FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Hashemite University
Engineering College
Mechanical Engineering Department

Thermal Lab (2)

1st semester (2017/2018)

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 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Table of content

Name of the experiment Page number

EXP 1 Sensible heating 4

EXP 2 Cooling & Dehumidification 7

EXP 3 Humidification 9

EXP 4 Central Heating 11

EXP 5 Refrigeration Cycle 14
EXP 6 Weather Station 18
EXP 7 Solar collector 19

EXP 8 Boiling heat transfer 22

EXP 9 Film & Drop wise condensation 26
EXP 10 Vehicle Engine & Systems 31

EXP 11 Four Stroke SI Engine 40

EXP 12 Emission 48

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 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS FOR

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORIES

OVERVIEW:

 This document is intended to ensure the safe operation of the Mechanical Laboratories. 
Students are expected to conduct experiments in a safe manner respecting the physical
well-being of their fellow students and themselves.   Students should read and understand
all contents of this document. 

 GENERAL LABORATORY RULES:

 BE PREPARED.   Read and fully comprehend the lab procedure as set forth in the
lab manual before you begin any experiment.  If you do not understand the procedure,
see the lab engineer.
 THINK SAFETY.   Work deliberately and carefully. 
 ALL LABORATORY STUDENTS MUST BE SUPERVISED   Never work alone.
 KNOW THE HAZARDS OF ANY MATERIALS OR MACHINERY YOU ARE
WORKING WITH.  The laboratory manual and/or lab engineer will review specific
safety issues on individual experiments before you perform any tests.
 ALL STUDENTS MUST WEAR APPROPRIATE LABORATORY ATTIRE .  No open
toed shoes; no loose fitting clothing; Jewelry should be removed; long hair should be
tied back
 NO FOOD OR BEVERAGE IN THE LABORATORY.
 KNOW EMERGENCY PROCEDURES.   Make note of fire escape exit.
 REPORT ANY PERCEIVED SAFETY HAZARDS.  Immediately report any spills,
equipment malfunctions, injuries or other perceived safety hazards to the lab engineer
or staff member.
 KEEP YOUR WORK AREA CLEAN.
 FAILURE TO CONFORM WITH ANY OF THE ABOVE RULES MAY RESULT IN
NOT BEING ALLOWED TO PARTICIPATE IN THE LABORATORY EXPERMENT.

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 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Sensible heating

bjective:-

To investigate the sensible heating of moist air process .

Theory :-
Sensible heating process :
When air is heated without the loss or gain of moisture , the process yields a straight
horizontal line on the psychometric chart because the humidity ratio is constant . Such
processes can occur when moist air flows through an electrical heater . Figure 1 shows
a schematic of a device used to heat the air . Under steady flow – steady state
conditions the energy balance becomes :
m`a h1+ q12= m`a h2 …………………………….. (1)

q12 = m`a (h 2 – h1) ...............................................(2)

The efficiency of the electrical heater is given by :

m a(h 2 – h 1)
μ= P elec . power
………………………….(3)

where :
m`a is the mass flow rate of air .
h is the enthalpy of air ( obtained directly from the psychometric chart )
state 1 & 2 are before & after the heating .

ma ma
h1 h2
w1 w1=w2

Figure 1 : Schematic for a heating process.

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Apparatus :

The air conditioning equipment is formed, basically, by a tunnel of 300x 300x1600

mm , made of stainless steel , in which there have been installed two windows of
200x300 mm . Inside of it there is an axial fan, two wing resistances (2000 W) one to
the inlet , the evaporation unit & another to the outlet . The tunnel is strategically
completed with 4 hygrometers, placed along the tunnel .these hygrometers are formed
by two – temperature sensors (wet 7 dry bulb) as it can be observed in figure 3.
The unit has been designed to study, besides, the change of the air conditions, the
refrigeration circuit placing, strategically, temperature sensors, pressure & flow meters
that allow us to study the refrigeration cycle & quantify the capacity of the evaporation
& condition unit. The unit also supplied with an acquisition card & the corresponding
interface & acquisition software.

Figure 2: Air conditioning laboratory equipment

Procedures :
1- Switch on the unit , & start the computer to operate at the related software .

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2- Open the software at the capture window , & prepare the unit to work .
3- Adjust the electrical power to the required value .
4- Start the fan , fix air flow to 50 .
5- wait for steady state then take the data of m`a , T1 , T2, T3 , T4 & the electrical power .
6- Change the electrical power , wait for steady state & take the same data .

Results & analysis :

Sensible heating process :

Air Pelec.power T1 T2 T3 T4 h1 h2 Δh μ
flow )
(˚C (˚C ) (˚C ) (˚C )
m 3/min (%Wmax) Kj /kg Kj /kg Kj /kg

- Draw the process on the psychometric chart .

- Find the enthalpies h1,h2 using the psychometric chart .
- Calculate the heater efficiency μ.
- Plot μ against Pelec.power & comment .
- What is the effect of preheating of air ?

Cooling & Dehumidification

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 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Objective:-

To study & investigate the dehumidification process .

Theory :-
When air is cooled to temperature below its dew point , some of water vapor will condense 7 may
leave the air stream . Figure 1 show a schematic of a cooling & dehumidification device . Although
the actual process path may vary considerably depending on the type of the of surface , surface
temperature , & flow conditions , the net heat & mass transfer can be expressed in terms of initial &
final state .By referring to figure 1 , we see that the energy balance gives
m`a h1= q+ m`a h2 + m`w hw …………………………….. (1)

& the mass flow balance for water in the air is :

m`a w1= m`w + m`a w2 ………………………………(2)

combining equations (2) & (1)

q= m`a (h2 - h1 ) - m`a (w2 - w1) hw ……………………………..(3)

The cooling & dehumidification process involves both sensible & latent heat transfer , where sensible
heat transfer rate is associated with decrease in dry bulb temperature & the latent heat transfer rate is
associated with decrease in humidity ratio . These quantities may expressed as
qs = m`a Cp (t1 –t2 ) ……………………………(4)
And
ql = m`a (w2 - w1) hfg ……………………………… (5)
also
qs = m`a ( ha - h2 ) ..……………………….(6)
ql = m`a (h1 - ha ) ………………………..(7)
the energy of the condensate has been neglected . Obviously

q= qs + ql …………………………….(8)

qs
The sensible heat factor SFH is defined as ( ¿ . This parameter is shown on the semicircular scale of
ql
the psychometric chart . Refrigerant

ma ma
h1 h2
w1 w2

m`w
hw
Figure 1 : Schematic for a cooling dehumidification process.

