A

Summer Training Report

on
Slope Protection, Construction of RCC Bridge,Pavement milling

and Footpath

under

PWD(Roads) City Division No. I, Guwahati-781021

submitted for partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in Civil Engineering, Assam Don Bosco University,Azara.

Submitted By-

Manwar A Talukdar

Hiyajuri Das

Madhurjya Borthakur

Mayuraj Borah

Gitartha Dev Sarma

Aulid Mehdi
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Manwar A Talukdar (DC2016BTE0145) , Hiyajuri Das

(DC2017BTE0180), Madhurjya Borthakur (DC2016BTE0166) , Mayuraj Borah
(DC2016BTE0021), Gitartha Dev Sarma (DC2016BTE0123) , Aulid Mehdi
(DC2016BTE0130), students of Assam Don Bosco University, Azara , Guwahati ,
Assam-781017 have successfully completed their Summer Training from 17.06.2019 to
18.07.2019 on our Project: 1) “ Improvement of Rajbhawan Approach Road including
Slope protection work with Boulder Masonry work under Guwahati City Division-I
under SOPD(G) for the year 2018-19”, 2) “Construction of RCC Bridge near Sarabhati
Chowk,Guwahati” and 3) “Improvement of upperstand road including Rajbhawan
Approach under Guwahati City Division-I under SOPD(G) for the year 2018-19”,
4)Construction work of footpath near Cotton State University, Guwahati”.

Er. Bhupendra Chandra Sarma

Executive Engineer, PWD(Roads)
Guwahati City Division No. I, Guwahati-21

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are highly thankful to engineers and technical staffs of PWD (Roads), Assam for providing
us vital and valuable information about the different facets of Slope Protection, construction of
RCC bridge and footpath and Pavement milling.

We express our gratitude to Er. Bhupendra Chandra Sarma, Executive Engineer, PWD(Roads),
Guwahati, City Division No. I for giving us a chance to carry out training and learn various
aspects under different projects.

We are also thankful to Er. Abhijeet Choudhury, A.E.E, PWD(Roads), Guwahati City Sub-
Division No. II, Project-in-charge Er. Chandan Kataki, Asstt. Engineer and Er. Satyen Patowary,
Asstt. Engineer for giving their precious time and helping us in understanding various theoretical
and practical aspects as mentioned above under whose kind supervision we accomplished our
project.

Yours Sincerely,

Manwar A Talukdar (DC2016BTE0145)

Madhurjya Borthakur (DC2016BTE0166)

Mayuraj Borah (DC2016BTE0021)

Gitartha Dev Sarma ( DC2016BTE0123)

Aulid Mehdi (DC2016BTE0130)

Hiyajuri Das (DC2017BTE0180)

III
 ABSTRACT

During the course of our summer internship, an introduction on slope protection were given.
Different types of slope movement and retaining wall types were introduced. This was followed
with introduction to Paver Milling process. We understood the purpose and types of Milling
process. Lastly we were introduced to construction of RCC Bridge and construction works of
footpath.

IV
 CONTENTS

SL. No. TITLE PAGE No.

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. OBJECTIVES OF THE INTERNSHIP 2

3. DETAILS OF PROJECT-I 3-16

4. DETAILS OF PROJECT-II 17-22

5. DETAILS OF PROJECT-III 23-26

6. CONCLUSION 27

7. REFERENCE 28

V
INTRODUCTION

Public Works Department, Assam is the premier agency of Govt. of Assam engaged in planning,
designing, construction and maintenance of Government assets in the field of built environment
and infrastructure development. Assets in built environment include construction and
maintenance of roads, bridges, flyovers, footpaths etc. PWD Assam also sustains and preserves
these assets through a well-developed system of maintenance which includes amongst other
specialized services like rehabilitation works, roads signage and aesthetic treatments like
interiors, monument lighting, landscaping etc.

A road surface or pavement is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to
sustain vehicular or foot traffic, such as road or walkway. The various types of pavements are-
(i) Flexible Pavement & (ii) Rigid Pavement.
Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC) pavement is a type of flexible pavement which is a
highly engineered but simple and effective solution for paving roads. It provides a higher volume
of construction and speedy completion of roads by mechanized processes.

