Framework For Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 1

Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION 21) in 1996. PA 21 adopts a framework

that places people and nature at the center
P lants are a vital part of the world’s

biological diversity and an essential
of development activities.
UNCED also proved to be a turning point

resource for the planet. They offer the towards the conservation of the world’s
most diverse uses for local households. biological resources as it was also during
They are sources of firewood, herbal the UNCED that the nations of the world
medicine, beverages, condiments, resins, adopted the Convention on Biological
food, and light construction materials. Diversity (CBD). Ratification of the CBD
Plants or plant parts such as roots, by the Philippine Government was on 08
rhizomes, leaves, bark and fruits are October 1993. The objectives of this
collected, prepared and either served as Convention are the conservation of
food or administered to treat certain biological diversity, the sustainable use of
illnesses. Plants or plant parts are also its components, and the fair and equitable
used as ornaments and are basic in sharing of benefits derived from the
landscaping purposes. Economically utilization of genetic resources. Part of the
important ornamental plants, like orchids commitments of the Philippine
and ferns provide alternative sources of Government to the CBD is the perpetual
income to the local people. Ecologically, existence and conservation of plant
plants provide oxygen that we breathe, diversity.
hold water to prevent flooding, release
water to prevent drought and serve as As an urgent response and as a
sanctuaries for most of the faunal species, manifestation of its commitment to
among others. implement the provisions of the CBD, the
Philippines through the Department of
Human pressure on plant resources has Environment and Natural Resources
led to the depletion of these resources. In (DENR) developed the National
recognition of the growing severity of Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
threats to biological diversity, including (NBSAP) in 1997. The NBSAP presented
plants, and the international nature of the status of the country’s biological
actions required to address the threats, as diversity and the strategies and actions on
well as the need to operationalize the the problems, issues and gaps identified on
principles of sustainable development in all their conservation, sustainable use, and
countries around the globe, the Nations of equitable sharing of benefits.
the world gathered to collectively map out
a plan to address the twin goals of With the emergence of new information,
environmental preservation and economic approaches and analyses from various
development. This historic event, the conservation efforts and initiatives, the
United Nations Conference for DENR-Protected Areas and Wildlife
Environment and Development (UNCED) Bureau (PAWB), the Conservation
or Earth Summit in June 1992, produced a International (CI), and the University of the
blueprint for a global agenda known as Philippines – Center for Integrative and
Agenda 21. In response to UNCED’s Development Studies (UP-CIDS), in
global call for nations to establish national collaboration with more than 300
mechanisms and to formulate and individuals from more than 100 local and
implement their own agenda of actions for international institutions, developed the
sustainable development, the Philippines Philippine Biodiversity Conservation
came up with the Philippine Agenda (PA Priorities
(PBCP) in 2002. The PBCP, which is an the CBD, particularly Article 7, on

update of the NBSAP, can provide the identification and monitoring, through
basis for development programs on increasing the fundamental biological data
biodiversity conservation. essential to underpin the conservation,
sustainable use and equitable sharing of the
In September 2002, a global review of the benefits from the utilization of biological
implementation of Agenda 21 was held in diversity. The GTI thus, aims to address
Johannesburg, South Africa through the the problems of insufficient knowledge of
World Summit for Sustainable all components of biological diversity
Development (WSSD) where countries (including their classification, description,
reiterated their commitment to work value of function) and lack of taxonomic
toward addressing biodiversity loss. capacity, to overcome what has been
Among the commitments and actions termed taxonomic impediments in the
agreed during the WSSD is the reduction implementation of the CBD.
in the current biodiversity loss by 2010 by:
(i) effectively promoting the conservation While plant conservation has found a place
and sustainable use of biodiversity, in the global arena, efforts at the national
promoting support initiatives for hot spot level appear to be more focused on the
areas and other areas essential for conservation of wild fauna. There is no
biodiversity, and promoting the structured project or program on plant
development of national and regional resources conservation that is being
ecological networks and corridors; (ii) implemented to date. Although there are
strengthening national, regional and several individuals and institutions
international efforts to control invasive undertaking certain activities/measures to
alien species, which are one of the main conserve the Philippine flora, these,
causes of biodiversity loss, and however, are fragmented, not properly
encouraging the development of effective coordinated with key stakeholders, and
work program on invasive alien species at not well disseminated. For these reasons
all levels; and, (iii) promoting the and in pursuit of the Philippine
implementation of the program of work of Government’s commitment to the CBD,
the Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI). the DENR through PAWB proposed the
development of a national framework on
Plant conservation was given global plant conservation. This proposal met the
emphasis during the CBD – 6th Conference approval of known plant experts in the
of the Parties (CoP) when the CoP country during a meeting held on 28
adopted the Global Strategy for Plant August 2002.
Conservation (GSPC) (Decision VI/9).
The ultimate aim of this global strategy is On 20 January 2003, DENR Secretary
to halt the current and continuing loss of Elisea G. Gozun issued Special Order No.
plant diversity. The CBD-CoP 6 invited 2003-32 formally creating the Philippine
Parties and Governments to support the Plant Conservation Committee (Annex A).
GSPC, develop national targets, and as Chaired by the PAWB Director and
appropriate, incorporate these targets into composed of plant experts in the country,
relevant plans, programs and initiatives, the Committee is tasked primarily to
including national biodiversity strategy and develop the Philippine Plant
action plans. During the same CoP, the Conservation Strategy and Action
Parties also adopted the GTI (Decision Plan.
VI/8). This global initiative seeks to
provide the key information required for
2.0 PLANT DIVERSITY AND

CONSERVATION STATUS be an assemblage of ophiolite terranes,
island-arc, ocean-basin, and continental
2.1 Phytogeography fragments of different origins and ages.
This complex geological history,
The Philippines is part of a distinct plant archipelagic nature, climatic conditions, and
geographical region known as Malesia topographic features of the Philippines
(Figure 1). Together with Malay Peninsula, contribute to its present plant diversity
Sumatra, Borneo and Java, it is part of the pattern.
sub-floristic province called West Malesia
(van Steenis, 1950; Jacobs, 1974). However, 2.2 Diversity
East Malesian (Sulawesi, Moluccas, and New
Guinea) floristic elements are well- Reports on the estimated number of
represented in the Philippines, indicating that species for the Philippine flora vary
the archipelago might have been the stepping depending on the revisions done for
stones (corridor) through which floristic various plant groups. An estimate credits
elements from both sub-provinces are some 12000 species of plants to the
exchanged (Tan & Rojo 1989). The Philippines, 8000 of which are phanerogams
Philippine flora shares uniquely with Sulawesi (Madulid 1985). The total vascular flora, in
several plant species reflecting the the absence of a complete and
importance of island arcs as dispersal routes comprehensive revision, is estimated to be
for plants (Merrill 1926; Balgooy 1987; at 9000 (Ashton 1997).
Fernando 1990). Mainland Asiatic elements
The Philippine flora is composed of at least
14000 species, representing five percent of
the world’s flora (DENR-PAWB, CI, & UP-
CIDS 2002; Table 1). There are about
8000+ species of flowering plants or
angiosperms, 33 species of gymnosperms,
1100 species of pteridophytes (Barcelona
2002), 1271 species of bryophytes, more
than 3555+ species of fungi and molds,
about 1355+ species of algae (DENR-UNEP
1997; Villareal & Fernando 1999), and 790
Figure 1. Map of the plant geographical region species of lichens (Gruezo 1979). The
of Malesia that includes the Philippines (after
Johns 1995). Table 1. Estimated number of species of
plants (including algae and fungi) currently
known from the Philippines (data from Gruezo
are present in the Philippine flora which are 1979; DENR-UNEP1997; Villareal & Fernando
often associated vegetation found in medium 2000; Barcelona 2002).
to high elevation mountains mostly confined
Plant Group Estimated No. of Endemic
to Luzon (van Steenis 1950). The Philippine Species Species
flora also contains an appreciable number of Angiosperms 8,120 c. 5,800
Australian-Papuasian elements (van Steenis Gymnosperms 33 6
1987). Pteridophytes 1,100 285
Bryophytes 1,271 195
Many palaeogeographic models (e.g. Roeder Algae 1,355 ?
1977; Mitchell et al. 1986; McCabe et al. Fungi, slime molds, 3,555 ?
water molds
1987; Hall 1998) consider the archipelago to
Lichens 789 ?
angiosperms constitute 22.5% of the percent of the gymnosperms are believed

Malesian, and 3.8% of the world’s vascular to be still undescribed (DENR-UNEP
flora. Taxonomic revisions and new species 1997). Within the last three years alone,
discoveries, as well as, geographical range at least seven species from the Philippines
extensions would undoubtedly change the have been described as new to science.
estimates for the species counts. For This include Homalium palawanense
example 162 of the 242 families of Regalado et al. [Flacourtiaceae] (Regalado
angiosperms and gymnosperms have already et al. 2000), Aeschynanthus madulidii
been revised in the Flora Malesiana. Mendum [Gesneriaceae] (Mendum 2001),
Heterospathe califrons Fernando
In the recent Flora Malesiana revisions are [Arecaceae] (Fernando & Sotalbo 2001),
108 flowering plant families, represented Rafflesia speciosa Barcelona & Fernando
mostly by small to moderate-sized families [Rafflesiaceae] (Barcelona & Fernando
and a few speciose families such as 2002), Vaccinium oscarlopezianum Co et al.
Ericaceae, Meliaceae, Sapindaceae, [Ericaceae] (Co et al. 2002), Dischidia
Leguminosae (= Fabaceae). Using Merrill’s cleistantha Livshultz [Apocynaceae]
(1926) account of 8210+ seed plant species (Livshultz 2003), and Carruthersia glabra
as basis, it was noted that only 1363 out of Middleton [Apocynaceae] (Middleton
1726 species remain valid after revisions, 2003).
reflecting a difference of 363. The observed
net reduction (due to synonymy, new The rate at which new discoveries are
records, range extensions, etc.) will be increasing should not be underestimated.
modified further as large speciose families Even in areas already subjected to logging,
are revised. Examples of drastic reduction such as Surigao in northeastern Mindanao
in number of species attributed to the new botanical discoveries are still being
Philippines include the following: Leeaceae, made: Tectaridium macleanii Copel. (new
from 25 to 12 species; Rosaceae, 51 to 41; record for Mindanao of this monotypic
Meliaceae, 135 to 75 (Mabberley et al. Philippine endemic genus), Lindsaea
1995); and, Sapindaceae 123 to 63 (Adema gueriniana (Gaud.) Fee (erstwhile Sulawesi
et al. 1994). endemic), and Santiria grandifolia Kalkm.
(new to the Philippines, erstwhile Bornean)
About five to eight percent of the flowering (Co et al. in prep.)
plants, mosses, fungi and lichens, and five
Table 2. Genera of flowering plants and ferns endemic to the Philippine Islands; figures in paren-
theses denote the number of species in the genus (modified after van Steenis 1987; Johns 1995).
Adonidia (Palmae) (1) Macropodanthus (Orchidaceae) (1)

Amesiella (Orchidaceae) (1) Merrittia (Compositae) (1)
Antherostele (Rubiaceae) (4) Phragmorchis (Orchidaceae) (1)
Astrocalyx (Melastomataceae) (2) Quisumbingia (Asclepiadaceae) (1)
Astrothalamus (Urticaceae) (1) Reutealis (Euphorbiaceae) (1)
Catrionia (Melastomataceae) (1) Sulitia (Rubiaceae) (1)
Clemensiella (Asclepiadaceae) (1) Swinglea (Rutaceae) (1)
Cyne (Loranthaceae) (4) Thaumasianthes (Loranthaceae) (2)
Dolichostegia (Asclepiadaceae) (1) Vanoverberghia (Zingiberaceae) (1)
Fenixia (Compositae) (1) Villaria (Rubiaceae) (5)
Gloeocarpus (Sapindaceae) (1) Nannothelypteris (Thelypteridaceae) (5)
Gongrospermum (Sapindaceae) (1) Psomiocarpa (Tectaria Group) (1)
Greeniopsis (Rubiaceae) (6) Podosorus (Polypodiaceae) (1)
Leptosolena (Zingiberaceae) (1) Tectaridium (Dryopteridaceae) (1)
Luzonia (Leguminosae) (1)
2.3 Endemism Anacardiaceae, 44% (Ding Hou 1978) and

Burseraceae, 33% (Leenhouts 1956).
Twenty-six genera of flowering plants and
ferns are endemic to the Philippines (van Mitra (1973) reported high endemism
Steenis 1987; Madulid 1991; Johns 1995; (70% to 80%) in the following families
Table 2). Among these are the four (each with no less than 15 genera):
genera in Rubiaceae; three each in Sapindaceae, Meliaceae, Orchidaceae,
Asclepiadaceae; two each in Zingiberaceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asclepiadaceae,
and Sapindaceae; and one each in Arecaceae, Annonaceae, Zingiberaceae,
Arecaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Sterculiaceae, Melastomataceae, and
Fabaceae, Rutaceae, Urticaceae, Verbenaceae. Aside from Sapindaceae and
Loranthaceae, and Melastomataceae. Meliaceae, all the other families above are
There are also four endemic fern genera still being revised in Flora Malesiana. It is
(Psomiocarpa, Podosorus, Tectaridium, and worth noting that the percentage
Nannothelypteris). Seventeen of these endemism of these two families are
endemic genera are monotypic. presently estimated at 30% and 9%,
respectively. In a research conducted for
Among flowering plant families, the the Conservation Priority-Setting
Orchidaceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Workshop (CPSW) Process (DENR-
Myrtaceae and Moraceae have the highest PAWB, CI, & UP-CIDS 2002), 108 of the
number of indigenous and endemic species 141 families revised in the Flora Malesiana
while Poaceae, Liliaceae, Ulmaceae, were cross-referenced with the listing in
Leguminosae, and Rutaceae have lower the Merrill’s An Enumeration of Philippine
endemism. Flowering Plants (1923-1926). The average
rate of change in the number of species
Generally, flowering plant endemism in the per family, resulting from revisions was
Philippines ranges from 45% to 60% less than 1%. This validates the estimate
(DENR-UNEP 1997, Amoroso 2000; of Myers et al. (2000) and Madulid (1982)
Mittermeier et al. 1999). However, placing the present number of flowering
species endemism may be as high as 100% plants at 7500 and 8000 respectively.
in families represented by a single or few Earlier estimates placed species endemism
genera, as in Rafflesiaceae (3 species, at 75% (Merrill 1926; Dickerson 1928;
Meijer 1997; Nais 2000; Barcelona & Mitra 1973). The average reduction in the
Fernando 2002) and Daphniphyllaceae (3 rate of change in endemism resulting from
species, Huang 1997). In certain families revisions is approximately 35% based on
and genera endemism reaches 70% to 80% the revised families in Flora Malesiana.
(e.g. Arecaceae, 70%, Fernando 2001; Species endemism is placed at
Vaccinium (Ericaceae) 93%, Sleumer 1966; approximately 27% (DENR-PAWB, CI, &
Amyema (Loranthaceae) 79%, Barlow 1997; UP-CIDS 2002), that is close to the 25%
S y m p l o c o s (Symplocaceae), 78%, estimate of Madulid (1985).
Nooteboom 1977). Many of these taxa
are those especially confined to primary 2.4 Centers of Plant Diversity and
forests (Merrill 1923-26). The Important Plant Areas
Orchidaceae, with more than 900 species
and 130 genera, and the largest family of Several areas in the country have been
flowering plants in the Philippines, has 74% considered Centers of Plant Diversity.
endemism (Valmayor 1997). Plant families The NBSAP adopted the list of 18 sites
of lower endemism include the (Table 3) identified by the Threatened
Dipterocarpaceae, 47% (Ashton 1982), Plants Unit at Kew (Cox 1988) and
Table 3. Centers of plant diversity in the Philippines (after DENR-UNEP 1997).