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 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
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Apparatus :
Same as experiment No .5

Procedures :
1- Switch on the unit , & start the computer to operate at the related software .
2- Open the software at the capture window , & prepare the unit to work .
3- Operate the steam generation heater , adjust the electrical power to the required value .
4- Start the the fan , fix air flow to 50 .
5- wait for steady state then take the data of m`a , T1 , T2, T3 , T4.
6- Change the air flow rate , wait for steady state & take the same data .

Results & analysis :

Before cooling After cooling

h1 h2
Air flow T1 T2 T3 T4 w1 w2
m 3/min (˚C) (˚C ) (˚C ) (˚C ) Kj /kg Kj /kg

- Draw the process on the psychometric chart .

- Find w1, w2, h1,h2 using the psychometric chart .
- Calculate qs ,ql &SHF . .
- comment on your results .

Humidification

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 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Objective:-

To study & investigate the humidification of mist air process .

Theory :-
Humidification process :

If a saturated vapor is injected into air stream at dry bulb temperature , the process will proceed at a
constant dry bulb temperature . if the water enthalpy is greater than the enthalpy of a saturated vapor
at the dry bulb temperature , the air will be heated & humidified . if the water enthalpy is less than the
enthalpy of saturated vapor at the dry bulb temperature , the air will be cooled 7 humidified .

Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the process :

m`a h1+ m`w hw= m`a h2 …………………………….. (1)

From the mass balance :

m`a w1+ m`w = m`a w2 ………………………………(2)

Substitute equation (2) into (1)

(w2 - w1) hw = (h2 - h1 ) ……………………………..(3)
Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the heater – steam generation system :
Pelec.power = m`w hw - m`w hwo …………………………………….(4)
Substitute this equation into equation (1) & take into account the heat losses :
Pelec.power = m`a (h2 - h1 ) - m`w hwo +Hloss …………………………..(5)
Where:
m`w is the mass of water vapor injected .
w is the humidity ratio.
State (1) : before humidification ( steam injection ).
State (2) : after humidification ( steam injection ) .
hwo is the enthalpy of water at tank at room temperature .

ma ma
h1 h2
w1 w2

Pelec.power

Figure 1 : Schematic of humidification process.

Apparatus :
Same as experiment No .5
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Procedures :
1- Switch on the unit , & start the computer to operate at the related software .
2- Open the software at the capture window , & prepare the unit to work .
3- Start the fan , fix air flow to 50 . .
4- Start the steam generator heater at the required electrical power .
5- wait for steady state then take the data of m`a , T1 , T2, T3 , T4 & the electrical power .
6- Change the electrical power of the heater , wait for steady state & take the same data .

Results & analysis :

Humidification process :

Air Pelec.power T1 T2 T3 T4 h1 h2
flow (˚C ) (˚C ) (˚C ) (˚C ) w1 w2 m`w Hloss
m (%Wmax) Kj /kg Kj /kg
3
/min

- Draw the process on the psychometric chart .

- Find w1, w2, h1,h2 using the psychometric chart .
- Calculate the heat loss.
- Plot m`w against Pelec.power & comment .
- plot Hloss against Pelec.power & comment .

Central heating system

Objective:-
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1-To demonstrate & understand the hot water heating system, & to identify all its component .
2- To compare between three different types of radiators.

Theory:-
Introduction:
Hot water heating systems are in common use world wide. A hot water system consist of a boiler ,
piping network , expansion tank, radiators or convectors & circulating pump if the system is forced
circulation type .Fittings & devices like automatic air vent , non return valves , pressure relief valves ,
pressure reducing valves , etc. are also required.

The expansion tank :

The main function of the expansion tank is to allow for an increase in the volume of the working fluid
due to in its temperature when the system in operation & to return the excess water to the system
when the temperature drops during idle times.

Natural circulation systems:

In these systems there are no circulation pump, the water circulates due to difference in density
created by difference in temperature of the circulating water.

Forced circulation systems:

In these systems the water circulates in the system using a pump. These systems are either single pipe
systems or double pipe systems.
- Single pipe system :
The hot water passes through radiators in serial manner, i.e. hot water exiting from one radiator
passes into next radiator.

-Double pipe system:

There are two pipes, one for supplying & the other for return. The return pipe may be direct return or
reversed return pipe.

Piping network:
The most common pipes used previously is steel. In modern systems plastic pipes are used.

Heat transfer elements:

Heat transfer elements are used to transfer heat from hot water to space to be heated. The most
common heating elements used in hot water systems are radiators, convectors , baseboards , & fan
coil units .

Apparatus :

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Figure 1: central heating apparatus .

The system consists of a boiler, diesel tank, fuel pump, 3 different radiators & circulating pump . In
addition the apparatus is instrumented to measure different temperatures & flow rates. Also all data
can be collected automatically since there are different sensors which send signals to automatic data
acquisition that coverts analogue signal to digital signals suitable to be analyzed by software & a PC.

Procedures :
1- Switch on the main switch .
2- Switch on the two pumps & the boiler .
3- Start on the PC & the software .
4- Wait for the water to warm up , open the hot water to radiator No.1 (sheet metal ) only & close to
the other radiators .
5- Take reading for inlet & exit temperature to the radiator , inlet & exit temperature for boiler , flow
rates of water to the radiator & boiler & fuel flow rate .

Results & analysis :

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THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Sheet metal radiator Cast iron radiator Aluminum radiator

Tim T rad in Trad out Rad T rad in Trad out Rad . T rad in Trad out Rad .
e (˚C ) (˚C ) .water (˚C ) (˚C ) water (˚C ) (˚C ) water
flow flow flow
(l/h) (l/h) (l/h)
Sec

- Draw Calculate the radiator capacity for all radiators QR = m x CP x ΔT.

- Plot QR versus time for three radiators on the same graph paper.
- Compare between the three radiators, & comment on your results.

Refrigeration Cycle

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THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Objective:
To demonstrate the refrigeration cycle as a part of the air conditioning system, and to find the coefficient of
performance of both refrigerator and heat pump.
Theory:
A refrigerator is a machine whose function is to remove heat from a low temperature region, and dissipated it to
a high temperature region (surroundings). According to the Clausius statement of second law of thermodynamics, which
states that heat will not transfer from a cold body to a hotter one unless work is added to the system. So the refrigerator
will require an external work, which is the compressor work.
If the function of the system is to use the dissipated heat at high temperature e.g. for space heating, then the
machine is called a heat pump.
The ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle (reversible Carnot cycle) has four thermodynamic processes
which can be drawn on P-h diagram (Fig 1) where:
Process (1-2)
The compressor increases the pressure and temperature (i.e. enthalpy) of the refrigerant.
Process (2-3)
Condensation through the condenser at a constant pressure and temperature, so at point (2) refrigerant is
saturated liquid.
Process (3-4)
Refrigerant expands from high pressure P2 to low pressure P3 at constant enthalpy.
Process (4-1)
Refrigerant boils and evaporate in the evaporator at a constant pressure and temperature.

