho have a d o p te d a c e rtain pose tow ards th e m -
selves, in w hich they violently believe, psychoanalysis is a v erita-
ble to rtu re . For, in accordance w ith the old m ystical saying,
“ Give u p w h at th o u hast, th e n shalt th o u receive!” they are
called u p o n to a b a n d o n all th e ir ch erish ed illusions in o rd e r
th a t so m eth in g deeper, fairer, a n d m o re e m b ra cin g m ay arise
w ith in them . O n ly th ro u g h th e m ystery of self-sacrifice can a
m an find him self anew. I t is a g en u in e o ld w isdom th a t comes to
lig h t again in psychoanalytical tre a tm e n t, a n d it is especially c u -
rious th a t this k in d of psychic e d u c atio n sh o u ld prov e necessary
in the heyday of o u r cu ltu re . In m o re th a n one respect it m ay be
c o m p a red w ith th e Socratic m eth o d , th o u g h it m u st be said th a t
psychoanalysis pen e trates to far gre ater depths.
438 W e always find in th e p a tie n t a conflict w h ich a t a ce rtain
p o in t is c o n n e cted w ith th e g reat p rob lem s of society. H ence,
w hen the analysis is p u sh ed to this p o in t, th e a p p a re n tly in d i-
v id u al conflict of th e p a tie n t is revealed as a universal conflict of
his e n v iro n m e n t a n d epoch. N eurosis is thu s n o th in g less th a n
an in d iv id u a l a tte m p t, how ever unsuccessful, to solve a u n i-
versal p ro b le m ; in d ee d it c a n n o t be otherw ise, for a general p ro b -
lem , a “q u e stio n ,” is n o t an ens p e r s e , b u t exists only in th e hearts
of individuals. [“T h e q u e s tio n ” th a t trou b les the p a tie n t is—
w h e th e r you like it o r n o t— th e “sexu al” q u estio n, o r m o re p re -
cisely, th e p ro b le m of present-day sexual m orality. H is increased

2909
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d e m a n d fo r life a n d th e joy of life, for glow ing reality, can stan d

the necessary lim itatio n s th a t reality itself imposes, b u t n o t th e
a rb itrary , ill-supported p ro h ib itio n s of present-day m orality,
w hich w o u ld c u rb too m u ch the creative sp irit risin g u p from
th e d ep th s of th e an im al darkness.] T h e n e u ro tic has th e soul of
a ch ild w ho bears ill w ith a rb itra ry restrictio ns whose m e a n in g
h e does n o t see; he tries to m ake this m o rality his own, b u t falls
in to p ro fo u n d division a n d d isu n ity w ith him self: o n e side of h im
w ants to suppress, th e o th e r longs to be free— a n d this struggle
goes by th e n am e of neurosis. W e re the conflict clearly conscious
in all its parts, it w o u ld nev er give rise to n e u ro tic sym ptom s;
these occur only w h en we ca n n o t see th e o th e r side of o u r n a tu re
an d th e urgency of its problem s. O n ly u n d e r these co n d itio n s
does th e sym ptom app ear, a n d it helps to give expression to th e
u nrecog n ized side of th e psyche. T h e sym ptom is th ere fo re an
in d ire c t expression of u n reco gn ized desires w hich, w h en con-
scious, com e in to v io len t conflict w ith o u r m o ral convictions. As
already observed, this shadow-side of th e psyche, b e in g w ith -
d ra w n fro m conscious scrutiny, ca n n o t b e d ea lt w ith by the p a -
tien t. H e ca n n o t correct it, c a n n o t com e to term s w ith it, n o r yet
d isregard it; fo r in reality he does n o t “ possess” th e unconscious
im pulses a t all. T h r u s t o u t from th e h ierarch y of th e conscious
psyche, they have becom e a u to n o m o u s co m p lexes w hich can be
b ro u g h t u n d e r co n tro l again th ro u g h th e analysis of th e u n c o n -
scious, th o u g h n o t w ith o u t great resistances. T h e r e are very
m an y p atien ts w ho boast th a t fo r th e m th e ero tic conflict does
n o t exist; they assure us th a t th e sexual q u estio n is all nonsense,
fo r they say they possess n o sexuality w hatever. T h e s e peop le do
n o t see th a t o th e r things of u n k n o w n o rig in c u m b e r th e ir p a th —
hysterical m oods, u n d e r h a n d tricks w hich they play o n th e m -
selves a n d th e ir n eig h bo u rs, a n ervous c a ta rrh of th e stom ach,
pains in various places, irrita b ility for n o reason, a n d a w hole
host of n ervous sym ptom s. [ T h a t is w h ere the tro u b le lies. O n ly
a few especially fav o u red by fate escape th e g re at conflict of
m o d e m m an ; th e m ajo rity are ca u g h t in it from sheer necessity.]
439 Psychoanalysis has b een accused of lib e ra tin g m a n ’s (fo rtu -
nately) repressed an im al instincts a n d th u s causing incalcu lab le
h arm . T h is [childish] a p p re h e n sio n shows how little tru s t we
place in th e efficacy of o u r m o ral principles. P eop le p re te n d th a t
o n ly m o rality holds m en back fro m u n b r id le d licence; b u t a

2910
 NEW PA TH S IN PSYCHOLOGY

m u ch m o re effective re g u la to r is necessity, w hich sets b o u n d s far

m o re real a n d persuasive th a n any m o ral precepts. It is tru e th a t
analysis lib erates th e an im al instincts, th o u g h not, as m any
w o uld have it, w ith a view to giving th em u n b rid le d power, b u t
ra th e r to p u t th em to h ig h er uses, so far as this is possible for the
in d iv id u a l co ncern ed a n d so far as he re q u ires such “su b lim a-
tio n .M I t is u n d e r all circum stances an advantage to be in full
possession of o n e ’s personality, otherw ise the repressed p o rtio n s
of the p ersonality will only cro p u p as a h in d ra n c e elsewhere,
n o t ju st at som e u n im p o rta n t p o in t, b u t at th e very spot w here
we are m ost sensitive: this w orm always rots the core. [Instead of
w aging w ar on him self it is surely b e tte r for a m an to learn to
tolerate him self, an d to co n v ert his in n e r difficulties in to real
experiences instead of e x p e n d in g th em in useless fantasies.
T h e n at least he lives, a n d does n o t waste his life in fruitless
struggles.] If p eo ple can be ed u cated to see th e lowly side of
th e ir ow n n atu res, it m ay be h o p e d th a t they will also learn to
u n d e rs ta n d an d to love th e ir fellow m en b etter. A little less hy-
pocrisy a n d a little m o re tolerance tow ards oneself can only have
good results in respect for o u r n e ig h b o u r; for we are all too
p ro n e to transfer to o u r fellows th e injustice an d violence we
inflict u p o n o u r ow n natures.
44 ° [T h is fu n n e llin g of the in d iv id u a l conflict in to th e g eneral
m oral p ro b lem p uts psychoanalysis far o utsid e th e confines of a
m erely m edical therapy. It gives the p a tie n t a w o rk in g philoso-
phy of life based on em pirical insights, which, besides affording
h im a k now ledge of his own n a tu re , also m ake it possible for
h im to fit him self in to this scheme of things. W h e re in these very
varied insights consist ca n n o t be discussed here. I t is also n o t at
all easy to form an ad e q u ate p ic tu re of an actual analysis from
th e existing lite ra tu re , since by no m eans ev ery thin g has b een
p u b lish ed th a t relates to the te c h n iq u e of a d eep analysis. Very
g reat p roblem s still re m a in to be solved in this field. U n fo rtu -
n ately the n u m b e r of scientific works o n this sub ject is still
ra th e r small, because too m an y preju dices still p re v en t m ost of
th e specialists from co llab o ratin g in this im p o rta n t end eav ou r.
M any, especially in G erm any, are also held back by the fear of
ru in in g th e ir careers if they v e n tu re to set foot on this territory.]
441 [All these w eird a n d w o n d e rfu l p h e n o m e n a th a t congregate
ro u n d psychoanalysis allow us to co n je ctu re— in accordance w ith

2911
 A PPENDICES

psychoanalytic p rin cip les— th a t so m eth in g extrem ely significant

is going on here, w hich th e lea rn ed p u b lic will (as usual) first
co m b at by displays of th e liveliest affect. B ut: m agna est vis veri-
tatis et praevalebit.]

2912
 II
THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNCONSCIOUS 1

l. T h e D istin c tio n betw een

th e Personal an d th e Im p e rso n a l U nconscious

442 Since we p a rte d co m p any w ith th e V iennese school on the

q u estio n of th e in te rp re tiv e p rin c ip le in psychoanalysis, nam ely,
w h e th e r it be sex u a lity o r sim ply energy, o u r concepts have u n -
d ergo n e co n sid erab le dev elo p m en t. O nce th e p re ju d ic e reg ard -
in g th e e x p la n a to ry cause h a d b e e n rem o v ed by acceptin g a
p u re ly ab stract one, th e n a tu re of w hich was n o t p o stu lated in
advance, o u r in tere st was d ire c te d to th e co n cep t of th e u n c o n -
scious.
l [ First delivered as a lecture to the Z urich School for Analytical Psychology,
1916, a n d pub lish ed the same year, in a French translation by M. Marsen, in
the Archives de Psychologie (XVI, p p. 152-79) u n d e r the title “ La S tructure de
l ’inconscient.” T h e lecture ap p eared in English w ith the title “T h e Conception
of th e Unconscious” in Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology (2nd edn.,
1917), a n d h a d evidently been translated from a G erm an MS, w hich subse-
q ue n tly disappeared. For the first edition of the present volum e a translation was
m ade by P h ilip M airet from th e French version. T h e G erm an MS, titled “Ü ber
das Unbewusste u n d seine In h a lte ,” came to ligh t again only after J u n g ’s d eath
in 1961. It contained a stra tu m of revisions a nd additions, in a late r h a n d of the
a u th o r ’s, m ost of w hich were in co rp orated in the revised a nd exp an ded version,
titled Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Ich und dem Unbewussten (1928), a tran s-
lation of w hich forms Part. II of the present volum e. T h e MS d id not, how -
ever, contain all the new m aterial th a t was add ed in the 1928 version. In p a r -
ticular, section 5 (infra, pars. 480-521) was replaced by P a rt II of th a t essay.
[T h e text th at now follows is a new translation from the newly discovered
G erm an MS. A dditions th a t fou nd th e ir way in to the 1928 version have no t
been included; additions th a t are n o t represented in th a t version are given in
square brackets. T o facilitate com parison betw een the 1916 an d the final ver-
sions, the corresponding p a ra g ra p h num bers of the la tter are likewise given in
square brackets. A sim ilar b u t n o t identical presentation of the rediscovered
MS is given in Vol. 7 of the Swiss edition.— E d i t o r s .]

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 A PPEN D IC ES

[202] 443 I n F r e u d 's v ie w , as m o s t p e o p l e k n o w , t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e

u n c o n s c io u s a r e r e d u c i b l e to i n f a n t i l e t e n d e n c i e s w h i c h a r e r e -
p r e s s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n c o m p a t i b l e c h a r a c t e r . R e p r e s s i o n is a
p r o c e s s t h a t b e g i n s in e a r ly c h i l d h o o d u n d e r t h e m o r a l in f lu e n c e
o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h o u t life . B y m e a n s o f
a n a ly s is t h e r e p r e s s i o n s a r e r e m o v e d a n d t h e r e p r e s s e d w is h e s a r e
m a d e c o n s c io u s a g a in . T h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e u n c o n s c io u s w o u l d t h u s
f in d its e lf e m p t i e d a n d , so to s p e a k , d o n e a w a y w i t h ; b u t i n r e a l -
ity t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f in f a n t i l e - s e x u a l w is h - fa n ta s ie s c o n t i n u e s
r i g h t i n t o o l d ag e.
[203] 444 A ccord in g to this theory, the unconscious w o u ld c o n ta in
only those elem ents of th e personality w hich co u ld ju s t as well
be conscious, a n d have in fact b ee n suppressed only th ro u g h th e
process of educatio n . I t follows th a t th e essential c o n te n t of th e
unconscious w o u ld be of a personal character. A lth o u g h from
o ne p o in t of view th e in fa n tile tendencies of th e unconscious are
th e m ost conspicuous, it w o u ld n o n e th e less be a m istake to d e-
fine o r evaluate th e unconscious en tire ly in these term s. T h e
u nconscious has still a n o th e r side to it: it includes n o t o n ly re -
pressed contents, b u t also all psychic m ateria l th a t lies below th e
th resh o ld of consciousness. I t is im possible to e x p la in th e su b -
lim in a l n a tu re of all this m ateria l on the p rin c ip le of repression,
fo r in th a t case th e rem oval of repression o u g h t to end o w a p e r-
son w ith a p rodigious m em ory w hich w o u ld th e n c e fo rth forget
n o th in g . N o d o u b t repression plays a p art, b u t it is n o t th e only
factor. If w h at we call a b ad m em o ry w ere always only the re su lt
of repression, those w ho enjoy an excellen t m em o ry o u g h t n ev er
to suffer from repression, n o r in consequence be n eu ro tic . B u t
ex perien ce shows th a t this is n o t th e case a t all. T h e r e are cer-
tain ly cases of ab n o rm a lly b ad m em o ry w h ere it is obvious th a t
th e lion's share m u st be a ttrib u te d to repression, b u t these are
relatively rare.
[204] 445 W e th erefo re affirm th a t in a d d itio n to th e repressed m a -
terial th e unconscious contains all those psychic co m p o n en ts
th a t have fallen below th e thresh o ld , as w ell as su b lim in a l sense-
p erceptions. M oreover, we know , from a b u n d a n t ex p erien ce as
well as for theoretical reasons, th a t besides this the unconscious
con tains all the m ateria l th a t has n o t ye t re ach e d th e th resh o ld
of consciousness. T h e s e are th e seeds of fu tu re conscious co n-