Name of mountain or area Location
1 Mt Iraya Batan Island

2 Sierra Madre Mountains Isabela Province, Luzon Island
3 Mt Pulag Cordillera Mountains, Luzon Island
4 Mt Arayat Pampanga Province, Luzon Island
5 Mt Makiling Laguna and Batangas Provinces, Luzon Island
6 Lobo Batangas Province, Luzon Island
7 Mt Isarog Camarines Sur Province, Luzon Island
8 Mt Halcon Mindoro Island
9 Coron Coron Island
10 Palawan Palawan Island
11 Southern Samar Samar Island
12 Sibuyan Sibuyan Island
13 Mt Kanlaon Negros Island
14 Mt Talinis + Lake Balinsayao Negros Island
15 Mt Baloy Panay Island
16 Mt Kitanglad Mindanao Island
17 Agusan Marsh Mindanao Island
18 Mt Apo Mindanao Island
recommended by Madulid (1993) based on

the following considerations: (1) the site
or vegetation type is species-rich even
though the total number of species
present therein may not be accurately
known; (2) the site or vegetation type is
known to harbor a large number of
endemic species; (3) the site may harbor a
diverse range of habitat or ecosystem
types, e.g., terrestrial, aquatic, etc.; and, (4)
the site may have a significant number of
species adapted to special edaphic
conditions, such as ultrabasic formation or
limestone formation.
The PBCP, on the other hand, identified

43 priority areas for plant conservation (or
important plant areas) (Table 4 and Figure
2; DENR-PAWB, CI, & UP-CIDS 2002)
and 19 terrestrial biodiversity corridors
based on their biological importance and
degree of socio-economic pressure
exerted on said areas.
Figure 2. Priority areas in the Philippines for
The process in defining the priority sites plant conservation. (DENR-PAWB, CI, & UP-
was consultative in character. The sites CIDS, 2002).
were assessed using information from the
initial available data, from the results of
Table 4. Conservation priority areas for plants (Important Plant Areas or Important Plant Sites)
(after DENR-PAWB, CI, & UP-CIDS 2002).
Seq.
No. Area No. Important Plant Area Island (Province)
1 1 Batanes Islands Protected Landscape & Seascape Batanes Islands

2 12 Peaks of Central Cordillera (above 1000 masl) Luzon (Abra, Mt Province, Benguet, Ifugao, and
Ilocos Sur Provinces)
3 22 Mt Arayat National Park Luzon (Tarlac, Pampanga and Nueva Ecija)
4 28 Bataan Natural Park & Subic Bay Forest Reserve Luzon (Bataan and Zambales)
5 38 Mt Makiling Forest Reserve Luzon (Batangas and Laguna)
6 41 Mt Palaypalay – Mt Mataas na Gulod National Park Luzon (Cavite and Batangas)
7 53 Mt Isarog National Park Luzon (Camarines Sur)
8 63 Mt Halcon Mindoro (Mindoro Occidental and Mindoro
Oriental)
9 64 Naujan Lake National Park Mindoro (Mindoro Oriental)
10 82 Sibuyan Island Sibuyan Is. (Romblon)
11 86 Central Panay Mountains: Madjaas-Baloi Complex Panay (Aklan, Capiz, Antique, and Iloilo)
12 94 Mt Canlaon National Park Negros (Negros Occidental and Negros
Oriental)
13 108 Mt Cabalantian – Mt Capotoan Complex Samar (Samar, Eastern Samar and Northern
Samar)
14 118 Dinagat (Mt Kambinlio & Mt Redondo) Mindanao (Surigao del Norte)
15 121 Mimbilisan Protected Landscape Mindanao (Misamis Oriental)
16 125 North Diwata (Bislig, Mt Agtuuganon – Mt Pasian) Mindanao (Agusan Del Sur, Compostela, Davao
Oriental, and Surigao del Sur)
17 127 Mt Kaluayan – Kinabalian (Kimangkil Ridge), Mindanao (Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon, Davao,
Bukidnon – Agusan del Norte border Davao del Sur, Agusan del Norte and Agusan
del Sur)
18 129 Mt Kitanglad Mindanao (Bukidnon)
19 130 Mt Kalatungan Range Mindanao (Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon, Lanao
del Norte and Lanao del Sur)
20 132 Munai Tambo Complex (Kolambugan uplands & Mindanao (Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur)
associated mountains
21 133 Lake Lanao Mindanao (Lanao del Sur)
22 135 Mt Piagayungan (Ragang) Complex Mindanao (Bukidnon, North Cotabato, Lanao
del Sur and Maguindanao)
23 136 Mt Butig / Lake Butig National Park Mindanao (Lanao del Sur and Maguindanao)
24 139 Marilog Forest Reserve, Bukidnon – Davao boundary Mindanao (Davao and Davao del Sur)
25 143 Mt Apo Range Mindanao (North Cotabato and Davao del Sur)
26 146 Mt Matutum Mindanao (North Cotabato, Davao del Sur,
Sarangani, South Cotabato, and Sultan Kudarat)
27 151 Mt Latian Complex (Sarangani Mountains) Mindanao (Davao del Sur and Sarangani)
28 153 Mt Malindang & Lake Duminagat Mindanao (Misamis Occidental and Zamboanga
del Norte)
29 216 Isabela – Sierra Madre Luzon (Isabela)
30 217 Aurora –Sierra Madre Luzon (Aurora)
31 222 Mt Tapulao Luzon (Zambales)
32 223 Northern Quezon (Central Sierra Madre) Luzon (Quezon)
33 226 Southern Quezon (Central Sierra Madre) Luzon (Quezon)
34 229 Bicol National Park – Mt Labo Luzon (Camarines Sur)
35 238 Calamianes Calamian Islands (Palawan)
36 242 Northern Palawan Palawan
37 244 Central Palawan Palawan
38 245 Southern Palawan, including Balabac Group of Islands Palawan
39 256 Cuernos de Negros Region Negros (Negros Oriental)
40 260 Sohoton – Loquilocon area Samar (Eastern Samar and Western Samar)
41 263 Mt Pangasugan & Anonang – Lobi Range Leyte
42 279 Mt Hibok-hibok Camiguin Island (Misamis Oriental)
43 281 Tawi-tawi Tawi-tawi
regional consultations, from the overlaying philippinensis (Verbenaceae), and Pinanga

of relevant maps (forest cover, bicolana (Arecaceae). Rafflesia manillana,
topographic, etc.) and from the existing although known from three islands
knowledge of plant experts consulted. including Luzon, has not been seen
The choice of sites was based on elsewhere, except on Mt Makiling, Mt
representation, habitat importance and Banahaw and Mt Isarog. Tectona
ecosystem characteristics of each philippinensis occurs only in two small areas
candidate area. Scoring was made based in Lobo and Nasugbu in Batangas Province
on evaluation of the status, distribution, in southern Luzon, and on Ilin Island off
richness and endemism of selected plant southern Mindoro. The small area near
groups and flagship species. Lobo has been converted into an exotic
fruit tree plantation and the remaining
The identified research gaps in other individual trees are felled for charcoal
significant areas prompted the production. Pinanga bicolana is known only
consideration of additional priority sites as from the Bicol National Park on Luzon
well as the adoption of the biodiversity Island. It has been severely threatened by
corridor concept. Corridors, large reduction of its natural habitat to a mere
interconnected networks of protected 10% of its original size, with the remaining
areas and surrounding land, were population consisting of not more than
delineated based on the established
priority sites.
2.5 Threatened Species
The present state of our knowledge of the

Philippine flowering plants is not such that
a thorough analysis can be made of how
many and what species are extinct,
threatened, or near-threatened. Many
plant groups are still poorly known. There
is very limited knowledge on what plants
occur on what island, and in what sorts of Figure 3. Rafflesia manillana Teschem., a species
endemic to the Philippines and listed as critically
habitats. With the extensive devastation endangered. Species of Rafflesia are always parasitic
of the natural vegetation and habitats, on stems or roots certain species of Tetrastigma
(Vitaceae). Photo E.S. Fernando
some species previously occurring in
certain areas are, almost certainly, now 100 mature individuals (Fernando &
either rare or completely absent. The Cereno 2000).
situation is even more serious for endemic
species that are extremely restricted in A large number of species are also very
their geographical range to one or a few rare, occurring only in particular habitats
localities. and localities. For example, in the large
genus Medinilla (Melastomataceae) many of
Nevertheless, some listings on endangered the Philippine endemics (72 out of 80
Philippine plants have appeared in the past species in the Philippines) are very local in
(e.g. Quisumbing 1967; Madulid 1982, their distribution (1995). At least four
2000; Tan et al. 1986; Gruezo 1990). species (e.g. Medinilla binaria, M.
apayaoensis, M. panayensis, and M.
Species that have been identified as tayabensis) are known only from one or
critically endangered include Rafflesia two collections. Of the 127 taxa in
manillana (Rafflesiaceae) (Figure 3), Tectona
Psychotria (Rubiaceae), 30% are known

from a single locality, over 70% from 2 or
3, and 40% have not been collected after
1930 (Sohmer 2001). In the Arecaceae,
about a dozen endemic species (e.g.
Pinanga samarana, Heterospathe dransfieldii,
Plectocomia elmeri) are known only from
one or two adjacent localities and some
have no longer been sighted in their
known areas in recent visits and are now
believed to be extinct (Fernando 1990,
2001).
The 2004 IUCN (International Union for

the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources now World Conservation
Union) Red List of Threatened Species
includes 279 species of Philippine plants
belonging to 112 genera and 50 families
(Annex B). Dipterocarpaceae,
Myristicaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Meliaceae,
Leguminosae, Sapindaceae, Annonaceae, Figure 4. Cycas edentata de Laub., one of four
Apocynaceae, Sapotaceae, Lauraceae, currently known species endemic to the Philippines.
All species of Cycas are listed in Appendix II of
Palmae, and Elaeocarpaceae contain the CITES. Photo E.S. Fernando
most number of threatened species in the
list. It should be noted that this list is very
inadequate and obviously needs some
serious reassessment. Many species may,
in fact, already be under the critically
endangered category. On the other hand,
some species included in the list are
actually quite common and do not appear
to be threatened.
A number of plant species are also being

threatened by trade. As of December
2005, species listed under the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)
include species in Cyatheaceae,
Orchidaceae, and Nepenthaceae, Taxus
sumatrana (Taxaceae); and Hedychium
philippinense (Zingiberaceae). In the
Philippines, these include 41 species under
Cyatheaceae; 6 species in Cycadaceae
(Figure 4); 143 species in Orchidaceae;
13 species in Nepenthaceae; 2 species of Figure 5. Paphiopedilum adductum Asher is a rare
Zingiberaceae; 3 species of Dicksoniaceae; terrestrial, montane species. It is one of about 14
species of Lady Slipper Orchids indigenous to the
1 species of Euphorbiaceae; and, 4 species Philippines.
of Thymelaeaceae, (Annex C). allowed All forspecies of Paphiopedilum
trade, are listed in
and exportation of
Appendix I of CITES. Photo E.S. Fernando
these species may only be allowed under
exceptional circumstances (e.g., Table 5. Wild relatives of crop plants and wild food plants
conservation-oriented studies). indigenous to the Philippines; species marked with asterisks
Presently, all species of Lady’s are endemic to the Philippines.
Slipper Orchids of the genus Family Scientific Name Edible
Paphiopedilum (Fig. 5) are not part
allowed for trade, and
exportation of these species may Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea cumingii* tubers
Dioscorea divaricata* tubers
only be allowed under
Dioscorea elmeri* tubers
exceptional circumstances (e.g.
conservation-oriented studies). Dioscorea loheri* tubers
Dioscorea luzonensis* tubers
2.6 Wild Relatives of Dioscorea merrillii* tubers
Crop Plants Dioscorea palawana* tubers
Sapindaceae Cubila cubili seeds
Crop diversity – the diversity
Nephelium ramboutan-ake fruit
within and between crops and
their wild relatives - is the raw Nephelium lappaceum fruit
material for breeding new Litchi chinensis subsp. philippinensis fruit
varieties of crops. The use of
Dimocarpus longan subsp. malesianus fruit
diversity to produce more
productive crops on farm, field Glenniea philippinensis* fruit
experiments, and biotechnology Moraceae Artocarpus altilis fruit
remains one of the best ways of
Artocarpus blancoi fruit
ensuring our food security.
Wild relatives of crops in forests Artocarpus cumingii fruit
and other natural habitats (Table Artocarpus rubrovenius fruit
5) help safeguard the future of a
Artocarpus camansi fruit
diverse and plentiful food supply.
They are an essential source of Artocarpus odoratissimus fruit
genes for improving crop Fagaceae Castanopsis philippinensis fruit
production. The loss of wild
Actinidiaceae Saurauria bontocensis* fruit
crop relatives will not only have
an impact on the ecosystems Guttiferae Garcinia binucao fruit
where they grow, but will also Garcinia dulcis fruit
limit our opportunities for the
Garcinia vidalii* fruit
future.
Anacardiaceae Mangifera odorata fruit
Mangifera altissima* fruit
Based on the most recent
Mangifera caesia fruit
inventory of the National Plant
Mangifera longipes fruit
Genetic Resources Laboratory
(NPGRL) (Villareal & Fernando Mangifera monandra* fruit
2000), the laboratory holds a Mangifera merrillii* fruit
collection of nearly 400 species Apocynaceae Willughbeia sarawacensis fruit
of various plants that include Dryopteridaceae Diplazium esculentum frond
cereals, fibers, sugar cane, forage
Blechnaceae Stenochlaena palustris frond
and pasture crops, fruit trees,
legumes, nut trees, oil crops, Pteridaceae Ceratopteris thalictriodes frond
plantation crops, root crops
(including yams), small fruits,
vegetables and, about 75% of this

