EGE 311 Environmental Science Course Pack

Course pack for Environmental Science
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Carmelita P. Martinez
Ana P. Ocenar
Khmer Griffin S. Alonzo
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WELCOME MESSAGE
Welcome to the Environmental Science course. We hope you will learn
a lot as you go through all the lessons presented here. As the learner, discipline
and self-motivation are of utmost importance. You are completely responsible
for this course’s study. Please anticipate that you may encounter challenges
along the way as this online experience will be different from a face-to-face
interaction. Please do not hesitate to seek guidance from your
facilitators/teachers. It will be your responsibility in maintaining the same
standards of excellence in this online/modular study as needed in a face-to-face
course.
Faculty Information:
Name: Carmelita P. Martinez
Email: carmelita.martinez@usep.edu.ph
Office: 2nd floor, Andaya bldg., CAEC, USeP, Obrero, Davao City
Contact Number (Office): 227-8192
Name: Ana P. Ocenar

Email: ana.ocenar@usep.edu.ph
Office: Dean’s Office, CAS, USeP, Obrero, Davao City
Contact Number (Office): 227-8192 Local 230
Name: Khmer Griffin S. Alonzo

Email: kgsalonzo@usep.edu.ph
Office: NatSci Dept., CAS USeP, Obrero, Davao City
Contact Number (Office): 227-8192 Local 244 or 230
GETTING HELP
For Academic and Administrative Concerns
Email: cas@usep.edu.ph Phone: (82) 227-8192 local 230
For UVE concerns

Email: uve@usep.edu.ph Phone: (82) 227-8192 local 301
Health Services
Email: clinic@usep.edu.ph Phone: (82) 227-8192 local 212
Guidance Services
Email: uagc@uep.edu.ph Phone: (82) 227-8192 local 205
Office of Students Affairs & Services

Email: osas@usep.edu.ph Phone: (82) 227-8192 local 207
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
Cover page ......................................................................................................1

Welcome Message ...........................................................................................2
Table of Contents .............................................................................................3
USeP Vision, Mission and Goals ......................................................................4
USeP Graduate Attributes ................................................................................5
USeP Core Values ...........................................................................................5
Course Overview..............................................................................................6
Course Assessment .........................................................................................7
Course Map .....................................................................................................9
Module 1 Fundamentals of Environmental Science

Overview .......................................................................................................10
Lesson 1 Definition, Principles and Scope of Environmental Science.............10
Lesson 2 Structure & Composition of the Earth’s Spheres .............................14
Lesson 3 Meteorological Parameters .............................................................28
Module Summary .............................................................................................34
Module 2 Environmental Chemistry

Overview .......................................................................................................35
Lesson 1 Fundamentals of Chemistry ............................................................35
Lesson 2 Oxygen and Ozone Chemistry ........................................................43
Lesson 3 Toxic Chemicals..............................................................................48
Module Summary .............................................................................................51
Module 3 Environmental Biology

Overview .......................................................................................................52
Lesson 1 Ecosystem: Classification, Types, Structure and Structure .............52
Lesson 2 Biomes: Concept, Classification and Distribution ............................59
Lesson 3 Biodiversity and Conservation .........................................................64
Module Summary .............................................................................................70
Module 4 Environmental Geosciences

Overview .......................................................................................................71
Lesson 1 Distribution of Water on Earth: Watershed & Groundwater .............71
Lesson 2 Natural Hazards ..............................................................................75
Module Summary .............................................................................................79
Module 5 Environmental Pollution and Control

Overview .......................................................................................................79
Lesson 1 Pollution: Types, Sources and Prevention .......................................80
Module Summary .............................................................................................91
Course Summary .............................................................................................92

References.......................................................................................................93
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
VISION
Premier Research University in the ASEAN.
MISSION
USeP shall produce world-class graduates and relevant research and

extension through quality education and sustainable resource management.
GOALS
At the end of the plan period, the University of Southeastern Philippines

(USeP) aims to achieve five comprehensive and primary goals:
1. Recognized ASEAN Research University

2. ASEAN Competitive Graduates and Professionals
3. Vibrant Research Community
4. Proactive Research-based Economic Empowering
Extension Services
5. Capacity for Innovative Resource Generation
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INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES
LEADERSHIP SKILLS
Creates and inspires positive changes in the organization; exercises

responsibility with integrity and accountability in the practice of one’s
profession or vocation.
CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS
Demonstrates creativity, innovativeness, and intellectual curiosity in optimizing

available resources to develop new knowledge, methods, processes, systems,
and value-added technologies.
SERVICE ORIENTED
Demonstrates concern for others, practices professional ethics, honesty, and

exemplifies socio-cultural, environmental concern, and sustainability.
LIFELONG LEARNING
Demonstrates enthusiasm and passion for continuous personal and

professional development.
PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
Demonstrates proficiency and flexibility in the area of specialization and in

conveying information in accordance with global standards.
CORE VALUES OF THE UNIVERSITY
UNITY
STEWARDSHIP
EXCELLENCE
PROFESSIONALISM
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THE COURSE OVERVIEW
COURSE TITLE : Environmental Science

CREDIT : 3 units
SEMESTER : 1st Semester 2020-2021
TIME FRAME : 18 weeks
COURSE DESCRIPTION : The course deals with the interrelationships among
the components of the natural world, environmental problems, their causes,
associated risks, preventive measures and alternative solutions.
COURSE OUTCOMES : At the end of the course, the students have:

a. Developed an understanding of the interdisciplinary nature of
environment;
b. To be skilled in communicating environmental information and idea
logically and concisely in a variety of forms;
c. Developed the ability to identify environmental research questions
and formulate hypothesis or guiding statements.
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COURSE ASSESSMENT
Learning Evidence and Measurement Rubrics
Learning Evidence to Assess: LE1: Reaction Paper
100-93 pts. 92-84 pts. 83-75 pts. Below 75 pts.

Area for Substantially Moderately Developed Minimally Developed Inadequate
Assessment Developed
Identifies and Uses prior knowledge Uses prior knowledge Has identified an Question identified is too
summarizes the to identify a question to to identify a question to appropriate topic to broad or vague to
problem/question be studied. Has a be studied. Has a be studied but lacks provide a coherent
to be clearly stated clearly stated clearly stated thesis.
investigated. hypothesis. hypothesis. hypothesis.
(20%)
Breaks question into a Breaks question into a Organized as a
series of steps that will series of steps that will catalogue of information
lead to the questions to lead to the questions to about the topic rather
be addressed in the be addressed in the than pointing toward a
study. Identifies study but has not hypothesis.
complexities and identified complexities
nuances in the and nuances in the
question. question.
Analysis & Excellent discussion of Adequate discussion Vague discussion of Vague discussion of detail.
synthesis (40%) detail. Impressive depth detail. Adequate depth of detail. Little insight/ Lack of insight/ analysis.
of insight/analysis. insight/analysis. analysis; that which is
provided is conventional Statistical tool used is
Uses the most An alternative or underdeveloped. inappropriate.
appropriate statistical statistical tool
tool for the research could have An alternative
problem stated. produced better statistical tool
results. could have
produced better
results.
Draws sound Draws sound conclusions Draws reasonable Draws reasonable Draws inferences which are
inferences (20%) and communicates a conclusions and conclusions but does not not justified.
logical path from the data communicates a logical convincingly
to the hypothesis. path from data to the communicate a logical
hypothesis. path from data to the
hypothesis.
Form (10%) Follows and correctly Follows and Follows and Does not follow the
accomplishes the accomplishes the accomplishes the prescribed format.
prescribed format for the prescribed prescribed format of the
analytical report complete format of the analytical analytical report but
with the annexes for the report but entries/ entries/ content/
data used and the content/ discussion in discussion in many areas
statistical output. some areas are incorrect; are incorrect; no annexes
annexes for the data used for data used and
and statistical output are statistical output.
attached
Data (10%) Uses the correct Variables are correct but Variables are not Variables cannot answer the
variables and data is data is insufficient for the sufficient to answer the research problem presented.
sufficient for use of the use of the chosen research problem
chosen statistical tool. statistical tool. presented; data is also
insufficient for use of the
statistical tool.
Rubric Source (Guide): https://www.units.miamioh.edu/celt/assessment/basics/rubric_samples/Research_Proposal.pdf
(accessed on August 19, 2016)
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OTHER REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS (AA)

Aside from the final output, the student will be assessed at other times during the term by the following:
Course
Assessment
Description and other Details Outcomes it
Activity
represents
Activities are given in every lesson to assess the prior
AA1 Module Activities
knowledge of the students on the subject
Analysis and The analysis and application covers the lessons of CO1
AA2
application of M 1 & 2 modules 1 and 2 CO3
Analysis and The analysis and application covers the lessons of
AA3
application of M 3 - 5 modules 3 - 5
Grading System
The final grade in this course will be composed of the following items and their weights in the final grade computation:
Assessment
Grade Source (Score or Rubric Grade) Percentage
Item
Activities in every lessons contained in

AA1 20%
different modules
AA2 Midterm Exam Score (Analysis and

applications of M1 and M2 25%
AA3 Final Exam Score (Analysis and

applications of M 3 to M5 25%
LE1 Reaction Paper 30%
Passing Grade 75.0 (or 3.00)

Passing Grade conditions: Policy on attendance based on Student Handbook is
followed.
< 75 = 5.00 75-76 = 3.00 77-79 = 2.75 80-82 = 2.50 83-85

86-88 = 2.00 89-91 = 1.75 92-94 = 1.50 95-97 = 1.25 98-100
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The Course Map
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
COURSE MAP
Module 1
Fundamentals Module 2 Module 3 Module 4 Module 5
to Environmental Environmental Environmental Environmental
Environmental Chemistry Biology Geosciences Pollution and
Science Control
L1: Definition, L1: Fundamental L1: Basic L1: Distribution of L1: Air pollution
principles and of chemistry – Ecosystem water on earth: L2: Noise
scope of classification of classification, watershed, pollution
Environmental elements and types of groundwater L3: water
Science stoichiometry ecosystem, L2: Natural pollution
L2: Structure and L2 : Composition ecosystem hazards: flood, L4: soil pollution
composition of of air, oxygen structure landslide, L5: Solid and
atmosphere, and ozone L2: Biomes: earthquakes hazardous waste
hydrosphere, chemistry, concept, management
lithosphere and concept of DO, classification and
biosphere BOD, COD, and distribution
L3: pH L: Biodiversity
Meteorological L3: Toxic and conservation
parameters – chemicals
pressure,
temperature,
precipitation and
humidity
OUTCOME: Students who have developed better understanding on the nature of environments,
communicate environmental information and idea logically and can identify research problems and
formulate hypothesis.
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MODULE 1
Fundamentals of Environmental Science
Module Overview:
Module 1 of Environmental Science course is designed to provide students with

comprehensive background on the principles and scope of environmental
science. It is tailored to meet the need of the students who have either no prior
knowledge or very limited experience on Environmental Science in their previous
studies.
Module Outcomes:
At the end of the module, the students shall have better understanding on the
definition and scope of environmental science.
Lesson 1
Title: Definition, Principles and Scope of Environmental Science
Learning Outcomes: The students are able to explain the principles and
scope of environmental science
Time Frame: 4 hours
Introduction
This is the first lesson of the course. This lesson consists of definition of
environment, some environmental principles and the scope of environmental
science. The time allotted for this lesson is 45 minutes inclusive of the different
activities that will be performed. This lesson is intended to give the students a
feel for the types of issues that will be covered in the course.
 Activity
Based on the prior knowledge and understanding on environmental science,
the students shall answer the following questions (time allocation: 5 minutes):
1. What do you understand by the term environment?

2. What is environmental Science?
3. List at least 5 things that you consider as part of YOUR environment:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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 Analysis
Write short answers:
1. Environment studies is a multidisciplinary subject. How?