2914
 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

tents. E q u ally we have every reason to suppose th a t th e u n c o n -

scious is n ev e r q u iescen t in th e sense of b ein g inactive, b u t p re -
sum ably is ceaselessly engaged in th e g ro u p in g a n d re g ro u p in g
of so-called unconscious fantasies. T h is activity sh o u ld be
th o u g h t of as relatively au to n o m o u s only in patho lo gical cases;
n o rm ally it is co-ordin ated w ith consciousness in a co m pensatory
re la tio n sh ip .
[205] 446 i t is to be assum ed th a t all these co n ten ts are of a personal
n a tu re in so far as they are a c q u ire d d u rin g th e in d iv id u a l’s life.
Since this life is lim ited , th e n u m b e r of a c q u ire d con ten ts in th e
unconscious m u st also be lim ited . T h is b ein g so, it m ig h t be
th o u g h t possible to em p ty th e unconscious e ith e r by analysis
o r by m a k in g a co m p lete in v en to ry of th e unconscious contents,
o n th e g ro u n d th a t th e unconscious c a n n o t p ro d u c e a n y th in g
m o re th a n w h a t is already k n o w n a n d assim ilated in to conscious-
ness. W e s h o u ld also have to suppose, as we have said, th a t if one
co u ld arrest th e descent of conscious co n ten ts in to th e u n c o n -
scious by d o in g away w ith repression, unconscious pro d u c tiv ity
w o u ld b e paralysed. T h is is possible only to a very lim ite d ex-
ten t, as we know fro m experience. W e u rg e o u r p atien ts to h old
fast to repressed co nten ts th a t have b ee n re-associated w ith con-
sciousness, a n d to assim ilate th em in to th e ir p lan of life. B u t this
p ro c ed u re , as we m ay daily convince ourselves, m akesy n o im -
pression o n th e unconscious, since it calm ly goes o n p ro d u c in g
a p p a re n tly th e sam e in fantile-sexual fantasies w hich, according
to th e ea rlier theory, sh o u ld be th e effects of perso nal re p res-
sions. If in such cases th e analysis be c o n tin u e d systematically,
o ne uncovers little by little a m edley of in c o m p atib le wish-
fantasies of a m ost s u rp risin g com position. Besides all th e sexual
perversions one finds every conceivable k in d of crim in ality , as
well as th e n o b lest deeds a n d th e loftiest ideas im aginable, th e
existence of w hich o n e w o u ld n ev e r have suspected in the su b -
jec t u n d e r analysis.
[228] 447 B y w a y 0 f ex a m p le I w o u ld like to recall the case of a
schizophrenic p a tie n t of M a e d e r’s, w ho used to declare th a t th e
w o rld was his p ictu re-b oo k .2 H e was a w retch ed lo ck sm ith ’s ap -
p re n tic e w ho fell ill at an early age a n d h ad never b een blessed
w ith m u c h intelligence. T h i s n o tio n of his, th a t th e w o rld was
2 M aeder, “L a L angue d 'u n aliéné,” A rchives de Psychologie, IX, 212.

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 APPEN D ICES

his picture-book, the leaves of w hich he was tu r n in g o ver as he

lo ok ed a r o u n d h im , is exactly th e same as S c h o p e n h a u e r’s
“w o rld as will a n d id ea,” b u t expressed in p rim itiv e p ic tu re la n -
guage. H is vision is ju st as su b lim e as S c h o p en h a u er’s, th e only
d ifference b ein g th a t w ith th e p a tie n t it re m a in e d a t an e m b ry -
onic stage, whereas in S ch o p en h a u er th e sam e idea is tran s-
fo rm e d fro m a vision in to an ab stra ctio n a n d expressed in a la n -
guage th a t is u niversally valid.
[229] 4 4 8 i t w o u ld be q u ite w ro n g to suppose th a t th e p a tie n t’s

vision h ad a personal ch aracter a n d value, fo r th a t w o u ld be to

en d ow th e p a tie n t w ith th e d ig n ity of a p h ilosop h er. B ut, as I
h ave in d icated, he alo n e is a p h ilo so p h er w ho can tra n s m u te a
vision b o rn of n a tu re in to an ab stract idea, th ere b y tran sla tin g it
in to a universally valid language. S ch o p e n h a u e r’s p hilosop h ical
co n c ep tio n represents a personal value, b u t th e vision of th e p a -
tie n t is an im p erso nal value, a m erely n a tu ra l grow th, th e p ro -
p rie ta ry rig h t to w h ich can be a c q u ire d only by h im w h o a b -
stracts it in to an idea a n d expresses it in u n iv ersal term s. I t
w ould, how ever, be w ro n g to a ttrib u te to th e p h ilo so p h er, by
exag gerating th e value of his achievem ent, th e a d d itio n a l m e rit
of hav in g actually created o r in v e n te d th e vision itself. I t is a
p rim o rd ia l idea th a t grows u p q u ite as n a tu ra lly in th e ph ilo so -
p h e r a n d is sim ply a p a rt of th e c o m m o n p ro p e rty of m a n k in d ,
in w hich, in p rin cip le, everyone has a share. T h e g o ld en apples
d ro p from th e sam e tree, w h e th e r th ey b e g ath e re d by a lock-
s m ith ’s a p p re n tic e o r by a S ch o penh auer.
[218] 4 4 9 T h e s e p rim o rd ia l ideas, of w hich I have given a great
m an y exam ples in m y w o rk o n lib id o ,3 ob lige o ne to m ake, in
reg ard to unconscious m aterial, a d istin c tio n of q u ite a different
c h a rac ter fro m th a t b etw e en “ preconscious” a n d “u n con scio us”
o r “subconscious” a n d “ uncon sciou s.” T h e ju stificatio n for
these d istin ction s n e e d n o t b e discussed here. T h e y have th e ir
specific value a n d are well w o rth e la b o ra tin g fu r th e r as p oints of
view. T h e fu n d a m e n ta l d istin c tio n w h ich ex p erien ce has forced
u p o n m e claim s to be n o m o re th a n th at. I t sh o u ld be e v id e n t
fro m th e foregoing th a t we have to d istin g u ish in th e u n c o n -
scious a layer w hich we m ay call th e personal u ncon scio us. T h e
co n te n ts of this layer are of a p erson al n a tu re in so far as they
have the ch a rac ter p artly of acq uisition s d eriv e d fro m th e indi-
& Psychology of the Unconscious.

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 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

v id u a l’s life a n d p artly of psychological factors4 w hich c o u ld ju st

as well be conscious.
[218] 450 i t can readily be u n d e rsto o d th a t in co m p atib le psycho-
logical elem ents are liab le to repression a n d th ere fo re becom e
unconscious. B u t this im plies th e possibility, o n the o th e r h an d ,
of m ak in g a n d k ee p in g th e repressed co n tents conscious once
they have b e e n recognized. W e recognize th e m as personal co n -
tents because th e ir effects, o r th e ir p artia l m anifestatio n , o r th e ir
source can be discovered in o u r personal past. T h e y are in teg ra l
co m p o n en ts of th e personality, they b elo n g to its inventory, a n d
th e ir loss to consciousness produces an in fe rio rity in one respect
o r an o th e r. T h is in ferio rity has th e psychological ch aracter n o t
so m u ch of an organic lesion o r an in b o rn defect as of a lack
w hich gives rise to a feeling of m o ral re sen tm en t. T h e sense of
m oral in fe rio rity always indicates th a t th e m issing e le m e n t is
so m eth in g w hich, to ju d g e by this feeling a b o u t it, really o u g h t
n o t to be missing, o r w h ich co u ld be m ad e conscious if only one
took sufficient tro u b le. T h e m o ral in fe rio rity does n o t com e
from a collision w ith th e g en erally accepted and , in a sense, a r b i-
trary m o ral law, b u t from th e conflict w ith o n e ’s ow n self, w hich
for reasons of psychic e q u ilib riu m d em a n d s th a t th e deficit be
redressed. W h e n e v e r a sense of m o ral in ferio rity appears, it in -
dicates n o t only a n eed to assim ilate an unconscious co m p o n e n t,
b u t also th e possibility of such assim ilation. I n the last re so rt it is
a m a n ’s m o ral q u alities w hich force h im , e ith e r th ro u g h d irec t
re co g n itio n of th e n ee d o r in d irec tly th ro u g h a p a in fu l neurosis,
to assim ilate his unconscious self a n d k eep h im self fully co n -
scious. W h o e v er progresses alo ng this p a th of self-realization
m u st in ev itably b rin g in to consciousness th e co n tents of his
personal unconscious, th u s e n la rg in g co n sid erably th e scope of
his personality.

2. P h e n o m e n a R e s u ltin g fr o m
the A ssim ila tio n o f the Unconscious

[221] 451 T h e process of assim ilatin g th e unconscious gives rise to

som e very re m a rk ab le p h en o m e n a. I t p roduces in some patien ts
4For instance, repressed wishes or tendencies th a t are incom patible w ith the
m oral or aesthetic sentim ents of the subject.

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 APPEN D ICES

an u n m ista k a b le a n d often u n p le a sa n t increase of self-confidence

a n d conceit: they are full of them selves, they k n ow everything,
they im agine them selves to be fully in fo rm e d of ev ery thing con-
c e rn in g th e ir unconscious, a n d are p ersu ad ed th a t they u n d e r-
stan d perfectly ev ery thin g th a t comes o u t of it. A t every in te r-
view w ith the d o cto r they get m o re a n d m o re above themselves.
O th ers on th e co n tra ry feel them selves m o re a n d m o re crushed
u n d e r th e co nten ts of th e unconscious, they lose th e ir self-
confidence a n d a b a n d o n them selves w ith d u ll re sign ation to all
th e e x tra o rd in a ry things th a t th e unconscious produces. T h e
fo rm er, overflowing w ith feelings of th e ir ow n im p o rtan ce, as-
su m e a resp o nsib ility for th e unconscious th a t goes m u c h too far,
b ey o n d all reasonable b o u nd s; the others finally give u p all sense
of responsibility, overcom e by a sense of th e powerlessness of th e
ego against th e fate w o rk in g th ro u g h th e unconscious.
[222] 452 i f w e a n a ly s e th e s e tw o m o d e s o f r e a c t i o n m o r e d e e p ly , w e
f in d t h a t t h e o p t i m i s t i c s e lf - c o n fid e n c e o f t h e firs t c o n c e a ls a p r o -
f o u n d s e n s e o f i m p o t e n c e , f o r w h i c h t h e i r c o n s c io u s o p t i m i s m
ac ts as a n u n s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e n s a t i o n ; w h i l e t h e p e s s im is tic r e s -
i g n a t i o n o f t h e o t h e r s m a s k s a d e f i a n t w ill to p o w e r , f a r s u r p a s s -
i n g in c o c k s u r e n e s s t h e c o n s c io u s o p t i m i s m o f t h e firs t ty p e .
[224] 4 53 A d ler has em ployed the te rm “godlikeness” to charac-
terize ce rta in basic features of n e u ro tic p ow er psychology. If I
likewise b o rro w the same term fro m Faust, I use it h ere m o re in
th e sense of th a t well k n o w n passage w h ere M ep h isto w rites
“ E ritis sicut Deus, scientes b o n u m et m a lu m ” in th e stu d en t's
alb u m , a n d m akes th e follow ing aside:

Just follow the old advice

Of my cousin the snake.
T h e re ’ll come a time when your godlikeness
W ill make you quiver and quake.5

454 G odlikeness is ce rtain ly n o t a scientific concept, alth o u g h

it aptly characterizes th e psychological state in q uestio n . I t has
yet to be seen w hence this a ttitu d e arises a n d w hy it deserves th e
n am e of godlikeness. As th e term indicates, th e a b n o rm a lity of
th e p atie n t's c o n d itio n consists in his a ttr ib u tin g to him self
qu alities o r values w hich obviously do n o t b e lo n g to him , fo r to
6 Faust, P a rt I, 3rd scene in F aust’s study.

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 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

be “g o d lik e” is to be like a s p irit su p e rio r to the sp irit of m an.