collection is of local origin.
3.0 PHILIPPINE VEGETATION

TYPES
3.1 FOREST VEGETATION
The natural vegetation of the Philippines is

generally a mosaic of different kinds of
forests (often called formations, Whitmore
1984a) that differ from each other in
structure, physiognomy and floristic
composition. The primary vegetation may
be divided into 12 types following the
scheme and nomenclature used by
Whitmore (1984a). The forest types
described by Whitford (1911) are adapted
here with some modifications. These have
also recently been reviewed by Tan & Rojo
(1988).
Similar formations can be recognized Figure 6. Shorea palosapis (Blanco) Merr., a large
elsewhere in Southeast Asia on the basis tree of the Dipterocarpaceae family, reaching to 50
m tall. Dipterocarps are a major component of the
of their structure and physiognomy, but lowland evergreen rain forest. Photo M.L. Castillo
the differences in floristic composition can
be substantial. tropical lowland evergreen rain forest
(Whitmore 1984a). Whitford (1911)
3.1.1 Lowland evergreen rain forest recognized sociological units (also termed
subtypes or associations) within this
This is the typical tropical rain forest formation in the Philippines. These are,
formation in the Philippine Islands. It however, often not readily distinguishable
includes the dipterocarp and the mixed- because of the large number of species
dipterocarp forests described by Ashton concerned and the difficulty of
(1997). This formation occurs from differentiating them in the field. The
coastal flats up to c. 900 m elevation and is change from one subtype to another is
best developed in areas where rainfall is also usually gradual. The variation appears
more or less uniform throughout the year to be correlated with elevation,
(as in the eastern parts of the archipelago) topography, soil-water relations and
or where there is only a short dry season. dominant species composition and perhaps
It is characterized by its richness in even storm frequency (Ashton 1997).
arborescent flora. The Dipterocarpaceae
forms the major component of the forest This type of formation, dominant along the
and its emergents (Figure 6). Whitford eastern parts of the archipelago, is
(1909) has shown that the relative density battered yearly by storms coming from
of dipterocarps, among trees exceeding 40 the Pacific. Their canopy structure is often
cm in diameter, varied from 3% on greatly modified becoming more diffuse
Mindoro Island to 89% on Negros Island. and allowing more light to penetrate the
understorey. This permits dense growth
Variation generally occurs within the
of tangles of rattans (calamoid palms) and On the northwestern coastal hills of Luzon
lianas, epiphytes, herbaceous plants on the and near the east coast of Mindoro this
forest floor, arecoid tree palms, and forest is often dominated by Vitex parviflora
seedlings and saplings of the emergents. (Maun 1958). Associated species include
Ashton (1997) believes that this may Wallaceodendron celebicum, Litchi chinensis
explain why the Philippines is unique in ssp. philippinensis, Pterocarpus indicus, Intsia
Southeast Asia in having extensive bijuga, Lagerstroemia pyriformis, and
dipterocarp forest in which regeneration Kingiodendron alternifolium. The trees are
of intermediate sizes is abundant. usually unbuttressed, low-branching, and
form an uneven canopy often less than 30
3.1.2 Semi-evergreen rain forest m tall.
This formation includes deciduous trees in In Palawan patches of this formation is still
a mixture but with a tendency towards present in the Irawan valley, Calauag, and
gregariousness (Whitmore 1984a). It south of Roxas (Podzorski 1985). They
occurs in areas where there is yearly occur on steep slopes with thin topsoil.
water stress of some duration and perhaps Leaf litter is usually scanty, and the forest
bounds the zone of monsoon climates. floor is open. Emergent trees reach 30-35
There is, as yet, no exact delimitation of m tall; lianas are very common; ferns,
this formation in the islands, but the epiphytes and herbs are rare. The
deciduous Lauan-apitong subtype common emergents include Pterocymbium
described by Whitford (1911) probably tinctorium, Pterospermum diversifolium,
belongs here, as well as the semi- Garuga floribunda, and Intsia bijuga.
deciduous forest reported on Palawan
Island (Podzorski 1985) and the Subic Bay Very little is known of the floristic
Forest Reserve in Zambales (Fernando diversity and structure of this formation.
1997). These forests are characteristically
dominated by a single dipterocarp species, 3.1.4 Forest over limestone
Dipterocarpus grandiflorus or Shorea
contorta. The western side of the This formation occupies low, karst
archipelago, including Palawan and limestone hills, either coastal or bordering
Zambales on Luzon, has a seasonally dry large uplifted river valleys, which are
climate characteristic of areas where this mainly composed of crystalline limestone
formation occurs. covered by a shallow or very thin soil. It is
generally open and its large trees are few
3.1.3 Semi-deciduous forest and scattered. The intervening spaces are
filled with small trees and growth of
This formation occurs in areas where usually sprawling, climbing and small erect
water availability can be limiting to plants bamboos. With a few exceptions, the
and the forest. They are often on the dominant trees are short-boled, irregular
leeward side of mountains or on dry in form and with wide-spreading crowns.
coastal hills (Ashton 1997). Merritt The forest has a deciduous foliage,
(1908) described extensive semi-deciduous especially on rough topography in regions
forests in western Mindoro dominated by where the dry season is pronounced. In
Pterocarpus indicus, Intsia bijuga, Toona aseasonal areas, this forest includes many
calantas, Koordersiodendron pinnatum, herbs such as begonias, gesneriads, and
Pometia pinnata, Dipterocarpus validus, other species.
Bischofia javanica, and Alstonia scholaris.
A number of leguminous trees are
dominant in this formation, viz. Afzelia latifolius (Podzorski 1985). Other tree
rhomboidea, Sindora supa, Intsia bijuga, species include Neissosperma glomerata and
Albizia acle, Wallaceodendron celebicum, species of Gymnostoma, Suregada,
Pterocarpus indicus and Kingiodendron Archidendron and Pouteria. The Mt Victoria
alternifolium. Other dominant species area is the largest region of ultramafic
include Pterocymbium tinctorium, Zizyphus forests on Palawan and is home to the
talanai, Toona calantas, Mimusops elengi, endemic tree Embolanthera spicata, one of
Maranthes corymbosa, Wrigthia pubescens only two species in the genus (the other
ssp. laniti, Lagerstroemia piriformis, and being in Indo-China).
Heritiera sylvatica, and such smaller trees as
Diospyros ferrea, Pterospermum diversifolium, The ultramafic forest in northeastern
and Mallotus floribundus. Mindanao are taller reaching 15 to 20 m
and include Tristaniopsis micrantha,
This formation is apparently similar to the Sararanga philippinensis, Terminalia
so-called Molave (Vitex parviflora) forest as surigaoensis, among others. Those on the
described by Whitford (1911) on other southeastern peninsula occur at high
substrates. elevations and are thus considerably
shorter, in some areas not reaching even a
3.1.5 Forest over ultramafic rocks meter tall and have sometimes been
referred to as bonsai forest.
This formation occurs in soil rich in heavy
metals and is generally characterized by a On Dinagat Island and also the
sclerophyllous stunted vegetation with northeastern tip of Mindanao and Leyte
sharp boundaries. In the Philippines it is the ultramafic forest contains the endemic
found on Palawan (Podzorski 1985), tree Xanthostemon verdugonianus.
eastern Isabela and northern Zambales on
This formation in the Philippines needs
Luzon, northeastern and southeastern
further investigation particularly for its
Mindanao, and on Dinagat Island.
rare and endemic flora.
Some of the ultramafic forests on Palawan 3.1.6 Beach forest
are only about 2-5 m tall and contain a
unique flora including, among others, This formation forms a narrow strip of
Planchonella sp. and the heavy metal woodland along the sandy and gravelly
indicators Scaevola micrantha (Figure 7), beaches of the seacoast. Its composition is
Brackenridgea palustris and Exocarpus uniform throughout Malesia and Southeast
Asia and most of the representative
species are pantropical. Many species have
fruits and seeds adapted for water
dispersal. The principal species occurring
in the Philippine beach forests are:
Terminalia catappa, Erythrina orientalis,
Barringtonia asiatica, Thespesia populnea,
Thespesia populneoides, Hibiscus tiliaceus,
Callophyllum inophyllum, Pongamia pinnata,
Tournefortia argentea, Casuarina equisetifolia
and Scaevola frutescens.
Figure 7. Scaevola micrantha Presl., a small tree
typical of forests on ultramafic rocks. Locally one or other species may become
Photo E.S. Fernando dominant, but a mixed association is more
usual. Terminalia catappa may occur in
small patches of pure stands in rich river abundant: Rhizophora apiculata (Figure 8),
bottoms. On sandy flood plains near Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera cylindrica,
rivers, Casuarina equisetifolia usually forms Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Bruguiera parviflora,
pure stands. Bruguiera sexangula, Ceriops decandra,
Ceriops tagal, Avicennia marina, Avicennia
Dendrolobium umbellatum and Pandanus officinalis, Sonneratia alba, and Sonneratia
odoratissimus also occur commonly in the caseolaris.
beach forest. On the accreting sand there
is usually a narrow strip of herbaceous Species of Avicennia and Sonneratia occupy
vegetation dominated by Ipomoea pes- the seaward side where the soil is
caprae. generally mixed with sand or coral
limestone. Associated with these species
3.1.7 Mangrove forest is Osbornia octodonta, of Australian affinity,
which forms almost pure thickets.
This formation occurs along clayish Rhizophora stylosa also invades sandy
seashores and in the tidal zones in river shores and coral terraces and does not
estuaries. It can be bordered at its inland occur inland.
side by old shorelines of low hills, by tidal
fresh-water swamp or more or less sandy Species of Bruguiera and Ceriops, as well as
transition forest. Along its borders on the Lumnitzera littorea, Lumnitzera racemosa,
lateral side, it merges gradually into the Aegiceras corniculatum, Aegiceras floridum,
beach formation. Camptostemon philippinense, Scyphiphora
hydrophyllacea, Excoecaria agallocha,
The number of tree species in a mangrove Heritiera littoralis, and Cerbera manghas are
forest is usually limited in the Philippines found on the inner edges of the mangrove
and elsewhere in Malesia. By far a total of formation.
39 species have been recorded for the
Philippines (Fernando & Pancho 1980). The following species may be rare to
The number includes inland marginal frequent and occur along the borders:
species that are usually not abundant. Glochidion littoralis, Dolichandrone spathacea,
Only about 13 species (in 5 genera and 3 Barringtonia racemosa, Xylocarpus granatum
and Xylocarpus moluccensis. In cut-over
areas and along the edges, the swamp fern
Acrostichum aureum and two species of
spiny scandent Acanthus are prominent.
On the inland edge of the mangrove and

the upper tidal limit of estuaries occur
extensive pure stands of the distinctive,
acaulescent palm Nypa fruticans, especially
along water courses. This is sometimes
referred to as the brackish-water
formation but which merges with the
Figure 8. Rhizophora apiculata Blume, a common mangrove of which it is generally
tree species in Philippine mangrove forests. Photo considered a part.
E.S. Fernando
families), however, contribute significantly 3.1.8 Peat swamp forest

to the floristic composition of the forest.
The following are the more common and This formation occurs in areas where the
water table is higher than the surrounding of this land has been converted for
areas, with the peat often about 50 cm agricultural activities. Other co-dominants
deep, acidic, with a soft-crust over semi- are Albizia saponaria and Sesbania
liquid interior with large pieces of wood; cannabina. Phragmites balatoria, Eriochloa
the only incoming water is from rain procera, Scirpodendron ghaeri, and Paspalum
(Whitmore 1984a). The presence of peat spp.. are some common sedges and
swamp forests in southern Philippines has grasses found in the marshland.
been indicated by Whitmore (1984a).
Small patches of this formation have been 3.1.10 Lower montane rain forest
observed in southern Leyte and there
could still be similar areas on Mindanao. In The lower montane rain forest in the
the Philippines, the flora of this formation Philippines includes the tanguile-oak
has never been documented. subtype described by Whitford (1911). It
occurs at elevations ranging from 400 to
3.1.9 Fresh-water swamp forest 950 m, with the upper limit extending up
to 1500 m depending on the height of the
This formation is regularly to occasionally mountain. In this formation Shorea
inundated with mineral-rich fresh-water polysperma is frequently dominant, along
from rivers and streams with the water with oaks (Lithocarpus), oil fruits
level fluctuating, thus allowing periodic (Elaeocarpus), laurels (Litsea) and makaasim
drying of the soil surface. Whitmore (Syzygium) (Brown 1919; Ashton 1997).
(1984b) cited two areas of this formation Epiphytic ferns, herbaceous shrubs of
in the Philippines viz., the middle Agusan Rubiaceae (e.g. Psychotria) and Acanthaceae
valley and west of Pagalungan, both areas (e.g. Strobilanthes) are abundant in the
on Mindanao. All have now apparently understorey. In gaps and gullies, Saurauia
been cleared for rice paddies, human and species of Urticaceae can be common,
settlements or other uses. There are tiny including climbers such as Freycinetia.
vestiges of this formation near Tungao,
Agusan Province, and also in the In the high plateau region of the Cordillera
Zamboanga Peninsula on Mindanao, in the Mountains on Luzon, in a region with a
late 1970s. The floristic composition of distinct dry season, Pinus kesiya occurs in
this type in the Philippines also has never heavily disturbed areas of the lower
been studied. The remaining small montane rain forests (Jacobs 1972). This
patches, however, indicate that the palm pine species occurs as a fire climax tree in
Metroxylon sagu may have been a dominant pure stands (pine forest) or often
component and occurred in huge stands. scattered in fire-prone grasslands. On the
It is likely that this formation was once driest sites in western Mindoro and Luzon
extensive along the large river systems in (Zambales and Abra Provinces) also occur
the archipelago, particularly in the south. another pine species, Pinus merkusii, in
similar grassland habitats. Both Pinus kesiya
In the vast drainage system of Agusan and and Pinus merkusii have an altitudinal range
adjacent provinces in Mindanao, the of usually 500 to 1500 m.
freshwater swamp forest is sometimes
dominated by Teminalia copelandii and 3.1.11 Upper montane rain forest
Nauclea orientalis. While the floristics of
the area indicate that there is a relatively This formation in the Philippines is
low diversity and endemism of plant commonly called the mossy forest. It
species, it is relevant to consider the occurs on mountains above 1000 m
swamp forest’s ecological function. Much elevation with the upper limits varying
depending on the locality and height of the
Table 6. Marine plants (seagrasses) in the Philippines (after Fortes 1990).
Family Species
RUPPIACEAE Ruppia maritima L.
CYMODOCEACEAE Cymodocea rotundata (Ehrb. & Hempr.) Aschers. & Schweinf.

