Data Communication

Lecture Note

Lecture: 1
Week: 1
Topic: Introduction to Data Communication
Lecture Outline
1. Characteristics of Data Communication
2. Key Elements of Data Communication
3. A Data Communications Model
4. Data Representation
5. Data Transmission
6. Mode of Serial transmission
7. Bit Rate
8. Types of Networks
1. Characteristics of Data Communication:
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to
occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made
up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
2. Key Elements of Data Communication:
This section introduces a simple model of communications, illustrated by the
block diagram in following figure (a).
The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data
between two parties. Figure (b) presents one particular example, which is
communication between a workstation and a server over a public telephone
network. Another example is the exchange of voice signals between two
telephones over the same network.
.

3. A Data Communications Model:

To get some flavor of a new perspective on the communications model, let using
electronic mail as an example.
Suppose that the input device and transmitter are components of a personal
computer. The user of the PC wishes to send a message m to another user.The
user activates the electronic mail package on the PC and enters the message via
the keyboard (input device). The character string is briefly buffered in main
memory. We can view it as a sequence of bits (g) in memory. The personal
computer is connected to some transmission medium, such as a local network or
a telephone line, by an I/O device (transmitter), such as a local network
transceiver or a modem. The input data are transferred to the transmitter as a
sequence of voltage shifts [g(t)] representing bits on some communications bus
or cable. The transmitter is connected directly to the medium and converts the
incoming stream [g(t)] into a signal [s(t)] suitable for transmission.
The transmitted signal s(t) presented to the medium is subject to a number of
impairments before it reaches the receiver. Thus, the received signal r(t) may
differ from s(t). The receiver will attempt to estimate the original s(t), based on
r(t) and its knowledge of the medium, producing a sequence of bits g’(t). These
bits are sent to the output personal computer, where they are briefly buffered in
memory as a block of bits g’(t). In many cases, the destination system will attempt
to determine if an error has occurred and, if so, cooperate with the source system
to eventually obtain a complete, error-free block of data. These data are then
presented to the user via an output device, such as a printer or screen. The
message (m’) as viewed by the user will usually be an exact copy of the original
message (m).

Now consider a telephone conversation. In this case the input to the telephone is
a message (m) in the form of sound waves. The sound waves are converted by
the telephone into electrical signals of the same frequency. These signals are
transmitted without modification over the telephone line. Hence the input signal
g(t) and the transmitted signal s(t) are identical. The signals (t) will suffer some
distortion over the medium, so that r(t) will not be identical to s(t). Nevertheless,
the signal r(t) is converted back into a sound wave with no attempt at correction
or improvement of signal quality. Thus, m’ is not an exact replica of m. However,
the received sound message is generally comprehensible to the listener.
4. Data Representation:
Data and instructions cannot be entered and processed directly into computers
using human language. Any type of data be it numbers, letters, special symbols,
sound or pictures must first be converted into machine-readable form i.e. binary
form. Due to this reason, it is important to understand how a computer together
with its peripheral devices handles it’s data.
Computer uses binary system. It has proved difficult to develop devices that can
understand natural language directly due to the complexity of natural languages.
However, it is easier to construct electric circuits based on the binary or ON and
OFF logic. All forms of data can be represented in binary system format. Other
reasons for the use of binary are that digital devices are more reliable, small and
use less energy as compared to analog devices.
Types of data representation -
 Computers not only process numbers, letters and special symbols but also
complex types of data such as sound and pictures. However, these complex
types of data take a lot of memory and processor time when coded in binary
form.
 This limitation necessitates the need to develop better ways of handling long
streams of binary digits.
 Higher number systems are used in computing to reduce these streams of
binary digits into manageable form. This helps to improve the processing
speed and optimize memory usage.
Binary number system –
Example:
Convert 1011012 to base 10(or decimal) number

Place value 25 24 23 22 21 20
Binary digits 1 0 1 1 0 1

Multiply each digit by its place value

 N10=(1*25) +(0*24)+(1*23)+(1*22)+(0*21)+(1*20)
N10=32+0+8+4+0+1
=4510

32*1=32
16*0=0
8*1=8 4*1=4
2*0=0
1*1=1
=4510

5. Data Transmission:
One of the primary concern when we are considering the transmission of data
from one device to another is the wiring, and of primary concern when we are
considering the wiring is the data stream. Do we send 1 bit at a time; or do we
group bits into larger groups and, if so, how?
The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either
parallel or serial mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock
tick.
In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick. While there is only one way to
send parallel data, there are three subclasses of serial transmission: asynchronous,
synchronous, and isochronous (see Figure).

Figure: Data transmission and modes

6. Mode of Serial transmission:

Please refer to the lecture slides.

7. Bit Rate:
Most data communications over networks occurs via serial-data transmission.
Data bits transmit one at a time over some communications channel, such as a
cable or a wireless path. Figure 1 typifies the digital-bit pattern from a computer
or some other digital circuit. This data signal is often called the baseband signal.
The data switches between two voltage levels, such as +3 V for a binary 1 and
+0.2 V for a binary 0. Other binary levels are also used. In the non-return-to-zero
(NRZ) format (Fig. 1, again), the signal never goes to zero as like that of return-
to-zero (RZ) (will explain later) formatted signals.
The speed of the data is expressed in bits per second (bits/s or bps). The data rate
R is a function of the duration of the bit or bit time (TB) (Fig. 1 below,):
R = 1/TB
Rate is also called channel capacity C (will explain later in details again). If the
bit time is 10 ns, the data rate equals:
R = 1/10 x 10–9 = 100 million bits/s
This is usually expressed as 100 Mbits/s
example:
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per
minute. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume
that one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is

100 x 24 x 80 x 8 =1,636,000 bps =1.636 Mbps

8. Types of Networks:
Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A
network can be as small as distance between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth
headphone and as large as the internet itself, covering the whole geographical
world.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single
administrative system is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN).
Usually, LAN covers an organization’ offices, schools, colleges or universities.
Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as much
as 16 million.
 LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The
resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable
among computers.

LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may

contains local servers serving file storage and other locally shared applications.
It mostly operates on private IP addresses and does not involve heavy routing.
LAN works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.
LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely
employed LAN technology and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely
seen.
LAN can be wired, wireless, or in both forms at once.

Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such
as cable TV network. It can be in the form of Ethernet,Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users
to expand their Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization
to connect all of its offices in a city.
Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in
between Local Area Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for
LANs to WANs or internet.

Wide Area Network

As the name suggests,the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which
may span across provinces and even a whole country. Generally,
telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network. These networks provide
connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are equipped with very high speed
backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.

WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode

(ATM), Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be
managed by multiple administration.
References:
1. Prakash C. Gupta, “Data communications”, Prentice Hall India Pvt.
2. William Stallings, "Data and Computer Communications”, Pearson
3. Forouzan, B. A. "Data Communication and Networking. Tata McGraw."
(2005).
4. https://peda.net/kenya/css/subjects/computer-studies/form-three/driac2
5. https://www.rpi.edu/dept/ecse/mps/Bit_%26_Baud_Rate.pdf
6. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/
comuter_network_types.htm