[235] 455 If, w ith a psychological aim in view, we dissect this n o tio n
of godlikeness, we find th a t th e te rm com prises n o t only th e dy-
n am ic p h e n o m e n o n I have discussed in m y boo k o n lib ido , b u t
also a c e rta in psychic fu n c tio n h av in g a collective ch aracter
su p ra o rd in a te to th e in d iv id u a l m en tality . J u s t as th e in d iv id u a l
is n o t m erely a u n iq u e a n d separate being, b u t is also a social
being, so th e h u m a n m in d is n o t a self-contained a n d w holly
in d iv id u a l p h e n o m e n o n , b u t also a collective one. A n d ju s t as
ce rtain social fu n c tio n s o r instincts are opposed to th e egocentric
interests of th e in d iv id u a l, so c e rta in fu n ctio n s o r tendencies of
the h u m a n m in d are opposed, by th e ir collective n a tu re , to the
personal m e n ta l fu n ctio n s.6 T h e reason for this is th a t every
m an is b o rn w ith a b ra in th a t is highly d ifferentiated . T h is
makes h im capable of a w ide ran g e of m e n ta l fu n c tio n in g w hich
is n e ith e r d ev elo p ed o n to gen etically n o r acq u ired . B ut, inas-
m u ch as h u m a n b rain s are u n ifo rm ly d ifferen tiated , the m en tal
fu n c tio n in g th ere b y m ad e possible is collective a n d u n iv e r-
sal. T h is explains, for exam ple, th e in te re stin g fact th a t th e
unconscious processes of th e m ost w idely separated peoples
a n d races show a q u ite re m a rk a b le correspondence, w hich dis-
plays itself, am o n g o th e r things, in th e ex tra o rd in a ry b u t well-
a u th e n tic a te d analogies betw een th e form s a n d m otifs of a u -
to ch th o n o u s m yths.
[ ] 456 T h e u niv ersal sim ilarity of h u m a n b ra in s leads to th e u n i -
versal possibility of a u n ifo rm m e n ta l fu n c tio n in g . T h is fu n c-
tio n in g is th e collective psyche. T h is can be su b d iv id ed in to the
collective m in d a n d th e collective soul.1 In a sm u c h as th ere are
d ifferen tiatio ns co rresp o n d in g to race, trib e, a n d even fam ily,
th e re is also a collective psyche lim ite d to race, trib e, a n d fam ily
over a n d above th e “u n iv ersa l” collective psyche. T o b o rro w an

6 T h is conflict arises, for instance, w hen it is a question of sub o rd in a tin g p e r-

sonal desires o r opinions to social laws. Cf. Rousseau, E m ile , Book I: “W h at
can one do . . . w hen, instead of edu cating a m an for himself, people w ant to
educate him for others? H a rm o n y is th en impossible. Obliged to fight eith er
against n a tu re o r against the social institutions, one has to choose betw een m ak -
ing a m an o r a citizen; for one cannot m ake the one a nd the o th er a t the same
tim e.’*
7 By the collective m ind I m ean collective thinking; by the collective soul col-
lective feeling; and by the collective psyche th e collective psychological func-
tions as a whole.

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 A PPEN D IC ES

expression from P ie rre J a n e t, th e collective psyche com prises

th e parties in férieures of th e m e n ta l functions, th a t is to say
those deep-rooted, w ell-nigh au to m a tic po rtio n s of th e in d iv id -
u al psyche w hich are in h e rite d a n d are to be fo u n d everyw here,
a n d are th u s im p erso n al o r sup rap erson al. Consciousness plus
th e personal unconscious con stitutes the parties supérieures of
th e m e n ta l functions, those p o rtio ns, th erefore, th a t are devel-
o p ed ontog en etically a n d a c q u ire d as a re su lt of person al differ-
en tiatio n .
[ ] 457 C onsequently, th e in d iv id u a l w ho annexes the u nconscious
h eritag e of the collective psyche to w h at has accrued to h im in
th e course of his o n to g en etic d e v e lo p m e n t enlarges th e scope of
his p ersonality in an illeg itim ate way a n d suffers th e conse-
quences. In so far as th e collective psyche com prises the parties
inférieures of the m en tal fu n ctio ns a n d th u s form s th e basis of
every personality, it has th e effect of c ru sh in g a n d d e v a lu in g the
latter. T h is shows itself in th e a fo re m e n tio n e d stifling of self-
confidence a n d in an unconscious h e ig h te n in g of th e ego’s im -
p o rtan c e to the p o in t of a pathological w ill to pow er. O n th e
o th e r h and, in so far as th e collective psyche is su p ra o rd in a te to
th e personality, b ein g the m a trix of all personal d ifferentiatio ns
a n d th e m en tal fu n c tio n co m m o n to all ind iv id u als, it will have
th e effect, if an n e x ed to th e personality, of p ro d u c in g a h y p er-
tro p h y of self-confidence, w hich in tu r n is co m p en sated by an
ex tra o rd in a ry sense of in ferio rity in th e unconscious.
[237] 458 I f , th ro u g h assim ilation of th e unconscious, we m ak e th e
m istake of in c lu d in g th e collective psyche in th e in v en to ry of
p ersonal m en tal functions, a d isso lu tion of th e p erson ality in to
its p aire d opposites in ev itab ly follows. Besides th e p a ir of o p p o -
sites already discussed, m eg a lo m a n ia a n d th e sense of in ferio rity ,
w hich are so p ain fu lly e v id e n t in neurosis, th ere are m an y
others, from w hich I will single o u t only th e specifically m o ral
p a ir of opposites, nam ely good a n d evil (scientes b o n u m et
m a lu m !). T h e fo rm a tio n of this p a ir goes h a n d in h a n d w ith the
increase a n d d im in u tio n of self-confidence. T h e specific v irtu es
a n d vices of h u m a n ity are c o n ta in e d in th e collective psyche like
ev ery th in g else. O n e m an arrogates collective v irtu e to him self
as his personal m erit, a n o th e r takes collective vice as his personal
g u ilt. B oth are as illusory as the m eg a lo m a n ia a n d th e in fe rio r-
ity, because the im agin ary v irtu es a n d th e im ag in ary wickedness

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 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

are sim ply th e m o ral p a ir of opposites c o n ta in e d in th e collec-

tive psyche, w h ich have becom e p e rcep tib le o r have been re n -
d e re d conscious artificially. H o w m u c h these p a ire d opposites are
c o n ta in e d in th e collective psyche is exem plified by prim itiv es:
o ne observer w ill extol th e g reatest virtu es in them , w h ile a n -
o th e r w ill re c o rd th e very w orst im pressions of th e selfsame
tribe. F o r th e p rim itiv e, whose p erson al d iffe ren tiatio n is, as we
know , o nly ju st beg in n in g , b o th ju d g m e n ts are tru e, because his
m e n ta lity is essentially collective. H e is still m o re o r less id e n ti-
cal w ith th e collective psyche, a n d for th a t reason shares eq u ally
in th e collective virtu es a n d vices w ith o u t any personal a ttr ib u -
tio n a n d w ith o u t in n e r c o n tra d ictio n . T h e c o n tra d ictio n arises
only w h e n th e personal d e v e lo p m e n t of th e m in d begins, a n d
w h e n reason discovers th e irre co n cilab le n a tu re of th e opposites.
T h e con seq u en ce of this discovery is th e conflict of repression.
W e w a n t to be good, a n d th ere fo re m u st repress evil; a n d w ith
th a t th e p arad ise of th e collective psyche comes to a n end.
[237 ] 459 R epressio n of th e collective psyche was abso lu tely neces-
sary fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e personality, since collective psy-
chology a n d personal psychology ex clud e on e a n o th e r u p to a
p oin t. H isto ry teaches us th a t w h e n ev er a psychological a ttitu d e
acq uires a collective value, schisms b eg in to b re ak ou t. N o w h ere
is this m o re ev id e n t th a n in th e h isto ry of relig io n. A collective
a ttitu d e is always a th re a t to th e in d iv id u a l, even w h e n it is a
necessity. I t is d an gero u s because it is very a p t to check a n d
s m o th er all personal differen tiatio n . I t derives this ch aracteristic
fro m th e collective psyche, w hich is itself a p ro d u c t of th e psy-
chological d iffe ren tiatio n of th e p ow erfu l gregarious in stin c t in
m an. C ollective th in k in g a n d feeling a n d collective effort are re l-
atively easy in co m p ariso n w ith in d iv id u a l fu n c tio n in g a n d p er-
form ance; a n d fro m this m ay arise, all too easily, a dan gerou s
th re a t to th e d e v e lo p m e n t of p erso n ality th ro u g h e n feeb le m e n t
of th e personal fu n c tio n . T h e dam age d o n e to th e p ersonality is
com pen sated — fo r ev e ry th in g is co m p en sated in psychology— by
a com pulsive u n io n a n d unconscious id e n tity w ith th e collective
psyche.
[240] 460 T h e r e is now a d a n g e r th a t in th e analysis of th e u n c o n -
scious th e collective a n d th e p ersonal psyche m ay be fused to -
gether, w ith, as I have in tim a te d , hig h ly u n fo rtu n a te results.
T h e se results are in ju rio u s b o th to the p a tie n t’s life-feeling a n d

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to his fellow m en, if he has any pow er a t all over his e n v iro n -
m e n t. T h r o u g h his id en tificatio n w ith th e collective psyche he
w ill infallib ly try to force th e d em an d s of his unconscious u p o n
others, fo r id e n tity w ith th e collective psyche always brin gs w ith
it a feeling of universal v alidity— “godlikeness”— w h ich com -
pletely ignores all differences in th e psychology o f his fellows.
461 T h e w orst abuses of this k in d can be avoided by a clear u n -
d e rs ta n d in g a n d a p p re c ia tio n of th e fact th a t th e re are differ-
en tly o rie n te d psychological types whose psychology c a n n o t be
forced in to th e m o u ld of o n e ’s ow n type. I t is h a rd e n o u g h fo r
o n e type com pletely to u n d e rs ta n d a n o th e r type, b u t perfect u n -
d ersta n d in g of a n o th e r in d iv id u a lity is totally im possible. D u e
re g a rd for the in d iv id u a lity of a n o th e r is n o t only advisable b u t
absolutely essential in analysis if th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e p a -
ti e n t ’s p ersonality is n o t to b e stifled. H e re it is to be observed
th a t, fo r o ne type of in d iv id u a l, to show respect for a n o th e r’s
freed o m is to g ra n t h im freed o m of action, w hile for a n o th e r it is
to g ra n t h im freed o m of th o u g h t. I n analysis b o th m u st b e safe-
g u a rd e d so far as th e analyst’s ow n self-preservation p erm its h im
to do so. A n excessive desire to u n d e rs ta n d a n d e n lig h te n is ju st
as useless a n d in ju rio u s as a lack of u n d ersta n d in g .
[241] 462 T h e collective instincts a n d fu n d a m e n ta l form s of th in k -
in g a n d feeling b ro u g h t to lig h t by analysis o f the unconscious
co n stitute, for th e conscious personality, an ac q u isitio n w hich it
c a n n o t assim ilate co m pletely w ith o u t in ju ry to itself.8 I t is

8 Here I would pause to remark that I intentionally abstain from discussing

the question of how this problem presents itself from the point of view of the
psychology of types. A special and somewhat complicated study would be re-
quired to formulate this in the language of type psychology. I must content
myself here with indicating the difficulties that such a task would involve. T h e
word “person,” for instance, signifies one thing to the introvert and another to
the extravert. During childhood the conscious function of adaptation to reality
is archaic and collective, but it soon acquires a personal character which it may
m aintain henceforth if the individual feels no particular need to develop his
type towards the ideal. If such an eventuality arises, the function of adaptation
to reality may attain a perfection which pretends to universal validity, and
therefore bears a collectivistic character as contrasted with its primitive collec-
tive character. T o pursue this terminology, the collective psyche would be iden-
tical with the “herd soul” in the individual, whereas a collectivistic psychology
would represent a highly differentiated attitude to society.
Now in the introvert the conscious function of adaptation to reality is thinking,
which in the early stages of development is personal, b ut which tends to acquire a

2922
 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

th ere fo re of th e u tm o st im p o rta n c e in practical tre a tm e n t to

keep th e goal of th e in d iv id u a l's d ev e lo p m e n t constantly in
view. F or, if the collective psyche is tak e n to be th e personal
possession of th e in d iv id u a l o r as a personal b u rd e n , it w ill re -
su lt in a d is to rtio n o r an o v erlo a d in g of th e p erso n ality w hich is
very difficult to deal w ith. H e n c e it is im p era tiv e to m ak e a clear
d istin c tio n b etw een the p erso n al unconscious a n d th e co n ten ts
of the collective psyche. T h is d istin c tio n is far fro m easy, b e-
cause th e personal grows o u t of th e collective psyche a n d is in ti-
m ately b o u n d u p w ith it. So it is difficult to say exactly w h a t
co n te n ts are to b e called perso n al a n d w h a t collective. T h e r e is
n o d o u b t, for instance, th a t archaic sym bolism s such as we fre-
q u e n tly find in fantasies a n d dream s are collective factors. A ll
basic instincts a n d basic form s of th in k in g a n d feeling are collec-
tive. E v ery th in g th a t all m en agree in re g a rd in g as universal is
collective, likewise ev ery th in g th a t is universally un d ersto o d ,
universally fo u n d , universally said a n d done. O n closer exam i-
n a tio n one is always astonished to see how m u ch of o u r so-called
in d iv id u a l psychology is really collective. So m u ch , indeed, th a t
th e in d iv id u a l traits are com pletely overshadow ed by it. Since,
how ever, in d iv id u a tio n is an in elu cta b le psychological necessity,
we can see from th e ascendency of th e collective w h at very spe-
cial a tte n tio n m u st be p aid to this delicate p la n t “ in d iv id u a lity "
if it is n o t to be com pletely sm othered.
[2423463 H u m a n beings have one faculty w hich, th o u g h it is oi the
greatest u tility for collective purposes, is m ost p ernicio us for in -
d iv id u a tio n , a n d th a t is the faculty of im ita tio n . C ollective psy-
general character of a collectivistic nature, while his feeling remains markedly
personal in so far as it is conscious, and collective-archaic in so far as it is un-
conscious or is repressed. In the extravert, precisely the reverse happens. Be-
sides this im portant difference there is another, and one which is much more
profound, between the role and meaning of the “person” for the extravert and
for the introvert. T h e whole endeavour of the introvert is directed towards
preserving the integrity of his ego, which makes him assume an attitude to-
wards his own person entirely different from that of the extravert, whose adapta-
tion is made through feeling, even at the cost of his own person. These obser-
vations show what extraordinary difficulties we should have to surmount if we
wished to consider our problem from the angle of type psychology, and justify
us in abstaining from the attempt.
[This theme was greatly developed in Psychological Types, where the identi-
fication of thinking with introversion and feeling with extraversión was given
up.— E d i t o r s . ]

2923
 APPENDICES

chology ca n n o t dispense w ith im ita tio n , fo r w ith o u t it all mass

organizations, th e State a n d th e social order, are sim ply im possi-
ble. Society is organized, in d eed , less by law th a n by th e p ro p e n -
sity to im ita tio n , im p ly in g eq ually suggestibility, suggestion,
a n d m e n ta l contagion. B u t we see every day how p eo ple use, or
ra th e r abuse, th e m echanism of im ita tio n for th e p u rp o se of p er-
sonal d ifferentiatio n : they are c o n te n t to ape some e m in e n t p e r-
sonality, som e strik in g characteristic or m o d e of b eh a v io u r,
th ere b y achieving an o u tw a rd d istin c tio n fro m th e circle in
w hich they move. W e c o u ld alm ost say th a t as a p u n is h m e n t for
this th e u n ifo rm ity of th e ir m in d s w ith those of th e ir n e ig h -
bours, already real eno u g h, is still fu r th e r increased u n til it b e-
comes an unconscious enslav em en t to th e ir su rro u n d in g s. As a
ru le these specious a ttem p ts at d ifferen tiatio n stiffen in to a pose,
a n d th e im ita to r rem ain s at the sam e level as he always was, only
several degrees m o re sterile th a n before. T o find o u t w h a t is
tru ly in d iv id u a l in ourselves, p ro fo u n d reflection is n eeded; a n d
sud d en ly we realize how u n co m m o n ly difficult th e discovery of
in d iv id u a lity is.