2. How is the soil affected by intensive agriculture?
3. Explain the importance played by forest on environment.
 Abstraction
a. Definition of Environment
The word “environment” is derived from the French word “Environner”

which means to encircle, around or surround. The term environment was
introduced by biologist Jacob Van Uerkal (1864 – 1944) in Ecology.
Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and the
surrounding. The Environmental Protection Act of 1986 defined
environment as the interrelationships of land, water, air and the
interaction their interaction with human beings and other living organisms.
Some useful definitions of environment are:
i. According to Boring, person’s environment consist of all the

stimulation which he receives from his conception until death. This
implies that environment comprises various types of forces such as
physical, intellectual, mental, economic, political, cultural, social,
moral and emotional.
ii. Douglas and Holland defined environment as the aggregate of all
external forces, influences and conditions that affect life, nature,
behavior, growth, development and maturity of living organisms.
Therefore, environmental science is the interdisciplinary field that

requires the study of the interaction among the physical, chemical and
biological components of the environment with a focus on pollution and
degradation. It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment.
It deals on the sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate of living
organisms in air, water and soil. Further it also covers the effects of
human activities upon these. Environmental science also deals with the
study of the processes in soil, water, air and organisms leading up to
pollution or environmental damage. The output of environmental studies
will be the scientific basis for the establishment of standards which can
be considered acceptably clean, safe and healthy for human and natural
ecosystems.
b. Scope of Environment and environmental science
i. The environment is composed of four segments of earth. These

are the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
There are three (3) elements consisting the environment, namely:
physical, biological and cultural.
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ii. The scope of environmental science includes i) conservation of

natural resources, ii) ecological aspect, iii) pollution of the
surrounding natural resources, iv) controlling the pollution, v)
social issues connected to pollution and environmental
degradation, and vi) impacts of human population on the
environment.
c. Environmental Principles
The seven (7) principles of the environment are as follows:
i. Nature knows best
One of the natural processes that needs serious attention is the

nutrient cycling whereby nutrients pass from the environment to
the organisms and back to the environment. Any disruption of the
cycle will disrupt the balance of the ecosystem which will lead to
environmental damage.
ii. All forms of life are important (Principle of ecological balance)
Each organism plays fundamental role in nature and each is

occupying a definite niche. A niche is the functional position of an
organisms which cannot be occupied by another species. All
organisms must be considered invaluable in the maintenance of
homeostasis in the ecosystem.
iii. Everything is connected to everything else
In an ecosystem, all biotic and abiotic components interact with

each other to ensure the balance of the system. Any interference
may cause imbalance and eventually degradation of the
ecosystem.
iv. Everything changes
There is no permanent thing on earth. The earth constantly

changing. Each day humans are trying to change their living to fit
in to the world.
v. Everything must go somewhere
Things may disappear in sight but it does not cease to exist.

Everything goes somewhere and nothing goes nothing. It has its
own way to go.
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vi. Ours is a finite earth
The earth resources is not unlimited. If the human lifestyle is not

checked, the earth resources will be exhausted and the collapse
of the earth is inevitable.
vii. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation.
Humans are the highest form of animal and has the right to have
dominion over all God’s creation. Being most intelligent and gifted
with reasons, humans are capable of manipulating creation to his
own advantage. Humans are made not to rule the world but to help
the world. We need to take care of everything.
 Application
Answer the crossword puzzle

1 2
3
4
5 6 7 8 9
10
Across Down
1. No permanent thing on earth 2. Scope of environmental science

7. Anything that surrounds us dealing with water
10. finite earth resources 3. Non-living component
4. humans are intelligent
5. living component
6. limited resources
8. disruption of nutrient cycle
9. functional position of organisms
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 Closure
The lesson gave a background on what is environmental science and discussed
the principles of environment. Knowledge on the principle and scope of
environment will make the students appreciate better the succeeding lessons in
particular and the environment in general.
Lesson 2
Lesson Title: Structure and composition of atmosphere, hydrosphere,

lithosphere and biosphere
Learning Outcomes: Differentiate the structures and composition of the

components of environment
Time Frame: 4 hours
Introduction:
Lesson 2 of module 1 discuss in detail the different components of environment.

It will also explore how each components affect each other and in maintaining
environmental equilibrium.
 Activity
Let’s get started by answering some questions pertaining to the lessons that will
be discussed. These questions are refresher from your prior knowledge.
1. What are two major gases comprising the atmosphere?

2. Describe the earth’s water reservoir
3. What is lithosphere?
 Analysis
From your understanding of biosphere answer the question briefly.
1. How do lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere individually and
collectively affect the biosphere?
2. What are the two components of biosphere?
 Abstraction
The area near the surface of the earth are divided into four inter-connected geo-
spheres that make up the environment. These are:
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1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Biosphere
1. Structure and composition of Atmosphere
Structure
The atmosphere is an integral part of the earth. It surrounds the earth from all
sides. Generally it extends up to about 1600 kilometers from the earth’s surface. 97
percent of the total amount of weight of the atmosphere is limited up to the height of
about 30 kilometers. The atmosphere can be divided into five layers according to the
diversity of temperature and density. These are
i) Troposphere
ii) Stratosphere
iii) Mesosphere
iv) Ionosphere
v) Exosphere
Figure 1. Structure of the Atmosphere
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i) Troposphere
This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. The height of this layer is about 18 km
on the equator and 8 km on the poles. The main reason of higher height at the
equator is due to presence of hot convection currents that push the gases
upward. This is the most important layer of the atmosphere because all kinds of
weather changes take place only in this layer. Due to these changes
development of living world take place on the earth. The air never remains static
in this layer. Therefore this layer is called changing sphere or troposphere. The
environmental temperature decreases with increasing height of atmosphere. It
decreases at the rate of 10°C at the height of 165 meters. This is called normal
lapse rate. The upper limit of the troposphere is called tropopause. This is a
transitional zone. In this zone characteristics of both troposphere and
ionosphere are found.
ii) Stratosphere
This layer is above the troposphere. This layer is spread up to the height of
50 km from the Earth’s surface. Its average extent is 40 km. The temperature
remains almost the same in the lower part of this layer up to the height of 20 km.
After this the temperature increases slowly with the increase in the height. The
temperature increases due to the presence of ozone gas in the upper part of this
layer. Weather related incidents do not take place in this layer. The air blows
horizontally here. Therefore this layer is considered ideal for flying of aircrafts.
iii) Mesosphere
It is the third layer of the atmosphere spreading over stratosphere. It spreads up
to the height of 80 km from the surface of the earth. Its’ extent is 30 km.
Temperature goes on decreasing and drops up to -1000°C. ‘Meteors’ or falling
stars occur in this layer.
iv) Ionosphere
This is the fourth layer of the atmosphere. It is located above the mesosphere.
This layer spreads up to the height of 400 km from the surface of the earth. The
width of this layer is about 300 km. The temperature starts increasing again with
increasing height in this layer. Electrically charged currents flows in the air in this
sphere. Radio waves are reflected back on the earth from this sphere and due
to this radio broadcasting has become possible.
v) Exosphere
This is the last layer of the atmosphere located above ionosphere and extends
to beyond 400 km above the earth. Gases are very sparse in this sphere due to
the lack of gravitational force. Therefore, the density of air is very less here.
Change of weather take place only in troposphere. Change of weather
conditions do not take place in stratosphere. This is an ideal layer for flying
airplanes. Ions are found in abundance in ionosphere. Ionosphere reflects back
the radio waves to the earth and make possible the communication system.
Density of air is the least in the exosphere.
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Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is made up of different types of gases, water vapor and dust
particles. The composition of the atmosphere is not static. It changes according
to the time and place.
i) Gases of the atmosphere
The atmosphere is the mixture of different types of gases, including water vapor
and dust particles. Nitrogen and Oxygen are the two main gases of the
atmosphere. 99 percent part of it is made up of these two gases. Other gases
like oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, neon, helium etc. form the remaining part
of atmosphere. The details of different gases of the atmosphere are given in the
Table No. 1 and Fig. No.1.
Table 1: Amount of gases in the dry and air of the atmosphere
Serial No. Gas Amount (in percentage)
A. Main
78.1
1. Nitrogen 99%
2. Oxygen 20.9
B. Secondary
1. Oxygen 0.9
2. Carbon Dioxide 0.03
3. Hydrogen 0.01
4. Nion 0.99%
0.0018
5. Helium
6. Ozone 0.0005
7. Others 0.00006
Figure 2. Composition of
Atmosphere
The amount of ozone gas in the atmosphere is very little. It is limited to the ozone
layer but it is very important. It protects the living beings by absorbing the ultra-
violet rays of the sun. If there was no ozone gas in the atmosphere, there would
not have been existence of living beings and plants on the earth surface.
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ii) Water vapor

Gaseous form of water present in the atmosphere is called water vapor. Water
vapor present in the atmosphere has made life possible on the earth Water vapor
is the source of all kinds of precipitation. Its maximum amount in the atmosphere
could be up to 4 percent. Maximum amount of water vapor is found in hot-wet
regions and its least amount is found in the dry regions. Generally, the amount
of water vapor goes on decreasing from low latitudes to high latitudes.
In the same way, its amount goes on decreasing with increasing altitude. Water
vapor reaches in the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration.
Evaporation takes place in the oceans, seas, rivers, ponds and lakes while
transpiration takes place from the plants, trees and living beings.
iii) Dust Particles
Dust particles are generally found in the lower layers of the atmosphere. These
particles are found in the form of sand, smoke and oceanic salt. Sand particle
have important place in the atmosphere. These dust particles help in the
condensation of water vapor. During condensation water vapor gets condensed
in the form of droplets around these dust particles. Due to this process the clouds
are formed and precipitation is made possible.
Importance of the Atmosphere:
(i) Protection against sun’s rays
(ii) Filter solar radiation.
(iii) It allows climates.
(iv) Allows radio waves to circulate.
(v) Temperature balance.
(vi) It allows the changes of station
(vii) Protect life on earth.
Cyclic Process of the Atmospheric Gases
Cycle of gases in the atmosphere is naturally happening every day. These gas
cycles are as follows:
i) Carbon cycle ii) Oxygen Cycle iii) nitrogen cycle
i) Carbon cycle
1. The element of carbon is present in the atmosphere in the form of

carbon dioxide. The source of carbon for all living beings is
atmosphere.
2. Green plants receive carbon dioxide from the atmosphere which is
used for making food with the help of the sun light. This is called
photosynthesis. By this process the plants create ‘carbohydrates’
in the form of food. Carbohydrates thus, produced by plants are
used as a food by all Living beings.
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4. Carbon dioxide gets dissolved in the water bodies and gets

collected in the form of lime on the earth. After dissolution of lime
stone, carbon dioxide again reaches in the atmosphere. This
process is called carbonization. In this way carbon dioxide goes
on moving between the atmosphere and water- bodies of the
earth.
5. Carbon dioxide produced by breathing of plants and animals,
disintegration of plants and animals and by burning fossil fuels
like coal, petroleum and natural gas again returns back to the
atmosphere.
In this way, the process of receiving of carbon-dioxide from the atmosphere and
going back to it from the surface of the earth keeps on going continuously. It
keeps the balance between the carbon and biosphere.
Figure 3. The carbon cycle
ii) Oxygen cycle
a. The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is about 21% and all

living beings use oxygen present in the atmosphere for breathing.
b. For the burning of fuels like wood, coal, gas etc. oxygen is
essential and carbon dioxide gas is produced by their burning.
c. The main sources of oxygen in the atmosphere are plants and
trees. Higher the number of trees and plants, the availability of
oxygen will be more.
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d. Oxygen produced through photosynthesis by the green plants

goes back to the atmosphere. In this way the process of oxygen
cycle goes on continuously.
Figure 4. The oxygen cycle
iii) Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is an important element for life. The amount of nitrogen gas in the
atmosphere is 78%. The main source of nitrogen are nitrates present in the soil.
From the atmosphere, nitrogen enters into bio components through the
biological and industrial processes. Nitrogen compounds from the plants are
transferred to the animals through food chain. The process of transformation of
nitrogen gas of the atmosphere into nitrogen components is called nitrogen
Fixation. Bacteria’s decompose dried plants and dead animals. It produces
nitrogen gas which goes back into the atmosphere. In this way, the cycle of
nitrogen gas is completed.
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Figure 5. The nitrogen cycle
2. Structure and Composition of Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the region of water at or near the Earth’s surface. The total
volume of water in the hydrosphere is approximately 1.5 billion cubic kilometers
or 350 million cubic miles. About 99 per cent of which is contained in continuous
oceans and seas while the remaining is divided among groundwater, glaciers
and ice sheets, freshwater lakes, water vapor, rivers and streams.
Earth’s water is always in movement, and the natural water cycle, also known
as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water, above,
and below the surface of the earth. Water is always changing states between
liquid, vapor and ice.
The process of hydrologic cycle is as follows:
i. Water is released into the atmosphere by Evaporation and
Transpiration.
 Evaporation comes from the water sources, Transpiration
comes from plants and trees.
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ii. Precipitation is the next step in the cycle.