Figure 1: Carnot cycle

Coefficient of performance of a refrigeration cycle is defined as: the amount of heat removed from the cooling
space to the work done by the compressor:
QL
COP R=
W
Where:
QL heat absorbed at evaporator (kW).
QH heat rejected from condenser (kW).
W compressor work (kW).
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THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

h1, h2, h3, and h4 are enthalpies at the given temperature and pressure (experimentally) in (kJ/kg).
mref is the refrigerant flow rate (kg/s).
The actual cycle is different from the ideal one because the pressure losses both in the evaporate and in the
condenser, which clarify the bending of the straight lines (1-4_ and(2-3). The section 3-4 represents the actual behavior of
the compression and entropy increases due to the irreversible processes, therefore the compression line 3-4 comes out to
be a polytrophic curve with variable component.
Moreover the compressor does not take any liquid, so it is necessary to have a sight superheating of the intake vapor
The actual cycle is shown in fig 2

Fig 2 actual refrigeration cycle

The refrigeration effect of the Carnot’s cycle depends on the evaporation and condensation temperatures and remains the
same for every working fluid< actually the real COP depends also on the working fluid and tie between COP H.P and
COP ref is not simple, it is indicated through a quality factor of the cycle called efficiency which expresses by how much
the real cycle gets close to the ideal Carnot’s cycle:
COP act=COP Carnot X Ø
Where the factor Ø takes into account all the efficiencies like mechanical efficiency. Thermo- dynamical efficiency,
electrical motor efficiency and thermos metrical efficiency
Apparatus:
Experiment’s rig consists of refrigeration circuit assembled on a metal board. All instruments for reading
pressure, temperature, and flow rates are included and installed in place.

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Figure 3: The refrigeration system rig

Procedure:
1. Connect the apparatus with the water source, and to the drain.
2. Switch on the main power supply, and adjust the water flow rate to a low value
3. Wait until steady state conditions. Then take readings of the temperatures from (T1 to T8), Pc, Pv, mw.
4. Increase the flow rate of the water, and wait for steady state, and then take the same readings.
5. Fill the results in table 1

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THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Results and analysis:

Temperatures ( ⁰C ) Pv Pc mw
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 MPa MPa L/hr

1. Draw the cycle on the P-h diagram and find the enthalpies.
2. Calculate the COPR and COP H.P for both Carnot and actual cycles, and find the efficiency factor
3. Calculate the energy rejected at the condenser
4. Qc = mref Cp (T6-T5) x time (sec)
5. Calculate the electrical energy consumed by compressor and fan (W).
6. Plot COPR against the condensation temperature, in accordance with your graph state when do we have better
COPR, in summer or in winter?

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THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Weather Station

Solar collector
Types: Flat-Plate, Evacuated tube,
Concentrated types: [ Parabolic trough, dish ]
collectors
Purpose : converting Sun radiation into thermal
energy, rising the water temperature and storing
hot water in a storage tank.

System can be equipped with a pump  forced

circulation, or no pump is present  Natural
circulation
Solar radiation or “Irradiance” [W/m2] can change
from one geographic location on earth to another,
also for the same location it can change with time
during the day, zero value during the night and it
increases from sunrise to a maximum range
during the early afternoon period then it
decreases in the late afternoon and reaches a zero
value at sunset.
This daily irradiance curve can change from one
season to another and from one day to another. It
also can be affected by weather conditions such
as clouds and environmental conditions likes dust.

Pyranometer : used for

measuring solar irradiance on a planar surface and it is designed to measure the solar radiation flux
density (W/m²) from the hemisphere above within a wavelength range 0.3 μm to 3 μm.

Energy conservation: under ideal conditions, energy reaching by the collector will be absorbed by
water
t2

η ∫ G A dt=mC p ∆ T
t1

G: Solar radiation [W/m²], A: collector Area [m2], t : time [s], T: Temperature [°C] , η :
efficiency, Cp: specific heat [W/kg°C],

The left-hand-side can be calculated using numerical integration of the irradiance tabulated
data using the trapezoidal rule.
t i+ 1
( Gi +1+ Gi )
∫ G dt = 2
( t i+1−t i ) ,the average height ×the inetrval width
ti

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THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Once the integration is performed over the specified time interval and for assumed efficiency of
100% or any other value, a direct relation between the Temperature rise [ΔT] of the water, the
area of the solar collector [A] and the mass [m] (or the volume) of the water in the storage tank
is established. Mass = density * Volume
In the data sheet of the irradiance, the time interval between any two reading is 30 minutes or
s
half an hour then , t i+1−t i=30 minute∗60 =1800 s
minute
For a given value of : m and ΔT  A can be calculated
m and A  ΔT can be calculated
ΔT and A  m can be calculated
Once again the integration need to be performed over the specified period of the day.

Objective:-

The aim of this experiment is to tabulate and evaluate the radiation energy

Methodology:-

From the excel sheet data on May 2009 obtained from the weather station
(Hashemite University, latitude =32˚)

1- Tabulate & plot the hourly radiation (hour's vs incident radiation) for day 02 May &
comment where the maximum value & the lowest value are

2- Find the daily radiation for day 01 May

3- find the daily radiation for the rest of days

4- Tabulate & plot the daily radiation (day vs. incident radiation)

5- find the monthly average daily total radiation for May

6- find the declination angle on 02 may in Hashemite University is 32˚

7- Estimate H◦ for day 02 May if the latitude of a Hashemite University is 32˚

8- Find the daily clearness index for 02 May

9- Find the daily diffuse radiation on 02 May

10- Use the isotropic diffuse model to find the radiation on a surface sloped 45◦ toward
the south at latitude 32˚ for the hour (9-10AM), take the ground reflectance to be 0.3.
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Solar Collector Efficiency Test

Objective:-
The aim of this experiment is to determine the efficiency of a flat plate solar collector
array.

Apparatus:
The test array consists of a 4 flat plate collector (1.75x0.75 m), tilted 30◦ south.