3. T h e Persona as a S e g m en t
o f the C ollective Psyche

[243] 464 H e re we com e to a p ro b lem w hich, if overlooked, is liab le

to cause th e greatest confusion. I t will be re m e m b e re d th a t in
the analysis of th e personal unconscious th e first things to be
ad d e d to consciousness are the personal contents, a n d I sug-
gested th a t these contents, w hich have b een repressed b u t are
capable of b ein g m ad e conscious again, sh o u ld be called th e p e r-
sonal u nconscious. I also showed th a t to a n n e x th e d ee p er layers
of th e unconscious, w hich I have called th e im personal u n c o n -
scious, produces an e n la rg em en t of th e perso n ality lea d in g to
th e state of “godlikeness.” T h is state is re ach e d by sim ply co n -
tin u in g th e analytical w o rk w hich has re sto red to consciousness
th e repressed p o rtio n s of th e personality. By c o n tin u in g th e
analysis we ad d to th e personal consciousness c e rtain fu n d a m e n -
tal, general, a n d im p erso n al characteristics of h u m an ity , th ere b y
b rin g in g a b o u t th e co n d itio n I have described, w h ich m ig h t be

2924
 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

re g ard e d as o ne of th e disagreeable consequences of analysis.9

[245 ] 465 F ro m this p o in t of view th e conscious p erso n ality looks to
us like a m o re or less a rb itra ry segm ent of th e collective psyche.
I t owes its existence sim ply to th e fact th a t it is fro m th e o u tset
u n conscious of these fu n d a m e n ta l a n d universal characteristics
of h u m a n ity , a n d in a d d itio n has repressed, m o re o r less a rb i-
trarily , psychic o r characterological elem ents of w hich it co u ld
ju s t as well be conscious, in o rd e r to b u ild u p th a t segm ent of
th e collective psyche w hich we call the persona. T h e term p e r-
sona is a very a p p ro p ria te expression for this, for o riginally it
m e a n t the m ask once w o rn by actors to in d icate th e ro le they
played. If we e n d e av o u r to d raw a precise d istin c tio n b etw een
w h a t psychic m ateria l sh o u ld be co n sid ered personal, a n d w h a t
im person al, we soon find ourselves in th e greatest dilem m a, for
by d efin itio n we have to say of th e p erso n a’s co nten ts w h a t we
have said of the im p erso n al unconscious, nam ely, th a t they are
collective. I t is only because the persona rep resents a m o re o r less
a rb itra ry a n d fo rtu ito u s segm ent of th e collective psyche th a t we
can m ak e th e m istake of re g a rd in g it in toto as som eth in g in d i-
v id ual. I t is, as its n am e im plies, only th e m ask w o rn by th e col-
lective psyche, a m ask th a t feigns in d ivid u a lity , m ak in g others
a n d oneself believe th a t one is in d iv id u al, w hereas one is sim ply
actin g a ro le th ro u g h w hich the collective psyche speaks.
[246 ] 466 W h e n we analyse the persona we strip off the mask, a n d
discover th a t w h a t seem ed to be in d iv id u a l is at b o tto m collec-
tive. W e th u s trace th e “ petty god of this w o rld ” back to his
o rig in in th e un iv ersal god w ho is a personification of the collec-
tive psyche. W h e th e r we re d u ce th e personality to th e fu n d a -
m e n tal in stin c t of sexuality, like F reu d , o r to the ego’s elem en -
tary will to pow er, like A dler, o r to th e g eneral p rin c ip le of the
collective psyche w h ich em braces b o th the F re u d ia n a n d th e A d -
leria n p rin cip les, we arriv e a t th e sam e resu lt: th e dissolution of
0 In a certain sense this feeling of “godlikeness” exists a priori, even before
analysis, not only in the neurotic but also in the normal person, the only dif-
ference being that the normal individual is effectively shielded from any per-
ception of his unconscious, while the neurotic is less and less so. On account of
his quite peculiar sensibility, the latter participates to a greater extent in the
life of the unconscious than does the normal person. Consequently, “godlike-
ness” manifests itself more clearly in the neurotic and it is heightened still fur-
ther by the realization of unconscious contents through analysis.

2925
 APPENDICES

th e personality in the collective. T h a t is why, in any analysis

th a t is p u sh ed far enough, th ere comes a m o m e n t w hen th e su b -
jec t ex p erien ces th a t feeling of “godlikeness” of w hich we have
spoken.
[25°] 467 T h is c o n d itio n fre q u e n tly ann o un ces itself by very p ecu l-
iar sym ptom s, as for exam ple dream s in w hich the d re a m e r is
flying th ro u g h space like a com et, o r feels th a t he is th e earth,
th e sun, or a star, or th a t he is of im m ense size, o r dwarfishly
sm all, o r th a t he is dead, is in a strange place, is a stran g er
to him self, confused, m ad, etc. H e m ay also experien ce body-
sensations, such as b ein g too large for his skin, or too fat; or h y p -
nagogic sensations of falling o r risin g endlessly, of th e body gro w -
in g larger, or of vertigo. Psychologically this state is m a rk e d by a
p ec u lia r d iso rie n ta tio n in reg ard to one's own personality; one
n o lon g er knows w ho one is, o r one is absolutely ce rtain th a t one
actually is w h at one seems to have becom e. In to leran ce, do g m a-
tism, self-conceit, self-depreciation, a n d c o n te m p t for “ people
w ho have n o t been analysed,” a n d for th e ir views a n d activities,
are co m m o n sym ptom s. O fte n e n o u g h I have observed an in -
crease in th e liab ility to physical illness, b u t only w hen the p a -
tients relish th e ir co n d itio n a n d dwell on it too long.
[251] 468 T h e forces th a t b u rst o u t of th e collective psyche are co n -
fusing a n d b lin d in g . O n e re su lt of the dissolution of the persona
is th e release of fantasy, w hich is a p p a ren tly n o th in g less th an
the specific activity of th e collective psyche. T h is o u tb u rs t of
fantasy throw s u p in to consciousness m aterials a n d im pulses
whose existence one h ad never before suspected. All th e treas-
ures of m ythological th in k in g a n d feeling are unlocked. I t is
n o t always easy to h o ld one's ow n against such an ov erw h elm in g
im pression. T h is phase m u st be reck o ned one of the real dangers
of analysis, a d an g e r th a t o u g h t n o t to be m inim ized.
4 69 I t will read ily be u n d e rsto o d th a t this c o n d itio n is so in s u p -
p o rta b le th a t on e w o u ld like to p u t an e n d to it as speedily as
possible, since th e analogy w ith m e n ta l d e ra n g e m e n t is too close.
As we know , th e com m onest form of insanity, d em e n tia praecox
o r schizophrenia, consists essentially in th e fact th a t th e u n c o n -
scious in large m easu re ousts a n d su p p lan ts th e fu n c tio n of the
conscious m in d . T h e unconscious usu rps the reality fu n c tio n
a n d sub stitu tes its ow n reality. U nconscious thou gh ts becom e
a u d ib le as voices, or are perceived as visions o r body-hallucina-

2926
 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

tions, o r they m anifest them selves in senseless, u n sh ak a b le ju d g -

m ents u p h e ld in th e face of reality.
47 ° In a sim ilar b u t n o t q u ite iden tical m a n n e r th e unconscious
is p u sh ed in to consciousness w h e n th e persona is dissolved in the
collective psyche. T h e one difference b etw een this state a n d th a t
of m en tal a lien a tio n is th a t here th e unconscious is b ro u g h t to
th e surface w ith the h elp of conscious analysis— at least, this is
h ow things go at th e b e g in n in g of an analysis, w hen po w erfu l
c u ltu ra l resistances to th e unconscious have still to be overcom e.
L ater, w hen th e b arriers b u ilt u p by th e years have b een b ro k e n
dow n, th e unconscious in tru d e s spontaneously, a n d som etim es
irru p ts in to the conscious m in d like a to rre n t. In this phase the
analogy w ith m en tal d e ra n g e m e n t is very close. [In the same
way, th e m om en ts of in sp ira tio n in a genius o ften b ea r a decided
re sem b lan ce to p athological states.] B u t it w o u ld be real insan -
ity only if th e co n ten ts of the unconscious becam e a reality th a t
took th e place of conscious reality; in o th e r words, if they were
b eliev ed in w ith o u t reserve. [Actually, on e can believe in the
co n ten ts of the unconscious w ith o u t this a m o u n tin g to insanity
in th e p ro p e r sense, even th o u g h actions of a n u n a d a p te d n a tu re
m ay be p e rfo rm ed on th e basis of such convictions. P ara n o id
delusions, for instance, do n o t d e p e n d o n belief— they a p p e ar to
b e tru e a priori a n d have no n eed of b elief in o rd e r to lead an
effective a n d valid existence. I n th e cases we are discussing th e
q u e stio n is still o p en w h e th e r belief o r criticism will triu m p h .
T h is alte rn a tiv e is n o t fo u n d in g e n u in e insanity.]

4. A tte m p ts to Free the In d iv id u a lity

fr o m th e C ollective Psyche

a. THE REGRESSIVE RESTORATION OF THE PERSONA

471 T h e u n b e a ra b le state of id en tity w ith th e collective psyche
drives th e p a tie n t, as we have said, to som e radical solution. T w o
ways are o p en to h im for g ettin g o u t of th e c o n d itio n of “god-
likeness.” T h e first possibility is to try to re-establish regressively
the previous perso n a by a tte m p tin g to co n tro l th e unconscious
th ro u g h th e ap p lica tio n of a re d u ctiv e th eory — by declaring, for
instance, th a t it is “n o th in g b u t ” repressed a n d lo n g o verd u e

2927
 A PPENDICES

in fa n tile sexuality w hich w o u ld really be best rep laced by th e

n o rm a l sexual fu nctio n. T h is ex p la n a tio n is based on th e u n d e -
n iably sexual sym bolism of the language of the unconscious a n d
o n its concretistic in te rp re ta tio n . A ltern ativ ely th e p o w er th eo ry
m ay be invoked and, relyin g o n th e eq u ally u n d e n ia b le pow er
tendencies of th e unconscious, one may in te rp re t the feeling of
“godlikeness” as “m asculine p ro test,” as the in fan tile desire for
d o m in a tio n a n d security. O r o ne m ay ex p la in the unconscious
in term s of th e archaic psychology of prim itives, an ex p la n atio n
th a t w ou ld n o t only cover b o th th e sexual sym bolism a n d th e
“ g o dlik e” pow er strivings th a t com e to lig h t in the unconscious
m ateria l b u t w o u ld also seem to do justice to its religious, p h ilo -
sophical, a n d m ythological aspects.
472 In each case th e conclusion will be th e same, for w hat it
a m o u n ts to is a re p u d ia tio n of the unconscious as so m eth in g
everybody knows to be useless, in fan tile, devoid of sense, a n d
alto g eth e r im possible an d obsolete. A fter this dev alu atio n , th ere
is n o th in g to be d o n e b u t sh ru g o n e ’s shoulders resignedly. T o
the p a tie n t th ere seems to be no alternative, if he is to go on
living rationally, b u t to reco n stitu te, as best he can, th a t seg-
m e n t of th e collective psyche w hich we have called th e persona,
a n d q u ie tly give u p analysis, try in g to forget if possible th a t he
possesses an unconscious. H e will take F au st’s words to h eart:

[257] T his earthly circle I know well enough.

Towards the Beyond the view has been cut off;
Fool—who directs that way his dazzled eye,
Contrives himself a double in the sky!
Let him look round him here, not stray beyond;
T o a sound man this world must needs respond.
T o roam into eternity is vain!
W hat he perceives, he can attain.
T hu s let him walk along his earthlong day;
T ho ug h phantoms h au nt him, let him go his way,
And, moving on, to weal and woe assent—
He at each moment ever discontent.10

[258] 473 Such a so lu tio n w o uld be perfect if a m a n were really able

to shake off th e unconscious, d ra in it of lib id o an d re n d e r it in -
active. B u t experience shows th a t it is n o t possible to d ra in th e
10 Faust, trans. by MacNeice, Part II, Act V, p. 283.