 Precipitation is water falling from the atmosphere in the form
rain, snow, sleet or hail.
iii. Water flows as surface run off or seeps into the ground through soil
moisture and then flows under the soil as groundwater flow. We see it
flow towards the ocean in river flow.
Figure 6. Hydrologic cycle
Classification of water in the world

The classification of the world’s water and its percentage composition of
hydrosphere is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Water source by per cent of Hydrosphere

WATER SOURCE PERCENT OF HYDROSPHERE
OCEANS 97.250%
GLACIERS AND ICEBERGS 2.050%
GROUNDWATER 0.685%
SURFACE WATER(NOT OCEANS) 0.009%
SOIL MOISTURE 0.005%
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE 0.001%
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Ocean / Seas
Ocean contain the biggest percentage of water at 97 per cent. It is the largest
water source made of salt and water. The percentage composition of oceans is
presented in Figure 7. Along with the oceans there are seas which are also salt
water. Seas are surrounded by continents.
96.5% Water Ocean

2.7% Sodium
Chloride Water
Water
Sodium
Chloride Other
Figure 7. Composition of Oceans
The five (5) major oceans of the world are:

i. Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean covering more
than 30 per cent of the Earth. This is close to half of the
water on Earth. It touches the west coast border of the
Americas along the East Asia and Australia. The equator
divides the Pacific Ocean into two separate parts namely;
North Pacific Ocean and South Pacific Ocean. Pacific
means “peaceful” in Latin. It has the deepest trenches with
an average depth of 3800 m.
ii. Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean is located between the Americas and
European/African continents. It is the second largest
ocean in the world. It is an S-shaped between the
Americas, Europe and Africa. “Atlantic” originated from
Greek god “Atlas” who carried the sky for eternity. The
ocean bottom is composed of mid-Atlantic Ridge.
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This submarine mountain range extends all the way from Iceland to 58 degrees
South latitude. It is part of the longest mountain range in the world. It is used for
trade routes such as transatlantic trade routes.
iii. Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean surrounding a
densely populated region. It contains additional 20 per
cent water Earth’s surface. It borders India at the North,
East Africa, Australia and Southern Ocean. It has limited
marine life because it has high water temperature. It is
bounded by four (4) tectonics plates. It is geologically
youngest of the five (5) oceans with spreading ridges at
divergent plate boundaries. For centuries Indian Ocean
played very important role in trading.
iv. Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean is the newest ocean recognized by
the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)
bordering Antarctica in its entirety. In terms of size, it is
the 4th largest ocean at 20,327,000 square kilometres. It
extends out to 60 degrees South latitude. Of the five
oceans, Southern Ocean is the least understood
because it is still unexplored. The environment condition
is extreme and located far from populated area where
the climate is severe.
v. Arctic Ocean
Arctic Ocean is the world’s smallest and shallowest ocean. It is the coldest and
the least salty. The size of Arctic Ocean is about the size of Russia and has
poar ice because it is located in the North Pole. Despite the IHO recognizing it
as ocean, some oceanographer still call it the “Arctic Sea.” Arctic Ocean is the
most divers in terms of fish species. It has a wide variety of marine species
including whales, jellyfish, etc. However, it has little plant life because of the
frigid temperature. It is one of the most fragile ecosystems on the planet.
Seas are saltwater sea of part of the ocean that is partly surrounded by land.
There are about 50 seas around the world including water bodies not always
thought of as seas such as the Gulf of Mexico and the Hudson Bay.
3. Structure and Composition of Lithosphere

Structure
The term lithosphere was coined by Joseph Barrel (1914) who studied the
motion of lithosphere over a molten layer, i.e. Aesthenosphere.
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It is derived from a Greek word “Lithos” meaning rock/stone.It is primarily the

rocky and stony part covering the whole earth’s surface where the interaction of
other geospheres happens.
Figure 8. Structure of Lithosphere
Oceanic lithosphere consists mainly of mafic (rich in magnesium and iron) crust
and ultramafic (0ver 90% mafic) mantle and is dense than the continental
lithosphere.
Continental lithosphere is also known as the continental crust. It is the layer of
igneous, sedimentary rock that forms the continent and the continental shelves.
This layer consists mostly of granitic rock.
Crust is the outermost layer of the earth with average density of 2.8 – 3.0 g/cm 3
and average thickness of 30 kilometer. It consists of the continental crust and
oceanic crust. Life exists in this layer.
Mantle is the second layer of the earth and extend from 30 kilometers to 2,900
kilometers with an average density of 2.7 g/cm3. It contains 83 per cent of the
total volume and 68 per cent of the total mass of the earth. It is made of silicate
rich iron and magnesium and is divided from the crust by a discontinuity called
MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY.
The Core is the deepest layer of earth. It extends from a distance of 2,900
kilometres with an average density of 4.3 – 11 g/cm3. Mantle and core boundary
is called WEICHART – GUTENBERG Discontinuity. Core volume is 16 per cent
of earth’s total volume and core mass is 32 per cent of earth’s total mass. It is
further divided into 2 sub-zones by the discontinuity called as LEHMANN-
BULLEN Discontinuity.
 Outer core (2890 km– 5150 km)
 Inner core (5150 km – 6371 km)
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Composition
The chemical composition of lithosphere are as follows:
i) SIAL – located below crust, average density is 2.7 g/cm 3, thickness
ranges between 50 km and 300 km; It is dominated by acid materials
ii) SIMA – located below sialic layer. The average density is 2.9 – 4.7
g/cm3, thickness ranges between 1000 – 2000 kilometers. It is
dominated by basic matter.
iii) NIFE is made up of heavy metals, average density is 11 g/cm3. Its
diameter is approximately 6880 kilometers. It has magnetic property.
Rocks
i) Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from the molten liquid minerals that lie
below the earth’s crust. They are formed from magma that cools
beneath or upon the earth’s surface. These two processes of igneous
rock formation are known as intrusive and extrusive. Basalt is the most
common type of igneous rock and it covers the ocean floor which is
about 2/3 of the earth’s surface.
ii) Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the lithification (cementing,

compacting and hardening) of existing rocks or the bones, shells and
pieces of dead organisms. Rocks are weathered and eroded into tiny
particles which are then transported and deposited along with other
rock particles called sediment. Approximately ¾ of the earth’s bedrock
on the continents is sedimentary
iii) Metamorphic Rock

The name metamorphic rock comes from the Greek word metaphor
which means “to change”. It is formed by applying great pressure and
temperature to existing rock converting it into new distinct type of rock.
Igneous, sedimentary and even metamorphic rocks can be modified
into metamorphic rocks.
Soil
Soil can be defines as any part of earth crust on which plants root. The process
of soil formation is divided into two (2) stages:
 Weathering
 Pedogenesis
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Soil depth worldwide averages a mere six inches (15 cm). Soil and its underlying
layers are classified into horizons. These are:
i) O Horizon is the top layer of soil which composed of primarily organic
material such as the litter of leaves and plants, insect and
microorganisms.
ii) A Horizon is also known as the “top soil” where seed germinate and
plants’ roots thrive. It is mainly composed of sand and silt. The
minerals and clay have been removed in the process known as
eluviation.
iii) B Horizon is known as the sub-soil. This layer contains mineral
deposits that have settled down from upper layers which is called the
layer of Illuviation.
iv) C Horizon is called the regolith and consists of rocks and litter organic
material. Roots do not penetrate this layer.
v) R Horizon refers to the unconsolidated rock or solid bedrock layer.
4. Biosphere
Biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It is also known as the zone of
life on earth, a closed and self-regulating system. It is a global ecological system
integrating all living beings and the relationships and interaction with the
elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The term “biosphere”
was coined by geologist Eduard Suess in 1875 which he defined as “The place
on Earth’s surface where life dwells’”
Figure 9. The biosphere
The extent of biosphere is from the polar caps to the equator that supports life.
The actual thickness of the biosphere is difficult to measure.
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Birds typically fly at altitudes of 650 to 1,800 meters and fish that live deep
underwater can be found down to -8,372 meters in the Puerto Rico Trench. The
biosphere is divided into biomes, inhabited by broadly similar flora and fauna.
On land, biomes are separated primarily by latitude. Terrestrial biomes lying
within the Arctic and Antarctic circles are relatively barren of plants and animal
lide, while most of the populous biomes lie near the equator.
 Application
Biosphere is where the interaction between living things and the different
geosphere on earth. Any alteration of the quality of the geosphere such as
hydrosphere, lithosphere or atmosphere will adversely affect the balance of
biosphere. List at least ten personal footprints and how are you going to address
these footprints in order not to disrupt ecological balance.
 Closure
Class you have learned the different geospheres on Earth which are important
in understanding the environment. The geosphere of life called biosphere was
also discussed. In order to maintain the balance of life in the biosphere other
physical factors such as rainfall, humidity, pressure and temperature are needed
which will be discussed in the next lesson.
Lesson 3
Lesson Title: Meteorological Parameters
Learning Outcomes: Be able to explain the importance of meteorological

parameters in maintaining the balance of life in the biosphere
Time Frame: 4 hours
Introduction:
The lesson begins with a review of the previous lesson which covers the different
geosphere on Earth. Discussion will focus on the non-living component of the
geosphere which are essential to life. This lesson will discuss the different
meteorological parameters such as precipitation, humidity, pressure and
temperature.
 Activity
To start the lesson the following activity should be done (by group). Time
allotted is 5 minutes. Instruction:
a. Draw the hydrologic cycle
b. Label each component
c. Identify the exchange and the reservoir of the hydrologic cycle
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 Analysis
Using the hydrologic cycle drawn in activity kindly answer the following:
a. Name an example of reservoir of the hydrologic cycle.
b. If the reservoir of the hydrologic cycle will be polluted what will happen
to the exchange?
c. How will pollution affect the rainfall pattern?
 Abstraction
Meteorological parameters are observed atmospheric variables that affect the
weather and climate. These parameters such as precipitation or rainfall,
atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity are significant in issues such
as air pollution, storm warning, renewable energy industry, agriculture, water
supply and distribution, town and regional planning. The structure of the
atmosphere close to the ground is very important for the climate. Knowledge on
solar radiation, air humidity and air temperature is necessary in evaluating
chemical reactions of pollutant in the air. All meteorological parameters are
subject to variations, normally caused by turbulences within the atmosphere.
Generally speaking, all meteorological parameters are influenced by solar
radiation, directly or indirectly leading to daily or yearly trends.
1. Precipitation/Rainfall
Precipitation occurs when the energy of the sun heats the earth’s surface and
causes water to evaporate in the form of water vapour. The warm moist air rises
and cools with height. The air reaches a point called condensation level where
it has cooled and turn back to liquid form. This process of condensation leads to
the development of clouds. As the cloud continue to grow the weight of the water
droplets can eventually lead to precipitation.
Intensity of rainfall is a measure of the amount of rain that falls over time. It is
measured in the height of the water layer covering the ground in a period of time.
This means that if the rain stays where it falls, a water layer of certain height is
formed. Example. 30 millimeters of rain fell today or 20 millimeters in two hours.
The intensity of rainfall depends on the local circumstances. Generally, low
intensity is 2 millimeters of rain in a day while high intensity may be 30
millimeters an hour. High intensity rainfall on steep slopes lead to flash floods
while in flat areas it may result to ponding or urban flooding. There are two ways
to measure rainfall intensity, namely:
i) Rain Gauge is the conventional instrument used to measure rainfall
by measuring the height of rainfall collected in calibrated cylinder after
every hour. It is a simple collector, inexpensive, no big maintenance
and does not require electricity.
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Figure 10. Non-recording Rain Gauge
ii) Absorption of wave and microwave signal is a more sophisticated

technique in measuring rainfall intensity. It measure absorption of
signal in dB and on the basis computes error free rainfall
measurements. The accuracy is higher and rainfall intensity is
expressed as mm/hr.
Importance of Rainfall Data
Information on the amount of rainfall is beneficial to keep the life of biosphere
healthy and people could plan on the activities for the day. A detailed knowledge
of a rainfall regime at a place is an important prerequisite in planning, agriculture,
disaster management and other activities in the biosphere.
i) Agriculture
Rainfall data is important in agricultural planning and management. It is also
very useful to schedule the planting and harvest period. In addition, rainfall
is the single most important agro-meteorological variable that influence crop
production.
ii) Forecasting weather patterns and trends
It is important to determine the upcoming weather in order to be able to plan
outdoor activities. Rainfall data over time is very useful because it will provide
information on the amount of rainfall on specific time of the year.
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iii) Regional and Urban Planning

Rainfall data is an important information needed in township planning. It is
critical information in identifying what infrastructure should be constructed in
particular area of the region. It will aid government planners is designing the
best land use.
iv) Disaster and Risk Management
In general, large rainfall data could be useful in visualizing, analysing and
predicting natural disaster. Specifically it could aid the identification of
population hot-spot, forecasting ground activity, revealing new opportunities
for relief and rescue and share data to benefit other communities.
2. Atmospheric Temperature
The Earth’s orbit around the sun keeps the planet at an ideal distance where
temperatures support liquid water on the surface to maintain life. The earth’s
temperature ranges 1,500 degrees Celsius in the uppermost atmosphere to a
global average temperature of 15 degrees Celsius near the surface.
The atmosphere of the earth are divided into five distinct layers as discussed in
lesson 2. These are protective layers from ultraviolet radiation, thus keeping the
surface of the earth habitable thru the greenhouse effect and provide the
necessary oxygen to breathe.
The temperature of the different layers is summarized in Table 3.