Theory:

mCp(T o−Ti)
μ = AG ¿ …………………… (1)
¿

(Tm−Ta)
μ= a – b G …………………….(2)

(¿+Ti)
Tm = 2 …………………….(3)

where ,

μ : the solar collector efficiency

m : water mass flow rate (kg /s)

Cp : water specific heat (4180 j/Kg.K)
G :solar irradiance (W/m2 )

Mass flow rate of water

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Nominal : 0.0028Kg/s
Minimum :0.001 kg /s
Maximum : 0.0035 kg/s

Average G = 400 W/m2 (per typical day of the year)

Let ambient temperature be 10˚C , 15 ˚C , 25 ˚C

Always maintain inlet water temperature at 25 ˚C

- Using data in chart ( Figure 2 ) , re-plot data of efficiency versus

( Tm –Ta)/ G

- Find the constants of fit a & b

- predict the water outlet temperature for the three flow rates & the
three ambient temperatures .

Tm : the mean collector temperature ˚C

Ta : ambient air temperature ˚C
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Ti : inlet temperature ˚C
A : Aperture collector area (m2)
A & b : correction factors are found by curve fitting the data between (Tm -
Ta )/G & μ (See Fig. 1 )
Procedures :
- A clear sky data is selected to carried out the measurements during the
hours 2 PM to 5 PM.
- Feed water flow rate is adjusted by flow meter valve
- wait till the system reaches steady state condition ( about5 minutes )
- At specific flow rate , measure the solar irradiance G for each 5 minutes ,
exit & inlet temperature , & the ambient air for 1/2 hour .
- for another flow rate repeat the measurement each 5 minutes for another
1/2 hour .

Data Sheet :
Data & Ti To Ta Tm Tm - Ta G μ
time

1- Tabulate the results in above table (use two sets of flow rate )
2- plot the data as shown in Figure 1
3- find the correction factors a & b
4 – find the efficiency of the solar collector if G = 600 & 900 W.m2 (keep a
& b costant)

(Tm - Ta )/ G
Figure 1
Boiling heat transfer

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Objective:-

1. To demonstrate the convective, nucleate and film boiling.

2. To determine the heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient up to and beyond the critical
condition.

Apparatus:-

The apparatus for the demonstration of heat transfer during boiling uses an electrically heated pure
nickel wire as the element, and an A.C. bridge circuit to measure the temperature of the element.
A water-cooled “Constantine resistance” is used as reference, and balance is affected by use of a high
quality potentiometer.
An auxiliary heater is incorporated to bring the water up to, and maintain it at, the boiling point.

Theory:-

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Studies of liquids boiling on the outsides of submerged electrically heated wires with natural
circulation have shown that several regimes of boiling exist.
The following graph is a typical curve obtained for water boiling at 100C when the output heat flux
of the heater is plotted against the difference in temperature between the heating element and the bulk
water.

Stage A - B
Heat Transfer in this region is by pure convection caused by water, superheated at the element, rising
through the bulk water. At this stage the heat transfer is a function of the temperature difference
between the element and the bulk water.
Evaporation takes place at the surface of the water only.

Stage B - C
Nucleate boiling occurs on this region due to bubbles being formed at active nuclei on the surface of
the element. The rising bubbles set up circulation currents, and increased heat transfer is seen by the
change in the slope of the graph.
Evaporation ion is now aided by vapor formed inside the water escaping as the bubbles reach the
surface

Point C
At this point the heat flux goes through a maximum and there is a critical temperature‘t’. As point C
is passed, the heat output of the element is reduced and the heat input must also be reduced, otherwise
the temperature of the element rises to that corresponding to point E, which is most probably above
the melting point of the element.
From the graph, it can be seen that optimum conditions for beat transfer are in stage B - C, as close as
possible to but without the risk of reaching point C.

Stage C-D
In this region boiling occurs in two states, partly nucleate and partly unstable film boiling.
Stage D - E

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In this region, the steam film around the wire has become very stable, successfully insulating the
element from the bulk water. Radiation begins to play a large part in the heat transfer as the
temperature rises.
The same value of heat transfer can be obtained with three different values of temperature (points a, b
and c.) and it is possible to operate the element with part of it at a temperature corresponding to point
c and other parts at a temperature corresponding to point a. (see notes on operation of apparatus).

Procedure:-

1. Attach a length of nickel specimen wire to the ends of terminal pillars 2 & 4 making sure that
there are no sharp kinks in the wire, that the wire is not tight across the pillars and that the
connection screws are tight.
Note; do not over-tighten to the extent that the wire is flattened.
2. Fill the beaker about 2/3 full of distilled or deionizer water and place the beaker top in
position.
3. Connect the water inlet and outlet hoses to the standard resistance container and complete the
electrical wiring of the two beakers.
4. Turn on the water supply to the standard resistance; a flow rate of 1 liter per minute is ample
(excessive flow will lift the beaker lid and cause spillage).
5. Ensure all variable controls are turned to zero.
6. Plug in the mains and switch on.
7. Turn on the auxiliary heater.
8. Turn the specimen current control to give 1 Amp through the specimen.
9. Balance the bridge by turning the balance control until the voltage is reduced to a minimum
and record the voltage, balance point and water temperature.
Note; the auxiliary heater must be switched off when balance
10. Increase the specimen current in 0.5 Amp steps and record the voltage, potentiometer reading
at balance, and the bulk water temperature

Results:-
.
Voltage
(v)
Current
(Amp)
Water
temperature(C
)
Specimen
temperature(C
)

Table (1) : Data

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Heat transfer rate

(W)
Heat flux (KW/m2)
Temperature
difference (K)
Surface heat transfer
coefficient(KW/m2K)

Table (2) :Results

Note the diameter of the nickel wire is 0.265 mm and the length is 50mm

Analysis:-
 Plot on graph the heat fluxes vs. specimen to water temperature difference.
 Plot on graph the surface heat transfer coefficient vs. specimen to water temperature
difference.

Film and drop wise condensation

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Objective

To measure the heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient during film and drop wise
condensation.

Theory

Film wise Condensation

Most materials used in the construction of heat exchangers are ‘wettable” and during
condensation a film condensate spreads over the surface. More vapors condense onto the outside of
this film, increasing its thickness and causing it to flow downward and drip from the lowest points.
The heat given up by the vapor during condensation is conducted through the film to the metal
beneath and from this to the coolant. During film wise condensation a layer of condensate covers the
cool surface and this offers resistance to the transfer of heat.
The rate of heat transfer can be determined with the following assumptions:
1. The flow in the condensate film is entirely laminar.
2. The heat is transmitted through the layer by conduction only
3. The temperature in the layer falls uniformly from the saturation
temperature of the vapor on the outside to the temperature of the cooling surface on the inside.
4. The condensate flows under the action of gravity only.
For vertical surfaces with film wise condensation, Nusselt derived the following equation:
0 . 25
K 3× ρ2×hfg ×g
hmean =0 . 943
[ f
x×μ f ×( T sat −T sur ) ] Where,
…………………………… (1)

Properties k, ρ and μ are used at saturated liquid

conditions.
x = Length of each condenser 90 mm.