Slope stability refers to the condition of inclined soil or rock slopes to withstand or undergo
movement. Slope stability analyses include static and dynamic, analytical or empirical methods
to evaluate the stability of earth and rock-fill dams, embankments, excavated slopes and natural
slopes in soil and rock.

Pavement milling is the process of removing at least part of the surface of a paved area such as a
road, bridge or parking lot. Milling removes anywhere from just enough thickness to level and
smooth the surface to full depth removal.

1
OBJECTIVES OF THE INTERNSHIP

(i) To understand and learn the various aspects of slope protection work with Boulder
Masonry.
(ii) To understand and learn the various aspects of construction of RCC Bridge and
footpath.
(iii) To understand the Pavement Milling process.

2
DETAILS OF THE INTERNSHIP

Activity Log-

Week 1 & 2: We started our Summer Training at the Raj Bhawan on the project “Improvement

of Raj Bhawan approach road including slope protection work with Boulder Masonry”. We were

introduced to the basic concepts of slope protection. We learnt about the different types of

Retaining Walls and their uses. We learnt about the the natural slope stability (1V:2H) of soil.

The main purpose of this project is to prevent further damage of the approach road of Raj

Bhawan due to soil settlement. We learnt about the importance of weep holes in the construction

of retaining walls.

PROJECT-I

Details & Theory of The Project-

Name of the Project- “Improvement of Raj Bhawan approach road including slope protection

work with Boulder Masonry work under Guwahati City Division No. I under SOPD(G) for the

year 2018-19”.

Estimated Amount- Rs 463.24 Lakh

Total Length- 390.00m

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1.1 SLOPE STABILITY, EROSION CONTROL AND LANDSLIDE
CORRECTION :

1.1.1 Introduction

A hill roads formed either by full cutting into the hill or part cut and part hill. Typical sections
are given in Fig.1.1. Stability of slopes, natural and man-made, is important for a hill road.
Disturbance to roads can occur due to erosion caused by rain-fall and run-off and consequent
slides. Effective erosion control measures protect slopes and prevent slides. The subject of slope

Fig.1.1 Slopes in hill roads Natural, Man-made and Cut

Stability and erosion control, therefore become very vital for control and prevention of
landslides/slips.

A landslide may be defined as the failure of a slope mainly under the action of its own weight in
which the displacement has both vertical and horizontal components of considerable magnitude.
Landslide denotes downward and outward movement of slope forming materials composed of
natural rock, soil, artificial fill or a combination of these materials. The moving mass follows any
one of the three principle types of movements viz. falling, sliding, flowing or their combinations.
The rate of movement may vary from slow to rapid.

1.1.2 Classification of Slope Movement

Slope movements may be classified in many ways, each having some usefulness in emphasizing
features pertinent to recognition, avoidance, control, correction or other purpose for the
classification. Among the attributes that have been used as criteria for identification and

4
classification are type of movement, kind of material, rate of movement, geometry of the area of
failure and the resulting deposit, age, causes, degree of disruption of the displaced mass, relation
or lack of relation of slide geometry to geologic structure, degree of development, geographic
location of type examples, and state of activity. Types of movement (defined below) are divided
into five main groups: falls, topples, slides, spreads, and flows.

Terms Relating to Movement

Kinds of Movement

Since all movement between bodies is only relative, a description of slope movements must
necessarily give some attention to identifying the. bodies that are in relative motion. For
example, the word slide specifies relative motion between stable ground and moving ground in
which the vectors of relative motion are parallel to the surface of separation or rupture;
furthermore, the bodies remain in contact. The word flow, however, refers not to the motions of
the moving mass relative to stable ground, but rather to the distribution and continuity of relative
movements of particles within the moving mass itself.

Falls

In falls, a mass of any size is detached from a steep slope or cliff, along a surface on which little
or no shear displacement takes place, and descends mostly through the air by free fall, leaping,
bounding, or rolling. Movements are very rapid to extremely rapid and may or may not be
preceded by minor movements leading to progressive separation of the mass from its source.
Rock fall is a fall of newly detached mass from an area of bedrock.