Cymodocea serrulata (R. Br.) Aschers. & Magnus
Halodule pinifolia (Miki) Hartog
Halodule uninervis (Forssk.) Aschers.
Syringodium isoetifolium (Aschers.) Dandy
Thalassodendron ciliatum (Forssk.) Hartog
HYDROCHARITACEAE Enhalus acoroides (L.f.) Royle

Halophila beccarii Aschers.
Halophila decipiens Ostenf
Halophila ovalis (R. Br.) Hook. f.
Halophila ovata Gaudich.
Halophila minor (Zoll.) Hartog
Halophila minor (a new variety)
Halophila spinulosa (R. Br.) Aschers.
Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers.
mountain. The topography is rough and 3.1.12 Subalpine forest

constantly changing. It consists of steep
ridges and canyons. Generally the climatic In the Philippines this formation is best
conditions are exceedingly moist, both as known on the Mt Halcon-Mt Sialdang
regards rainfall and humidity. Apposed to range (2470-2587 in alt) on Mindoro
this is the great exposure to winds. Island. The vegetation is generally
Hence, the mossy condition and dwarfed, regarded as open shrub heaths, mainly
crooked trees is characteristic of this characterized by the dominance of small,
formation. Many trees seldom reach 20 m woody dicots with microphyllous-
tall. The trunks and branches of trees are sclerophyllous leaves, forming a low, dense
generally covered with mosses, liverworts, canopy (Merrill 1907, Mandia 2001). The
ferns and other epiphytes. The open soil is shallow, acidic, and nutrient poor.
places are occupied by ferns and grasses. Many of the genera are mainly temperate
in distribution (microtherms). This
The floristic composition is relatively formation differs from the summit
complex, but less so than the formations vegetation of the other high mountains
at lower elevations. The typical trees in where grasses and sedges dominate with
this formation are conifers of the genera few herbaceous elements. Certain areas
Dacrydium, Dacrycarpus, and Podocarpus, as on Mt Pulag (Jacobs 1974), Mt
well as, broadleaf genera such as Mantalingahan and Mt Kinasalapi may have
Lithocarpus, Symplocos, Engelhardtia, elements of a subalpine forest.
Syzygium and Myrica. Species of Ericaceae
(Rhododendron, Vaccinium and Diplycosia) Some of the more common woody dicots
and Melastomataceae (Astronia, Medinilla, on the Mt Sialdang subalpine rain forest
and Melastoma) are common, as is the tree include Styphelia suaveolens, Rhododendron
fern genus Cyathea. quadrasianum, Vaccinium myrtoides, Myrica
javanica, Leptospermum flavescens, and Eurya
coriacea (Mandia 2001). This assemblage of
plants fits well with the subalpine distribution (e.g. disjunct) pattern. This is
formation on the rocky summits of Mt especially true in lakes that are geologically
Kinabalu (4101 m alt., Borneo) and Mt old. Examples are Blyxa novoguineensis
Kerinci (3800 alt., Sumatra). (Hydrocharitaceae), a submerged aquatic
plant originally known from alpine lakes in
New Guinea and discovered in one of the
3.2 INLAND WATERS Mt Tabayoc lakes (approx. 2400m asl) in
VEGETATION 1972 (Jacobs 1972), and Isoetes
philippinensis (Isoetaceae), also a
The inland wetland ecosystems of the submerged plant and the only known
country include, among others, 211 lakes, quillwort from the Philippines discovered
18 major rivers and 22 marshes and from a clear pool in Lanao del Norte
swamps. In general, the vegetation may be (approx. 500m asl) (Merrill & Perry 1940,
subdivided into lacustrine (lake), palustrine Alston 1959).
(marsh), and riverine types. A previous
aggregate tally of plant species attributable Lowland forests adjoining lowland lakes
to this type of ecosystem has identified have practically been converted to other
439 species of macrophytes (431 land-uses. No documentation is extant on
angiosperms, 7 pteridophytes, and 1 the nature of its original vegetation aside
bryophyte) (DENR UNEP 1997). from sporadic comments of Elmer in Lake
Mainit in Agusan del Norte and Surigao del
3.2.1 Lakes Norte border).
In general, lake vegetation has very low Residual forest near Lake Naujan is
diversity of vascular plants, usually dominated by bangkal, Nauclea orientalis
consisting of taxa that often have very and some Pandanus spp., and Scirpodendron
wide distribution range. The dominant ghaeri. In Lake Manguao, in northern
herbaceous vegetation are sedges and Palawan, the aquatic plant community is
grasses with the latter confined to dominated by species of Ceratophyllum,
lakeshores. Nitella, and Nymphaea growing together
near the lakeshore (Podzorski 1984).
In lowland lakes, the submerged plants Ischaemum glaucescens and Pseudoraphis
include Vallisneria gigantea, Hydrilla spinescens also grow in the lake margin and
verticillata, Ottelia alismoides, and water.
Ceratophyllum demersum. The floating
species are Nelumbo nucifera, Pistia 3.2.2 Rivers and Creeks
stratiotes, and Eichhornia crassipes. Along
the lakeshore, the common plants are Rivers and creeks are considered forest
species of Poaceae (Hymenachne internal borders, traversing all vegetation
amplexicaulis, Arundo donax, Phragmites types in forested areas. The gallery forest
vallatoria, and Pseudorhaphis squarrosa), and partial clearing they create, form an
Cyperaceae (Scirpus grossus, Cyperus spp., exclusive biotope. In Peninsular Malaysia,
and Fimbristylis spp.), Fabaceae (Sesbania Corner (1940) described three (3)
cannabina), and Sterculiaceae (Pentapetes categories of riverine vegetation named
phoenicea). according to its dominant constituent.
Unfortunately, aside from streams
Though species-poor like the lowland influenced by tidal fluctuations (i.e. Nypa-
counterparts, the upland lakes may harbor dominated tidal streams), no similar
certain plant species with very interesting categorization exists for the Philippines.
Special mention must be made to a 3.3 MARINE VEGETATION

peculiar riverine vegetation type in short-
coursed, swift-flowing rivers and streams Seagrass beds are discrete communities
subjected to periodic flash-floods. These dominated by flowering plants with roots
are referred to as rheophytes (river plants) and rhizomes (underground stems) that
or stenophyllous (narrow-leaved) vegetation grow best near estuaries and lagoons in
typified by common Homonoia riparia the Philippines. They are often associated
(Euphorbiaceae). The preponderance of with mangrove forests and coral reefs,
narrow leaves is part of an adaptive often forming the ecotone between these
morphological modification to flash two divergent ecosystems (Fortes, 1995).
floodings, a sort of aerodynamic trimming The seagrass meadows support a rich
designed to reduce drag and resistance to diversity of species from adjacent systems
swift currents. In addition, they have and provide primary refugia for both
strong, tough branches, as well as, a well- economically and ecologically important
developed taproot system that serves as organisms. The plants are sensitive to
strong anchor. They occupy a variety of fluctuations because species coming from
niches such as cascades and rapids, gorges, their neighboring systems encounter
riverbeds of rock boulders, gravel, pebbles, “marginal conditions” and are at the
sandbars, banks and sand-submerged extremes of their tolerance levels to
bottoms. How their seedlings establish environmental alterations which make
themselves is not yet known. them useful indicators of changes not
easily observable in either coral reef or
While rheophyte communities are found in mangrove forest.
most parts of the world (excepting cold
regions and truly oceanic islands), it is the Southeast Asia, with its extensive
Indo-Malesian region where they are most combined coastline of more than 120,000
strongly represented. Van Steenis (1981) km, is the second most diverse area, next
listed c. 400 species (in 67 families) of only to Australia, in relation to seagrasses,
rheophytes worldwide. Borneo tops the with the Philippines, Indonesia, and
list with 82 species, while the Philippines Vietnam contributing the greatest number
comes fourth with 26 species. of species in the region (19 or about 55%).
Myrmeconauclea (Rubiaceae), an ant-plant So far 16 species of seagrasses have been
genus with several species in Borneo and identified in Philippine waters (Fortes
Palawan is restricted to this habitat. Ficus 1990) (Table 6). Coral reefs with their
rivularis (Moraceae), Ligustrum stenophyllum associated seagrasses potentially could
(Oleaceae), Dorystephania luzoniensis supply more than 20% of the fish catch in
(Asclepiadaceae), Aglaia angustifolia the country (McManus 1998).
(Meliaceae), Desmodium unifoliolatum
(Fabaceae) are some examples of narrow From ocular surveys, the Philippines has
endemics occurring in this habitat. sizeable seagrass areas spread
discontinuously along the shallow portions
Well-developed expressions of this of its coastlines. The number of species
rheophyte vegetation type in the present appears to be largely a function of
Philippines may be observed in the Sierra the extent of the studies made, the length
Madre Mountain Range, upper reaches of of the coastline, and the emphasis
the Apayao River, and possibly other countries give on the habitats. A total of
regions of the Philippines, especially along 978 km2 of seagrass beds have been
the eastern part. measured from 96 sites. The areas of
seagrasses reported are estimates from
selected study sites, not reflecting the area Opinion has been expressed, especially by
for the country. those who have regarded the mossy oak
forest as being montane, that these
grasslands represent alpine grasslands
3.4 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM above the tree limits. However, this is
doubtful as the tree limits in Southeast
3.4.1 Lowland Grassland Asia and the tropics generally is at much
higher altitudes. On Mt Kinabalu in
Large areas of Philippine grasslands on the Borneo the tree limit is not reached until
plains and hills are covered mainly with 3650m.
cogon (Imperata cylindrica) and talahib
(Saccharum spontaneum). Of these two, The Mt Pulag grassland appears to be
the more aggressive is cogon, a vigorous merely an upland extension of the mid-
and fast-growing grass. Talahib is a much mountain grasslands. Certainly it is
taller and coarser species, with clumping dominated by dwarfed bilaw (Miscanthus),
habit. In both species, the reproductive associated with the grasses Deyeuxia
structures, light and feathery fruit, are stenophylla, Anthoxanthum, Microlaena,
perfectly adapted to wind dispersal. They Deschampsia flexuosa, Isachne, and
also spread vegetatively by means of Danthonia oreoboloides, as well as, a dwarf
underground, lateral stems (rhizomes). bamboo, Yushania niitakayamensis.
The rhizomes are deep-seated so that they
are not easily affected by fire when the True alpine herbs are lacking although
aerial parts of the plants are burned. such plant species as Hypericum pulagensis
Cogon is usually found in clay soil, while (a local endemic), Euphrasia borneensis,
talahib is more often found in sandy or Ranunculus philippinensis (a Philippine
gravelly soils. endemic), Haloraghis micrantha, Gentiana
spp. and Anaphalis suggest a subalpine
The open and water-logged lowland areas habitat.
are easily invaded by tambo (Phragmites
vallatoria), a hardy grass reed which usually
forms pure stands. 3.5 SECONDARY VEGETATION
3.4.2 Montane Grassland A large percentage of the total area of the

Philippines is now occupied by regrowth.
In the pine region of central and northern Together with cogon grasslands, secondary
Luzon, other species of grass take the vegetation or parang (Whitford 1906;
place of cogon and talahib. Punaw Brown 1919; Richards 1952) form one of
(Themeda australis) a low, perennial grass is the country’s most characteristic and
usually associated with bilaw (Miscanthus extensive vegetation types. It results from
sinensis), a coarse, perennial grass. Both man’s activities. It consists predominantly
species are resistant to fire. of Imperata cylindrica and Saccharum
spontaneum. In the lowlands, trees include
The summit area of Mt Pulag from about fast-growing representatives of familes
2750 m upwards is where one might such as Euphorbiaceae (Macaranga),
expect to find a true montane forest. This Urticaceae (Pipturus) and Trema
area is made up of several square (Celtidaceae). In the Zambales-Bataan
kilometers of open tussock grassland. area, thick clumps of the bamboo
Schizostachyum lumampao are also
common in this type of vegetation. On
some very steep slopes may occur

individuals of Cycas riuminiana.
Although logging is now extending the

areas of this vegetation type, the system of
shifting agriculture known as kaingin
farming contributes to a significant extent.
The virgin forest is first felled in small plots
and planted with various crops for two or
three years. The patch is then abandoned
to revert to secondary tree growth while
Figure 10. Conversion of habitats to kaingin or

slash-and-burn farming remains a serious threat to
Philippine plants. Photo E.S. Fernando
In most areas, cogon grass, the tall wild

sugarcane (Saccharum spontaneum) and
other grasses form the dominant cover.
Phragmites vallatoria (tambo) is found in
wet to swampy situations.
4.0 THREATS TO PHILIPPINE