Table 3. Temperature of different layer of atmosphere
Atmospheric layer Temperature, (degrees Celsius)
Troposphere 15 to -60 (at the boundary)
Stratosphere -51 to -15 (at the top)
Mesosphere -15 to -120 (upper boundary)
Thermosphere -120 to 2,000 (upper boundary)
Exosphere 1,500
Effects of Temperature on Living Organisms

Temperature has been found to affect the living organisms in many ways. It has
significant role on the cells, morphology, physiology, behaviour, growth,
ontogenic development and distribution of plants and animals.
i) Temperature and cell
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According to Lewis and Taylor (1967) as cited by Puja Mondal (online article),
the minimum and maximum temperature have lethal effects on the cells and their
components. If it is too cold, cell proteins might be destroyed as ice forma, or as
water is lost and electrolytes become concentrated in the cells. Heat coagulates
proteins.
ii) Temperature and metabolism
Metabolic activities of microbes, plants and animals are influenced by
temperature. Increased in temperature caused the increased in enzymatic
activity resulting in an increased rate of metabolism. At low temperature the rate
of metabolism decreased and in the case of plants, absorption rate is retarded.
Low temperatures further affect plant by precipitating the protein in the leaves
and tender twigs thereby dehydrating the tissues.
iii) Temperature and reproduction
The maturation of gonads, gametogenesis and liberation of gametes takes place
at a certain temperature which varies from among species. For example, some
species breed uniformly throughout the year, some only in summer or winter,
while some species have two breeding periods – one in spring and other in fall.
Temperature determines the breeding seasons of most organisms.
iv) Temperature and growth
The growth rates of different plants and animals are influenced by temperature.
For example, adult Trout does not feed much and do not grow until the water
temperature is warmer than 10°C. An oyster (Ostrea virginica) increased in body
length from 1.4 mm to 10.3 mm when the temperature is increased from 10°C
to 20°C. Corals flourish well in waters with temperature below 21°C.
v) Temperature and animal distribution
Temperature imposes restriction on the distribution of species because the
optimum temperature for the completion of the several stages of the life cycle of
many organisms varies. Generally the range of many species is limited by the
lowest critical temperature in the most vulnerable stage of its life cycle, usually,
the reproductive stage. Like for example, Atlantic lobster will live in water with a
temperature range of 0°C to 17°C, it will breed only in water warmer than 11°C.
vi) Temperature and moisture
The differential heating of the atmosphere resulting from temperature variation
over the earth’s surface produces a number of ecological effects, including local
and trade winds and hurricanes and storms, but more importantly, temperature
determines the distribution of precipitation.
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3. Humidity
Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapor divided by the mass of dry air in a
volume of air at a given temperature. The hotter the air, the more water it can
contain. Absolute humidity is expressed in terms of grams of moisture per cubic
meter of air (g/cm3).
Relative humidity is the most common measure of humidity. It is the ratio
between the current absolute humidity to the highest possible absolute humidity
depending on the current air temperature. Relative humidity of 100 per cent
means that the air is totally saturated with water vapor and cannot hold anymore,
thus creating the possibility of rain. However, this does not mean that relative
humidity must be 100 per cent in order to rain – it must be 100 per cent where
the clouds are forming.
Humans are very sensitive to humidity because the skin relies on the air to get
rid of the moisture. The process of sweating is the body’s way keeping cool and
maintain the current temperature. If the relative humidity of the air is 100 per
cent, sweat will not evaporate into the air lead up to feeling much hotter than the
actual temperature. It the relative humidity is low, the feeling of much cooler than
the actual temperature because the sweat evaporates easily, cooling one’s
body. People tend to feel most comfortable at a relative humidity of between 30
and 50 per cent.
Humidity also affects plant turgor pressure, which is an indicator of the amount
of water in plant cells. When humidity is low, moisture evaporates from plants
quickly causing it to wilt. On the other hand, when humidity and temperature are
both high, plants can get overheated because the transpiration is reduced,
restricting evaporative cooling. Further, humidity influences plant diseases,
especially fungi and molds. Fungi and molds spread rapidly in high humidity.
4. Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted on a surface by the air above. It is
commonly measured using a barometer and expressed as atmosphere (atm).
One unit of atmosphere is equal to the average air pressure at sea level at a
temperature of 15°C. One atmosphere is equal to 1,013 millibars or 760
millimeters of mercury (mm/Hg).
Atmospheric pressure drops as altitudes increases. For example, the
atmospheric pressure in Denali, Alaska which is the highest peak in North
America is about half that of Honolulu Hawaii which is located at sea level. As
the pressure decreases, the amount of oxygen available to breath also
decreases. At very high altitudes, atmospheric pressure and available oxygen
get so low which is detrimental to survival of humans.
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Atmospheric pressure is an indicator of weather. When a low-pressure system

moves into an area, it usually leads to cloudiness, wind and precipitation. High-
pressure systems usually lead to fair, calm weather.
 Application
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. Why do your ears pop in airplanes?
2. What is the effect of solid wastes dumped into natural bodies of water to
the hydrologic or water cycle?
3. During dry season or drought, cloud seeding is practiced in order to
induce precipitation. This is done by introducing salt into the atmosphere
to attract water droplets and form clouds.
In your opinion, do you think cloud seeding is a good practice? Why and
why not? Cite at least 1 example to support your answer,
 Closure (Link to the next lesson for continuity)

This lesson completes the modules on the fundamentals of Environmental
Science. Topics discussed were the physical components of the environment
which affects the functioning of the biosphere and the lives of living things.
However, there some reactions within the physical system of the biosphere
needed to be understood which will be discussed in the succeeding module.
Module Summary
The lessons in module 1 gives the students idea on the fundamentals of

environmental science. It discussed the basic principles and scope of
environmental science. Topics included are the structure and composition of the
different geosphere on the earth surface and meteorological parameters
affecting life in the biosphere. The interaction of these parameters and the
geosphere are discusses in the succeeding modules.
Module Assessment
To evaluate the learning of the students, at the end of the module, the students
are required to submit all activities, analysis and application questions of every
lesson. In addition, the students are required to submit a journal of what they
learned and make suggestions to enhance the coverage of the module.
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MODULE 2
Environmental Chemistry
Module Overview
The environment is an interaction between the living and living things inside the
biosphere. Different interactions produce effects that are either favorable or
detrimental to living. One of the interactions happening involves chemistry. This
module introduces the students to the different basic concepts of chemistry
relevant to environmental science.
Module Outcome
At the end of the module, the students are able to

i) discuss and understand the different chemical reactions happening in
the environment
ii) understand the effect of these reactions to the living organisms
iii) Determine some reactions that have negative effects to life.
Lesson 1
Lesson Title: Fundamental of Chemistry – classification of elements and

chemical reactions
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

i) Understand and Discuss the different classification of elements in
the periodic table
ii) Understand the different chemical reactions
Time Frame: 5 hours
Introduction:
Elements are naturally occurring in nature. For better understanding of the

different properties of elements and predict its reactivity, these are classified into
groups and families. This lesson will discuss the classification of elements and
different chemical reactions.
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 Activity
Using the periodic table above, kindly answer the following questions:
i) Which group of elements are very reactive?
ii) Which group of elements are non-reactive?
iii) What do you call the elements shaded with yellow green?
 Analysis
1. Using the periodic table, kindly discuss if the elements follow a certain
pattern.
2. Why the modern periodic table used atomic number and not atomic mass?
3. Think of the reaction of iron and oxygen in the atmosphere. What is the
product called? List at least three effects of the reaction.
 Abstraction
1. Classification of Elements
Elements are the building blocks of matter around us. There are about 114
naturally occurring elements. And from time to time, new elements are
discovered either in nature or by chemical reactions which brought to light, many
properties of objects around us. As the number of known elements increases,
the difficulty to study each and every element in individual terms also increased.
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It is sensible and practical to categorize the elements into groups and sub-
groups to efficiently understand its character and behavior.
History of Periodic Table

Periodic table is the arrangement of elements developed by Dmitri Mendeleev.
However, before the periodic table of Mendeleev was adopted, several chemists
attempted to arrange the elements for ease of study.
i) Doberiener’s Triads
The German chemist, Johann Dobereiner in 1800 first observed the similarities
in the elements on the basis of their properties. These groups consisted of three
elements (triads) which have similar chemical and physical properties. In every
group, the atomic weight of the middle element was half the sum of the atomic
weight of the other two elements. Properties of the middle element were also at
the halfway of the other elements. Dobereiner called this grouping method as
law of triads. Later it was found that this law was not rue for every element and
hence not accepted.
Element Atomic Wt Element Atomic Wt Element Atomic Wt

Li 7 Ca 40 Cl 35.3
Na 23 Sr 88 Br 80
K 39 Ba 137 I 127
ii) Newland’s Octave

In 1865, an English chemist in the person of John Alexander Newland developed
the law of octaves in which the elements were arranged in ascending order of
the atomic weights. Newland claimed that every eight element in a row has
similar properties to that of the first element of the same row, depicting the
octaves of music. This law was dismissed because it was only true for elements
up to calcium.
Element Li Be B C N O F
Atomic weight 7 9 11 12 14 16 19
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Atomic weight 23 24 27 29 31 32 35.5
Element K Ca
Atomic weight 39 40
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iii) Mendeleev Periodic Table

The real development of the periodic table was in 1869 by a Russian chemistry
professor Dmitri Mendeleev. Mendeleev arranged the elements in periods
(horizontal rows) and groups (vertical columns) in the increasing order of atomic
weights. The vertical columns consists of elements that have similar properties.
He gave a law which states that “The properties of an element are periodic
function of their atomic masses.” This arrangement of the elements is called
periodic table.
Although the periodic table proposed by Dmitri Mendeleev was adopted, it has
limitations. These are:
a. It did not provide a clear idea about the structure of an atom.
b. In order to arrange the elements in group, the order of atomic
weights were reversed.
The Modern Periodic Table
In contrast with the version of Mendeleev, the modern or long form of the periodic
table is based on the atomic numbers. The elements are arranged according to
increasing atomic numbers. This arrangement is called the modern periodic law.
The modern periodic table consists of 18 vertical columns and 7 horizontal rows.
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Groups in the Modern Periodic Table

 Groups are the vertical columns in the modern periodic table.
 There are 18 groups.
 These groups are numbered from 1 to 18.
 Each group consists of elements having the same outer shell electronic
configuration.
i) Periods in the modern periodic table

 Periods are the horizontal rows.
 There are seven (7) periods.
 These are numbered 1 to 7 from top to bottom
 The first period consists of only two (2) elements – hydrogen and helium
 While the 2nd and 3rd periods has eight (8) elements each
 The 4th and 5th periods have 18 elements each
 The 6th period has 32 elements
 The 7th period has now 32 elements with the addition of the four new
elements namely;113 – Nihonium, 115 – Moscovium, 117 – Tennesine,
and 118 Oganesson.
 The modern periodic table has two (2) separate panels at the bottom.
These consist of 14 elements of the 6th period called lanthanoids and 14
elements in the 7th periods called actinoids.
 Each period represents the number of shells or energy levels present in
an atom of an element.
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ii) Cause of periodicity in the modern periodic table