Topples

Topples have been recognized relatively recently as a distinct type of movement. This kind of
movement consists of the forward rotation of a unit or units about some pivot point, below or
low in the unit, under the action of gravity and forces exerted by adjacent units or by fluids in
cracks. It is tilting without collapse.

Slides

In true slides, the movement consists of shear strain and displacement along one or several
surfaces that are visible or may reasonably be inferred, or within a relatively narrow zone. The
movement may be progressive; that is, shear failure may not initially occur simultaneously over
what eventually becomes a defined surface, of rupture, but rather it may propagate from an area
of local failure. The displaced mass may slide beyond the original surface of rupture onto what
had been the original ground surface, which then becomes a surface of separation. Slides were
subdivided in the classification into (a) those in which the material in motion is not greatly
deformed and consists of one or a few units and (b) those in which the material is greatly
deformed or consists of many semi-independent units. These subtypes were further classed into
rotational slides and planar slides. In the present classification, emphasis is put on the distinction
between rotational and translational slides, for that difference is of at least equal significance in
5
the analysis of stability and the design of control methods. An indication of degree of disruption
is still available by use of the terms block or intact for slides consisting of one or a few moving
units and the terms broken or disrupted for those consisting of many units; these terms avoid a
possible source of confusion, pointed out by D. H. Radbruch-Hall, in the use of the term debris
slide, which is now meant to indicate only a slide originating in debris material, which may
either proceed as a relatively unbroken block or lead to disruption into many units, each
consisting of debris.

Rotational Slides

The commonest examples of rotational slides are little deformed slumps, which are slides along a
surface of rupture that is curved concavely upward. Slumps, and slumps combined with other
types of movement, make up a high proportion of landslide problems facing the engineer. The
movement in slumps takes place only along internal slip surfaces. The exposed cracks are
concentric in plan and concave toward the direction of movement

Translational Slides

In translational sliding the mass progresses out or down and out along a more or less planar or
gently undulatory surface and has little of the rotary movement or backward tilting
characteristic of slump. The moving mass commonly slides out on the original ground surface.
The distinction between rotational and translational slides is useful in planning control measures.
The rotary movement of a slump, if the surface of rupture dips into the hill at the foot of the
slide, tends to restore equilibrium in the unstable mass; the driving moment during movement
decreases and the slide may stop moving. A translational slide, however, may progress
indefinitely if the surface on which it rests is sufficiently inclined and as long as the shear
resistance along this surface remains lower than the more or less constant driving force. A
translational slide in which the moving mass consists of a single unit that is not greatly deformed
or a few closely related units may be called a block slide. If the moving mass consists of many
semi-independent units, it is termed a broken or disrupted slide.

Lateral Spreads

In spreads, the dominant mode of movement is lateral extension accommodated by shear or

tensile fractures. Two types may be distinguished.

1. Distributed movements result in overall extension but without a recognized or well-defined

controlling basal shear surface or zone of plastic flow. These appear to occur predominantly in
bedrock, especially on the crests of ridges. The mechanics of movement are not well known.

2. Movements may involve fracturing and extension of coherent material, either bedrock or soil,
owing to liquefaction or plastic flow of subjacent material. The coherent upper units may
subside, translate, rotate, or disintegrate, or they may liquefy and flow. The mechanism of failure
can involve elements not only of rotation and translation but also of flow; hence, lateral
6
spreading failures of this type may be properly regarded as complex. They form, however, such a
distinctive and dominant species in certain geologic situations that specific recognition seems
worthwhile.

Flows

Many examples of slope movement cannot be classed as falls, topples, slides, or spreads. In
unconsolidated materials, these generally take the form of fairly obvious flows, either fast or
slow, wet or dry. In bedrock, the movements most difficult to categorize include those that are
extremely slow and distributed among many closely spaced, non interconnected fractures or
those movements within the rock mass that result in folding, bending, or bulging. In many
instances, the distribution of velocities resembles that of viscous fluids; hence, the movements
may be described as a form of flow of intact rock.

Flows in Bedrock

Flow movements in bedrock include deformations that are distributed among many large or
small fractures, or even micro fractures, without concentration of displacement along a through-
going fracture. The movements are generally extremely slow and are apparently more or less
steady in time, although few data are available. Flow movements may result in folding, bending,
bulging, or other manifestations of plastic behavior. The distribution of velocities may roughly
simulate that of viscous fluids.