PLANTS
Figure 9. Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex
Blume) Reichb. f. & Zoll., a small tree common as a 4.1 Land Conversion and Habitat
pioneer species in secondary vegetation. Degradation
Photo E.S. Fernando
a new plot is opened up. If the cycle is The decline in the quality and quantity of
repeated over the same area the the country’s biodiversity is largely due to
succeeding regrowth phases become more the land conversion and degradation of the
and more scrubby. If fire is introduced, habitats (Figure 10). Generally, land
the area is taken over by grasses conversion for settlement and agricultural
particularly the cogon grass. As the development, kaingin or slash-and-burn
grasses can survive burning through their farming, logging, forest fire, chemical
underground rhizomes while the tree pollution, and to some extent, mining,
seedlings are killed, grasses become energy projects and pest and diseases have
stabilized and tree regrowth becomes been the causes of habitat destruction.
more and more difficult. In the early
Mangrove areas, for example, have been
phases and in the absence of further
converted into fishponds for the
interference however, the forest
cultivation of commercially important
regenerates. A dense mass of pioneer
aquatic organisms (Zamora 1995), such as
softwood trees take over, such as Ficus,
milkfish (Chanos chanos) and prawn
Pipturus, Antidesma, Melanolepis (Figure 9),
(Penaeus manodon) (Davis et al. 1990).
Melochia, Macaranga, Mallotus, Alstonia,
Portions of Candaba Swamp, Manlubas
Trema, Artocarpus and Homalanthus. In
Swamp, Agusan Marsh, Leyte Sab-a Basin,
time the primary forest species appear and
and Naujan Lake, among other wetland
the regrowth becomes secondary forest.
areas, have been converted into
aquaculture ponds. This endangers the
flora and faunal species in these areas.
Previous agricultural lands, on the other 4.3 Kaingin

hand, have been converted into other
uses. A total of 109,000 hectares of Kaingin activities practiced by uplanders
irrigated lands has, over time, been and displaced logging workers also deplete
converted into industrial, commercial and and degrade forest habitats to a
residential uses. This in turn resulted to considerable extent. These people cut and
the conversion of secondary forests and burn stands of forests or burn logged
grasslands into agricultural lands. Previous forest remnants to grow cash crops such
lowland communities were also pushed as rice, corn and vegetables. These plots
into the uplands by these developments are abandoned after a year or two when
resulting to the conversion of certain the soil is no longer fertile or suitable for
secondary forests and grasslands into agriculture. Because of nutrient depletion
human settlement areas and agricultural and lack of shade, the kaingin areas take
sites. Mt Data and other areas within the many years before they can regenerate, if
Cordillera and Mt Province are now they regenerate at all.
vegetable production sites.
4.4 Forest fires
Seagrasses in the Philippines are under
threat from loss of mangroves and coral Natural forest fires are common in dry
reefs, the former acting as a filter for montane forests, pine forests, and forests
sediment from land, coastal development, interspersed with grassland. Fires
urban expansion and dredging (Leon et al. commonly occur during the dry season
1990), the latter, serving as buffer against when the forest litter easily ignites
waves and storm surges. Other impacts spontaneously with high temperature. As
include, substrate disturbance, industrial a result, forestlands are transformed into
and agricultural runoff, industrial wastes grasslands that today form a dominant
and sewage discharges. In the last 50 lineament in the landscape. With the El
years, between 30 and 50% of seagrass Nino phenomenon recurring almost
beds were lost. This is the result of annually, many of the burnt forests cannot
industrial development, ports and regenerate to their original state. The
recreation (Fortes 1994). forests of the Sierra Madre, Cordillera,
Caraballo, Mindoro, Palawan, and Mt
4.2 Logging Malindang, Mt Kitanglad and Mt Apo in
Mindanao, have been severely affected by
Logging, both legal and illegal, though forest fires.
confined to forest-rich regions, poses the
most serious threat to forest biodiversity. 4.5 Pollution
The demand for livelihood opportunities
of the increasing upland and rural Pollution, in particular chemical pollution,
population and continued operations in is recognized around the world as one of
forest concessions altogether deplete the the major reasons for the escalating loss of
forest cover to a considerably vast extent. biodiversity. Philippine wetlands and
This is the common scenario in many parts marine waters suffer from pollution due to
of the country today. The Forest sewage and industrial effluents from urban
Management Bureau (1993) estimates that areas (e.g. Manila Bay and Pasig River),
about 100,000 hectares of watersheds tailings from mining activities (e.g. Calancan
need immediate rehabilitation. Only a few Bay in Marinduque), oil spills from shipping
areas like Palawan, Samar, and Agusan have operations (e.g. major ports and harbors
some remaining virgin forests. around the country), agricultural run-off
carrying fertilizers and pesticide residues elmeri, E. fullageri, and Ganoderma elmeri.
(e.g. lakes, estuaries, etc.), hazardous
wastes (e.g. industrial effluents along major 4.7 Invasive Species
rivers and on estuaries), and siltation as a
result of erosion from watersheds (e.g. all More than 475 plant species have been
denuded watershed areas). introduced into the Philippines during pre-
historic times mainly from the Malayan
Several wetlands are now considered region but a high percentage have been
highly polluted like Laguna Lake, Lake introduced within the past 400 years,
Lanao, Lake Mainit, Lake Leonard, Lake including a great number of American
Wood, Lake Pinamlog, Pasig River, Agno origin (Merrill 1912). About 225 species
River, Pampanga River, Agusan River, Agus are found only in cultivation for food and
River, Manila Bay, Maribojoc Bay, Bislig were not reported to cause economic or
Bay, Panguil Bay, Puerto Princesa Bay, environmental harm. Alien species were
Honda Bay, and Ulugan Bay (Zafaralla et al. introduced for economic reasons until
1995). Presumably, many endemic species they were observed and reported to have
are affected by the stressed condition of become invasive and have caused
ecosystems arising from chemical economic losses and environmental
pollution. damage. Biosafety measures and
environmental impacts were not
4.6 Pests and Diseases considered before their introduction.
Exotic ornamental plants, largely orchids,
Forest plantations have decreased their have been introduced into the country and
production because of pests and diseases many are used as parental stocks for
which plague the trees, e.g., gall disease of orchid breeding. One threat is genetic
Paraserianthes falcataria, varicose borer of dilution of native and endemic orchid
Eucalyptus deglupta, plant lice or psyllids of species as well as the introduction of
Leucaena leucocephala, bark and shoot pathogens that could cause large-scale
borers of Pinus species, and shoot borer of epidemics. In recent years, exotic species
Swietenia macrophylla. The pine bark monocultures have been plagued with
beetle, viz., Ips calligraphus has attacked pests and diseases.
natural stands of pine trees in Baguio City
and neighboring areas since 1959. The Among the invasive species introduced
borer infestation reached an epidemic into the country are Chromolaena odorata
scale during the period 1959-1979 (hagonoy weed), Lantana camara (largeleaf
resulting in the death of affected trees in lantana), Mikania cordata (Chinese
about 81,200 hectares of pine forest, creeper), Salvinia molesta (waterfern), and
leaving behind large denuded patches in Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth).
Northern Luzon (Veracion 1978).
Mangroves have been infested by barnacles 4.8 Over-exploitation
(Pollicipes mitella, Octolasmis cor, Chtamalus
caudatus) (Rosell 1986), borer (Poecilyps Many forest species are of ornamental
falax) and tussock moth (Euproctis sp.) value and are much sought after by local
(Sinohin & Flores 1993; see also Melana & and international traders. Among the
Mapalo 995). For dipterocarps, some of highly prized ornamental plants are the
the common fungi causing decay are Fomes jade vine (Strongylodon macrobotrys), giant
luzoniensis, F. semitostus, F. merrillii, F. staghorn fern (Platycerium grande), waling-
applanatus, F. pachyphloeus, Polyporus waling (Eunanthe sanderiana), and many
semitostus, Pyroplyporus merrilii, Elvingia tree fern species like Cyathea spp. and
Cibotium spp. Tree fern trunks are used as The NIPAS aims to integrate outstanding
substitute for driftwood and serve as remarkable areas and biologically
attractive substrate for growing orchids. important public lands that are habitats of
Thus, tree fern trunks are over-collected rare and endangered species of plants and
in response to the high demand of the animals, biogeographic zones and related
orchid industry. Non-timber forest ecosystems whether terrestrial, wetland
products like resin and rattans are over or marine, all of which shall be designated
harvested, thus decreasing the natural as protected areas. The objectives of the
population to very low levels. At present, NIPAS Act are carried out through the
the populations of almaciga (Agathis formulation of a General Management
philippinensis) and rattans (species of Planning Strategy that will serve as guide in
Calamus and Daemonorops) are threatened. the implementation of activities such as
Overexploitation of commercial timber resource assessment, zoning, community
species (e.g. dipterocarps, kamagong, management, biodiversity monitoring and
mabolo, and narra) for the furniture research, advocacy, law enforcement, staff
industry and mangrove timber for development, and networking.
fuelwood also remains a major concern in
the country. At present, 101 protected areas covering a
total area of 3.2 million hectares have been
established under the NIPAS through
5.0 PAST AND PRESENT presidential proclamation (Annex 4).
CONSERVATION Seventy-one (71) of these protected areas
INITIATIVES covering 1.61 million hectares are
terrestrial representing the various
5.1 In-Situ Conservation vegetation types of the country
In-situ conservation involves the Projects for the management of protected

management of biological resources in areas were later developed and
their natural environment. One of the implemented through various foreign
major initiatives of the Philippine financial grants, namely: the World Bank-
Government on in-situ conservation is the Global Environmental Facility (WB-GEF)–
establishment of a comprehensive system funded Conservation of Priority Protected
of protected areas to ensure the perpetual Areas Project (CPPAP), the European
existence of all native plants and animals Union (EU)-funded National Integrated
consistent with the principles of biological Protected Areas Program (NIPAP), and
diversity and sustainable development. the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP)-GEF funded Samar Island
Efforts on in situ conservation started in Biodiversity Project (SIBP). The CPPAP
1932 with the National Parks System. was implemented in 10 priority areas
One of the purposes for establishing (Batanes Protected Landscape and
national parks is the preservation of the Seascape, Northern Sierra Madre Natural
wilderness due to its characteristic flora. Park, Subic-Bataan Natural Park, Apo Reef
Under the System, 60 national parks and 8 Marine Natural Park, Mt Kanlaon Natural
game refuges and bird sanctuaries were Park, Mt. Kitanglad Natural Park, Siargao
established. These are now among the Island Protected Landscape and Seascape,
areas considered as the initial components Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary, Turtle
of the National Integrated Protected Areas Islands Wildlife Sanctuary, Mt. Apo Natural
System (NIPAS) established in 1992 Park) while the NIPAP focused on 8
through RA 7586 (NIPAS Act). selected sites (Mt. Pulag National Park, El
Nido Managed Resource Reserve, Coron
Island, Malampaya Sound Protected
Landscape and Seascape, Mt. Isarog 5.2 Ex-Situ Conservation

Natural Park, Mt. Malindang Natural Park,
Mts. Iglit-Baco National Park, and Mt. Ex-situ conservation is defined in Article 2
Guiting-guiting Natural Park). The first of the CBD as the conservation of
two projects have been completed, CPPAP components of biological diversity outside
in 2002 and NIPAP in 2001. The SIBP, their natural habitat. Several initiatives
now on its fourth year of implementation, have been implemented in the Philippines
aims to conserve the remaining natural as mentioned in the NBSAP (1997). These
forests and biodiversity resources of include the Makiling Botanic Gardens of
Samar Island by establishing it as a Natural the University of the Philippines at Los
Park under the NIPAS. Baños (UPLB) with 300 hectares
showcasing an arboretum, nursery and
In addition, two of the protected areas in recreational areas and the Living Museum
the country have been designated as of Philippine Medicinal Plants at the
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Quezon Memorial Circle, Diliman, Quezon
Nations) Heritage Sites such as the Mts. City, which features indigenous plants used
Iglit-Baco National Park and Mt. Apo by indigenous peoples to remedy common
Natural Park due to their significance as illnesses.
habitats of Tamaraw and Philippine Eagle,
respectively. The conservation of plant There are gene banks established by the
diversity in these protected areas plays a Ecosystems Research and Development
major role in the maintenance of the Bureau (ERDB) of the DENR for rattans
habitats of these threatened species. (48 species), bamboo , palm and medicinal
plants.
Other government agencies, non-
government organizations (NGOs) and the PAWB initiated the project on ex-situ
academe have also initiated certain in-situ conservation areas for the Philippine teak
conservation activities. Efforts are being (Tectona philippinensis). Wildlings of the
made by the National Museum to species were collected and planted in
conserve certain endangered species on other localities as a strategy to conserve
site, such as Phoenix loureiroi in Batanes and the species.
Tectona philippinensis in Batangas. The
National Museum also established a 5.3 Conservation Research and
Biodiversity Information Center-Plants Development
Unit (BIC-PU) since 1990. Funded initially
by the John D. and Catherine T. Several initiatives have been undertaken on
MacArthur Foundation, the BIC-PU plant conservation research in the country.
conducts research and field surveys to ERDB, for example initiated an integrated
identify and gather information about project on rattan production to identify
critical plant sites and rare, endemic and and harness the potential of rattan species
endangered plants of the Philippines in for conservation and cane production to
coordination with various government support the handicraft and furniture
agencies, schools, conservation NGOs, industries. Among the outputs of the
and local communities. UNDP-funded Bamboo Research and
Development Program of ERDB are: a
The Haribon Foundation, on the other comprehensive document on bamboo
hand, is pursuing restoration and taxonomy, a guidebook for identification,
protection activities within the Siburan and the establishment of pilot bamboo
Forest in Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro. plantations.
The National Museum, on the other hand, 5.4 Long-Term Ecological Plots
is implementing the Flora of the Philippines
Project that is aimed at collecting, Long-term ecological plots using the
processing, identifying, and documenting biodiversity monitoring system (BIOMON)
herbarium specimens for taxonomic study protocol under the Smithsonian
and as reference materials. Among the Institution- Man and the Biosphere
activities and studies undertaken by the Program (SIMAB) research collaboration
National Museum under the Project are were established. One plot was
conservation in collaboration with established each in Mt Makiling; Mt
international conservation NGOs; Guiting-guiting; Irawan, Puerto Princesa
researches on rare and endangered plants City; and, Mt Kitanglad. Tree demography
such as Tectona philippinensis, Phoenix starting with those with a minimum
loureiroi, rare ferns and wild endemic fruits; diameter of 10 cm were measured in the
and, inventory of rare and endangered 1-ha plots. Periodic monitoring was
plants of different provinces and islands. started in the early 90s.
Research on micro- and macro- The Smithsonian Tropical Research