Drop wise Condensation

By specially treating the condensing surface it becomes “non wet table” and as the steam condenses,
a large number of spherical beads form on its surface. These beads become larger and then trickle
downwards. The moving bead gathers all the static beads along its downward path, becomes larger,
accelerates and leaves a virtually bare surface in its trail. The “bare” surface offers little resistance to
the transfer
of heat and very high heat fluxes are therefore possible.
The practical advantages of drop wise over film wise condensation are:
1. A smaller heat transfer surface for a given temperature difference and heat transfer rate.
2. A smaller temperature difference for a given area and heat transfer rate.
3. A larger heat transfer rate for a given area and temperature difference.

Apparatus
The film and drop wise condensation unit is shown in figure 1.
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Figure (1): Film and drop wise condensation unit

Procedure
1. Check the water level in the chamber.
2. Extract air from the system.
Run the unit for about 5 minutes with a saturation temperature of 95°C
and low condenser water flow rates.
3. Circulate water through the dropwise condenser at a low rate of 5 g/s
and adjust the heater input to maintain the selected value of T1.
4. Record the following:
a) The steam temperature T1.
b) The surface temperature T2.
c) The cooling water inlet temperature T3.
d) The water outlet temperature T4.
e) The water flow rate md.
6. Increase the water flow rate and adjust the heater input to bring the steam temperature to the
selected value and record T2, T3, T4 and md
7. Repeat at other flow rates up to the maximum.
8. For the fllmwise condenser, repeat in a similar manner and observe T1, T5, T6, T7 and mf.
9. Fill the given observation sheet for the dropwise condenser and the filmwise condenser respectively.

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Result & Calculations

Observation sheet

Atmospheric Temperature:- °C
Atmospheric pressure:- mbar

Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Chamber
Pressure Psat / kN m-2 g
Saturation
Temperature T1/°C
Indicated Surface
Temperature T2/°C
Water Inlet
Temperature T3/°C
Water Outlet
Temperature T4/°C
Water Flow Rate md /10-3 kg s-1

Table (1): Dropwise condenser data

Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Chamber
Pressure Psat / kN m-2 g
Saturation
Temperature T1/°C
Indicated Surface
Temperature T5/°C
Water Inlet
Temperature T6/°C
Water Outlet
Temperature T7/°C
Water Flow Rate mg /10-3 kg s-1

Table (2): Filmwise condenser data

Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Steam Pressure

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(abs) Psat / kN m-2 g

Steam
Temperature Tsat/°C
Heat Transfer
Rate Q / kW
Heat Flux  / k W m-2
Temperature
Drop through ∆Tshell / K
Shell
Corrected Steam
to Surface
Temperature Tsat-Tsur / K
Difference
Surface Heat
Transfer h / k W m-2K-1
Coefficient

Table (3): Dropwise condenser results

Test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Steam Pressure
(abs) Psat / kN m-2 g
Steam
Temperature Tsat/°C
Heat Transfer
Rate Q / kW
Heat Flux  / k W m-2
Temperature
Drop through ∆Tshell / K
Shell
Corrected Steam
to Surface
Temperature Tsat-Tsur / K
Difference
Surface Heat
Transfer h / k W m-2K-1
Coefficient

Table (4): Filmwise condenser results

Analysis
For the dropwise condenser, the following calculations should be done:
1. Heat transfer rate

q=md ×c p ×( T 4 −T 3 )
……………………………………………………………. (2)
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2. Heat flux

q
φ=
A ……………………………………………………………………………….(3)

Where
A = Area of heat transfer surface = 37 x 10-4 m2

3. Correction for temperature drop through condenser shell

−6
T drop=2×10 φ …………………………………………………………………..(4)

4. Corrected steam to surface temperature difference

T correctedsurface=0 .5+T 2

ΔT =T steam −T correctedsurface−T drop ……………………………………………..(5)

5. Surface heat transfer coefficient

φ
h=
ΔT ……………………………………………………………………………..(6)

Similar calculations apply to filmwise condenser.

Discussions & Conclusions

For the measurement of heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient during filmwise and dropwise
condensation plot the following graphs:

1. The heat flux vs. (T steam- T surface).

2. The surface heat transfer coefficient vs. (T steam- T surface).
3. Compare the experimental and theoretical surface heat transfer coefficients.

Vehicle Engine & Systems

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Objectives:

 To demonstrate the basics of engine cycles.

 To identify engine parts and their operations.
 To identify basic mechanical and electrical systems existing in modern vehicles.

Theory and Background:

Engine Operating Cycles:

In reciprocating engines, the piston moves up and down, this motion is transferred into a rotating
motion in the drive shaft by the connecting rod and crank mechanism. The piston comes to rest at
the top center crank position (Top Dead Center TDC) and the bottom center crank position (Bottom
Dead Center BDC).

One cycle is completed in 4 strokes for a conventional 4-stroke cycle engine and in two strokes in a
2-stroke cycle engine.

The four stroke cycle engine:

Intake Stroke:
When the intake valve opens to allow the fresh charge in. The pressure in the
cylinder is less than the atmospheric pressure. As a result of the
difference in pressures, the charge flows into the cylinder and overcomes the
flow restriction in the air filter, carburetor, manifolds, and intake valves. The
intake valve is closed after BDC is reached.

Figure(1): Intake stroke

Compression stroke (Both valves closed):
Pressure rises due to compression by a slow rate until the intake valve closes ( IVP ) then the
effective compression increases. Before reaching TDC, an electric spark starts the ignition in
gasoline engines while fuel is injected in diesel engines. There is a period elapsed between the
spark or fuel injection and the pressure rise due to combustion called ignition delay period.

Expansion (Power stroke, both valves

closed):
Piston is moved downward toward BDC as a result of
the explosion of the charge

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Figure(2): Compression stroke Figure(3):Expansion stroke

Exhaust stroke (Exhaust valve open):

Exhaust valve opens before the end of expansion stroke to allow high
pressure gases in the cylinder to expand in a blow down process. i.e. at the
beginning of the exhaust stroke, blow down process. At the beginning of the
exhaust stroke, the valve opening is big enough to reduce the built up
pressure in front of the piston. Also, the intake valve opens before intake
stroke so that the area of flow is large at the start of the intake
stroke. This valve overlap is useful to increase the
volumetric efficiency and reduce the loss in useful work.
Figure(4): Exhaust stroke

Two Stroke Cycle Engine:

The whole cycle is completed in two strokes only (one crank revolution). The process of charging
and discharging the cylinder occur while the piston is approaching BDC, before the end of expansion
stroke and after the beginning of compression stroke. The pressure head required for the flow of
fresh charge into the cylinder via intake ports is produced in the crankcase, or by a blower driven by
the crank shaft.
The exhaust port is opened near expansion stroke permitting the blow down of exhaust gases
reducing pressure in the cylinder and the charge flows into and is slightly compressed in the crank
case compartment. Intake ports are uncovered by the piston soon after the opening of exhaust and
the compressed charge flows into the cylinder. Part of the charge flows out of the exhaust port at the
end of the scavenging period.