Flows in Debris and Earth

Distributed movements within debris and earth are often more accurately recognized as flows
than those in rocks because the relative displacements within the mass are commonly larger and
more closely distributed and the general appearance is more obviously that of a body that has
behaved like a fluid. Moreover, the fluidizing effect of water itself is, as a rule, a part of the
process. Slip surfaces within the moving mass are usually not visible or are short lived, and the
boundary between moving mass and material in place may be a sharp surface of differential
movement or a zone of distributed shear.

Complex Slides

More often than not, slope movements involve a combination of one or more of the principal
types of movement described above, either within various parts of the moving mass or at
different stages in development of the movements. These are termed complex slope movements.

7
Table 1.1. Classification of Slides (VARNES)

1.1.3 Causes of Slope Movements

Slope failures are caused, in general, by natural forces, human misjudgment and activities, and
burrowing animals.
We will describe below some of the main factors that provoke slope failures.
1.1.3 (a) Erosion.
Water and wind continuously erode natural and man-made slopes.
Erosion changes the geometry of the slope (Figure 16.3a), ultimately resulting in slope failure or,
more aptly, a landslide.
Rivers and streams continuously scour their banks, undermining their natural or man-made
slopes (Figure 16.3b).
1.1.3 (b) Rainfall.
Long periods of rainfall saturate, soften, and erode soils.
Water enters into existing cracks and may weaken underlying soil layers, leading to slope failure,
for example, mud slides (Figure 16.3c).
1.1.3 (c) Earthquakes.
Earthquakes induce dynamic forces (Figure 16.3d), especially dynamic shear forces that reduce
the shear strength and stiffness of the soil.
Pore water pressures in saturated coarse-grained soils could rise to a value equal to the total
mean stress,
and cause these soils to behave like viscous fluids—a phenomenon known as dynamic
liquefaction.
Structures founded on these soils would collapse; structures buried within them would rise.

8
The quickness (a few seconds) with which the dynamic forces are induced prevents even coarse-
grained soils from draining the excess pore water pressures.
Thus, slope failure in a seismic event often occurs under undrained condition.
1.1.3 (d) Geological Features.
Many failures commonly result from unidentified geological features.
A thin seam of silt (a few millimeters thick) under a thick deposit of stiff clay can easily be
overlooked in drilling operations,
or one may be careless in assessing borehole logs only to find later that the presence of the silt
caused a catastrophic failure.
Sloping, stratified soils are prone to translational slide along weak layers (Figure 16.3e). You
must pay particular attention to geological features in assessing slope stability.
1.1.3 (e) External Loading.
Loads placed on the crest of a slope (the top of the slope) add to the gravitational load and may
cause slope failure (Figure 16.3f).
A load placed at the toe, called a berm, will increase the stability of the slope.
Berms are often used to re-mediate problem slopes.

1.1.3 (f) Construction Activities.

Construction activities near the toe of an existing slope can cause failure because lateral
resistance is removed (Figure 16.3g).
We can conveniently divide slope failures due to construction activities into two cases.
The first case is the excavated slope and the second case is fill slope.
9
1.1.3 (g) Rapid Drawdown.
Reservoirs can be subjected to rapid drawdown.
In this case, the lateral force provided by the water is removed, and the excess porewater
pressure does not have enough time to dissipate (Figure 16.3i).
The net effect is that the slope can fail under undrained condition.
If the water level in the reservoir remains at low levels and failure did not occur under the
undrained condition, seepage of groundwater would occur, and the additional seepage forces
could provoke failure (Figure 16.3j).