 The cause of periodicity in properties is the repetition of similar outer
electronic configuration after certain regular intervals. For example, all the
elements of group 1 (alkali metals) have a similar outer electronic
configuration, ns1. The n refers to the Principal Quantum Number of the
outermost shell
 The elements in group 17 have similar outer electronic configuration,
ns2np5, hence have similar properties. These group of elements are
called Halogens.
 Elements of group 18 have an outer electronic configuration of ns2np6.
These elements have filled orbitals and comprise the non-reactive
elements called inert gases.
 Elements in a group have similar properties to those of all the other
members of the same group because these have similar electronic
configuration of the outer shell.
2. Chemical Reaction
Chemical reaction is a pathway by which two or more substances bond together
to form a new substance. Chemical reactions happen all around us – when we
light a match, start a car, eat dinner or walk a dog. To write a chemical reaction,
the reactants are placed in the right side of the equation and the products are in
the left side of the equation.
H2 + O2 H2O
Chemical equation does not represent a complete chemical reaction unless it is

balanced. A balanced chemical reaction has equal number of atoms in both
sides of the equation. Balancing coefficients are placed in front of the substances
which indicate the number of molecules that participate in the reaction.
2H2 + O2 2H2O
All chemical reactions are accompanied by a change in energy. Some reactions

release energy to their surroundings in the form of heat. This reaction is called
exothermic. For example, when sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium
chloride, heat energy is given off to the surrounding in the form of flames. Other
reactions need heat energy in order to proceed. These reactions are called
endothermic. A good example of an endothermic reaction is that which takes
place inside of an instant '"cold pack." Commercial cold packs usually consist of
two compounds - urea and ammonium chloride in separate containers within a
plastic bag. When the bag is bent and the inside containers are broken, the two
compounds mix together and begin to react. Because the reaction is
endothermic, it absorbs heat from the surrounding environment and the bag gets
cold.
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There are five types of chemical reactions – synthesis reaction (combination),

single replacement, double replacement, decomposition and the combustion.
Synthesis
Synthesis reaction happens when two or more substances combine to form one
(1) new substance. This is represented by the following equation.
A + B AB
A and B represents the reacting substances while AB is the resulting new

substance. For example:
1. 4Al + 3Br2 2Al2Br3
2. 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
3. 2Zn + O2 2ZnO
Single Replacement
Single-replacement reaction takes place when one element replaces a similar

element in the compound. It is represented by the following equation;
AB + C AC + B
In this reaction, the element that displaces another element in the compound is
more reactive than the one that will be displaced. Examples of single-
replacement reaction are:
1. Fe2O3 + 2Al Al2O3 + 2Fe
2. 2AgNO3 + Cu Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag
Double Replacement
Double replacement reaction involves the exchange of ions in a compound in an

aqueous solution to form two new compounds. It is being represented by the
following equation;
AB + CD AC + BD
The following are examples of double replacement reaction.
1. NaOH + HCl NaCl + H20
2. 2KI + Pb(NO3)2 Pb(I)2 + 2KNO3
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3. NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3
Decomposition
Decomposition involves the breaking of a compound into two or more simple

substances. It is the opposite of the combination reaction. It is represented by
the following equation:
AB A + B
One typical example of decomposition reaction is the hydrolysis of water. When
direct current is passed through water it decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen,
to wit;
2H2O 2H2 + O2
Combustion
The last reaction is the combustion. In a combustion reaction, a substance

combines with oxygen, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of light
and heat. For organic compounds, like hydrocarbons, the products of the
combustion reaction are water and carbon dioxide. For example, when methane
gas is made to react with oxygen, the products are water and carbon dioxide.
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
Other examples of combustion reaction are the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen
to form water vapor and reactions of various substances such as magnesium,
white phosphorous and sulfur with oxygen. All these combustion reactions are
exothermic.
 Application
Using the periodic table, answer the following:
1. What are the four types of elements? Give 3 examples for each type.
2. What are the three (3) main classes of elements? Give 3 examples
each.
3. What is the basic difference in approach between the Mendeleev’s and
the modern periodic law?
4. What type of reaction is involved when Group 1A will react with
elements in Group 7A? Give example of this type of chemical reaction.
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 Closure
All matters is composed of chemical elements, and all things happening in the
biosphere involves chemical reactions. Knowledge on the fundamentals of
environmental chemistry will lead you better appreciation to what is ozone and
other concepts that are important in environmental balance.
Lesson 2
Lesson Title: Oxygen and Ozone Chemistry and the concepts of dissolved
oxygen, biological oxygen demand, and pH
Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the students are able to:
i) Discuss oxygen chemistry and principle behind ozone

formation; and
ii) Understand the concepts of BOD, DO and pH and their
importance to environmental science
Time Frame: 5 hours
Introduction:
This lesson will discuss the chemistry of oxygen and ozone. The importance of
oxygen to living organisms and how ozone is formed. It will also discuss some
important environmental concepts such as dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen
demand and pH.
 Activity
Answer the following questions based on your previous knowledge:
1. What is ozone and ozone layer?
2. What is ozone layer depletion?
3. What are the effects of oxygen depletion in water ecosystem?
 Analysis
Think about this:
1. Why is the ozone hole over Antarctica and not over Australia?
2. How can chlorine atom in the stratosphere interfere with the ozone
cycle?
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 Abstraction
1. Oxygen and Ozone Chemistry

Ozone is a minor component of the earth’s atmosphere. Its concentration is
about 0.02 – 0.1 ppm based on volume. Though it is a minor component it plays
a significant role in sustaining life on the earth. Ozone absorbs the ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun thereby reduces the UV radiation levels reaching the
earth’s surface. UV radiation can cause damage to plant and animal life.
Since 1970s, the levels of atmospheric ozone had significantly decreased. The
drop in ozone levels coincide the increase in the incidence of skin cancer, eye
cataracts in humans and DNA damage to plant and marine life. Due to the
environmental significance of ozone, the chemistry of atmospheric ozone and
ozone depletion has been the subject of many research and discussions.
Formation of Atmospheric Ozone

The mechanism for the formation of atmospheric ozone and destruction from
oxygen species was suggested by Chapman in 1930. This called the Chapman
mechanism. The reaction are as follows:
O2 + hv 2O k1(S-1)
O + O2 + M O3 + M k2 (cm6molecule-2S-1)
O3 + hv O + O2 k3 (S-1)
O + O3 2 O2 k4 (cm3 molecules-1S-1)
M is any non-reactive species that can take up the energy released in reaction
(2) to stabilize O3. O3 is not a very stable molecule and (without the presence M)
the O3 formed by the collision of O2 and O would immediately fall apart to give
back O and O2. Given that N2 and O2 are the major components in the
atmosphere, hence, M is either O2 or N2. The constants k1 and k3 depend on the
light intensity, which is the light intensity of the sun.
Order of Reaction
The reaction under Chapman’s mechanisms follows the following order: reaction
(1) is the first order kinetic reaction, reaction (2) third order kinetics, reaction (3)
follows the first order kinetics and reaction (4) follows second order kinetics. Note
that reaction (2) requires three (3) species to come together at the same time,
i.e. it is termolecular reaction. It can be seen that the relative concentration of
species at the atmosphere, O2 and M (= O2 + N2) have much higher
concentration than O and O2, hence, can be considered to be constant over
time. Therefore, reaction (1) obey zero order kinetics (a “pseudo” zero reaction)
and reaction (2) obey first order kinetics (a “pseudo” first order reaction).
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Sources of Free Oxygen
Free oxygen is the precursor to ozone. The sources of free oxygen are in the
stratosphere and troposphere.
Stratosphere. In the stratosphere, there is plenty light from the sun, UV photons
below 242 nm cause photochemical reaction liberating free oxygen. The reaction
is as follows:
O2 + hv O + O
The amount of UV light is strongly dependent on the season, latitude, and

altitude. The season and latitude determine length-of-day light and solar zenith
angle. The solar zenith angle determines the depth of the penetration of the UV
through absorbing O2 layers. The greatest photochemical O production occurs
where the greatest amount of sunlight per unit area (solar radiance) reaches the
earth. Annual averaged O production happened at the equator. During summer,
increase in length-of-day makes peak O production at high altitudes.
Troposphere. Virtually, all of the O2 – dissociating UV radiation is depleted above

30 km. In the lower stratosphere and in the troposphere, ozone is produced at
nearly the same rate due to the depletion of new free oxygen. A key source of
O in the polluted troposphere (and a minor source in the stratosphere) comes
from the photochemical dissociation of NO2 by photons below 420 nm, which is
plentiful throughout the atmosphere. The reaction of the dissociation of NO2 is
as follows:
NO2 + hv NO + O
Variation of Ozone Concentration with Latitude

Various studies revealed that the concentration of ozone increases with altitude.
So ozone level is higher in the upper atmosphere, the stratosphere than in the
lower atmosphere and the troposphere. This is good for life on the earth since
this means that the harmful UV radiation is attenuated by ozone absorption far
from the earth’s surface.
2. Concept of Dissolved Oxygen, Biological Oxygen Demand and pH

Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is a measure of the amount of oxygen dissolved in water. It is
the amount of oxygen available to living aquatic organisms. The amount of into
streams dissolved oxygen in body of water can tell a lot about its water quality.
Although water molecules contain oxygen atom, this oxygen atom is not
available for use by aquatic organisms living in natural waters.
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Oxygen that enters into the water body from the atmosphere and in areas where
groundwater discharge are dissolved. This dissolved oxygen is needed by fish
and zooplankton for survival. The amount of dissolved oxygen in rapidly moving
rivers, and streams is higher compared to stagnant water. This because, rapid
moving bodies of water can arrest atmospheric oxygen better than stagnant
water.
Bacteria in water consumes dissolved oxygen as organic matter decays, hence
it can cause depletion of dissolved oxygen level and render the river or streams
eutrophic and eventually die. Aquatic organisms in eutrophic condition will have
difficulty to survive. Dissolve oxygen is inversely proportional to temperature.
The level of dissolved oxygen in water with high temperature is lower than at low
temperature. This means that during summer and calm weather likelihood of fish
kill is high. Dissolved oxygen in surface water is used by all forms of aquatic life,
therefore it is a measure to assess the “health” of the water bodies.
Photosynthesis is the primary process affecting the dissolved
oxygen/temperature relation; water clarity and strength and duration of sunlight
affect the rate of photosynthesis.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Microorganisms such as bacteria are responsible for decomposing organic
waste. When organic matter such as dead plants, leaves, grass clippings,
manure, sewage, or even food waste is present in a water supply, the bacteria
will begin the process of breaking down this waste. When this happens, much of
the available dissolved oxygen is consumed by aerobic bacteria, robbing other
aquatic organisms of the oxygen they need to live.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen used by

microorganisms to decompose this waste. If there is a large quantity of organic
waste in the water supply, there will also be a lot of bacteria present working to
decompose this waste. In this case, the demand for oxygen will be high (due to
all the bacteria) so the BOD level will be high. As the waste is consumed or
dispersed through the water, BOD levels will begin to decline. Generally, when
BOD levels are high, there is a decline in DO levels. This is because the demand
for oxygen by the bacteria is high and they are taking that oxygen from the
oxygen dissolved in the water. If there is no organic waste present in the water,
there won't be as many bacteria present to decompose it and thus the BOD will
tend to be lower and the DO level will tend to be higher. At high BOD levels,
organisms such as macro invertebrates that are more tolerant of lower dissolved
oxygen (i.e. leeches and sludge worms) may appear and become numerous.
Organisms that need higher oxygen levels (i.e. caddisfly larvae and mayfly
nymphs) will NOT survive.
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pH
pH is universally used to express the intensity of the acid or alkaline condition of
a solution. It is a way of expressing the hydrogen ion concentration of water or
solution. Expression of hydrogen ion in terms of molar concentration is
cumbersome. In 1909, Sorenson proposed to express pH values in terms of their
negative logarithm. The term is represented by the following:
pH = -log [H+] or pH = log 1/[H+]
The pH scale is represented below as ranging from 0 – 14, with pH 7

representing absolute neutrality.
Acid range Alkaline range
0 7 14
Acid condition increases as pH value decreases and alkaline condition increase
as pH value increase. pH 7 has little significance as a reference in water
chemistry and therefore is of little importance in sanitary engineering practice.
The hydrogen electrode is the standard for measuring pH. pH is usually

measured in-situ.
pH data is interpreted in terms of hydrogen ion concentration, which, is a

measure of the intensity of acid or basic condition. pH does not measure total
acidity or total alkalinity. For example, the pH of N/10 of sulfuric and acetic acid
s compared. The pH of N/10 sulfuric acid is 1 because it ha a high degree of
ionization while the pH of N/10 acetic acid is 3 because it ha a low degree of
ionization.
pH is very important in environmental engineering practice. In the field of water

supply, pH is a factor that must be considered in chemical coagulation,
disinfection, water softening and corrosion control. In sewage and industrial
waste treatment employing biological processes, pH must be controlled within a
range favorable to the particular organisms involved. Chemical processes used
to coagulate sewage or industrial wastewater sludge or oxidize certain
substances such as cyanide ion, require that the pH be controlled within narrow
limits.
Equally important is the pOH of a solution. pOH is calculated from the pH using
the following relationship
pH + pOH = 14
pOH = 14 – pH
Hydroxyl ion concentration of a solution can never be reduced to zero no matter

how acid the solution is. Similarly, hydrogen ion concentration can never be
reduced to zero no matter how alkaline a solution becomes.
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Concepts of hydroxyl-ion concentration are of particular importance in