2928
 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

energy fro m th e unconscious: it re m a in s active, for it n o t only

contains b u t is itself the source of lib id o from w hich all the psy-
chic elem ents flow in to us— th e thought-feelings or feeling-
thou g hts, th e still u n d iffe re n tia te d germ s of form al th in k in g an d
feeling. I t is th erefo re a d elu sio n to th in k th at by som e k in d of
m agical theo ry or m e th o d th e unconscious can be finally e m p -
tied of lib id o a n d thus, as it were, elim in ated . O n e m ay for a
w h ile play w ith this delusion, b u t th e day comes w h e n o ne is
forced to say w ith Faust:

But now such spectredom so throngs the air

T h a t none knows how to dodge it, none knows where.
T h o u g h one day greet us with a rational gleam,
T h e night entangles us in webs of dream.
We come back happy from the fields of spring—
A nd a bird croaks. Croaks what? Some evil thing.
Enmeshed in superstition night and morn,
It forms and shows itself and comes to warn.
And we, so scared, stand w ithout friend or kin,
And the door creaks— and nobody comes in.
Anyone here?
C a r e : T h e answer should be clear.
F a u s t : And you, who are you then?
C a r e : I a m ju st h e re.
F a u s t : T ake yourself off!
C a r e : This is where I belong.
F a u s t : T ake care, Faust, speak no magic spell, be strong.
C a r e : U nheard by the outward ear
In the heart I whisper fear;
Changing shape from ho ur to hour
I employ my savage power.11

T h e unconscious c a n n o t b e analysed to a finish a n d

b ro u g h t to a standstill. N o th in g can d ep riv e it of its pow er for
any len g th of tim e. T o a tte m p t to do so by th e m e th o d described
is to deceive ourselves, a n d is n o th in g b u t o rd in a ry repression in
a new guise.
M ep h isto ph eles leaves an av en u e o pen w hich sho u ld n o t
be overlooked, since it is a real possibility for some people. H e
tells Faust, w ho is sick of the “m adness of m agic” a n d w ou ld
gladly escape from th e w itc h ’s k itchen :
11 Ibid., p p . 28if. (modified).

2929
 A PPENDICES

Right. T here is one way that needs

No money, no physician, and no witch.
Pack up your things and get back to the land
And there begin to dig and ditch;
Keep to the narrow round, confine your mind,
And live on fodder of the simplest kind,
A beast among the beasts; and don't forget
T o use your own dung on the crops you set.12

[Anyone w ho finds it possible to live this k in d of life w ill n ev er

be in d an g er of com in g to grief in e ith e r of the two ways we are
discussing, for his n a tu re does n o t com pel h im to tackle a p ro b -
lem th a t is bey on d his powers. B u t if ever the g reat p ro b le m
sh o u ld be th ru s t u p o n him , this way o u t w ill be closed.]

b . ID EN TIFICA TIO N W IT H T H E COLLECTIVE PSYCHE

[260] 476 T h e second way leads to identification w ith the collective

psyche. T h is am o u n ts to an acceptance of “godlikeness,” b u t
n ow ex alted in to a system. T h a t is to say, one is th e fo rtu n a te
possessor of the great tr u th w hich was only w aitin g to be discov-
ered, of the eschatological know ledge w hich spells the h ea lin g of
th e nations. T h is a ttitu d e is n o t necessarily m egalo m an ia in d i-
rect form , b u t in th e m ild e r a n d m o re fam iliar form of p ro -
p h etic in sp iratio n a n d desire for m arty rd o m . F o r w eak-m inded
persons, w ho as o ften as n o t possess m o re th a n th e ir fair share of
a m b itio n , vanity, a n d m isplaced naïveté, th e d an g er of yield in g
to this te m p ta tio n is very great. Access to th e collective psyche
m eans a renew al of life for th e in d iv id u a l, n o m a tte r w h e th e r
this renew al is felt as pleasan t or un p lea sa n t. Everybody w o u ld
like to h o ld fast to this renew al: one m a n because it enhances his
life-feeling, a n o th e r because it prom ises a ric h harvest of k n o w l-
edge. T h e re fo re b o th of them , n o t w ishing to d ep riv e th e m -
selves of the g reat treasures th a t lie b u rie d in th e collective
psyche, w ill strive by every m eans possible to m a in ta in th e ir
new ly w on co n n ectio n w ith th e p rim a l source of life.13 Id e n tifi-

12 Ibid., Part I, p. 67 (modified).

13 I would like to call attention here to an interesting remark of Kant's. In his
lectures on psychology ( Vorlesungen über Psychologie) he speaks of the “ treasure
lying within the field of dim representations, that deep abyss of human knowl-
edge forever beyond our reach.” T his treasure, as I have demonstrated in my

2930
 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

catio n w o u ld seem to be th e sho rtest ro a d to this, for the dissolu-

tio n of th e p erson a in th e collective psyche positively invites one
to p lu n g e in to th a t “ocean of d iv in ity ” a n d b lo t o u t all m em o ry
in its em brace. T h is piece of m ysticism is in n a te in all b e tte r
m en as th e “lo n g in g fo r th e m o th e r,” th e nostalgia fo r the
source from w h ich we cam e.
[26i]477 A s I have show n in m y b oo k o n libido, th e re lie a t th e
r o o t of th e regressive longing, w h ich F re u d conceives as “in fa n -
tile fix atio n ” o r th e “ incest w ish,” a specific v alue a n d a specific
n ee d w hich are m ad e exp licit in m yths. I t is precisely th e stro ng -
est a n d best am o n g m en , th e heroes, w ho give way to th e ir re -
gressive lo n g in g a n d pu rp o sely expose them selves to th e d an g er
of b ein g d e v o u re d by th e m o n ster of th e m ate rn a l abyss. B u t if a
m a n is a hero, he is a h ero because, in the final recko n ing , he d id
n o t let th e m o n ster d ev o u r h im , b u t su b d u e d it, n o t once b u t
m an y times. V ictory over th e collective psyche alo n e yields the
tru e v alu e— th e c a p tu re of the ho ard , th e in v in cib le w eapon, th e
m agic talism an, o r w h atev er it b e th a t th e m y th deem s m ost d e-
sirable. A n y o n e w ho identifies w ith th e collective psyche— or, in
m ythological term s, lets him self b e d ev o u re d by th e m o n ster—
a n d vanishes in it, attain s th e treasu re th a t th e d ra g o n guards,
b u t he does so in spite of him self a n d to his ow n greatest h arm .
47 ® [T h e dang er, therefore, of fallin g victim to th e collective
psyche by id en tificatio n is n o t to b e m in im ized . Id en tificatio n
is a re tro g ra d e step, o n e m o re stu p id ity has b ee n co m m itted , a n d
o n to p of th a t th e p rin c ip le of in d iv id u a tio n is d en ie d a n d re -
pressed u n d e r th e cloak of th e in d iv id u a l d eed a n d in th e n e b u -
lous conceit th a t o n e has discovered w h a t is tru ly one's own. In
reality one has n o t discovered one's ow n at all, b u t ra th e r the
e te rn al tru th s a n d erro rs of th e collective psyche. I n th e collec-
tive psyche o n e ’s tru e in d iv id u a lity is lost.]
479 Id en tificatio n w ith th e collective psyche is th u s a m istake
that, in a n o th e r form , ends as disastrously as th e first way, w hich
led to the sep aratio n of th e p erso n a fro m th e collective psyche.
Psychology of the Unconscious, is the aggregate of all those primordial images in
which the libido is invested, or rather, which are self-representations of the
libido.

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 APPEN D IC ES

5. F u n d a m e n ta l P rinciples in the T r e a tm e n t
o f C ollective Id e n tity

480 I n o rd e r to solve th e p ro b le m p re sen ted by th e assim ilation

of the collective psyche, a n d to find a practical m e th o d of tre a t-
m en t, we have first of all to take acco u n t of th e e rro r of th e two
p ro ced ures we have ju s t described. W e have seen th a t n e ith e r
th e one n o r th e o th e r can lead to good results.
481 T h e first, by a b a n d o n in g th e vital values in the collective
psyche, sim ply leads back to th e p o in t of d e p a rtu re . T h e second
p en e trates d irectly in to th e collective psyche, b u t a t th e price of
losing th a t separate h u m a n existence w hich alo n e can re n d e r life
su p p o rta b le a n d satisfying. Yet each of these ways proffers abso-
lu te values th a t sh o u ld n o t be lost to th e in d iv id u a l.
482 T h e m ischief, th en , lies n e ith e r w ith th é collective psyche
n o r w ith th e in d iv id u a l psyche, b u t in allow ing th e o n e to ex-
clu d e the o th er. T h e disp o sitio n to do this is en co u rag ed by th e
m o n istic te n d e n cy, w h ich always a n d everyw here looks fo r a
u n iq u e p rin cip le. M onism , as a g en eral psychological tendency,
is a ch aracteristic of all civilized th in k in g a n d feeling, a n d it p ro -
ceeds fro m the desire to set u p one fu n c tio n o r th e o th e r as th e
su p re m e psychological p rin cip le. T h e in tro v e rte d type knows
o nly th e p rin c ip le of th in k in g , th e e x tra v e rte d type only th a t of
fe e lin g .14 T h is psychological m on ism , o r r a th e r m o n o th eism , has
th e advantage of sim plicity b u t th e defect of one-sidedness. I t
im plies o n th e o ne h a n d exclusion of th e diversity a n d ric h re al-
ity of life a n d th e w o rld , a n d on th e o th e r th e practicality of
realizin g the ideals of the p re sen t a n d th e im m e d iate past, b u t it
holds o u t n o real possibility of h u m a n d e v e lo p m e n t.
483 T h e d isp osition to exclusiveness is en c o u rag e d n o less by ra -
tionalism . T h e essence of this consists in th e flat d e n ia l of w h a t-
ever is opposed to one's ow n way of seeing things e ith e r fro m the
logic of th e in tellect o r from th e logic of feeling. I t is equally
m o n istic a n d ty ran n ic al in re g a rd to reason itself. W e o u g h t to
b e p artic u la rly g ra te fu l to B ergson for h av in g b ro k e n a lance in
defence of th e irra tio n a l. A lth o u g h it m ay n o t be at all to th e
taste of th e scientific m in d , psychology w ill nonetheless have to
[A view abandoned later. Cf. n. 8 supra.—Editors.]

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 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

recognize a p lu ra lity of p rin cip les a n d accom m odate itself to

them . I t is th e only way to p re v e n t psychology from g ettin g
strand ed. I n this m a tte r we owe a g re at deal to th e p io n e e r w ork
of W illiam Jam es.
484 W ith re g a rd to in d iv id u a l psychology, how ever, science m u st
waive its claim s. T o speak of a science of in d iv id u a l psychology
is already a co n tra d ic tio n in term s. I t is only the collective ele-
m e n t in th e psychology of an in d iv id u a l th a t constitutes an o b -
ject for science; for th e in d iv id u a l is by d efinition so m eth in g
u n iq u e th a t c a n n o t be co m p a red w ith a n y th in g else. A psychol-
ogist w ho professes a “scientific” in d iv id u a l psychology is sim ply
d en y in g in d iv id u a l psychology. H e exposes his in d iv id u a l psy-
chology to th e leg itim ate suspicion of b e in g m erely his ow n psy-
chology. T h e psychology of every in d iv id u a l w o uld n eed its ow n
m an u a l, for th e general m a n u a l can deal only w ith collective
psychology.
485 T h e s e re m a rk s are in te n d e d as a p re lu d e to w h a t I have to
say a b o u t th e h a n d lin g of th e aforesaid p ro b lem . T h e fu n d a -
m en tal e rro r of b o th proced u res consists in id en tify in g th e su b-
ject w ith o n e side o r th e o th e r of his psychology. H is psychology
is as m u ch in d iv id u a l as collective, b u t n o t in the sense th a t th e
in d iv id u a l o u g h t to m erge him self in th e collective, n o r th e col-
lective in th e in d iv id u a l. W e m u s t rigorously separate th e con-
cept of th e in d iv id u a l from th a t of th e persona, for the persona
can b e en tire ly dissolved in th e collective. B u t th e in d iv id u a l is
precisely th a t w h ich can n ev er be m erg ed w ith th e collective a n d
is n ever id en tical w ith it. T h a t is w hy id entificatio n w ith th e
collective a n d v o lu n ta ry segregation fro m it are alike synony-
m ous w ith disease.
486 i t is sim ply im possible to effect a clear division of the in d i-
v id ual fro m th e collective, a n d even if it w ere possible it w ould
be q u ite pointless a n d valueless for o u r purpose. I t is sufficient
to k now th a t th e h u m a n psyche is b o th in d iv id u a l a n d collec-
tive, a n d th a t its w ell-being d ep en ds on th e n a tu ra l co-operation
of these tw o a p p a re n tly co n tra d icto ry sides. T h e i r u n io n is es-
sentially an irra tio n a l life process th a t can, at most, be described
in in d iv id u a l cases, b u t can n e ith e r be b ro u g h t ab o ut, n o r u n -
derstood, n o r ex p la in e d ra tio n a lly .15
15 [This paragraph, though included in the earliest draft of the German MS, was
omitted from the earlier French and English translations.— E d i t o r s . ]