1.2 STRUCTURES AND PROTECTIVE WORKS IN SLOPED TERRAIN

1.2.1. Retaining Walls

A retaining wall is a structure that retains (holds back) any material (usually earth) and prevents
it from sliding or eroding away. It is designed so that to resist the material pressure of the
material that it is holding back.
10
 Fig 2.1. Cross Section-Retaining wall

Types of Retaining Walls

An earth retaining structure can be considered to have the following types:

1. Gravity Walls

1.1 . Reinforced Gravity Walls

i) Concrete Cantilever retaining wall

ii) Counter-fort / Buttressed retaining wall
iii) Precast concrete retaining wall
iv) Prestressed retaining wall

1. Brick
2. Brick Masonry retaining wall
3. Stone
4. Reinforced Soil Walls
o Reinforced Soil
o Soil Nailing
2. Hybrid System
o Anchored Earth
o Tailed Gabion
o Tailed Concrete Block
o Miscellaneous

11
1.2.2. Breast Wall

A breast wall is constructed to protect the natural sloping ground from the cutting action of
natural agents. Breast walls also prevent slides of unreliable soils. The breast walls may be 0’6 m
wide at the top. Weep holes should be provided at regular interval among the length of the wall
to relieve the walls of saturated earth pressure. The breast wells are so designed that their line of
pressure should be normal to the earth pressure or thrust. (See Fig. 2.50)

1.2.3. Parapets, Railing And Edge Stones

1.2.3. (a) Parapets- For defining the edge of road for safety of traffic, parapets are required on
the valley side. They are usually made 0.45mm thick of rough dry-stone masonry in lengths of
2m to 6m width, 6m to 1m gaps. There height is usually o.6m and follow the regular geometrical
edge of road and not the hill edge to give a better look. In the initial stage of construction of the
road they are made in dry masonry but in due course, top and end layers for 15cm are replaced
by cement masonry.

Parapets on retaining walls are made of stone masonry in cement, 0.45m wide and 0.6m high in
lengths of 2m with a gap of 0.6-1m.

A typical sketch of parapet wall in RR masonry is given in the fig. shown in the next page.

Top of the parapet may be given a slope towards valley side so that these are not used as resting
places by pedestrians. In selected locations, these may be used as flower beds to improve
appearance of the road.

12
1.2.3. (b) Railing- Railing is provided on bridges or in rocky or other stretches where full
formation width, as per standards, could not be achieved. These are provided as safety measure
also. Railings may be of angle iron, GI pipes rail sections, RCC post etc. A typical sketch is
given below.

13
1.2.3. (c) Edge Stones/delineators- Where the road is extra wide due to a gully or a through cut,
the parapets are not required and can be safely replaced by edge stones. They are dressed stones
embedded in earth and projecting about 0.3m above the road level, duly whitewashed, for
visibility. On sharp bends delineators with metallic pipes and roflootive paint/tape may be
provided for traffic safety. Fig. is shown below.

In some situations, where deep rectangular drains are provided on the hill dashed side, guard
stones are necessary to prevent the wheel going into the deep drain. In this case they are
embedded on the road side-wall of the drain as shown in fig. below.

14
1.2.4. Reinforced Soil Retaining Walls

Reinforced soil retaining wall is a new concept. It is a composite construction material in which
the strength of fill is enhanced through of addition of inextensible tensile reinforcement in form
of strips, sheets, grids or geotextiles.

Fig: Construction of Retaining walls

15
Some actual site photos:

Fig.1 Rajbhawan Road affected due to soil settlement

Fig.2 Weepholes in Retaining Wall

16
Week 3:

We then saw the Paver Milling process and understood the basic concepts and its use.

PROJECT-II

Details & Theory of the project-

Name of the project: “Improvement of Upperstand Road including Rajbhawan Approach under
Guwahati City Division No. I under SOPD(G) for the year 2018-19”.

Amount: 119.925 Lakh

Length: 1320.00m

2. PAVEMENT MILLING

Pavement milling (cold planning, asphalt milling, or profiling) is the process of removing at

least part of the surface of a paved area such as a road, bridge, or parking lot. Milling removes
anywhere from just enough thickness to level and smooth the surface to a full depth removal.
There are a number of different reasons for milling a paved area instead of simply repaving over
the existing surface.

2.1. PURPOSE

Recycling of the road surface is one of the main reasons for milling a road surface. Milling is
widely used for pavement recycling today, where the pavement is removed and ground up to be
used as the aggregate in new pavement. For asphalt surfaces the product of milling is reclaimed
asphalt pavement (RAP), which can be recycled in the asphalt hot mix asphalt (pavement) by
combining with new aggregate and asphalt cement (binder) or a recycling agent. This reduces the
impact that resurfacing has on the environment.