propagation techniques were formulated Institute-Center for Tropical Science
and implemented for dipterocarps, (SPRI-CTFS) project that is being
mangrove species, medicinal plants, implemented by the consortium of
premium and indigenous hardwoods Smithsonian Institution, Harvard University
species, endemic ferns, fiber plants, dyes, and Arnold Arboretum established a large-
essential oils, resins and exudates by scale forest dynamics plot measuring 16
ERDB, FPRDI (Forest Products Research hectares in Palanan, Isabela. Tree
and Development Institute), UPLB, ERDS demographic census starting with those
(Ecosystems Research and Development measuring 1 cm at a point 1.3 m from the
Sector)-DENR, FIDA (Fiber Industries ground has been taken. Individual trees
Development Authority), PTRI (Philippine were also tagged and plotted on a map.
Textile Research Institute), and the About 300 species of free-standing trees
academe. from 71,400 stems have been identified
from the plot. These large-scale forest
Handbooks and guidebooks for dynamics plots, some measuring as big as
identification of wild food plants (Sinha 50 hectares, have been replicated in the
1987), and mangrove (Palis et al. 1997) tropical realm covering Asia, Africa and
were published. Ethnobotanical South America.
researches have also been conducted by
PCARRD (Philippine Council for The 16-ha forest dynamic plot is
Agriculture, Forestry and Natural envisioned to serve as a field biological
Resources Research and Development) laboratory for biodiversity research and
and the academe. conservation biology (tree spatial
distribution, plant-animal interaction,
Establishment of seed production areas comparison of efficiency of sampling
and identification of seedling and seed techniques vis-à-vis big plots).
sources of indigenous species (Pterocarpus
The ASEAN Regional Centre for
indicus, Intsia bijuga, Tectona philippinensis,
Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC)
Vitex parviflora) have been conducted
conducted a study on the comparison of
nationwide. Seed orchard establishment
sampling techniques for plant diversity in a
of Vitex parviflora is implemented in
forest ecosystem. The results yielded that
Pangasinan and La Mesa Dam.
quadrat sampling is the appropriate
method for forest ecosystem, to
determine plant biometrics and diversity plants and produced radio and television
indices within sampling sites. ARCBC programs on plant conservation.
provided financial support to study the
vegetation of the lowland forest
ecosystems of Panay Island and Lamon- Websites on biodiversity conservation in
Ragay-Tayabas Gulf. the Philippines were launched.
(www.pawb.gov.ph; www.arcbc.org;
Studies in ethnographic biodiversity www.pnh.com.ph).
conservation and management covering 66
ethno-linguistic groups in the country Public education and awareness efforts of
were compiled. Many of these studies different NGOs such as Bantay Kalikasan,
were in agriculture and ethnobotany while ABS-CBN Foundation, Center for
some were on cultural ecology, local Environmental Concerns, CI, and Haribon
cosmology and medicinal plants (PEDCA, Foundation on plant and protected area
unpublished). conservation were also recognized.
5.5 Information, Education and 5.6 Capacity Building

Communication (IEC)
Strategy VI of the NBSAP calls for
The DENR through its bureaus, regional stronger international cooperation in
offices and projects spearheaded several biodiversity conservation and management.
initiatives to catalyze and effect positive In line with this advocacy, the PAWB
changes in the hearts and minds of proposed for the creation of the ARCBC.
Filipinos toward plant conservation. These The proposal was approved and its
initiatives were in the form of awareness establishment supported by funds from the
training and workshops, community and EU. ARCBC has been running training
school visits, and production of popular programs to upgrade the capacities of
and technical materials, such as: different organizations on biodiversity
conservation since its inception. Some of
• plant morphological and production the training programs conducted were the
techniques through RISE (Research National Workshop on Understanding and
Information Series on Ecosystems), the Managing Biodiversity at the Provincial and
DENR Recommends Series, Canopy, Landscape Levels attended by the DENR-
Sylvatrop, Wild Food Plants, PENROs (Provincial Environment and
monographs, bibliographies and Natural Resources Officers); National
abstracts of researches; leaflets on Trainers’ Training on Biodiversity
CBFM (community-based forestry Conservation and Sustainable
management) livelihood activities; Development Education at the Tertiary
• flashcards featuring waling-waling and Level, attended by 35 biology teachers
Philippine Teak; from the centers of excellence in science
• paper bags on species biodiversity and nationwide; Regional Plant Taxonomy
orchids; Training attended by two participants from
• posters about features and benefits the Philippines who worked on the
derived from mangroves; and, identification of the genus Argostema and
• plastic ruler featuring photos of orchid Neouvaria (Annonaceae).
flowers.
PAWB also ran courses on plant
The National Museum published brochures identification and vegetation assessment
and pamphlets on rare and endangered techniques at the start of the Project on
the establishment of protected areas or requirements of forest conservation.

more popularly referred to as the IPAS Occupational standards for protected area
(Integrated Protected Areas) Phase I. The staff, where skills and knowledge are
wetland conservation, as well as the cave defined to effectively perform specific jobs,
and cave resources conservation initiatives i.e. as botanists and resource persons on
started with hands-on vegetation plant conservation, have also been
identification and assessment workshops. developed.
The Bureau also implemented a special
training course on plant identification 5.7 Networking and Partnerships
through its Wildlife Conservation and
5.7.1 Local and National Networking
Management: A Focus on Plant
Identification for PAWB and Regional The Sub-Committee on Biodiversity of the
technical staff. Committee on the Conservation and
Manage me nt of Resourc es for
Capacity-building training courses have Development of the Philippine Council for
also been ran by other agencies, both Sustainable Development which oversees
government and non-government. Some the implementation of the Philippine
of these are as follows: short training commitments to the CBD also provides a
courses on plant collection and herbarium venue for the ventilation of ideas on
techniques; macro and micro-propagation biodiversity conservation and management.
of selected premium and indigenous The Foundation for the Philippine
species by ERDB-DENR; training programs Environment (FPE) also organized the
on plant conservation techniques, plant Experts Advisory Panel (EAP) or a
collection and identification, biodiversity network of experts on the various fields of
assessment (flora/vegetation), herbarium conservation including plant experts. The
curation and ethnomedicinal plants EAPnet as it was called has been dormant
inventory and documentation, use of for sometime but there are present efforts
Botanical Resources and Herbarium to revive it.
Management System (BRAHMS) by the
Philippine National Museum-Plants Unit; The DENR has been entering into
the Philippine Plant Specialist Group’s agreements with various entities, both
training workshop on Red Listing of local and international, for the
Threatened Species; seminars, workshops conservation and management of species
and environmental education training for and ecosystems. Most of the efforts have,
Miriam College, Miriam PEACE (Public however, been directed towards
Education and Awareness Campaign for conservation of wild fauna. Only a few
the Environment) Foundation and other deal with vegetation assessment and
institutions; and, strengthening community management, such as the tripartite
plant genetic resources conservation and Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with
development, through provision of SEARCA (Southeast Asia Regional Center
technical assistance, management advice for Graduate Study and Research in
and education materials to local NGOs Agriculture), the Provincial Government of
and people’s organization by the Southeast Misamis Occidental and DENR, and the
Asia Regional Initiatives for Community MOA with Ruhr University of Germany.
Empowerment (SEARICE). Forty-seven
(47) universities and colleges offering Some NGOs are involved in law
forestry, biology and natural resources enforcement. The Palawan Network for
courses also provide the venue for NGOs, Inc. (PNNI) has been actively
capability and skills enhancement on plant involved in the enforcement of
conservation. Initiatives are underway to bioprospecting policy in the province of
revise the curriculum to address the Palawan. This involvement has resulted to
the apprehension of several local and knowledge on the characteristics, uses,

foreign scientists who collected certain and values of biological diversity; (2)
plant specimens in Palawan without proper Enhancing and integrating existing and
authorization, and seizure of illegally planned biodiversity conservation efforts
collected plants in favor of the with emphasis on in-situ activities; (3)
government. Formulating an integrated policy and
legislative framework for the conservation,
Several NGOs have also been involved in sustainable use and equitable sharing of
initiating partnerships with other benefits of biological diversity; (4)
institutions on plant conservation. These Strengthening capacities for integrating and
are the Happy Earth Foundation, which institutionalizing biodiversity conservation
initiated a national summit towards and management; (5) Mobilizing an
conservation of Philippine teak (Tectona integrated Information, Education and
philippinensis) and a community project on Communication (IEC) system for
kaong (Arenga pinnata), and Majent biodiversity conservation; and, (6)
Foundation of Pangasinan which Advocating stronger international
collaborated in the conservation of Vitex cooperation on biodiversity conservation
parviflora. and management.
To strengthen networking and partnership 5.7.1.2 P h i l i p p i n e B i o d i v e r s i t y

among local government offices (GOs) and Conservation Priorities (PBCP)
NGOs, PAWB initiated the establishment
of a national framework for sharing The PBCP is the major product of the
biodiversity information through electronic Philippine Biodiversity Conservation
and satellite-centered configuration. The Priority-setting Project (PBCPP), a
framework has been adopted by 18 program implemented by the DENR-
government offices, 8 NGOs, and 2 PAWB, CI and UP-CIDS with the intention
universities through a MOA in 2002. of updating the NBSAP based on the best
scientific knowledge and experience of
Networking and partnerships at the local various experts, as well as from available
level have produced two major published information. More than 300
conservation frameworks as follows: natural and social scientists from more
than 100 local and international institutions
5.7.1.1 National Biodiversity Strategy participated in this undertaking.
and Action Plan (NBSAP)
The key outputs of the PBCPP are: (1) re-
NBSAP, the major output of the Philippine assessment and updating of the terrestrial
Biodiversity Country Study (PBCS) Project and marine biogeographic regions; (2)
which was jointly implemented by the identification of 206 biodiversity
DENR and the UNDP, represents the conservation priority areas; (3)
culmination of hard work by people from a identification of five strategies and actions
broad range of sectors; from government, to be pursued to ensure that conservation
non-government and peoples’ in the 206 priority areas is successfully
organizations to universities, research implemented; (4) identification of marine
institutions and individual stakeholders. and terrestrial biodiversity corridors; and,
(5) state of the art assessments for each
The NBSAP provides six strategies to thematic group of biodiversity. These
conserve the country’s biodiversity, outputs are integrated in a general
namely; (1) Expanding and improving framework known as the Philippine
Biodiversity Conservation Priorities member country. The NBRU interfaces

(PBCP). the ARCBC with the national authorities
and institutions, provides local instruments
The five strategic actions provided in the for in-country follow-up of project
PBCP are: (i) harmonize research with activities, and constitutes a first reference
conservation needs; (ii) enhance and for screening of research proposals for
strengthen the protected areas system; (iii) formal endorsement to ARCBC.
institutionalize innovative and appropriate
biodiversity conservation approaches, i.e.
biodiversity corridors; (iv) institutionalize Networking with international NGOs
monitoring and evaluation systems of likewise produced significant results. An
projects and of biodiversity; and, (v) example of this is the Conservation and
develop a national constituency for Sustainable Development of Sulu-Sulawesi
biodiversity conservation in the Philippines. Marine Ecoregion (SSME) Project with
World Wildlife Fund (WWF). The SSME
5.7.2 Regional and International project was conceptualized during the
Networking Biodiversity Visioning Workshop
conducted by WWF-Philippines last March
Networking at the regional and 2001. The Project aims to develop and
international level is an important implement a long-term conservation
undertaking. Philippine plant experts have program to protect the outstanding
established partnerships with the ASEAN biodiversity and natural resources in the
and European plant scientists on flora country, particularly in the SSME. To meet
conservation. These global experts meet this goal, the DENR and WWF will jointly
annually to review and update taxonomic undertake the following activities: design
accounts of plants found in the Region. and delineate a network of Marine
The association produced bulletins and Protected Areas (MPAs) in the SSME;
monographs on plants (Flora Malesiana). strengthen environmental enforcement
activities in marine conservation; design
The complementary networking by the and initiate a Tri-National Turtle Reserve
Philippine Government, through the with Indonesia and Malaysia; operationalize
DENR, with the ASEAN and the EU has and/or strengthen the Regional Inter-
resulted to the establishment of the agency Technical Working Groups for
ARCBC. Sulu-Sulawesi Seas under the Presidential
Commission for Integrated Conservation
of the Sulu and Celebes Seas; and,
The ARCBC, a joint cooperation project implement joint management conservation
between the ASEAN and the EU, serves as of dugongs and sea turtles in the
the central focus for networking and
Philippine, among others.
institutional linkage among ASEAN
Member Countries (AMCs) and between
ASEAN and EU partner organizations to
enhance the capacity of the ASEAN in
promoting biodiversity conservation.
ARCBC is linked to a National Biodiversity
Reference Unit (NBRU) established within
an existing institution in each ASEAN
6.0 POLICIES 6.3 Republic Act (RA) No. 3571 of

1963
Several policies have been issued for
the conservation of Philippine plants since This law provided for the protection and
early 1930s. These include the following: conservation of plants growing in public
grounds. It prohibited the cutting,
6.1 Act No. 3983 of 1932 destroying or injuring of planted or
growing trees, flowering plants and shrubs
The fundamental law that provided or plants of scenic value along public
protection to plants in the Philippines is roads, in plazas, parks, school premises or
Act 3983 entitled An Act to Protect Wild in any other public pleasure ground. Parks
Flowers and Plants in the Philippine Islands and Wildlife Office Administrative Order
and to Prescribe Conditions Under Which No.1 provided for the Rules and
They May Be Collected, Kept, Sold, Regulations for the Protection and
Exported and For Other Purposes. The Conservation of Flora in Public Grounds.
Act made it unlawful for any person to
take, collect, kill, mutilate or have in her 6.4 Presidential Decree (PD) No.
or his possession, living or dead, or to 389 of 1974
purchase, offer or expose for sale,
The Forestry Reform Code of the
transport, ship or export, alive or dead
Philippines (PD 389) was promulgated to
any protected flowering plant, fern, orchid,
effectively conserve the country’s public
lycopod or club moss and other wild
forests, including watershed areas, protect
plants in the Philippines. This was
and preserve national parks, and at the
implemented through Forestry
same time provide suitable agricultural
Administrative Order (FAO) No. 10-1 as
lands for the people, among others.
amended by FAO No. 6-1.
6.5 Presidential Decree No. 705 of
6.2 Act No. 3915 of 1932
1975, as amended
This law provided for the establishment of The Revised Forestry Code of the
National Parks, declaring such Parks as Philippines (PD 705) which amended PD
Game Refuges and for other Purposes. 389, was aimed at the protection,
Under this law, the Governor-General was development, management, regeneration
authorized to reserve and withdraw from and reforestation of forest lands including
settlement, occupancy or disposal any the development and preservation of
portion of the public domain which, national parks, marine parks, game refuges
because of its panoramic, historical, and wildlife sanctuaries, among others.
scientific or aesthetic value, should be Later amendments were issued to further
dedicated and set apart as a national park strengthen the implementation of the law.
for the benefit and enjoyment of the
people. It also declared it unlawful to Several Department Administrative
destroy or damage in any manner timber Orders (DAO) were issued by the DENR
or other forest products or forest cover to regulate cutting, gathering, utilization of
therein. Subsequently, FAO No. 7 was premium hardwood species such as
issued setting forth the rules and Pterocarpus spp, Vitex parviflora,
regulations governing national parks. The Dracontomelon dao, Diospyros philippinesis,
penalties provided under Act 3915 was Instia bijuga, Acacia spp., Albizia acle,
later increased and amended by R.A. No. Mastixia philippinensis, Wallaceodendron
122. celebicum, Litsea leytensis, Madhuca betis,
Diospyros pilosanthera, Toona calantas,
Wrightia pubescens, Heritiera javanica, Resources, Their By-products and