2933
 APPENDICES

487 I£ I m ay be forgiven a h u m o ro u s illu stra tio n of th e starting-

p o in t for the so lu tio n of o u r p ro b lem , I w ou ld cite B u rid a n ’s ass
b etw een the two b u n d les of hay. O bviously his q u estio n was
w rongly p u t. T h e im p o rta n t th in g was n o t w h e th e r the b u n d le
o n the rig h t o r the one on the left was th e better, o r w hich one
he o u g h t to start eating, b u t w h a t he w a n te d in the d ep th s of his
b ein g — w hich d id he feel p u sh ed towards? T h e ass w a n te d th e
o bject to m ake u p his m in d for him .
488 W h a t is it, at this m o m e n t a n d in this in d iv id u al, th a t re p re -
sents the n a tu ra l u rge of life? T h a t is th e question.
489 T h a t q u estio n n e ith e r science, n o r w orldly wisdom , n o r re li-
gion, n o r th e best of advice can resolve fo r him . T h e reso lu tio n
can com e solely from absolutely im p a rtia l observ atio n of those
psychological germ s of life w hich are b o rn of the n a tu ra l co llab -
o ra tio n of th e conscious a n d th e unconscious on the one h a n d
a n d of th e in d iv id u a l a n d th e collective on the o th er. W h e re do
we find these germ s of life? O n e m a n seeks th em in th e co n -
scious, a n o th e r in th e unconscious. B u t th e conscious is only one
side, a n d th e unconscious is only its reverse. W e sh o u ld never
forget th a t dream s are th e com pensators of consciousness. If it
w ere n o t so, we w o u ld have to reg ard th em as a source of k n o w l-
edge s u p e rio r to consciousness: we sh o u ld th e n be d eg rad ed to
th e m en tal level of fo rtu n e tellers a n d w o u ld be o bliged to ac-
cep t all th e fu tility of su p erstitio n , o r else, follow ing vu lg ar
o p in io n , den y any value at all to dream s.
49 ° I t is in creative fantasies th a t we find th e u n ify in g fu n c tio n
we seek. All th e fu n ctio n s th a t are active in the psyche converge
in fantasy. Fantasy has, it is tru e, a p o o r re p u ta tio n am o n g psy-
chologists, a n d u p to th e p resen t psychoanalytic theories have
trea ted it accordingly. F o r F re u d as for A d ler it is n o th in g b u t a
“sym bolic” disguise for th e basic drives a n d in ten tio n s p re su p -
posed by these two investigators. As against these o p in ion s it
m u st be em phasized— n o t o n theoretical g ro u n d s b u t essentially
for practical reasons— th at alth o u g h fantasy can be causally ex-
p la in e d a n d dev alued in this way, it nevertheless rem ain s the
creative m a trix of ev eryth in g th at has m ad e progress possible for
h u m an ity . Fantasy has its ow n irre d u c ib le value, for it is a psy-
chic fu n c tio n th a t has its roots in th e conscious a n d the u n c o n -
scious alike, in th e in d iv id u a l as m u ch as in the collective.

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 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

491 W h e n ce has fantasy ac q u ire d its b ad re p u ta tio n ? Above all

from th e circu m stan ce th a t it c a n n o t be tak en literally. C on-
cretely u n d ersto o d , it is worthless. If it is u n d ersto o d sem ioti-
cally, as F re u d u n d ersta n d s it, it is in tere stin g from th e scientific
p o in t of view; b u t if it is u n d e rsto o d h erm en eu tica lly, as an a u -
th en tic sym bol, it acts as a signpost, p ro v id in g the clues we need
in o rd e r to carry o n o u r lives in h arm o n y w ith ourselves.
492 T h e sym bol is n o t a sign th a t disguises so m eth ing generally
k n o w n . 16 Its m e a n in g resides in th e fact th a t it is an a tte m p t to
elucidate, by a m o re or less ap t analogy, som ething th a t is still
en tire ly u n k n o w n o r still in th e process of fo rm a tio n . 17 If we
re d u ce this by analysis to so m eth in g th a t is generally know n, we
destroy th e tru e value of the sym bol; b u t to a ttrib u te h e rm e n e u -
tic significance to it is consistent w ith its value a n d m eaning.
493 T h e essence of herm en eu tics, an art w idely practised in for-
m e r times, consists in a d d in g fu r th e r analogies to th e o ne al-
ready s u p p lied by th e sym bol: in th e first place subjective an a lo -
gies p ro d u c ed at ra n d o m by th e p atien t, th e n objective analogies
p ro v id ed by th e analyst o u t of his general know ledge. T h is
p ro c e d u re w idens a n d enriches the in itia l symbol, a n d th e final
o u tco m e is an infinitely co m p lex a n d v ariegated p ictu re the ele-
m ents of w hich can be re d u ced to th e ir respective tertia compar-
adonis. C e rta in lines of psychological d ev e lo p m e n t th e n stand
o u t th a t are at once in d iv id u a l a n d collective. T h e r e is n o sci-
ence on e a rth by w hich these lines co u ld be proved “rig h t” ; on
th e contrary, ra tio n a lism co u ld very easily prove th at they are
w rong. T h e i r validity is proved by th e ir intense value for life.
A n d th a t is w h at m atters in practical tre a tm e n t: th a t h u m a n b e-
ings sh ou ld get a h o ld on th e ir ow n lives, n o t th a t the principles
by w hich they live sh o u ld be proved ratio n ally to be “rig h t.”
494 [T his view will seem the only acceptable one to the m an of
o u r tim e w ho th ink s a n d feels scientifically, b u t n o t to th e ex-
tra o rd in a rily large n u m b e r of so-called ed u cated people for w hom
science is n o t a p rin c ip le of intellectu al ethics su p erio r to th eir
ow n m inds, b u t ra th e r a m eans of co rro b o ra tin g th eir in n e r ex-

A disguise, that is, for the basic drive or elementary intention.

17Cf. Silberer, Problems of Mysticism and Its Symbolism; also my Symbols of
Transformation and “T he Content of the Psychoses ”

2935
 APPENDICES

periences a n d giving th em general validity. N o one w ho is co n -

ce rn ed w ith psychology sh ou ld b lin d him self to the fact th a t b e-
sides the relatively small n u m b e r of those w ho pay hom age to
scientific p rin cip les a n d techniques, h u m a n ity fairly swarms
w ith ad h e ren ts of q u ite a n o th e r p rin ciple. I t is en tire ly in k eep -
in g w ith th e s p irit of o u r present-day c u ltu re th a t one can read
in an encyclopaedia, in an article on astrology, the follow ing re -
m ark: “ O n e of its last ad h e ren ts was I. W . Pfaff, whose A stro lo -
gie (B am berg, 1816) a n d D er Stern der D rei W eisen (1821)
m u st be called strange anachronism s. Even today, how ever, as-
trology is still highly re g ard e d in the East, p artic u la rly in Persia,
In d ia, a n d C h in a .” O n e m u st be sm itte n w ith b lindness to w rite
such a th in g nowadays. T h e tr u th is th a t astrology flourishes as
n ev er before. T h e r e is a re g u la r lib rary of astrological books an d
m agazines th a t sell for far b e tte r th a n th e best scientific works.
T h e E u ro p ean s a n d A m ericans w ho have horoscopes cast for
th em m ay be co u n te d n o t by th e h u n d re d th o u san d b u t by the
m illio n . Astrology is a flourishing in d u stry . Yet the encyclopae-
d ia can say: “T h e p o et D ry d en (d. 1701) still h ad horoscopes
cast fo r his c h ild re n .” C h ristia n Science, too, has sw am ped
E u ro p e a n d A m erica. H u n d re d s a n d thousands of people on
b o th sides of the A tlan tic swear by theosophy a n d anthroposo-
phy, a n d an yone w ho believes th a t th e R osicrucians are a legend
of th e d im bygone has only to o p en his eyes to see th em as m u ch
alive today as they ever were. F olk m agic a n d secret lore have
by n o m eans d ied out. N o r sh o u ld it be im ag in ed th a t only the
dregs of the po p ulace fall for such superstitions. W e have, as we
know , to clim b very h igh on th e social scale to find th e ch a m -
pions of this o th e r principle.]
495 [A nyone w ho is in tere ste d in th e real psychology of m an
m u st b e a r such facts in m in d . F o r if such a large percentage of
th e p o p u la tio n has an insatiab le n ee d for this c o u n te rp o le to th e
scientific spirit, we can be sure th a t th e collective psyche in
every in d iv id u a l— be he n ev er so scientific— has this psychologi-
cal re q u ire m e n t in eq u ally h ig h degree. A c e rtain k in d of “sci-
entific” scepticism a n d criticism in o u r tim e is n o th in g b u t a
m isplaced co m pen sation of th e po w erfu l a n d deep-rooted su p er-
stitious im pulses of th e collective psyche. W e have seen fro m
experien ce th a t extrem ely critical m in ds have su ccu m b ed com -
p letely to this d e m a n d of th e collective psyche, e ith e r directly,

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 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

o r in d irec tly by m a k in g a fetish of th e ir p a rtic u la r scientific th e-

ory.] 18
49 *> F aith fu l to th e sp irit of scientific su perstitio n , som eone m ay
now b egin to talk a b o u t su g gestio n. B u t we o u g h t to have re al-
ized long ago th a t a suggestion is n o t accepted unless it is agree-
able to th e p erso n concerned. U nless it is acceptable, all sugges-
tio n is fu tile; otherw ise the tre a tm e n t of neurosis w o u ld b e an
extrem ely sim p le affair: on e w o u ld m erely have to suggest th e
state of h ealth . T h is pseudo-scientific talk a b o u t suggestion is
based o n th e unconscious su p e rstitio n th a t suggestion is pos-
sessed of som e self-generated m agical pow er. N o o n e succum bs
to suggestion unless fro m th e very b o tto m of his h e a rt h e is w ill-
ing to com ply w ith it.
497 By m ean s of th e h e rm e n e u tic tre a tm e n t of fantasies we ar-
rive, in theory, a t a synthesis of th e in d iv id u a l w ith th e collec-
tive psyche; b u t in practice o n e in d isp en sab le co n d itio n rem ain s
to be fulfilled. I t belongs essentially to th e regressive n a tu re of
th e n e u ro tic — a n d this is so m eth in g he has also le a rn t in th e
course of his illness— n ev er to take him self o r the w o rld seriously,
b u t always to rely first on one d o cto r a n d th e n o n an o th e r, by
this or th a t m eth o d , a n d in such a n d such circum stances, to cu re
h im , w ith o u t any serious co o p e ratio n o n his p art. N ow , n o do g
can be w ashed w ith o u t g e ttin g wet. W ith o u t th e co m plete w ill-
ingness a n d ab so lu te seriousness of th e p atie n t, n o recovery is
possible. T h e r e are n o m agical cures for neurosis. T h e m o m e n t
we begin to m a p o u t th e lines of advance th a t are sym bolically
in d icated , th e p a tie n t him self m u st p ro ceed alo n g them . If he
shirks this by his ow n deceit, he au to m atica lly precludes any
cure. H e m u st in very t r u t h take th e way of th e in d iv id u a l life-
lin e he has recognized as his own, a n d c o n tin u e alo ng it u n til
such tim e as an u n m ista k a b le re actio n fro m th e unconscious
tells h im th a t he is o n th e w ro n g track.
498 H e w ho does n o t possess this m o ral fu n c tio n , this loyalty to
him self, w ill n ev er get r id of his neurosis. B u t he w ho has this
capacity will certain ly find the way to cu re him self.

18 [In Gesammelte Werke, vol. 7, these additions (pars. 494-95) follow par. 477.
There is, however, no indication in the holograph MS that they belong there—
or indeed anywhere else, since they were written on a separate slip of paper. We
have therefore placed them where they seem to have a greater relevance to the
context.—Editors.]

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 A PPENDICES

499 N e ith e r th e d o cto r n o r th e p a tie n t, therefore, sh o u ld let

him self slip in to th e belief th a t analysis by itself is sufficient to
rem ove a neurosis. T h a t w o u ld be a d elu sio n a n d a deception.
Infallibly, in th e last resort, it is th e m oral factor th a t decides
betw een h ea lth a n d sickness.
500 T h e co n stru c tio n of “life-lines” reveals to consciousness th e
ever-changing d irec tio n of the cu rren ts of libido. T h e se life-lines
are n o t to be confused w ith the “g u id in g fictions” discovered
by A dler, for the la tte r are n o th in g b u t a rb itra ry attem p ts to c u t
off th e persona fro m th e collective psyche a n d len d it an in d e -
p e n d e n t existence. O n e m ig h t ra th e r say th a t th e g u id in g fiction
is an unsuccessful a tte m p t to co n stru ct a life-line. M oreover—
a n d this shows th e uselessness of the fiction— such a lin e as it
does p ro d u ce persists far too long; it has the tenacity of a cram p.
501 T h e life-line co n stru c ted by the h e rm e n e u tic m e th o d is, o n
th e contrary, tem porary, for life does n o t follow straig h t lines
whose course can be p re d ic ted far in advance. “A ll tr u th is
cro ok ed,” says Nietzsche. T h e s e life-lines, therefore, are never
general p rin ciples o r universally accepted ideals, b u t poin ts of
view a n d attitu d es th a t have a provisional value. A decline in
vital intensity, a no ticeable loss of libido, or, on the contrary, an
u p su rg e of feeling in d icate th e m o m e n t w hen on e lin e has been
q u itte d a n d a new lin e begins, o r ra th e r o u g h t to begin. Some-
tim es it is e n o u g h to leave th e unconscious to discover th e new
line, b u t this a ttitu d e is n o t to be re co m m en d ed to th e n e u ro tic
u n d e r all circum stances, alth o u g h there are in d eed cases w here
this is ju s t w h at the p a tie n t needs to lea rn — how to p u t his tru st
in so-called chance. H ow ever, it is n o t advisable to let oneself
d rift for any len g th of tim e; a w atchful eye sh o u ld at least be
k e p t on th e reactions of th e unconscious, th a t is, on dream s,
w hich in d icate like a b a ro m e te r th e one-sidedness of o u r a tti-
tu d e .19 U n lik e o th e r psychologists, I th erefo re consider it neces-
sary for th e p a tie n t to re m a in in co n tact w ith his unconscious,
19 One should not look for any moral function in this signification of dreams,
and I am not suggesting that there is one. Nor is the function of the dream
“teleological" in the philosophic sense of the word—that is, of having a final
end, still less of projecting a goal. I have often pointed out that the function
of dreams is above all compensatory, in that they represent the subliminal ele-
ments constellated by the actual situation of the conscious mind. There is no
moral intention in that, nor anything teleological whatsoever; it is simply a
phenomenon tha t ought, in the first place, to be understood causally. However,