Milling can also remove distresses from the surface, providing a better driving experience and/or
longer roadway life. Some of the issues that milling can remove include:

 Raveling: aggregate becoming separated from the binder and loose on the road.
 Bleeding: the binder (asphalt) coming up to the surface of the road.
 Rutting: formation of low spots in pavement along the direction of travel usually in the
wheel path.
 Shoving: a washboard like effect transverse to the direction of travel.
 Ride quality: uneven road surface such as swells, bumps, sags, or depressions.
 Damage: resulting from accidents and/or fires.
17
It can also be used to control or change the height of part or all of the road. This can be done to
control heights and clearances of other road structures such as: curb reveals, manhole and catch
basin heights, shoulder and guardrail heights, and overhead clearances. It can also be done to
change the slope or camber of the road or for grade adjustments which can help with drainage.

2.2. TYPES

The Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association has defined five classes of cold planning that
the Federal Highway Administration has recognized. The classes are:

Class I - milling to remove surface irregularities.

Class II - milling to uniform depth as shown on plans and specifications.

Class III - same as class II with the addition of cross slope.

Class IV - milling to the base or subgrade (full depth).

Class V - milling to different depths at different locations.

2.3. PROCESS AND MACHINERY

Milling is performed by construction equipment called milling machines or cold planers. These
machines use a large rotating drum to remove and grind the road surface. The drum consists of
scrolls of tool holders. The scrolls are positioned around the drum such that the ground pavement
is moved toward the center and can be loaded onto the machine's conveyor belt. The tool holders
can wear out over time and can be broken while milling if highway structures like manholes are
encountered while milling.

The tool holders on the drum hold carbide cutters. The cutters can be removed and replaced as
they wear out. The amount of wear (and therefore the interval between replacement) varies with
the type and consistency of the material being milled; intervals can range from a few hours to
several days.

The drum is enclosed in a housing/scrapper that is used to contain the milled material to be
collected and deposited on the conveyor. The spacing of the tool spirals around the drum affect
the end surface of the road, with micro-milling having the tightest spacing.

The majority of milling machines use an up-cut setup which means that the drum rotates in the
direction opposite that of the drive wheel or tracks, (i.e. work surface feeds into the cut). The
speed of the rotating drum should be slower than the forward speed of the machine for a suitable
finished surface.

Modern machines generally use a front-loading conveyor system that have the advantage of
picking up any material that falls off the conveyor as milling progresses. Water is generally

18
applied to the drum as it spins, because of the heat generated during the milling process.
Additionally, water helps control the dust created. In order to control the depth, slopes, and
profile of the final milled surface many millers now have automatic depth control using lasers,
string-lines, or other methods to maintain milled surfaces to ±5 mm (0.20 in) of the target height.

Some actual site photos:

Fig.3 Paver Milling Machine

Fig.4 Milling process

19
Traffic Symbols and Road Indicators:
Traffic signs give information about the road conditions ahead, provide instructions to be
followed at the major crossroads or junctions, warn or guide drivers, and ensure proper
functioning of road traffic. Being unaware of road signs is akin to throwing caution to the wind.
It can lead to loss of life and property. A person is supposed to be familiar (get through a written
or oral test) with the traffic signs and symbols before acquiring a driving license in India.

Road safety signs are primarily of three types:

1. Mandatory Signs: These signs are used to ensure free movement of traffic and make the road
users cognisant of certain laws and regulations, restrictions and prohibitions. Violation of these
signs is an offence, as per law.

2. Cautionary Signs: These signs make the road users conscious of hazardous conditions on the
road beforehand. The drivers, accordingly, take necessary actions to handle the situation.

20
3. Informatory Signs: These signs guide the road users about destinations, distance, alternative
routes, and prominent locations like food joints, public toilets, nearby hospitals, etc.