precipitation reactions involving the formation of hydroxides like for example the
precipitation of Mg++ in water softening using lime and n chemical coagulation
processes employing iron and aluminum salts.
 Application
Answer the following questions briefly:
1. Explain why the concentration of ozone varies with altitude.
2. Explain why the formation of O3 behaves as a pseudo first order reaction.
3. Why dissolved oxygen in water is low during summer?
 Closure
This lesson discussed different concepts such as ozone, BOD, DO and pH which
are very important in the study of environmental science and in understanding
toxic chemicals.
Lesson 3
Lesson Title: Toxic Chemicals
Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to
discuss toxic chemicals, its nature and importance.
Time Frame: 5 hours
Introduction:
Toxic chemicals are not new concepts. Lots of articles and studies about toxic
chemicals – types, its harmful effects and occurrence. Toxic chemicals are
around us. These are found at home, at work, anywhere. Despite the adverse
effects of toxic chemicals, why the government allowed the production and use
of these products. This lesson will provide the students with knowledge on the
nature of toxic chemicals and possible ways to mitigate adverse effects.
 Activity
Draw floor plans of your homes and indicate where and what types of hazardous
products that can be found in every part of your home
 Analysis
1. List five (5) toxic chemicals found in:

a. Your home
b. In the grocery
c. In nature
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2. From the list of toxic chemicals identified, choose one (1) chemical from
each source and discuss why these chemicals you considered as toxic?
And why we continue to use it?
 Abstraction
Toxic chemicals as defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency or EPA
as any substance which may be harmful to the environment or hazardous to
human health if inhaled, ingested, or absorbed through the skin. No one is “for”
toxic chemicals in the sense of wanting to endanger ourselves and others, but
many toxic substances seems to be necessary part of our lives and have to be
considered as essential in our homes, workplaces and schools. The
predicament of needing substances that sometimes produce undesirable effects
forces people to make choices about what is acceptable and what is not
acceptable.
Toxic chemicals have the following harmful properties:
 Toxic chemicals are persistent and very bio-accumulative which
breakdown slowly or not at all, and accumulate in the bodies of living
organisms;
 These are endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) which interfere with the
hormone systems of animals and humans;
 These chemicals can cause cancer, reproductive problems or damage
DNA.
Types of Toxic Chemicals
i) Natural toxic chemicals
Many toxic chemicals occur in nature. For example, plants produce toxic
chemicals to protect themselves from pests. Animals produce toxins for
protection and to capture prey. In other cases, toxic chemicals are simply by-
product of metabolism. Some natural elements are toxic. Examples of natural
toxic chemicals are: mercury, caffeine in coffee, tea, kola or cocoa, arsenic,
ricin from castor beans, petroleum, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine gas and
smoke.
ii) Home products
Many useful household products contain toxic chemicals. While these
chemicals may be useful and necessary, it is important to remember these
should be disposed of according to instruction on the packaging. Common
examples of household products that are toxic include: drain cleaner, laundry
detergent, furniture polish, pesticides, gasoline, ammonia, toilet bowl
cleaner, rubbing alcohol bleach and battery acid.
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iii) Industrial and occupational toxic

The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has
identified several chemicals considered as highly hazardous and toxic. Some
of these are laboratory reagents while are commonly used in industries and
trades. Some pure elements are included. Some examples are:
acetaldehyde, acetone, acrolein, bromine, chlorine, cyanogen, isopropyl
alcohol, L-limonene, 35% hydrogen peroxide.
Exposure, symptoms and treatment

There are several different ways that living animals and human can be exposed
to these chemicals, and these routes of exposure include:
i) Ingestion – swallowing of chemical
ii) Inhalation – breathing in the fumes of a chemical
iii) Skin/eye contact – splashing or spraying of chemical onto the skin or
into the eyes.
There are two (2) types of toxic chemical exposure, namely; acute and chronic.
Acute chemical exposure is short term lasting anywhere from seconds to hours
at a time. Health effects show up immediately or soon after the exposure which
can range from minor irritations to more serious impacts such as eye damage or
loss of consciousness. Chronic exposure, on the other hand, refers to continued
or repeated exposure of toxic substance over a long period of time (months or
years). The effects of chronic exposure can take years to become apparent and
are, in many instances, permanent. Some chemicals may cause both acute and
chronic symptoms. For example, exposure to a vapour may make you
immediately dizzy (an acute effect), while over the long term it could cause liver
damage (a chronic effect).
The symptoms of chemical exposure is dependent on the type of chemical. For
example, exposure to harmful chemicals on the skin will cause burning pain and
possible skin breakdown. Inhalation of a harmful gas may cause coughing,
difficulty in breathing and possible lung tissue damage. Ingestion of a chemical
may nausea, vomiting and stomach pains. It should be noted that inhalation and
ingestion of harmful chemicals are more severe than skin exposure because it
can result to life threatening damage to internal organs.
Likewise, treatment varies depending on the type of chemical and exposure.
However, one of the most important things to do when a person is exposed to
harmful chemicals is to remove that person from exposure. It is also important
to call 911 and/or poison control especially when the chemicals are inhaled or
ingested. Some of the common treatment based on the type of exposure are as
follows:
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i) Eyes – flush the eyes out with cool running water for at least 15 – 20
minutes
ii) Skin – remove any clothing that was also exposed to the chemical.
Flush exposed area with cool running water for at least 15 – 20
minutes
iii) Inhalation – provide oxygen via an oxygen mask
iv) Ingestion – call 911 and or poison control. Medical professionals in
these locations will be able to provide detailed instruction based on
the type and amount of chemical ingested. It is NOT
RECOMMENDED to induce vomiting.
 Application
Answer the following questions briefly.
a. Are all chemicals toxic?
b. Discuss what is safe storage?
c. How can these hazardous wastes be safely disposed?
 Closure
Toxic substances are already part of our daily existence. This lesson raised the
awareness of the students on the risks of common household substances and
natural substances that are harmful to human health in addition to the industrial
chemicals.
Module Summary:
This module deals with the chemicals, how these chemicals are formed, how
these are introduced into the environment and these chemicals change after
being released to the environment. Toxic chemicals were also discussed –
symptoms, effects and treatments. Release of chemicals to the environment
influences the distribution of the living things which will be discussed in the next
module.
Module Assessment
lesson. In addition, the students are required to submit a journal of what they
learned and make suggestions to enhance the coverage of the module.
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Module 3
Environmental Biology
Module Overview
This module will discuss the interactions between species in an ecosystems and
deals with the impacts of human activities on the ecosystems. Topics include:
i) Basic ecosystem classification’ types of ecosystem and ecosystem

structure.
ii) Biomes : concept, classification and distribution
iii) Biodiversity and conservation
Module Outcomes:
At the end of the module, the students will be able to:
i) Understand how ecosystems are organized and learn the different

classification of ecosystem;
ii) Understand the concept of biomes; and
iii) Discuss biodiversity and conservation
Lesson 1
Lesson Title: Ecosystem: Classification, Types, Structure and Structure
Learning Outcomes: Understand the organization and classification of

ecosystem
Time Frame: 5 hours
Introduction:
Ecosystem is a part of natural environment consisting of a community of living

beings and the physical environment both constantly interacting and
interchanging materials and energy in between. It is the sum total of the
environment. Topics to be discussed in this lesson will be about ecosystems –
the different types and classification and its organization. The term ecosystem
was coined by British ecologist A.G. Tansley in 1935, from “eco” meaning
environment and “system” a complex coordinated units.
 Activity
Draw a typical freshwater ecosystem (lake or pond) and identify each part as
living things and non-living things.
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 Analysis
Using the drawn ecosystem, discuss the interaction of each part.
 Abstraction
1. Classification of Ecosystem
Ecosystems can generally be classified into two classes such as natural and
artificial. Artificial ecosystems are natural regions affected by man’s
interferences. They are artificial lakes, reservoirs, townships, and cities. Natural
ecosystems are basically classified into two major types - aquatic ecosystem
and terrestrial ecosystem.
Artificial Ecosystem
An artificial ecosystem meets all the criteria of a natural ecosystem but it is made
and controlled by human. It is created to mimic a natural ecosystem but often is
less complex and with a very low genetic diversity. Some examples of artificial
ecosystem are orchards, farmlands, garden and man-made lakes.
The major characteristics of artificial ecosystem are:
i) Diversity is lesser compared to natural systems. Unfavorable and less
favored species are likely to taper slowly.
ii) It is pragmatic with defined goals. Artificial systems are more fragile
and are more vulnerable to failure due to lack of diversity and strong
self-regulatory systems which is a characteristics of the natural
systems.
iii) Artificial ecosystems are more productive from anthropocentric
perspective. Land yield with improve cultivation techniques, cloning
techniques, milk yield with recent animal husbandry practices are
examples of enhancing productivity of natural processes with human
interventions.
iv) Artificial ecosystem with improvement in design can enhance
sustenance capacity of population in a given space and enable the
expansion of human habitat into ocean, outer space and subterranean
spaces.
v) Artificial ecosystems depend on natural cosmic laws. Man is only a
discoverer but not a maker of natural law. Artificial ecosystems are not
contradictions and negations of natural systems. It is only the
proportions and speeds of the ecological interactions that can be
meddled with, for man’s advantage.
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Natural Ecosystem
Natural ecosystem is a community of living and non-living entities and occurs
freely in nature. Every component interacts together as a combined unit through
physical, chemical and biological processes. Natural ecosystem is further
classified into aquatic and terrestrial.
Figure 1 Types of Natural Ecosystem
2. Types of Natural Ecosystem

The major types of natural ecosystem are forests, grasslands, desert, mountain,
freshwater and marine. Noteworthy to mention that within any ecosystem,
specific features vary widely like for example, an oceanic ecosystem in the
Caribbean Sea will contain different species than an oceanic ecosystem in the
Gulf of Alaska.
Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem located in a body of water. The nature and
characteristics of the communities of living or biotic organisms and non-living or
abiotic factors which interact and interrelate to one another are determined by
the aquatic surroundings of the environment. Aquatic ecosystem is broadly
categorized as marine and freshwater.
Marine ecosystem is the biggest of all ecosystems as all the ocean and their
parts are included. It contains salt marshes, intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons,
mangroves, coral reef, deep sea and the sea floor. It has a unique flora and
fauna, and supports a vast kingdom of species. These ecosystems are essential
for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial environments.
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Salt marshes, sea grass meadows and mangrove forests are among the most
productive ecosystems. Coral reef provides food and shelter to the highest
number of marine inhabitants. Marine ecosystem has a large biodiversity.
Freshwater ecosystem can be found in streams, rivers, spring, ponds, lakes,
bogs and freshwater swamp. It is subdivided into two (2) categories, namely:
those in stationary water, and in flowing waters. Freshwater ecosystems are
home to more not only to fish but also algae, plankton, insects, amphibians and
underwater plants. Plants and algae are important in freshwater ecosystem as
these provide oxygen through photosynthesis and food to the freshwater
animals. Freshwater ecosystem is very important for people as they provide
water for domestic use, energy, transportation, recreation, etc.
Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are found on land. Water maybe present in a terrestrial
ecosystem but these ecosystems are primarily situated on land. Terrestrial
ecosystems are distinguished from aquatic ecosystems by the lower availability
of water and the consequent importance of water as a limiting factor. These are
characterized by greater temperature fluctuations on both diurnal and seasonal
basis as compared to the aquatic ecosystems in similar climates. Availability of
light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems because the
atmosphere is more transparent on land than in water. Differences in
temperature and light in terrestrial ecosystems results to variation of flora and
fauna.
Forest ecosystems are classified according to type of climate such as tropical,
temperate and boreal. Tropical forest ecosystem also known as rainforest
ecosystems contain more diverse flora and fauna. Rainforests have are warm
and high moisture, if effect the trees are tall and the foliage is lush and dense,
with species inhabiting the forest floor all the way up to the canopy. In temperate
zones, forest ecosystems are composed of deciduous, coniferous trees or a
mixture of both in which some trees shed leaves during fall while other remain
evergreen year round.
Grassland ecosystem is characterized by mixed non-woody vegetation cover
and is dominated by grass or grass – like plants. The ecosystem is normally
found in areas that are too dry for forest but have enough soil water to support
closed herbaceous plant canopy, which cannot be found in deserts. Grasslands
occur mainly on plains or rolling topography in the interiors of expansive land
masses, and from sea level to altitudes of about 16,400 feet in the Andes. These
ecosystems are usually inhabited by grazing animals. Grassland is divided into
four categories:
1. Savannas which are found in the tropics
2. Prairies are located in temperate regions
3. Steppes are found in both tropics and temperate regions
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Desert ecosystem are characterized largely by relatively sparse vegetation.