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 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

even afte r analysis, if h e wishes to avoid a relapse.20 I am p e r-

suaded th a t th e tru e en d of analysis is reached w h en th e p a tie n t
has g ain ed an ad e q u a te know ledge of the m eth o d s by w hich he
can m a in ta in co n tact w ith th e unconscious, a n d has ac q u ired a
psychological u n d e rs ta n d in g sufficient for him to discern th e d i-
re ctio n of his life-line at th e m o m en t. W ith o u t this his conscious
m in d will n o t be ab le to follow the cu rren ts of lib id o a n d con-
sciously sustain the in d iv id u a lity he has achieved. A p a tie n t w ho
has h ad any serious neurosis needs to be e q u ip p e d in this way if
he is to persevere in his cure.
5°2 Analysis, th u s u n d ersto o d , is by n o m eans a th era p eu tic
m eth o d of w hich the m edical profession holds a m onopoly. I t is
an art, a tec h n iq u e , a science of psychological life, w hich the
p a tien t, w h e n cured , sh o u ld c o n tin u e to practise for his ow n
good a n d for the good of those am ongst w h o m he lives. If he
u n d e rsta n d s it in this way, he w ill n o t set him self u p as a
p ro p h e t, n o r as a w o rld refo rm er; b u t, w ith a so u n d sense of the
general good, he w ill profit by th e know ledge he has acq u ired
d u rin g tre a tm e n t, a n d his influence will m ake itself felt m o re by
the ex a m p le of his ow n life th a n by any h ig h discourse or m is-
sionary p ro p a g an d a.

[a d d e n d u m ] 21

5°3 [I am well aw are th a t this discussion has lan d e d m e o n p e ril-

ous g ro u n d . It is v irgin territo ry w hich psychology has still to
co n q u e r, a n d I am o b lig ed to do p io n ee r w ork. I am p ain fu lly

it would be doing violence to the psyche to consider it from the causal angle
alone. One not only can, but one must envisage it from the standpoint of final-
ity—causality is itself a point of view—in order to discover to what purpose just
these given elements are grouped together. This is not to say that the final
meaning, in the sense of an end given a priori, pre-existed in the preliminary
stages of the phenomenon we are discussing. According to the theory of knowl-
edge it is evidently not possible, from the indubitably final meaning of biolog-
ical mechanisms, to deduce the pre-existent fixation of a final end. But while
thus legitimately abandoning a teleological conclusion it would be weak-minded
to sacrifice also the point of view of finality. All one can say is that things h ap-
pen as if there were a fixed final aim. In psychology one ought to be as wary
of believing absolutely in causality as of an absolute belief in teleology.
20 This is not to say that he should adapt himself simply to the unconscious
and not to the world of reality.
21 [In the German Ur text, pars. 504-506 followed par. 485, and appeared in that

2939
 APPEN D ICES

conscious of th e in ad eq uacy of m an y of m y form u lation s, th o u g h

u n fo rtu n a te ly this know ledge is of little avail w hen it comes to
im p ro v in g on them . I m u st th ere fo re beg the re a d e r n o t to be
p u t off by th e shortcom ings of m y p resen tatio n , b u t to try to feel
his way in to w h a t I am e n d e av o u rin g to describe. I w o u ld like to
say a few w ords m o re a b o u t th e co ncep t of in d iv id u a lity in re la -
tio n to th e personal a n d th e collective in o rd e r to clarify this
ce n tral p ro b lem .
5°4 As I have already p o in te d out, in d iv id u a lity reveals itself
p rim a rily in th e p a rtic u la r selection of those elem ents of th e col-
lective psyche w hich co n stitu te th e persona. T h e se com ponents,
as we have seen, are n o t in d iv id u a l b u t collective. I t is only th e ir
c o m b in atio n , or th e selection of a g ro u p already c o m b in ed in a
p a tte rn , th a t is ind iv id u al. T h u s we have an in d iv id u a l nucleus
w hich is covered by the personal mask. I t is in the p a rtic u la r
d iffe ren tiatio n of th e person a th a t th e in d iv id u a lity ex h ibits its
resistance to th e collective psyche. By analysing the persona we
confer a g reater valu e o n th e in d iv id u a lity a n d th us accen tu -
ate its conflict w ith th e collectivity. T h is conflict consists, of
course, in a psychological o p p o sitio n w ith in th e subject. T h e dis-
so lu tio n of the com pro m ise b etw een th e two halves of a p a ir of
opposites re n d ers th e ir activity m o re intense. In p u re ly u n c o n -
scious, n a tu ra l life this conflict does n o t exist, despite the fact
th a t p u re ly physiological life has to satisfy in d iv id u a l a n d collec-
tive re q u ire m e n ts equally. T h e n a tu ra l a n d unconscious a tti-
tu d e is h arm on io us. T h e body, its faculties, a n d its needs fu rn ish
of th e ir ow n n a tu re the rules a n d lim itatio n s th a t p re v e n t any
excess or d isp ro p o rtio n . B u t because of its one-sidedness, w hich
is fostered by conscious a n d ra tio n a l in te n tio n , a differen tiated
psychological fu n c tio n always tends to d isp ro p o rtio n . T h e body
also form s th e basis of w h a t we m ig h t call th e m e n tal in d iv id u a l-
ity, w hich is, as it were, an expression of corp oreal in d iv id u a lity
a n d can n ev er com e in to b ein g unless th e rights of th e body are
acknow ledged. Conversely, the body c a n n o t th riv e unless the

position in the e arlier French and English translations. At th e tim e of the first
revision, however, they were incorporated in this a d d endu m , which was no t i n -
cluded in the 1928 version. Pars. 507 (sec. 6), 508, and 521 are of p a rtic u la r
interest as they contain w hat appears to be the first form u latio n of the anim a
an d anim us in J u n g ’s writings. For purposes of comparison, the first a nd second
versions of the concluding sum m ary are given in full.— E d i t o r s . ]

2940
 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

m ental in d iv id u a lity is accepted. A t th e sam e tim e, it is in the

body th a t th e in d iv id u a l is in th e highest degree sim ila r to o th e r
individuals, a lth o u g h each in d iv id u a l body is d istin g u ish ab le
from all o th e r bodies. E q ually , every m en tal o r m o ral in d iv id -
uality differs from all th e others, a n d yet is so co n stitu te d as to
re n d e r every m an e q u a l to all o th e r m en. Every liv in g b ein g
th a t is ab le to develop itself in div id ually , w ith o u t con strain t,
will best realize, by th e very p erfectio n of its in d iv id u ality , the
ideal type of its species, a n d by the same to k en will achieve a
collective value.
5°5 T h e persona is always identical w ith a typical a ttitu d e d o m i-
n ate d by a single psychological fu n ctio n , for exam ple, by th in k -
ing, feeling, o r in tu itio n . T h is one-sidedness necessarily results
in th e relativ e repression of th e o th e r functions. In consequence,
the persona is an obstacle to th e in d iv id u a l’s d ev elo p m en t. T h e
dissolution of th e person a is th erefore an indisp en sab le co n d i-
tio n for in d iv id u a tio n . I t is, how ever, im possible to achieve in -
d iv id u a tio n by conscious in te n tio n , because conscious in te n tio n
in v ariab ly leads to a typical a ttitu d e th a t excludes w h atev er does
n o t fit in w ith it. T h e assim ilation of unconscious con tents leads,
o n th e co ntrary , to a c o n d itio n in w h ich conscious in te n tio n is
exclu ded a n d is s u p p la n te d by a process of d ev e lo p m e n t th a t
seems to us irra tio n a l. T h is process alone signifies in d iv id u a tio n ,
a n d its p ro d u c t is in d iv id u a lity as we have ju s t defined it: p a rtic -
u la r a n d u niversal at once. So lon g as th e persona persists, in d i-
v id u ality is repressed, a n d h ard ly betrays its existence except in
th e choice of its personal accessories— by its a c to r’s w ard ro be,
o n e m ig h t say. O n ly w h en th e unconscious is assim ilated does th e
in d iv id u a lity em erg e m o re clearly, to g eth er w ith th e psychologi-
cal p h e n o m e n o n w h ich links th e ego w ith th e non-ego a n d is
d esignated by th e w o rd a ttitu d e . B u t this tim e it is n o lo n g er a
typical a ttitu d e b u t an in d iv id u a l one.
5°6 T h e p arad o x in this fo rm u la tio n arises fro m the sam e ro o t as
th e an c ien t d isp u te a b o u t universals. T h e p ro p o sitio n : anim al
n u llu m q u e a n im a l g enus est m akes th e fu n d a m e n ta l p arad o x
clear a n d in tellig ib le. T h e realia— these are th e p artic u la r, th e
in d iv id u a l; th e u niversalia exist psychologically, b u t are based
o n a real resem b lan ce betw e en particulars. T h u s the in d iv id u a l
is th a t p a rtic u la r th in g w hich possesses in g re ater o r lesser d e-
gree the q u alities u p o n w hich we base th e general co n cep tio n of

2941
 A PPENDICES

“collectivity” ; a n d th e m o re in d iv id u a l it is, th e m o re it devel-

ops those q u alities w hich are fu n d a m e n ta l to th e collective co n -
ce p tio n of h u m an ity .
5°7 In th e h o p e of u n ra v e llin g these tangled problem s, I w ou ld
like to em phasize th e architectonics of the factors to be consid-
ered. W e have to do w ith th e follow ing fu n d a m e n ta l concepts:
1. T h e w orld o f consciousness an d reality. By this is m ea n t
those co nten ts of consciousness w hich consist of p erceived im -
ages of th e w orld, a n d of o u r conscious th o u g h ts a n d feelings
a b o u t it.
2. T h e collective un conscious. By this is m e a n t th a t p a rt of
th e unconscious w hich consists o n th e o ne h a n d of unconscious
p ercep tion s of ex te rn al reality and, on th e o th er, of all th e resi-
dues of th e phylogenetic perceptive a n d ad ap tiv e functions. A
reco n stru ctio n of th e unconscious view of th e w orld w o u ld yield
a p ic tu re show ing how ex tern al reality has b ee n perceived fro m
tim e im m em o rial. T h e collective unconscious contains, o r is, an
historical m irro r-im age of th e w orld. I t too is a w orld, b u t a
w o rld of images.
3. Since the w orld of consciousness, like the w o rld of th e u n -
conscious, is to a large e x te n t collective, these two spheres to -
g e th e r fo rm the collective psyche in the in d iv id u al.
4. T h e collective psyche m u st be co n trasted w ith a fo u rth
concept, nam ely, th e co ncep t of in d iv id u a lity . T h e in d iv id u a l
stands, as it were, b etw een th e conscious p a rt of th e collective
psyche a n d the unconscious part. H e is th e reflecting surface in
w hich th e w o rld of consciousness can perceive its ow n u n c o n -
scious, historical im age, even as S ch o p en h a u er says th a t th e in -
tellect holds u p a m irro r to th e universal W ill. A ccordingly, th e
in d iv id u a l w o u ld be a p o in t of in tersectio n o r a d iv id in g line,
n e ith e r conscious n o r unconscious, b u t a b it of b o th .
5. T h e parad ox ical n a tu re o f th e psychological in d iv id u a l
m u st be co n trasted w ith th a t of the persona. T h e persona is co n -
scious all ro u n d , so to speak, or is at least capable of beco m in g
so. I t represents a com pro m ise fo rm a tio n b etw een ex te rn al re a l-
ity a n d th e in d iv id u al. In essence, th erefo re, it is a fu n c tio n for
a d a p tin g th e in d iv id u a l to the real w orld. T h e persona th us oc-
cupies a place m idw ay b etw een th e real w orld a n d in d iv id u ality.
6. B eyond in d iv id u ality , w hich appears to be the in n erm o st
core of ego-consciousness a n d of the unconscious alike, we find