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Compression Combustion Exhaust Scavenging

(ports closed) (ports closed) (Intake port closed) and Intake
air taken in to Air compressed in crankcase (ports open)
crankcase

Figure(5): Cylinder event for two-stroke cycle. Cross scavenging.

Engine Components and Systems

An automotive internal combustion engine consists of a wide range of mechanical and electrical
parts, some of these parts will be discussed briefly in this sheet.

Mechanical Parts:

Cylinder Block and Crankcase:

It houses the engine cylinders, where the combustion takes place and which also serves as bearings
and guides for the pistons reciprocating on them. It also carries the lubricating oil to various
components through drilled passages. At the lower end the crankcase is cast integral with the block.

Cylinder Head:
It is attached to the cylinder block by means of studs fixed to the block. Gaskets are used to
provide a tight leak proof joint at the interface of the head and the block. It contains spark plug holes
and cooling water jackets. Besides, valve opening are provided in the head and complete valves
operating mechanism.

Manifolds:
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They are separate sets of pipes attached to the cylinder head which carry the air fuel mixture and the
exhaust gases. The inlet manifold carries the mixture from the carburetor or the fuel pump to the
cylinders, and the outlet manifolds carries the exhaust gases to the muffler.

Pistons:
They are connected to the crankshaft using connecting rod. This connecting rod is attached to the
piston using connecting pin as shown in figure 2. The main function of the piston is to transmit the
force of explosion to the crankshaft. On the piston body, piston rings are attached which form a seal
for the high pressure gases from the combustion chamber against leak into the crankcase. They also
help in maintaining sufficient lubricating oil on cylinder walls throughout the entire length of the piston
travel.

Crankshaft:
Is the engine component from which power is taken, it receives the power from the connecting rod
for onward transmission to the clutch and subsequently to the wheels.

Camshaft:
It carries a number of cams at suitable angular positions for operating the valves at appropriate
relative timings. This camshaft rotates at half of the crankshaft speed so as to open and close the
valves once in every two revolutions of crankshaft, the camshaft may be either chain drive or gear
drive, and there are timing marks on the sprockets or gears of the camshaft and the crankshaft to
ensure correct valve timing. Figure 3 shows a schematic of a standard cam shaft.
Mufflers:
To reduce the noise generated by exhaust gases. Engine exhausts are connected via exhaust pipes
to the silencer which is called also muffler.

Valve timing:
Theoretically the inlet valve should open at top dead center and close at bottom dead center.
Similarly the exhaust valve should open instantaneously at bottom dead center and should remain
open till the piston reaches top dead center, where it must close. But in practice due to inertia the
valves cannot open instantaneously and also the air fuel mixture has its own inertia, consequently
more time should be allowed for the intake and the exhaust processes to be completed.
Fuel Injection Systems:
Carburetor:
Carburetors are used in old spark Ignition engines (S.I engines), the function of carburetor is to mix
air and fuel (petrol) at different ratios depending on the requirements whether we desire lean mixture
or rich one.
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Fuel Pumps:
Used in compression ignition engine (C.I engines), the pump here pumps the fuel
(diesel) directly to the engine cylinders where combustion takes place due to high
pressure because of high compression ratio in C.I engines

Figure(6) : Main

components of a standard vehicle engine

1-Crankshaft.
2- Main Seal Front.
3- Main Bearing.
4- Piston Pin.
5- Piston (Standard).
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6- Piston Ring Set

(Standard).
7- Piston Wrist Pin Clip.
8- Connecting rod assy.
9- Connecting rod bolt .
10- Connecting rod nut.
11 Rod bearing .

Figure(7): Piston arrangement

1-Intake camshaft.
2-Exhaust camshaft.
3-Sprocket camshaft.
4-Cam sprocket bolt.

Figure(8): Camshaft arrangement

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Figure(9): Fuel injection system for a four-

stroke engine

Electrical Parts:

Ignition System:
The main components of battery ignition system are:
1- Battery
2- Ignition coil
3- Contact breaker
4- Distributor
5- Condenser
6- Spark plug.

Figure(10): Ignition system for 4-cylinder

From the figure it can be seen that there are two basic circuits in the system. The battery, primary
coil of the ignition coil, condenser and the contact breaker form the primary circuit, whereas the
secondary coil , the distributor and the spark plugs constitute the secondary circuit.

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The actual voltage required for the spark is determined by many factors such as speed, compression
pressure, mixture ratio, spark plug gap width etc. The ignition circuit may be either positive-earth
type or negative earth type. In the positive earth type, the ignition coil and the spark plug center
electrode are positive with respect to the ground. Whereas in the negative earth type, these are
negative with respect to ground. the advantages of negative type is that comparatively less voltage is
required for the electron to jump from the central electrode which is hotter than from the outer
electrode which is comparatively colder.
Contact Breaker:
Its function is to make and break the primary ignition circuit, its placed in the distributor housing itself,
the cam is fitted in the distributor spindle. For a four-cylinder engine running at 4000 r.p.m the
contact breaker must make and break the circuit 8000 times a minute.
Condenser:
Connected across the contact breaker it may be considered as a kind of elastic container in which
the energy due to the inertia of the current flowing during the contact period is stored the functions of
condenser are
1. To minimize the arcing and pitting of contact breaker points.
2. To intensify the spark.

Figure(11): Distributor connected to camshaft

Ignition Timing:
In each cylinder the firing order must take place at the end of the compression stroke, to know the
instant at which a particular piston has reached that position, remove the spark plug and insert a
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cork there. then crank the engine slowly, the instant at which the cork is pushed out gives the firing
instant, most often, however a mark is provided on the engine flywheel or the pulley which coincides
with a pointer fixed on some stationary part of the engine, when cylinder no. 1 has reached the firing
instant.

Discussion:

Write a 6-page report on any of the following systems/ components in modern vehicles:
 Friction clutch
 Suspension system
 Anti-Locking Brake System (ABS)
 Fuel Injection system
 Piston Assembly
 Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

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Four- Stroke SI Engine

Objective:-

To determine the full load performance of a single cylinder 4- stroke S.I of an internal combustion
engine.