Animal and insect population is also limited. In light of the fact that deserts are
not necessarily hot, There two (2) major types of desert ecosystems. These are:
1. Hot or subtropical desert ecosystem
2. Temperate or cold desert ecosystem
The temperate and sub-tropical ecosystems have different characteristics,
however the two bear some similarities. These similarities include the following:
a. Both receive less than 10 inches of rainfall annually.
b. Both are characterized by harsh living conditions, which affect people or
animal living there.
c. Dry air is found in both types of ecosystem.
d. Animals have adapted to the ecosystem condition as far as energy, food
consumption, and when to be active is concerned.
e. Plants have adapted to surviving with insufficient water and extreme
temperatures.
Mountain ecosystem also known as Tundra is found in polar region or on the
summit of high mountains. It is characterized by harsh living conditions since
this ecosystem is frozen and are covered by snow virtually throughout the year.
This condition is known as permafrost. During brief summer and spring, snows
could melt, producing shallow ponds that attract migrating fowl. The melting
snow also exposes lichens and small flowers. At lower latitudes, tundra-like
ecosystem, known as alpine tundra could be found in high altitudes.
3. Structure and Function of Ecosystem

The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the living
organisms interact with each other the surrounding environment. It is a chain of
interaction between organisms and their environment.
Structure of an ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is characterized by the organization of both biotic
and abiotic components including the energy distribution and the prevailing
climatic conditions. It has two main components, namely: biotic and abiotic. Both
biotic and abiotic components are interrelated. An ecosystem is considered an
open and a closed system. It is an open system because the energy can flow
throughout the boundaries while it is a closed system because material cycling
happens within the system. The Figure below illustrate the typical structure of
an ecosystem.
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Ecosystem
Abiotic Biotic Factors

Factors
Producers Consumers Decomposers
Primary Secondary Tertiary

Herbivores Carnivores Carnivores
Structure of an Ecosystem
Abiotic Components. Abiotic components are the non-living component of an

ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrient,
wind, altitude, climate, organic and inorganic elements, etc. The inorganic
elements and compounds found in the ecosystem consists of all nutrient such
as nitrates, phosphates and sulfates, water, carbon dioxide and oxygen, etc.
While the organic compounds that form part of the abiotic components are
largely the by products resulting from the different activities of organisms or their
death and decay. All inactive or dead organic matter and dissolved organic
matter are derived from either plants or animals.
Biotic Components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on feeding, the biotic
components can be classified into producers, consumers and decomposers.
Producers are also known as autotrophs which include all plants on the earth.
This biotic component is called autotrophs because of their ability to produce
foods through the process of photosynthesis. All living organisms higher up on
the food chain rely on producers for food.
Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that eat other organisms.

Consumers are further classified into:
a. Primary consumers are called the herbivores. This class of consumers
are plant eating organisms. They rely on producers for food like for
example cattle, sheep, goats, etc.
b. Secondary consumers depend on the primary consumers for energy.
They are also called carnivores because they feed on other animals like
tigers, vultures, etc.
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c. Omnivores are animals that have flexible food habit as they eat plants
and animals. Humans are good example of omnivores.
Decomposers are also known as saprotrophs. These are microscopic and are
heterotrophic in nature. Decomposer organisms obtain their energy and
nutrients by degrading dead organic matter. Examples are bacteria, fungi, etc.
Function of an Ecosystem
Although there are variations of the physical environment among different
ecosystem, ecologists have organized four (4) basic characteristics that are
common to any ecosystems. These are:
a. Links to other ecosystems. No ecosystem exists alone. All ecosystems
are interconnected via inputs and outputs that act as links. The outputs of
one ecosystem such as nutrients, gases, water, etc may be inputs to
another ecosystem in the same landscape. For example; a river receives
many inputs from the terrestrial ecosystem through which it flows.
b. Structural complexity. The structural complexity of an ecosystem is a
combination of many factors that include: species composition of plants,
animals and microbes; variation in the environmental factors such as
seasonal changes, tidal changes, nutrient levels, sediments, rainfall, etc.;
and presence of distinctive interacting habits within the ecosystem like
mangroves, sea, and grass beds etc.
c. Resilience. Resilience of an ecosystem is its ability to return to its original
state after being exposed to a stressful situation. Resilience is a common
feature in all ecosystem, but the degree of resilience depends on the
intensity of the stress to which the ecosystem is exposed.
d. Dynamic stability. Ecosystem are not static. It always undergo changes
and are termed as dynamic systems. Although changes take place very
often both in living and non-living factors, the natural ecosystem are
dynamically stable if their future states are determined by their current
state that is their internal characteristics with very few external influences
affecting their equilibrium.
Ecosystems are complex and dynamic system. It perform the following
functions:
a. Energy flow through food chain
b. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
c. Ecological succession or ecosystem development, and
d. Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms.
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 Application
1. What is the limiting factor in terrestrial ecosystem? In aquatic

ecosystems?
2. Discuss the similarities and differences of aquatic ecosystems and
terrestrial ecosystems.
3. Can you consider coral reef an ecosystem? Why?
4. Discuss and give example of ecological succession.
 Closure
This lesson discussed the ecosystem most specifically the classification,
structure and function which will guide the students to understand better why
different biomes exists in specific location on the earth surface.
Lesson 2
Lesson Title: Biomes: Concept, Classification and Distribution
Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to
discuss the concept, classification and distribution of biomes and be able to
apply the concept in research.
Time Frame: 5 hours
Introduction:
In ecosystem, organisms interact with each other and the physical environment
– light, air, temperature, etc. In certain geographic location, several ecosystems
group together and form one major unit of life. These major unit of life is being
characterized by the types of plants that inhabit on it and are structured in spatial
and temporal scales and are called biomes.
Biomes are a group of ecosystems sharing the same characteristics and are well
adapted to the prevailing abiotic factors. Any earth surface that has a very large
ecological system characterized by dominant forms of plant and animal life forms
adapted to the prevailing climate and other environmental factors is termed as a
biome. Biomes include both the abiotic and biotic factors.
 Activity
The Philippines is composed of different Islands with different climate. Draw at
least two terrestrial biomes – one from Mindanao and the other one either from
Luzon or Visayas.
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1. Identify the different ecosystems within the biome;

2. Identify the dominant tree species.
3. Describe the type of climate where the biome is found.
 Analysis
1. What are the differences between the two biomes you have drawn in
activity section of this lesson in terms of structure and biotic
composition?
2. Why the vegetation is the major structure that identify a biome?
3. Why climate is the major driving force in forming global biotic pattern?
 Abstraction
Concept of Biomes
Biome is a term coined by Frederick Clement (1916) to refer to a biotic
community in a large geographic scales, shaped by climatic factors and is
characterized by physiognomy and functional aspects rather than by species or
life-form composition. It is the totality of complex organisms inhabiting a given
region.
There are four (4) ideas that are considered as precursors to the concept of
biome. These are association, formation, biocenose and life zone. Association
is a term coined by Alexander von Humboldt (1805) who is a believer in “social
organized plant life”. It is a type of ecological community with a predictable
species composition and consistent physiognomy which occurs in a habitat type.
Formation is a term introduced by Grisebach in 1838 which is influential in
vegetation science and biogeography. It described the organization of plants as
a large-scale community. Biocenose is the term used by Mobius (1877) to
describe a community of living beings and a collection of species. The last idea
is on Life zone coined by Merriam (1892) to refer a spatially explicit relationship
between distribution of biota and climate.
There are several factors that form community pattern at large spatial scales. Of
these, macroclimate is the most important driving factor of biota at large scales.
Setting biotic interactions aside, soils and water availability govern the finer scale
of biome formation. Both soil and water create a series of filters, selecting for the
best-suited traits and trait syndrome that determine the vegetation physiognomy.
Macroclimate, soil, water and disturbance are the major factors influencing the
formation of biomes. Climate is the major factor that determines the pattern of
vegetation. Climate-based classification system of vegetation has been
developed to classify different biomes. This system is also used to understand
the global vegetation zonality. Vegetation is not a passive entity under the control
of the environment. Across spatial scales, feedbacks between vegetation and
climate, soils and disturbance regimes create new environments.
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These feedback, assisted by disturbance such as fire, mega-herbivore grazing,

create a potential for the emergence of multiple biome states that are stable over
a long period of time. Multiple stable state (MSS) implies that a system when
disturbed from one state to another does not return to original state once the
cause is removal, however, a second factor takes over and holds the system in
the new state for a long time.
The concept of a biome underwent an intricate scientific evolution, involving two
major streams namely: an ecological – dominated by development in community
ecology, and b) evolutionary – dominated by biogeographic ideas and tools.
Whichever streams it may be, biome is and remains a key community ecological
and biogeographical concept.
A biome is a multi-scale phenomenon, spanning several large-scale spatial
levels, including global climatic zones, continents and landscapes at sub-
continental and supra-regional scales. Vegetation-physiognomic aspects that
could represent multiple stable states are present in all scales. The patches of
biomes are linked by a common network of ecological processes that define the
selective pressures as macroclimatic, soil-related, hydrological and natural
large-scale disturbance factors and stressors. Biomes are basic building blocks
that make up the biosphere.
Distribution of Biomes
The distribution of biomes is defined on the basis of its characteristics – the
geographical conditions which influence the generation of flora and fauna
suitable for the habitat. The geographical factors influencing the ecosystem
balance and the formation of biomes are:
1. Latitude determines the amount of heat in a specific area due to the
proximity to the equator line. The closer the area is, the more heat there
will be.
2. Rainfall. The amount of rain that takes place in an area annually
determines whether it would be humid, semi-arid or arid.
3. Altitude determines the distance from the zone
Classification of Biomes
There are six major classifications of biomes. These are the desert, forest,
aquatic, tundra, grassland and chaparral or shrubland.
1. The desert biome
Desert biomes are the hot and dry areas of the world. These are the arid or
semi-arid lands with little or no vegetation. Deserts constitute about 20 per
cent of the earth’s total land cover characterized by little or no rainfall.
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The desert biomes are divided into four categories, namely; a) semi-arid
desert, b) hot and dry deserts. C) cold deserts, and d) coastal deserts. Desert
biomes experience very high temperature, less cloud cover, low humidity,
low atmospheric pressure and very little rain which produces little vegetation
cover. In addition, the soil cover is rocky and shallow with very low organic
matter content. Plants such as cacti and short shrubs are the vegetation
adapted to the conditions of deserts because these can conserve water and
tolerate high temperatures.
2. The forest biome

Approximately 30 per cent of the earth’s land cover is forest. Forests are very
valuable to various biological systems on earth. These are mainly composed
of trees and vegetation plantations that store carbon and have a feature of
controlling the earth’s climate. There are three (3) categories of forest biomes
– temperate forest, tropical forest and boreal forest. The temperature in the
forest is high throughout the year but the floor surfaces are cooler because it
receives very little sunlight. Tropical rainforests are characterized by tall trees
and dense vegetation. With high humidity and nutrient-rich soil. Examples of
vegetation of tropical forests are palms and ferns. In temperate forests, the
vegetation is less dense that allows sunlight to reach the forest floors. Elm
and willow are typical vegetation of temperate forest. The vegetation on
boreal forest are mainly conifers with needle shaped evergreen leaves and
the trees are the spruce and fir species.
3. The aquatic biome
Aquatic biomes refer to all the water bodies on the earth’s surface. These
constitute nearly 75 per cent of the total surface of the earth. These are
categorized into freshwater biomes and marine biomes. Freshwater biomes
include ponds, lakes, rivers, and wetlands, while the marine biomes are the
coral reefs, estuaries and the oceans. The aquatic life forms are influences
by the abiotic factors such as sunlight penetration in the waters, salt content,
temperature and pressure. The plant life in aquatic biomes is predominantly
planktons and algae.
4. The tundra biome
The Tundra biomes are the coldest of all the land biomes and are
characterized with very little biodiversity. The lands in tundra biomes are
barren due to very little rain and the freezing temperatures. The tundra biome
occupy about one-fifth of the earth’s land surface. The categories of tundra
biome are the Alpine tundra and the Arctic tundra. The tundra biomes are
located towards the poles of the earth which have very low temperatures.
The temperature ranges between 2 and 4 degrees Celsius during summer
and negative 35 degrees Celsius during winter. Melted permafrost and frozen
surface moisture are very common in these biomes.
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The vegetation cover in tundra biomes are short, very little and grow close to
each other. These plants are adapted to carry out photosynthesis in the
freezing conditions. Examples are lichens, mosses and heaths. The arctic
tundra biomes are found around the north-pole in the northern hemisphere
white the alpine tundra are distributes over the land with very cold locations
particularly mountain regions which are icy throughout the year. Alpine
tundra biomes have very little vegetation cover and very few trees.
5. The grassland biomes
Grassland biomes are the regions of the land with extensive grass species
or grass species with sparsely distributed trees. The categories of grassland
biomes are temperate grasslands and savanna grasslands. Temperate
grasslands are found in Central North America and Argentina while the
savanna grasslands are located in Africa. Australia, South America and
India. Climatic conditions, human activities such as farming and soil
characteristics prevented grassland to develop into a forest.
6. Chaparral or shrubland biome

Chaparrals or shrublands are biomes found in very few regions of the world
such as the Mediterranean Sea, parts of Australia and southern California.
These biomes are vegetated with shrubs; dry and hot during summer and
moist and cool in winter. Wildfire occurrences are very common in chaparrals
especially in summer. Frequent fires are necessary for the proper
germination of plants and animals. Plants growing in these regions are
drought resistant which include needle-like leaves, deep rooting and thick
stems to enable them to conserve water and energy during dry and hot
periods. Examples of these plants are sage, shrubs, eucalyptus, oak and
cacti.
 Application
1. Explain the role of humans in the evolution of biomes.