2942
 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

th e collective unconscious. T h e place b etw een th e in d iv id u a l

a n d the collective unconscious, co rresp o n d in g to th e persona's
position b etw een the in d iv id u a l a n d e x te rn al reality, appears to
be em pty. E xp erience has ta u g h t m e, however, th a t h ere too a
k in d of persona exists, b u t a p erso n a of a com pensatory n a tu re
w hich (in a m an) co uld b e called th e anim a. T h e an im a w o u ld
thus be a com pro m ise fo rm a tio n b etw een th e in d iv id u a l a n d th e
unconscious w orld, th a t is, the w o rld of historical images, o r
“p rim o rd ia l im ages." W e fre q u e n tly m eet th e an im a in dream s,
w here it appears as a fe m in in e b e in g in a m an , a n d as a m a n
(animus) in a w om an. A good d esc rip tio n of the a n im a figure
can be fo u n d in S p itte le r’s Im a g o. In his P ro m e th e u s and Epi-
m e th e u s she appears as th e soul of P ro m eth eu s, a n d in his O ly m -
pian Sp rin g as th e soul of Zeus.
5°8 T o th e d egree th a t th e ego identifies w ith th e persona, th e
anim a, like ev ery th in g unconscious, is p rojected in to th e real
objects of o u r en v iro n m e n t. She is reg u larly to be fo un d , th e re -
fore, in th e w om an we are in love w ith. T h is can be seen easily
eno u gh from th e expressions we use w h en in love. T h e poets,
too, have su p p lied a good deal of evidence in this respect. T h e
m ore n o rm a l a person is, th e less will the d aem o nic q u alities of
the an im a a p p e a r in th e objects of his im m e d iate e n v iro n m e n t.
T h e y are p ro jected u p o n m o re d ista n t objects, from w hich n o
im m e d iate d istu rb a n c e is to be feared. B u t the m o re sensitive a
person is, th e closer th ese d ae m o n ic pro jection s will com e, u n til
in the en d they b re a k th ro u g h th e fam ily tab oo a n d p ro d u ce the
typical n eu ro tic com plicatio n s of a fam ily rom ance.
509 If the ego identifies w ith th e persona, th e sub ject’s ce n tre of
gravity lies in th e unconscious. I t is th e n practically identical
w ith the collective unconscious, because th e w hole p ersonality is
collective. In these cases th ere is a stro n g p u ll tow ards th e u n -
conscious and, at th e sam e tim e, v io len t resistance to it o n the
p a rt of consciousness because th e d estru c tio n of conscious ideals
is feared.
5 1Q In ce rtain cases, fo u n d chiefly am o n g artists o r highly em o -
tional people, th e ego is localized n o t in the persona (the fu n c-
tio n of re la tio n sh ip to the real w orld) b u t in th e an im a (the
fu n c tio n of re la tio n sh ip to th e collective unconscious). H e re in -
d ivid u al a n d persona are alike unconscious. T h e collective u n -
conscious th e n in tru d e s in to th e conscious w orld, a n d a large

2943
 APPENDICES

p a r t of the real w o rld becom es an unconscious co n tent. Such

persons have the sam e daem o n ic fear of reality as o rd in ary p eo -
ple have of th e unconscious.]

6. S u m m a ry
[f ir s t v e r s io n ]

511 A . W e have to divide psychological m ateria l in to conscious

a n d unconscious contents.
1. T h e conscious co n tents are in p a r t personal inasm uch
as th e ir g eneral v alidity is n o t recognized, a n d in p a rt im p e r -
sonal, th a t is, collective, in asm u ch as th e ir general validity is
recognized.
2. T h e unconscious co n ten ts are in p a rt personal inas-
m u ch as they consist of personal m a teria l th a t was once con-
scious b u t was th e n repressed, a n d whose g en eral validity is
th erefo re n o t recognized w h e n it becom es conscious again.
T h e y are im personal inasm u ch as the m ateria l is recognized as
hav ing g eneral validity, a n d of w hich it is im possible to prove
any a n te rio r o r even relativ e consciousness.

5 1« B. T h e C o m p o sitio n o f the Persona.

1. T h e conscious p ersonal co n tents co n stitu te th e con-
scious personality, th e conscious ego.
2. T h e unconscious personal co n tents co n stitu te th e self,
th e unconscious or subconscious ego.
3. T h e conscious a n d unconscious co nten ts of a personal
n a tu re co n stitu te th e p ersona.

5*3 C. T h e C o m p o sitio n o f th e C ollective P syche.

1. T h e conscious a n d unconscious co nten ts of an im p e r -
sonal o r collective n a tu re c o n stitu te the psychological n o n -
ego, the object-im ago. T h e se co n tents m ay ap p e ar in analysis
as projections of feelings or ju d g m en ts, b u t they are a priori
collective a n d are id entical w ith th e object-im ago; th a t is,
they ap p e ar to be q ualities of th e object, a n d it is only a poste-
riori th a t they are recognized as subjective psychological q u a l-
ities.

2944
 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

2. T h e persona is a g ro u p in g of conscious a n d u n c o n -
scious co n ten ts w hich is opposed as ego to th e non-ego. A g en -
eral co m p arison of th e person al co n ten ts b elo n g in g to differ-
e n t in div id u als shows th e su rp risin g resem blance b etw een
th em , w hich m ay even a m o u n t to iden tity, a n d largely cancels
o u t the in d iv id u a l n a tu re of th e p erso nal con tents as well as of
th e persona. T o this e x te n t th e p erso n a m u st be considered a
segm ent a n d also a c o n s titu e n t of th e collective psyche.
3. T h e collective psyche is th u s com posed of th e object-
im ago a n d the persona.

5*4 D. In d iv id u a lity .
1. In d iv id u a lity m anifests itself p artly as the p rin cip le
w hich selects a n d sets lim its to co n te n ts th a t are recognized as
personal.
2. In d iv id u a lity is the p rin c ip le w h ich m akes possible,
a n d if n ee d be compels, a progressive d iffe ren tiatio n from the
collective psyche.
3. In d iv id u a lity m anifests itself p artly as an obstacle to
collective fu n ctio n in g , a n d p artly as resistance to collective
th in k in g an d feeling.
4. In d iv id u a lity is th a t w h ich is p ec u lia r a n d u n iq u e in a
given c o m b in atio n of collective psychological elem ents.
5. In d iv id u a lity corresponds to th e systole, a n d collective
psychology to th e diastole, of th e m o v em en t of libido.

5*5 E. T h e conscious a n d un conscious co n ten ts are su b d iv id ed

in to those th a t are in d iv id u a l a n d those th a t are collective.
1. A c o n te n t whose d ev e lo p m e n tal tendency is towards
d iffe ren tiatio n from th e collective is in d iv id u al.
2. A c o n te n t whose d ev e lo p m e n tal ten d en cy is tow ards a
general value is collective.
3. T h e r e are insufficient c rite ria by w hich to d e te rm in e
w h e th e r a given c o n te n t is p u re ly in d iv id u a l o r p u re ly collec-
tive, for in d iv id u a lity is very difficult to d ete rm in e , a lth o u g h
always a n d everyw here present.
4. T h e life-line of an in d iv id u a l is th e re su lta n t of the in -
d iv idu al an d collective tendencies of th e psychological process
at a given m o m en t.

2945
 APPENDICES

[s e c o n d v e r s io n ]

5l6 A . W e have to d iv id e psychological m ateria l in to conscious

an d unconscious contents.
1. T h e conscious co n ten ts are in p a rt personal inasm uch
as th e ir general validity is n o t recognized, a n d in p a r t im p e r-
sonal, th a t is, collective, inasm u ch as th e ir general v alidity is
recognized.
2. T h e unconscious co nten ts are in p a rt personal inas-
m u ch as they consist of personal m ateria l th a t was once co n -
scious b u t was th e n repressed, a n d whose general v alidity is
therefo re n o t recognized w h en it becom es conscious again.
T h e y are im personal in asm u ch as th e m ateria l is recognized as
h av in g g en eral validity, a n d of w hich it is im possible to prove
any a n te rio r o r even relativ e consciousness.

5 !7 B . T h e C o m position o f the Persona.

1. T h e conscious personal co n ten ts co n stitu te th e co n -
scious p e rs o n a lity ], th e conscious ego.
2. T h e unconscious personal co nten ts are c o m b in ed w ith
the germ s of th e still u n d ev e lo p ed in d iv id u a lity a n d w ith th e
collective unconscious. A ll these elem ents a p p e a r in co m b in a -
tio n w ith th e repressed personal co n ten ts (i.e., th e personal
unconscious), an d, w h en assim ilated by consciousness, dis-
solve th e perso n a in to the collective m aterial.

5 l8 C. T h e C o m p o sitio n o f the C ollective Psyche.

1. T h e conscious a n d unconscious co n tents of an im p e r-
sonal o r collective n a tu re co n stitu te th e psychological n o n -
ego, the object-im ago. T h e s e m aterials, in so far as they are
unconscious, are a p rio ri iden tical w ith th e object-im ago; th a t
is, they a p p e ar to be qu alities of th e object, a n d it is only a
posteriori th a t they are recognized as subjective psychological
qualities.
2. T h e p ersona is a subject-im ago, w hich, like th e o b ject-
im ago, largely consists of collective m a te ria l inasm u ch as the
persona rep resen ts a co m p ro m ise w ith society, th e ego id e n ti-
fying m o re w ith th e persona th a n w ith in d iv id u ality . T h e
m o re the ego identifies w ith th e persona, the m o re th e su bject

2946
 T H E STRUCTURE O F T H E UNCONSCIOUS

becom es w h a t he ap pears to be, a n d is de-individualized.

3. T h e collective psyche is th u s com posed of th e o b ject-
im ago a n d th e persona. W h e n th e ego is com pletely id en tical
w ith th e persona, in d iv id u a lity is w holly repressed, a n d the
e n tire conscious psyche becom es collective. T h is represents
th e m a x im u m a d a p ta tio n to society a n d th e m in im u m ad a p -
ta tio n to one's ow n in d iv id u ality .

5 !9D . In d iv id u a lity .
1. In d iv id u a lity is th a t w h ich is u n iq u e in th e co m b in a -
tio n of collective elem ents of th e person a a n d its m an ifesta-
tions.
2. In d iv id u a lity is th e p rin c ip le of resistance to collective
fu n c tio n in g . I t m akes possible, a n d if n e e d be com pels, differ-
e n tia tio n fro m the collective psyche.
3. In d iv id u a lity is a d ev e lo p m e n tal tend ency constantly
a im in g a t d ifferen tiatio n a n d sep a ratio n from the collective.
4. A d istin c tio n m u st be m ad e b etw een in d iv id u a lity an d
th e in d ivid u a l. T h e in d iv id u a l is d e te rm in e d o n th e on e h a n d
by th e p rin cip le of u n iq u en e ss a n d distinctiveness, a n d o n the
o th e r by the society to w hich h e belongs. H e is an in d isp en -
sable lin k in the social stru ctu re .
5. D ev elo p m en t of in d iv id u a lity is sim u ltan eo u sly a d e -
v e lo p m en t of society. S uppression of in d iv id u a lity th ro u g h
th e p re d o m in a n ce of collective ideals a n d organizations is a
m o ral d efeat fo r society.
6. T h e d ev e lo p m e n t of in d iv id u a lity can n e v e r take place
th ro u g h personal relatio n sh ip s alone, b u t re q u ire s a psychic
re la tio n sh ip to the collective unconscious.

520 E. T h e C ollective Unconscious.

1. T h e collective unconscious is th e unconscious p o rtio n
of th e collective psyche. I t is th e unconscious object-im ago.
2. T h e collective unconscious is com posed of:
а. S u b lim in al perceptions, th o u g h ts a n d feelings th a t
w ere n o t repressed because of th e ir in co m p atib ility
w ith personal values, b u t w ere s u b lim in a l from th e
sta rt because of th e ir low stim u lu s v alue o r low
lib id o investm ent.
б. S u b lim in al vestiges of arch aic fu nctio ns th a t exist a

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p rio ri a n d can be b ro u g h t back in to fu n c tio n a t any

tim e th ro u g h an a c c u m u latio n of libido. T h e s e
vestiges are n o t m erely fo rm al b u t have th e dyn am ic
n a tu r e of instincts. T h e y re p re s e n t th e p rim itiv e
a n d th e a n im al in civilized m an.
c. S u b lim in al co m b in atio n s in sym bolic form , n o t yet
capable of beco m in g conscious.
3. A n actual c o n te n t of the collective unconscious always
consists of an am a lg a m atio n of th e elem ents e n u m e ra te d in a-
c, a n d its expression varies accordingly.
4. T h e collective unconscious always appears p ro jec ted o n
a conscious [external] object.
5. T h e collective unconscious in in d iv id u a l A bears a
g re ater resem b lan ce to th e collective unconscious in in d iv id -
u al B th a n the conscious ideas in th e m in ds of A a n d B do to
on e an o th e r.
6. T h e m ost im p o rta n t con tents of th e collective u n c o n -
scious a p p e a r to be “ p rim o rd ia l im ages,” th a t is, unconscious
collective ideas (m ythical th in k in g ) a n d vital instincts.
7. So lo n g as th e ego is id entical w ith th e persona, in d i-
v id u ality form s an essential c o n te n t of th e collective u n c o n -
scious. I n th e dream s a n d fantasies of m e n it begins by a p p e a r-
in g as a m ascu lin e figure, a n d in those of w om en as a fe m in in e
figure. L a te r it shows h e rm a p h ro d itic traits w h ich ch aracter-
ize its in te rm e d ia te position. (G ood exam ples in M e y rin k ’s
G o lem a n d in th e W alpurgisnacht.)

5 21 F. T h e A n im a .
1. T h e a n im a is an unconscious subject-im ago analogous
to th e persona. J u s t as th e persona is th e im age of him self
w hich th e su b ject presents to th e w orld, a n d w h ich is seen by
th e w orld, so th e a n im a is th e im age of th e su b ject in his
re la tio n to th e collective unconscious, o r an expression of u n -
conscious collective co nten ts unconsciously constellated by
h im . O n e co u ld also say: th e an im a is th e face of th e su bject as
seen by th e collective unconscious.
2. If th e ego adopts th e s ta n d p o in t of th e an im a, a d a p ta-
tio n to re ality is severely com prom ised. T h e su b ject is fully
ad a p te d to the collective unconscious b u t has n o a d a p ta tio n to
reality. I n this case too h e is de-individualized.

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