Apparatus :

Engine Data :

Type : 4 stroke (Otto ) single cylinder petrol engine

with 3 interchangeable cylinder heads
Bore size : 60.33 mm dia .(2.375 in )
Stroke : 44.45mm (1.75in)
Swept volume : 127cc (7.75in2)
Compression Ratios : 5:1 , 6:1, 7:1 as standard
4:1 to 10:1 optional
Lubrication : Wet sump/splash lubrication
Recommended oil : SAE30
Recommended fuel : Regular grade petrol (gasoline)
Ignition type Coil & contact breaker with manual ignition
advance
Contact set part on : Intermotor No.284
Condenser part no: Intermotor No.N376
،
Coil part no : Wipac،part No.So810
،
Sparking plug : Champion،Z-10
Torque setting – cylinder head nuts : 24 Nm (17ft Ib )

Dynamometer :

The dynamometer is of the D.C swinging field type & can be used for absorbing & motoring . when
absorbing the power is dissipated in a resistance load bank mounted on the right hand side of the
frame. A thyristor control unit is used to power the dynamometer for motoring & starting purposes.

Torque Measurement

Torque measurement is by a strain gauge load cell connected to the dynamometer torque arm ( radius
0.2 m ) . the output is displayed in N.m on an analogue meter mounted on the instrument panel. The
meter reading is reversed automatically when going from load to motor conditions & vice versa .

Temperature Measurement

A remote reading multipoint temperature measuring system enables temperatures be measured

quickly & accurately on a dual scale analogue meter. Exhaust temperature is indicated on the upper
scale automatically. until another temperature is selected by pressing the appropriate push button. The
selected temperature is then indicated on the lower scale. Once the push button is released the meter
again reads exhaust temperature . the system is calibrated before shipment & should require no
adjustment. Temperatures can be measured at the following point :

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-t1 : Engine air inlet

-t2 : cooling air outlet
-t3 : Exhaust temperature at exhaust valve
-t4 : calorimeter cooling water in
-t5 : calorimeter cooling water out .
-t6 : Exhaust temperature at outlet of calorimeter

Cylinder heads :

Three cylinder heads of different compression ratios are supplied as standard .optional heads are
available to provide compression ratios in the range 4:1 to 10:1 .Each head has two 10mm tapping ,
the front one being for the sparking plug & the other to allow the fitting of a pressure transducer. To
remove the cylinder head , take off the top cover of the engine cowling & undo the nuts securing the
head to the engine . Before refitting the cylinder head ensure that the cylinder head gasket is in good
condition .When tightening the cylinder head nuts do so progressively to the specified torque setting.

Variable Ignition Timing

The ignition timing can be carried between T.D.C &42˚ advanced by rotating the contact breaker
housing. A scale on the circumference of the housing indicates the degree of advance. if the contact
breaker assembly is removed for any reason, the timing calibration must be reset as follows:
Rotate the engine flywheel until the piston is at T.D.C on the firing stroke (both valves closed ) & set
the timing scale to T.D.C .Set the contact breaker points on the cam so that they are just beginning to
open .

Fuel Flow Measurement :

A burette connected into the fuel system is fitted on the instrument panel & is calibrated 0-10 ml.
With the fuel valve in the "ON" position the petrol bypasses the burette & is taken direct from the
fuel tank into the carburetor. If the fuel valve is closed petrol is drawn from the burette & the flow
can be measure using a stop watch.

Engine Cooling :

Cooling is provided by an electrically driven centrifugal fan , which draws air over the engine &
through a calibrated orifice .The cooling airflow can be calculated from the formula .

Q= K √ h
Where :
- Q = air flow (m3/ hr )
- K = orifice constant = 21x103
- h= pressure drop across orifice (mm H2O)

Exhaust Calorimeter :

The exhaust gases are passed through a water –cooled calorimeter .A variable area flow meter is
provide for water flow & the water inlet & outlet temperatures are measured thus enabling the heat

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extracted from the exhaust gas to be calculated .The exhaust gas is cooled to less than 100˚ C & the
remaining energy can be ignored & still give good accuracy .

Theory :

Introduction :

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Two principal classes of IC engines exist .The first , where a spark initiates the combustion is termed
"Spark Ignition " SI & embodies petrol & Gas engines . The second ,where combustion is initiated
spontaneously by virtue of the rise in temperature during the compression process is termed "
Compression Ignition " (CI) , & embodies Diesel engines . The following sections describe the theory
associated with IC engines & standard experiments designed to demonstrate these principals .

Criteria for engine performance :

The overall efficiency of a power plant is usually expressed as

W
μ=
m f × C .V
Where,
- W :the net power output (kJ)
-C.V : the calorific value of the fuel at constant pressure (kj/kg)
-mf : Mass of fuel (kg)

The net output power ( expressed in KW) of an IC engine is called the brake power (b.p) , & for this
reason the overall efficiency is termed the brake thermal efficiency (μb):

b. p
μb = ṁf ×C . V

In IC engines , an appreciable part of the losses is due to mechanical friction , & it is informative if
the thermodynamic & friction losses are separated . The overall efficiency is therefore analyzed as the
product of the indicated thermal efficiency (μi) & the mechanical efficiency (μm) as follows :

i.p b. p
μb = ṁf ×C . V × i. p = μi× μm

the indicated power (i.p.) is the actual rate of work done by the working fluid on the piston , & the
difference between the indicated power & the break power is the power absorbed by mechanical
friction (piston , bearing etc .) .As the name implies , the indicated power can be determined from the
indicator diagram which for a four stroke engine has the form as shown in the figure below.

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The brake power can then be expressed in terms of torque & engine speed as follows:

b.p (measured ) =2 п N T
101.3 T amb
b . p(corrected )=b . p( measured)× ×
Pa 293

where :
-N : the engine speed (rev/s)
-Pa : the atmospheric pressure (kPa)
-Ta : the ambient temperature (K) .

Examining the previous equation implies that increasing the speed of the engine to its mechanical
limit could raise the power output of an engine . In practice it is found that the maximum indicated
work per cycle varies considerably with speed , & beyond a certain speed the indicated power will
fall with further increase in speed .The reduction is chiefly due to decrease in the mass of the charge
induced in each cycle .

Theoretically, a naturally aspirated engine should induce a mass equivalent to its swept volume at
ambient pressure & temperature .As a result of fluid friction & charge expansion, significantly less
charge is taken in at high engine speeds when gas velocities are high & the manifold is hot .