21
Road surface marking is any kind of device or material that is used on a road surface in order
to convey official information; they are commonly placed with road marking machines (or road
marking equipment, pavement marking equipment). They can also be applied in other facilities
used by vehicles to mark parking spaces or designate areas for other uses.
Road surface markings are used on paved roadways to provide guidance and information to
drivers and pedestrians. Uniformity of the markings is an important factor in minimizing
confusion and uncertainty about their meaning, and efforts exist to standardize such markings
across borders. However, countries and areas categorize and specify road surface markings in
different ways — white lines are called white lines mechanical, non-mechanical, or temporary.
They can be used to delineate traffic lanes, inform motorists and pedestrians or serve as noise
generators when run across a road, or attempt to wake a sleeping driver when installed in the
shoulders of a road. Road surface marking can also indicate regulation for parking and stopping.
There is continuous effort to improve the road marking system, and technological breakthroughs
include adding retro- reflectivity, increasing longevity, and lowering installation cost.
Today, road markings are used to convey a range of information to the driver spanning
navigational, safety and enforcement issues leading to their use in road environment
understanding within advanced driver-assistance systems and consideration for future use in
autonomous road vehicles.

22
Week 4:
We then saw the construction of RCC Bridge and footpath.

PROJECT-III

BRIDGES
A bridge is a structure having a total length above 6m between the inner face of the dirt walls for
carrying traffic or other moving loads over a depression or obstruction such as channel, road or
railway. They are classified as minor or major bridges as per the criteria given below:
 Minor Bridges – Span greater than 6m upto 60m
 Major Bridges – Span greater than 60m

LOADS, FORCES AND STRESSES

The loads and stresses considered in the design are as follows (as per IRC 6-2010):
1. Dead Load
2. Live Load
3. Impact factor due to vehicular live load
4. Vehicle Collision Load
5. Wind Load
6. Longitudinal forces due to braking
7. Earth Pressure (including live load surcharge)
8. Temperature Effect
9. Seismic Forces

DETAILS OF THE STRUCTURE

23
 Typical section of a pier

This includes all the details required by the designer for carrying out analysis. For
the substructure design of abutment piers the details required are:

 Grade of concrete and steel

 Span of Bridge

 Width of carriageway and percentage of camber

 Reduced levels of ground, footing, pier cap, etc.

 Type of bearing

 Nature of traffic (live load)

 Seismic Zone, importance factor, type of soil, etc.

 Basic Wind Speed

 Safe Bearing Capacity of Soil

24
Source: Construction of RCC bridge near Sarabhati Chowk

25
 FOOTPATH
The portion of the roadway of an urban road reserved only for pedestrians is called Footpath.
They are provided in urban areas when the vehicular, as well as pedestrian traffic, are heavy, to
provide protection to pedestrians and decrease accident. Footpaths are generally provided on
either side of the road and the minimum width should be 1.5 m.

KERBS
A kerbs (also termed as a curb)is a vertical or sloping member provided along the edge of a
pavement or Shoulder to give strength and protect the edge of the pavement. It Indicates the
boundary between the pavement and shoulder or sometimes island or footpath or car parking
space.
kerbs are generally constructed of cut stone or cement concrete slabs. The kerbs are usually
divided into three groups based on their function.

i) Low or mountable kerb.

ii) Semi barrier type kerb. 

iii) Barrier type kerb.

The kerb and the road surface near the edge together from a side channel which carries rainwater
that comes from the road surface.

Fig :Construction of footpath near Cotton State University

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CONCLUSION
This training work is an outcome of immense dedication and hardwork of not one but many
people. The things which we got to learn in these project works are really important as well as
very helpful in our future.

The theory part taught in colleges and universities are way different than the actual world. We
have learnt the basic concepts of slope protection and also about the different types of Retaining
Walls and their uses. We have also studied about the natural slope stability (1V:2H) of soil. We
understood the basic concepts of Paver Milling process and its use. We have learnt about Semi
Dense Bituminous Concrete pavement. Also there was interaction with the workers and public
which was something like a sense of responsibility.

The nation is developing and the future aspects of construction are very wide, keeping that in
mind we need to contribute ourselves with full dedication towards the progress of our country.

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REFERENCE
Indian Road Congress:SP:48-1998

Indian Road Congress:SP:100-2014

Indian Standard:6241

Indian Standard:2386(Part I)

Indian Standard:2386(Part III)

Indian Standard:2386(Part IV)

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