Pistacia chinensis, Sindora supa, Tectona spp. Derivatives and for Other Purposes, this
Afzelia rhomboidea and Koompassia excelsa EO was signed in 1995 by the President to
(DAO No. 78, Series of 1987) while a regulate the prospecting of biological and
nationwide ban on the cutting of Agathis genetic resources in the country. It
philippinensis was imposed by the DENR regulates the research, collection, and
(DAO No. 74, Series of 1987). utilization of said resources for purposes
of applying the knowledge derived
6.6 Presidential Decree 953 of therefrom for academic or commercial
1976 purposes.
This law required the planting of trees in 6.9 Republic Act No. 9147
certain places and penalized unauthorized
cutting, destruction, damaging and injuring This law, otherwise known as the Wildlife
of certain trees, plants and vegetation. Resources Conservation and Protection
Planting was specifically required on lands Act was enacted in 2001. The Act
adjoining the edge of rivers and creeks broadened the definition of wildlife to
both as a measure of beautification and include plants, from its original definition
reforestation; and along roads and areas referring to animal species alone. It aims
intended for the common use of owners to conserve and protect wildlife species
of lots in subdivisions in order to provide and their habitats, regulate the collection
shade and healthful environment therein. and trade of wildlife, pursue the Philippine
commitments to related international
6.7 Republic Act 7586 (NIPAS Act conventions, and initiate or support
of 1992) scientific studies on the conservation of
biological diversity. The Implementing
The National Integrated Protected Areas Rules and Regulations of the Act was
System (NIPAS) Act of 1992 or RA 7586 approved by the Secretaries of DENR and
was enacted by the Philippine Congress for the Department of Agriculture (DA) and
the establishment and management of a the Chairman of the Palawan Council for
comprehensive system of protected areas, Sustainable Development (PCSD) on May
which shall encompass outstandingly 18, 2004. RA 9147 repealed Act No.
remarkable and biologically important 3983 (as mentioned under Item 6.1
areas that are habitats of various species of hereof) and Act 2590 of 1916, the
plants and animals, biogeographic zones fundamental law protecting game and fish.
and related ecosystems. The
Implementing Rules and Regulations of the 6.10 Republic Act No. 9168
Act was approved by the Secretary of
DENR on June 31, 1992 and issued as The law which is known as the Philippine
DENR DAO No. 25, Series of 1992. Plant Variety Protection Act of 2002 aims
Subsequently, several guidelines were to protect the intellectual property rights
issued by the DENR to further implement of plant breeders with respect to the plant
the NIPAS Act. variety they may have developed. It
defines the requirements and procedures
6.8 Executive Order (EO) No. 247 for the grant of plant variety protection to
these breeders and creates the National
Entitled Prescribing Guidelines and Plant Variety Protection Board which is
Establishing a Regulatory Framework for authorized, among others, to promulgate
the Prospecting of Biological and Genetic policy guidelines for the implementation of
the provisions of the Act.
6.11 Other laws affecting plants 6.12.2 National Biosafety Framework

Project (NBFP)
Other laws incorporating concerns on the
protection of plants include RA 9072 also The NBFP is a UNEP-GEF funded project
known as the National Caves and Cave that is being implemented by the DENR in
Resources Management and Protection collaboration with the DA, Departments
Act and RA 8371 or the Indigenous of Science and Technology (DOST),
People’s Rights Act (IPRA). The Cave Act Health (DOH), Interior and Local
aims, among others, to protect and Government (DILG), Trade and Industry
conserve plants and animals found in caves (DTI), Foreign Affairs (DFA) and the
while the IPRA law provides for the National Committee on Biosafety of the
management and development of natural Philippines (NCBP). The Project aims to
resources within ancestral domains. develop a national framework on
6.12 Policy Formulation Initiatives biosafety that is consistent with the
provisions of the CBD’s Cartagena
6.12.1 Support to the Implementation Protocol on Biosafety. Its components
of E.O. 247 (Bioprospecting include the inventory of existing policies,
Policy) Project rules and regulations, existing and planned
projects/programs, national experts, and
This is a 2-year project between the public participation mechanisms on issues
Philippine Government through the DENR pertaining to biosafety; assessment of
and the Government of Germany through current national capacity to address
the GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft fur biosafety-related concerns; capacity
Technische Zusammenarbeit or German building on risk assessment and
Technical Cooperation) that aims to management; and, biosafety framework
develop a policy that will strengthen the development. The Project was
implementation of access regulation in the completed in December 2004. One of
country. Such policy will include the the major outputs of the Project is a draft
guidelines establishing the parameters to EO establishing the National Biosafety
determine the amount of bioprospecting Framework (NBF), prescribing guidelines
fee and performance & ecological for its implementation, strengthening the
rehabilitation bond to be paid/posted by NCBP, and for other purpose. The
commercial researchers, as well as the framework contains general principles and
quota of specimens to be allowed for minimum guidelines that the relevant
collection for bioprospecting purposes, agencies are expected to follow and to
and the benefit-sharing and monitoring which their respective rules and
schemes. The policy, in the form of a Joint regulations must conform with.
DENR, DA, PCSD and NCIP (National
Commission on Indigenous Peoples)
Administrative Order entitled Guidelines 7.0 INTERNATIONAL
for Bioprospecting Activities in the CONVENTIONS AND
Philippines was approved on January 14, AGREEMENTS
2005. The guidelines streamline the
procedures for granting access to genetic 7.1 Convention on Biological
and biological resources for Diversity (CBD)
bioprospecting purposes. It sets
bioprospecting fees and provides equitable The CBD is a convention that aims to
sharing schemes for benefits derived from conserve the Earth’s biological diversity,
bioprospecting activities among the including the protection of a
government and the host communities or representative system of ecosystems
resource providers.
adequate to conserve biological diversity; and fauna; protect species from over-
promote the sustainable use of the exploitation resulting from unregulated
components of biodiversity; and, provide international trade; promote the aesthetic,
for a fair and equitable sharing of benefits scientific, cultural, recreational and
derived from the utilization of genetic economic values of wildlife; formulate
resources and appropriate access to science-based decisions; and, promote
genetic resources, including transfer of international cooperation. It regulates the
relevant technologies. The CBD was international trade of flora and fauna
signed by over 154 States on 22 May 1992 through a system of permits and
during the UNCED in Rio de Janeiro. It certificates issued by the designated
entered into force on 29 December 1993. Management Authority of each member-
country.
The Conference of the Parties (COP) to
the CBD adopted a supplementary CITES was signed on 03 March 1973 in
agreement to the Convention known as Washington, District of Colombia, USA.
the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB) The Philippines became its member on 16
on 29 January 2000. The CPB seeks to November 1981. Two CITES Management
protect biological diversity from the Authorities have been designated in the
potential risks posed by living modified country, namely; the DENR-PAWB for
organisms (LMOs) or genetically modified terrestrial species, and the Bureau of
organisms (GMOs) resulting from modern Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) of
biotechnology. It establishes an advance the DA for aquatic species.
informed agreement (AIA) procedure for
ensuring that countries are provided with These Management Authorities are
the information necessary to make assisted by Scientific Authorities which
informed decisions before agreeing to the provide advice on whether the export or
import of such organisms into their import of a certain species will not be
territory. The Protocol contains detrimental to their population in the wild.
reference to a precautionary approach and The Scientific Authorities for terrestrial
reaffirms the precaution language in species are the DENR-ERDB, University of
Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on the Philippines-Institute of Biological
Environment and Development. The Science (UP-IBS), and the National
Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Museum of the Philippines (NMP). For
Clearing-House (BCH) to facilitate the aquatic species, these are the DA-BFAR,
exchange of information on LMOs/GMOs UP Marine Science Institute, UP Visayas,
and to assist countries in the Silliman University, and the NMP.
implementation of the Protocol. The
Philippines signed the Protocol in May The CITES provides a list of species that
2000. need to be protected against trade,
nationally and internationally. This listing
7.2 Convention on International is categorized as CITES Appendix 1,
Trade in Endangered Species Appendix II and Appendix III. Appendix I
of Wild Fauna and Flora includes species threatened with
(CITES) extinction, for which trade must be subject
to particularly strict regulation, and
CITES is a treaty that aims to: encourage exportation or importation is only
rational and sustainable utilization of flora authorized in exceptional circumstances.
The only Philippine taxa listed under which provides the framework for national
Appendix I are species of Paphiopedilum action and international cooperation for
(Orchidaceae) (Figure 5) commonly known the conservation and wise use of wetlands
as the Lady’s Slipper Orchids. and their resources including plants. It
was adopted in Ramsar, Iran in 1971 and
Appendix II includes species which are not entered into force in 1975. The Philippines
necessarily now threatened with became a contracting party to the
extinction but may become so unless trade Convention on 08 November 1994 with
is strictly regulated. This further covers the DENR-PAWB as the focal point. The
so-called look-alike species which are Conference of the Contracting Parties
controlled because of their similarity in promotes policies and technical guidelines
appearance to other regulated species, to further the application of the
thereby facilitating a more effective Convention.
control. Philippine plant species listed in
Appendix II include 38 endemic species 7.4 International Treaty on Plant
under Cyathaceae; 4 endemic species in Genetic Resources for Food and
Cycadaceae (Figure 4); 192 species under Agriculture (ITPGRFA)
Orchidaceae; and 12, species under
Nepenthaceae, majority of which are Recognizing that there are now more than
endemic. 815 million people in the world suffering
from hunger, the World Food Summit,
Appendix III contains species that are organized by the Food and Agriculture
subject to regulation within the jurisdiction Organization (FAO) in 1996, pledged to
of a Party and for which cooperation of halve hunger in the world by 2015. To
other Parties is needed to prevent or ensure that resources for food will be
restrict their exploitation. We have no available for future generations, an
Philippine species listed under Appendix III international treaty to safeguard the
at present, but this may always be resorted genetic resources of plants for food and
to should there be a need to protect agriculture was forged. This International
indigenous species which are threatened Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources was
by international trade but not yet listed in finalized after seven years of negotiations
either Appendix I or Appendix II. during the 31st Session of the FAO held in
Rome in November 2001.
The CITES provisions indicate that the
Convention shall in no way affect the right The Treaty establishes a multilateral
of Parties to adopt stricter measures system of access to plant genetic
regarding conditions for trade, possession resources of Contracting Parties. It also
or transport of specimens of species listed aims to ensure the conservation of plant
under its Appendices. It also allows genetic resources that are being used for
Parties to adopt domestic measures food and agriculture, promote their
restricting or prohibiting trade, possession sustainable use, and the fair and equitable
or transport of species not included in the sharing of the benefits arising from their
Appendices. use, including benefits derived from
commercial use.
7.3 Convention on Wetlands or
Ramsar Convention To date, 54 countries have ratified the
Treaty representing a broad range of both
The Convention on Wetlands or Ramsar developing and industrialized countries. It
Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty entered into force on 29 June 2004.
8.0 GAPS of the values of marine ecosystems and

their components.
The NBSAP recognized three types of gaps
based on the comprehensive assessment of Agroecosystem – inadequate records of land
Philippine biodiversity in relation to its races and wild species of agriculture and
conservation and utilization, namely; i) their spatial distribution; incomplete data
gaps in knowledge; ii) gaps in management; on endemism in agriculture; unsystematic
and iii) gaps in policies. statistics on agricultural plants and animals,
especially the descriptors, and reporting
The nature of gaps in knowledge in each of formats; insufficient records of natural
the biodiversity sector is as follows: habitats and their biological components;
and, inadequate record on genetic erosion
Forest ecosystem – incomplete knowledge of important agricultural crops.
of flora and faunal diversity of Philippine
forests, including the biology, ecology, In terms of management gaps, the specific
conservation status, geographic, and gaps in each biodiversity sector are:
altitudinal distribution of rare and
endangered species; insufficient data to Forests Ecosystem – lack of management
enable accurate delimitation of the plans/schemes for non-timber species and
biogeographic zones; and, unavailability of weak implementation of management
standard criteria for classifying forest types policies
based on species distribution, ecology,
physiognomy, and vegetation structure. Wetlands Ecosystem – absence of a viable
management scheme that ensures the
Wetland ecosystem – incomplete knowledge application of integrated and
on the different aspects of biodiversity in comprehensive approach to the country’s
various categories of Philippine wetlands wetlands conservation and management.
which include 78 lakes, 421 major rivers, 4
major swamps or marshes, and numerous Marine Ecosystem – lack of management
bays, estuaries and mudflats. mechanisms that are proactive, predictive,
and participatory, including the inadequacy
Marine ecosystem – absence of foundation of rehabilitation and restoration
geographic information system (GIS) on technology to effectively conserve
the habitats from which baseline seagrasses, coral reefs, and bottom
monitoring could be designed to detect resources, and their biodiversity.
impacts and changes in the ecosystems
that are ecologically and economically Agroecosystem – weak institutional capacity
significant; inadequate quantitative baseline for monitoring and evaluation of agro-
measures of temporal and spatial biodiversity; and, outdated policies, rules
abundance, recruitment and mortality and regulations in the light of national
rates of seagrass beds and coral reefs, and requirements for biodiversity
data on their associated flora and fauna conservation, enrichment, and
especially those with critical conservation sustainability in agriculture.
status; lack of quantitative measurements
of physico-chemical correlates with Protected Areas – many operational gaps
detailed baseline which are useful in related to the implementation of the
delineating biogeographic zones; management plans for protected areas in
insufficient studies on indicator species and accordance with the NIPAS Law.
responses; and, inadequate quantification
The specific policy gaps identified are as 9.1.2 C o m p e n d i u m o f E x t a n t