This " breathing " capacity of an engine is expressed in terms of volumetric efficiency defined
as :

ma
μv = ρ× V
d
where :
-ma : mass of induced charge per cycle (Kg).
-ρ : density of air at ambient conditions (Kg/m3).
-Vd: displacement volume of the engine( m3).
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The specified fuel consumption (s.f.c) is frequently used as another criterion of performance & is
defined as the rate of fuel consumption in Kg/hr per KW of brake power & is expressed as follows:

ṁ f
s.ƒ.c =
b. p

Procedure :

a) Start the engine & allow it to warm up .

b) Adjust the load control & throttle control to establish a load on the engine at minimum load speed
(somewhat around 40 rps).
c) Increase the throttle control to maximum position whilst adjusting the load control to keep the
speed constant & hold condition for at least 5 minutes until conditions have stabilized .
d) Note all instrumentation reading but particularly record the following :
-Engine torque
- Engine speed
- Fuel flow consumption
- Airflow rate
e) Maintaining maximum throttle , adjust the speed in 5 or 6 steps up to maximum .Allow 5 minutes
for stabilization at each speed before repeating the readings in the previous step .
f) After completion of readings return the throttle to its minimum position, allow engine to idle for a
few minutes & then stop engine.

Analysis of Results:

1- Calculate the following parameters:

- Brake output power (corrected for ambient conditions).
- Fuel flow rate (kg/hr)
-Air flow rate (kg/hr)
- Specific fuel consumption (kg/KW.hr)
-Air to fuel ratio.
- Brake thermal efficiency
-Volumetric efficiency.

2- Show one sample calculation

3- Plot three graphs showing the following :

-Torque & Brake Power Vs Speed.
- SFC Vs Speed.
-Brake thermal efficiency Vs Speed.

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Data Sheet
Engine type :

Ambient pressure (kPa):

Ambient temperature (K):

Fuel type : Specific gravity : C.V:

Test Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Speed
(rps)
Torque
(N.m)
Time for fuel
(s)
Orifice
pressure drop
(mm H2O)

Results :

Test Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Brake power
(KW)
Fuel flow rate
(Kg/hr)
Air flow rate
(Kg/hr)
S.FC
(Kg/KW.hr)
AFR

μb (%)
μv (%)

Sample Calculation:

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Brake power:

Fuel flow rate

Air flow rate

SFC

AFR

Brake Thermal Efficiency :

Volumetric Efficiency :

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Emission Analysis of an SI Engine

Objective:-

To determine the equivalence ratio & the type of the mixture .

Theory:-

For any heat engine that runs on hydrocarbon fuel “internal or external combustion engine”, energy
needed to run these engines is provided from the combustion. Air is used to supply the oxygen
needed for this chemical reaction. For combustion reaction to occur, the proper relative amount of air
(oxygen ) & fuel must be present .

Air-fuel ratio (AF) & Fuel – air ratio (FA) are parameters used to describe the mixture ratio.

AF = ma/mf = ṁa / ṁf

FA= mf/ma = ṁf / ṁa

Where : ma = mass of air .

ṁa= mass flow rate of air .
mf = mass of fuel .
ṁf = mass flow rate of fuel .

Stoichometric combustion: all the hydrocarbons (CnHm) in the reactants turn into water vapor (H2O)
and Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the products, N2 in the reactants will be the same in the products but at
different temperatures.

the ideal or stoichometric AF for many gasoline type of hydrocarbon fuel is very close to 15:1 , with
combustion possible for value in the range 6 to 19 . AF less than 6 is too rich to sustain combustion &
AF a greater than 19 than 19 is too lean, CI engine typically have AF input in the range of 18 to 70 ,
which appears to be outside the limit where combustion is possible .
for actual combustion in an engine, the equivalence ratio is a measure of the air – fuel mixture
relative to stoichmetric condition. It is defined as:

Ф = (AF) stoich / (AF) act = (FA)act/ (FA) stoich

Where : AF = ma/mf = air-fuel ratio.

FA= mf/ma = fuel-air ratio
ma =mass of air
mf= mass of fuel .

When
Ф <1 running lean , oxygen in exhaust , more oxygen is present than that of the Stoich combustion.
Ф >1 running rich , carbon monoxide & fuel in exhaust . less oxygen is present than that of the Stoich
combustion.
Ф =1 stoichometric , maximum energy released from fuel .

Example :
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 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

The four – cylinder engine runs on propane fuel. A dry analysis of the engine exhaust gives the
following volumetric percentage:
CO2 = 4.9% , CO = 9.79% , O2 = 2.45%
Calculate the equivalence ratio at which the engine is operating

Solution

Volume percent equal molar percent, so if an unknown amount of fuel is burned with an unknown
amount of air, the resulting reaction is [for 100 kmols of dry products ] :

x C3H8 + y [ O2 + (3.76) N2 ] 4.9 CO2 + 9.79 CO + 2.45 O2 + a N2 + z H2O

Where
z = number of moles of water vapor removed before dry analysis

a :No. of kmols of N2 in products will be [ 100 – (sum of kmols of CO2 , CO and O2)]
a = 100 – [4.9 + 9.79+2.45] = 82.86

– Conservation of nitrogen during reaction gives:

y (3.76) = 82.86  y = 22.037

– Conservation of carbon:
3 x = 4.9 +9.79  x = 4.897

– Conservation of hydrogen:
8 x = 2 z  z = 8 x / 2 = 19.588 , since [x = 4.897]
The reaction is

4.897 C3H8 + 22.037 [ O2+ (3.76)]N2  4.9 CO2 + 9.79 CO + 2.45 O2 + 82.86 N2 + 82.86 H2O
Dividing by 4.897

C3H8 + 4.5 O2 +4.5(3.76)N2  CO2 +2CO+0.5O2 +16.92N2+H2O

Actual air- fuel ratio

(AF)act = ma/ mf = [ (4.5)(4.76)(29)/ (1) (44) ] = 14.12 , mass= No. of moles × molar mass

Stoichometric combustion

C3H8 + 5O2 +5(3.76)N2 3CO2 +4H2O +5 (3.76)N2

Stoichometric air-fuel ratio

(AF)stoich = ma/mf = [ (5)(4.76)(29)/ (1) (44) ] = 15.69

Equivalence ratio

Ф= (AF)stoich / (AF)act = 15.69/14.12 = 1.11

Data & Results:
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 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE HASHIMITE UNIVERSITY Department of Mechanical Engineering

The chemical formula for gasoline is C8H18

Gas Percentage %
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Carbon monoxide CO
Oxygen O2

Table (1)
Analysis :
1. calculate the equivalence ratio for the gasoline ?
2. determine the type of mixture ?

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