follows: Botanical Collections in the
Philippines
Wetland Ecosystem - absence of an
overriding policy framework for Philippine The DENR-ERDB implemented the
wetlands. Compendium of Herbarium Collections
Project from April 2000 to October 2001,
Marine Ecosystem – absence of regulatory covering all herbaria nationwide. The
and management policies which protect Project revealed that there are a number
the seagrass beds and coral reefs; unclear of herbaria established and maintained in
delineation of institutional responsibilities the Philippines with specific purposes like
and, enforcement of policy, rules and reference for teaching, repository of
regulations; unclear guidelines and policies specimen used in research and others.
governing the conservation of biodiversity These herbaria, however, are scattered in
in seagrass beds, coral reefs, and soft the country and specimens deposited
bottom communities; lack of policies for therein are unfortunately not duly
coordinated and integrated marine enumerated and not easily accessed by the
biodiversity conservation and sustainable public, the researchers and scientists in
use; and inadequate financial mechanisms particular. The collections or herbaria are
for sustained conservation and research also generally associated with academic
efforts. institutions, a division of botanical gardens,
arboretum or museum and sometimes,
Agroecosystem – inadequate policies privately owned.
concerning biotechnology in the
agriculture sector. The Compendium aims to present all
available specimens housed in various
9.0 PLANT CONSERVATION herbaria nationwide, including those that
GAPS are deposited in selected herbaria abroad
like in Paris (Laboratoire de Phanerogamie),
Plant experts have identified six (6) major United Kingdom (Kew Gardens), the
gaps in plant conservation, namely: (i) Netherlands (Rijksherbarium/Hortus
research/knowledge; (ii) policies; (iii) Botanicus), etc. and to make them
information sharing and management; (iv) accessible both in hard copy and dynamic/
information, education and interactive database forms.
communication; (v) monitoring; and (vi)
funding. The project collaborated with 17 different
herbaria in the country holding
9.1 Research/Knowledge approximately a total of 407,100 type
specimens. Currently, a total of 4,979
9.1.1 Flora of the Philippines entries from 5 herbaria have been
encoded for the database.
The writing of the Flora of the Philippines
manuscript requires adoption of a user- So far, a total of 1808 species from 714
friendly format for the flora treatment, genera and 167 families have been
illustrations of representative genera and generated from a record of 4,687
checking of descriptions, nomenclature, specimens from 5 institutions (against over
and collaboration of other plant experts. 400,000 collections in 18 institutions
identified). One can just imagine how many
species of plants can be disclosed if the
collections of our herbaria nationwide are other conservation-oriented purposes;

compiled, not to mention species new to policy on the registration and accreditation
science or yet to be to be discovered, and of commercial plant breeders; and, policy
if these specimens can be made available to to protect indigenous knowledge on plants
researchers, scientists and students. and their uses. Existing policies on the
import, export and local transport of
All records can be made available both in plants and plant genetic resources have to
dynamic database form and periodic hard be reviewed and harmonized, as
copy publications but this can only be warranted.
feasible if collaboration and commitment
from each herbarium is strengthened.
9.3 Information Sharing and
Limitations encountered, however, are not
Management
the collaboration per se but the availability
of data a particular herbarium maintains.
At present, results of researches
Almost all herbaria contacted signified
conducted and other information,
their interest as partners and contributors
including traditional knowledge on
to the Compendium project, although
Philippine plants, are confined to
limited by a common factor – the
researchers, institutions and organizations
unavailability of their data in digital form.
holding such information. There is no
These herbaria, are therefore encouraged
common venue for sharing of research
to digitize their checklist, and contribute
outputs or a common repository of these
and share their data holdings to this
information. A lot of information also
existing database to come up with a
needs to be assessed and disseminated.
complete compendium of Philippine flora. For example, the IUCN list of threatened
9.2 Policies Philippine plants has to be verified based
on field observations of local scientists.
There is a need to focus efforts on the
development of policies specifically for the 9.4 Information, Education, and
conservation and protection of our plant Communication
resources. While these concerns may be
incorporated in existing wildlife policies, Most publications about plant conservation
specific procedures and guidelines are too technical and cannot be grasped by
governing plant conservation activities are the general public. There is a dire need
for translation of these information to
still lacking.
local dialects and popular language.
Although there have been several
The promulgation of the list of protected initiatives spearheaded by government and
plant species in the country should be NGOs to produce information materials,
prioritized. This is necessary to provide distribution of these materials is limited to
basis for all other protection and urban areas.
conservation efforts on plants. Other
areas for policy development are: Plant uses and economic potentials are not
guidelines on the exchange of plant widely understood by the masses but
specimens between and among local and known only to researchers and the
foreign institutions / organizations / scientific community. Thus, the potentials
individuals for taxonomic research and for promoting plant-based trade remain
less explored (e.g. gugo plantation with
Unilever, Procter and Gamble, etc.).
9.5 Monitoring
Many research and conservation projects

in the Philippines do not include
monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems
(PBCP 2002). There is inadequate
expertise to conduct monitoring of plant
conservation measures and initiatives.
To initiate a monitoring and evaluation of

plant resources status in the country,
criteria and indicators to maintain a viable
population of plants should be determined
and developed.
9.6 Funding
There is low priority for funding plant

conservation projects due to weak
understanding and appreciation by
legislators and national agencies.
There is no national body to spearhead

access to international funding sources,
and inadequate financial mechanisms for
sustained conservation and research
efforts.
Baccaurea philippinensis (Merr.) Merr.

10. PLANT CONSERVATION 1.3 D e v e l o p a n d i m p l e m e n t

STRATEGY AND ACTION conservation and management plan
PLAN for each of the designated IPS.
Such plan must include mechanisms
10.1 Mission that will ensure active participation
of concerned local government
Halt the current loss of Philippine units and other stakeholders; and,
plant diversity to ensure its
perpetual existence essential to 1.4 Identify key plant species that will
meet the present and future needs serve as emblem of plant
of the Filipino people and the global conservation in each region of the
community. country.
10.2 Objectives Strategy 2:

Document Philippine plant diversity,
1. Provide a framework to enhance including its uses and its distribution
existing initiatives aimed at plant in the wild, in-situ within and outside
conservation, identify gaps where protected areas, and in ex-situ
new initiatives are required, and collections.
promote mobilization of the
necessary resources; and, Actions:
2.1 Conduct specimen-based plant

2. Provide mechanisms to enhance inventory throughout the country;
species and ecosystem approaches
to the conservation and sustainable 2.2 Develop a checklist of Philippine
use of plant diversity and focus on plants (per protected area,
the vital role of plants in the mountain, province, region);
structure and functioning of
ecological systems and assure their 2.3 Publish a book on the Flora of the
provision of goods and services. Philippines;
10.3 Strategies 2.4 Establish and maintain ex-situ

conservation centers of wild plants;
Strategy 1: and,
Conserve important plant areas in 2.5 Establish a National Botanic Garden
the Philippines and plant species of that showcases the Philippine native
direct importance to human plants.
societies.
Strategy 3:
Actions: Promote and support research on
the genetic diversity, systematics,
1.1 F o r m u l a t e criteria for taxonomy, ecology and conservation
identification of Important Plant biology of plants and plant
Sites (IPS) or Important Plant Areas communities, and associated habitats
(IPA); and ecosystems.
1.2 Identify and designate Important Actions:
Plant Sites (IPS) or Important Plant
Areas (IPA) or In-Situ Plant 3.1 Conduct studies on threatened
Conservation Centers; endemic plants
a. conservation biology 5.4 Establish a system that will link the

b. demography / population local databases to regional and
studies; international information centers.
3.2 Pursue / support / encourage Strategy 6:
taxonomic studies; and,
Monitor the conservation status of
3.3 Develop research proposals for Philippine plant diversity.
funding support solicitation.
Actions:
Strategy 4:
6.1 Establish the National List of
Promote and support research on Threatened Philippine Plants;
social, cultural and economic factors
that have impact on biodiversity. 6.2 Establish the National List of
Economically-Important Species;
Actions:
and,
4.1 Conduct research on plants uses
6.3 Assess the conservation status of
by the local communities and the
all known Philippine plants
impact of these uses on plant
periodically.
species conservation; and,
Strategy 7:
4.2 Conduct research on plant
resource valuation. Promote education and awareness
about plant diversity.
Strategy 5: Actions:
Develop an integrated, interactive
database information system to 7.1 Develop libraries on Philippine
manage and make accessible plants;
information on plant diversity.
7.2 Develop and publish popular and
Actions: technical papers on Philippine
plants, including articles on plant
5.1 Enhance capacity of staff to use conservation-related undertakings
software or databases; regularly;
5.2 Develop / update / enhance digital 7.3 Produce plant identification guides;
information on Philippine plants to
include their traditional knowledge; 7.4 Work for the declaration and
celebration of Plant Conservation
5.3 Establish a system, including Day/Week or restore the
websites, that will ensure constant celebration of Arbor Week;
exchange of information on
Philippine plant genetic resources 7.5 Conduct lectures/seminars and
between and among concerned organize workshops, conferences,
institutions/organizations and make fora and other venues to
these information accessible to all disseminate and articulate issues
interested parties; and, relating to plants and their
conservation; and,
commercial plant production

7.6 Integrate topics on plant
purposes; and,
conservation in school curricula.
9.3 Promote sustainable utilization of
Strategy 8:
plant resources in production
Develop capacity including physical areas.
and technological infrastructure and
financial support for plant Strategy 10:
conservation.
Develop and enforce policies on plant
conservation.
Actions:
Actions:
8.1 Establish the roster of plant
experts and agencies, research
a. Develop guidelines on the
institutions and organizations
accreditation and registration of
involved in plant conservation in
plant nurseries/establishments/
the country;
breeders;
8.2 Provide career opportunities for
b. Develop guidelines on the
botanists and plant taxonomists;
exchange of plant specimens
between and among researchers/
8.3 Assess the plant taxonomic needs
taxonomists, locally and
of the Philippines;
internationally; and,
8.4 Develop centers of excellence on
c. Review and harmonize existing
plant conservation;
policies on the conservation and
export, import and transport of
8.5 Implement technical capacity
plant genetic resources.
building programs on plant
conservation and management (e.g.
trainings on plant identification,
preservation, etc. at the national,
regional and local level); and,
8.6 Identify and implement appropriate

community training programs.
Strategy 9:
Promote sustainable production and

utilization of plant resources.
Actions:
9.1 Produce ‘how-to-manuals’ on plant

propagation and utilization;
9.2 Promote establishment of nurseries

and propagation centers for
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Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION 21) in 1996. PA 21 adopts a framework

P lants are a vital part of the world’s

UNCED also proved to be a turning point

(PBCP) in 2002. The PBCP, which is an the CBD, particularly Article 7, on

2.0 PLANT DIVERSITY AND

angiosperms constitute 22.5% of the percent of the gymnosperms are believed

Adonidia (Palmae) (1) Macropodanthus (Orchidaceae) (1)

2.3 Endemism Anacardiaceae, 44% (Ding Hou 1978) and

Table 3. Centers of plant diversity in the Philippines (after DENR-UNEP 1997).

1 Mt Iraya Batan Island

recommended by Madulid (1993) based on

The PBCP, on the other hand, identified

1 1 Batanes Islands Protected Landscape & Seascape Batanes Islands

regional consultations, from the overlaying philippinensis (Verbenaceae), and Pinanga

2.5 Threatened Species

The present state of our knowledge of the

Psychotria (Rubiaceae), 30% are known

The 2004 IUCN (International Union for

A number of plant species are also being

vegetables and, about 75% of this

3.0 PHILIPPINE VEGETATION

3.1 FOREST VEGETATION

The natural vegetation of the Philippines is

On the inland edge of the mangrove and

families), however, contribute significantly 3.1.8 Peat swamp forest

Table 6. Marine plants (seagrasses) in the Philippines (after Fortes 1990).

RUPPIACEAE Ruppia maritima L.

CYMODOCEACEAE Cymodocea rotundata (Ehrb. & Hempr.) Aschers. & Schweinf.

HYDROCHARITACEAE Enhalus acoroides (L.f.) Royle

mountain. The topography is rough and 3.1.12 Subalpine forest

Special mention must be made to a 3.3 MARINE VEGETATION

3.4.2 Montane Grassland A large percentage of the total area of the

some very steep slopes may occur

Although logging is now extending the

Figure 10. Conversion of habitats to kaingin or

In most areas, cogon grass, the tall wild

4.0 THREATS TO PHILIPPINE

Previous agricultural lands, on the other 4.3 Kaingin

In-situ conservation involves the Projects for the management of protected

Landscape and Seascape, Mt. Isarog 5.2 Ex-Situ Conservation

Research on micro- and macro- The Smithsonian Tropical Research

5.5 Information, Education and 5.6 Capacity Building

the establishment of protected areas or requirements of forest conservation.

the apprehension of several local and knowledge on the characteristics, uses,

To strengthen networking and partnership 5.7.1.2 P h i l i p p i n e B i o d i v e r s i t y

Biodiversity Conservation Priorities member country. The NBRU interfaces

6.0 POLICIES 6.3 Republic Act (RA) No. 3571 of

Wrightia pubescens, Heritiera javanica, Resources, Their By-products and

6.11 Other laws affecting plants 6.12.2 National Biosafety Framework

8.0 GAPS of the values of marine ecosystems and

The specific policy gaps identified are as 9.1.2 C o m p e n d i u m o f E x t a n t

collections of our herbaria nationwide are other conservation-oriented purposes;

Many research and conservation projects

To initiate a monitoring and evaluation of

There is low priority for funding plant

There is no national body to spearhead

Baccaurea philippinensis (Merr.) Merr.