2. Explain why latitude, rainfall and altitude are factors that influence the
formation of biomes?
3. Discuss the similarities and differences of the six (6) biomes.
 Closure
Biomes are useful tools to provide large-scale (regional or global) backgrounds
in a range of ecological and biogeographical studies such as biodiversity
conservation, land use dynamics, climate change and other environmental
researches.
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Lesson 3
Lesson Title: Biodiversity and Conservation
Learning Outcomes: After completing the lesson, the students will be able to
describe biodiversity and have clear understanding on the concept of
conservation. Further it is expected that knowledge can be applied to protect the
natural ecosystems.
Time Frame: 5 hours
Introduction:
This lesson concerns biodiversity – what is biodiversity and why it is currently in

crises. Current efforts to conserve values of diversity at scales from genetic to
species, communities and ecosystems are also discussed. The causes and
consequences of losing biodiversity, the nature and scale of its loss,
countermeasures and the costs in replacing services dependent on biodiversity
will also be considered in the discussion in this lesson. The network of
interactions and how these can be used to address practical issues in
conservation will be looked into.
 Activity
Draw a biodiversity Philippine biodiversity hotspots. Indicate the
geographical location and the type of ecosystem.
 Analysis
Using your drawing activity, kindly;
1. Discuss why it is considered a biodiversity hotspot.
2. What are the endemic species found in the area?
3. What are the conservation status of the species found the area?
 Abstraction
Types of biodiversity
Biodiversity can be divided into three (3) types. These are
1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Ecosystem diversity
Genetic diversity. This the finer levels of the diversity organization. It includes
the genetic variation within species, both among geographically separated
populations and among individuals within the single population.
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Differences between individuals organisms have two causes – variation in the

genetic material which all organisms possess and which is passed on from
generation to generation; and variation caused by environmental influence on
each individual organism. New genetic variation which, arises by gene and
chromosome mutation in individuals and in sexually reproducing organisms, is
spread in the population by a recombination of genetic materials during cell
division preceding sexual reproduction.
Species diversity. This refers to the variety of species within a region. It is
measures on the basis of number of species. Species richness varies
geographically. Out of 30 million species on earth, only one-sixth has been
identified and authenticated in the past 200 years. Only 250,000 species of the
total stock are plants. Keystone species have an important role in maintaining
the diversity of a whole community of other species. Keystone species include
pollinators, top predators and the decomposer organisms. The wild species are
of considerable potential benefit to man in medicine, agriculture and industry as
a natural source of drugs, food, fuel, fiber, industrial base compounds and
additives.
Ecosystem diversity. This refers to the variations in the biological communities
in which species live, the ecosystem in which communities exist and the
interaction among these levels. In the living world, interdependence and
interaction between organisms and their environment are a very common
practice to asset one’s existence. Nature always tries to maintain homeostasis.
Variety of life forms help maintain the equilibrium of the ecosystem. The
regulation of biogeochemical cycles, maintenance of predator-prey relationships
by various types of food chains and food webs and the balance of nature are
maintained through biodiversity. Biodiversity indirectly influences the climatic
factors, soil nature, chemistry of air and other abiotic elements of an ecosystem.
Ecosystem diversity is best understood if one studies the communities in various
ecological niches within the given region.
Factors affecting biodiversity
A variety of abiotic factors affect the number of organisms in a population. A
given species can survive and grows only if the factors fall within a range
tolerated by the species. For example, an organisms may only tolerate a specific
temperature range. Below or beyond that particular temperature range, the
growth and reproduction of that organism will be affected, worst the organisms
will die. One factor maybe more important in regulating the population growth of
a species than other factors. These factors are called limiting factor. For
example, a certain plant species may need just the right amount of rainfall – not
too little and not too much. The principle of Limiting Factor states: Too much or
too little of an abiotic factor can limit or prevent the growth of a population, even
if all other factors are at required range of tolerance.
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Important limiting factors for terrestrial ecosystems are:

1. Rainfall or precipitation
2. Temperature
3. Micronutrients
Important limiting factors for aquatic ecosystems are:
1. Water temperature
2. Sunlight
3. Dissolve oxygen
4. Salinity
Threats to biodiversity
“It is that range of biodiversity that we must care for, the whole thing, rather
than just one or two stars” – David Attenborough
In general, biodiversity is threaten by human activities. And these threats lead to
loss or extinction. The major threats to biodiversity are:
1. Habitat destruction/deforestation has played a key role in species
extinction. Species loss occurs when natural habitat are modified for
human needs. Studies showed that the size of habitat and the number of
species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those
living at lower altitudes or in forest or oceans are more sensitive to
reduction in habitat. Major reasons for habitat destruction are: large scale
industrial and commercial activities, mining, cattle rearing. Commercial
fishing, plantation cropping and agriculture, dam construction and
encroaching.
2. Introduced and invasive species can reduce diversity. Mountains or seas

are natural barriers that support diversity in specific ecosystem by
enabling independent species evolution thru allopatric speciation.
Invasive species eliminate native species by:
a. Occupying the niches
b. Using the resources of native species
c. Competing with native species
d. Causing diseases of native species
3. Genetic pollution occurs by the uncontrolled hybridization which threaten

endemic species. It causes homogenization of the genome of individuals
and replacement of local genomes. It is more detrimental to rare species
that come in contact with more abundant species because it will result to
the extinction of rare species. Effects of genetic pollution is hybridization.
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4. Over exploitation occurs when a resource are consumed at an

unsustainable rate. Over exploitation of biodiversity happens in the form
of a) overhunting, b) excessive logging, c) poor soil conservation in
agriculture, and d) illegal wildlife trade.
5. Hybridization in agriculture was introduced thru Green revolution in order

to increased yield and to create strains resistant to local climate diseases.
High yielding breeds cause genetic erosion and gene pollution in wild
species. Genetic erosion and genetic pollution may destroy unique
genotypes and can create a hidden crisis which can result in severe threat
to food security and health.
6. Climate change is a major threat to global biodiversity. Carbon dioxide

concentration in atmosphere affects the morphology of plants and can
acidify the oceans. Acidification of the ocean is detrimental to coral reef.
Climate changes induces change in raining patter and also affect
migratory animals and birds.
7. Diseases can eliminate species from surface of the earth. Causes of

diseases maybe either natural or anthropogenic. Human activities
oftentimes speedup the severity of natural diseases. Introduced species
may carry pathogens causing diseases to endemic species. Viral
epidemics in animals are the major threat to biodiversity. Studies revealed
that animals are more prone to disease than plants.
8. Human over-population leads to over exploitation of resources. Forest

area will be reduced to pave way to human settlements. Population
increase ultimately causes pollution increase. It forms the prime factor
causing biodiversity depletion. Most importantly, population increase
causes the other seven (7) main threats to biodiversity.
Biodiversity Conservation
The process of conservation biodiversity involves sustainable development. It
also involves the in-situ conservation where conserving and protecting the
ecosystem will protect the entire biodiversity. It also involves ex-situ
conservation where conservation strategies are done when an organism is
endangered. Conservation methods therefore aim at preservation,
maintenance, conservation, recovery and enhancement.
1. Protection against degradation and destruction of natural ecosystems
Biodiversity conservation involves promoting a balance between the
environment, society, and development in line with the sustainable development
goals. The present society should develop conservation strategies that meet
their need without compromising that of the future generation.
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Having a balance between the development of the environment and society

results in ensuring the achievement of biodiversity conservation. Through
properly enforced policies, sustainable development can be achieved.
Environmental institutions can enforce these conventions.
2. Maintain, restore and increase ecological systems while promoting the
implementation of better conservation practices
It involves the in-situ and ex-situ methods. In situ conservation involves the
conservation of the whole ecosystem and the natural habitats. It also includes
the maintenance and recovery of a variety of species and degraded ecological
systems such as damaged forest areas and heavily polluted lakes, rivers, and
lands, among other natural environments. The ex-situ conservation involves the
strategic protection of biodiversity hotspots for endangered species and habitats.
3. Identification and protection of endangered species
Ex-situ biodiversity conservation aims to reduce the ongoing extinction up to
30% or higher by mainly focusing on two things. First, the focus on conservation
of biodiversity in their natural habitats in places like museums, arboretums, zoos,
and gene banks. High biodiversity areas should be covered in the form of natural
parks, sanctuary, biosphere reserve etc. The second strategy focuses on captive
conservation methods that involve the protection of endangered species. This
type of conservation is a collective responsibility of all nations. An example is
the Earth Summit, which was held in Rio de Janeiro, asking nations to take
appropriate measures towards the protection of vulnerable habitats and species.
4. Establishing buffer zones to prevent any alteration in the balance of natural
ecosystem
Biodiversity conservation prioritizes on establishing control measures that
maintain the balance of natural ecosystems such as water balance, soil ecology,
and genetic as well as species balance. It involves intra-generational and
intergenerational equity that allows equitable sharing of resources and the
benefits derived from natural habitats to ensure social and ecological stability.
Some of the conservation efforts that have been advanced under this category
include the World Conservation Union, International Board for Plant Genetic
Resources, and UNESCO program on Man and biosphere.
5. Science, Technology and Research-Tools for conserving biodiversity
As our society develops, it leads to improved science and technology. Science,
and specifically ecology, help scientists to understand the web of interactions in
our biomes and pinpoint the key species in ecosystems. This information is used
to guide conservation efforts. The same is also used to understand pollution and
its cascading effects within an ecosystem as Bio-magnification of toxins in a food
chain can cause huge problems for top predators. Technology is becoming vital
in conservation biology.
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Sustainable technologies, like renewable energies, biodegradable

packaging, and recycling, help reduce human impact on the environment. There
are also technologies like cloning that give scientists the ability to bring back
species that are already considered extinct. Research on how species interact
within their environment is crucial for the protection of organisms and
maintaining biodiversity. For example, the use of wildlife corridors in urbanized
areas, forming zoo and botanical gardens for research purposes and collections
of living organisms, In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture dramatically
increases their populations.
6. Captive breeding and Gene Banks

When animals are bred in captivity (often at zoos), it is called captive
breeding. It requires the capture of animals that are often near extinction.
Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants is somewhat
controversial; however, on the positive side, it provides the opportunity to
increase the population of the species so that they can be reintroduced into the
wild. Gene banks store seeds, sperm & ova at extremely low temperatures and
humidity. It is very helpful to save a large variety of species of plants & animals
in a very small space such as sperm and ova banks, seed banks. Seed banks
are areas where huge varieties of plant seeds are stored. Seed banks have been
collecting samples for many years, with some having over 2 billion seeds stored
at a time. If a species goes extinct in nature, it provides a failsafe. The plant can
be grown from saved seed and reintroduced back into its habitat.
 Application
1. How and why biodiversity varies around the globe?

2. Discuss the importance of biodiversity.
3. Compare the different conservation strategies in terms of effectiveness.
 Closure
Biodiversity loss is currently occurring at an unprecedented rate. This lesson
introduce students to the different types of biodiversity, the factors affecting
biodiversity and methods of biodiversity conservation. This lesson allow the
students to relate some ecological principles to conservation practices.
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Module Summary
This module in Environmental Biology provides the students better
understanding on ecosystems, biodiversity and its conservation. It also allows
the students to understand why there are several biomes and why the
biodiversity varies around the globe.
Module Assessment
To evaluate the learning of the students, at the end of the module, the
students are required to submit all activities, analysis and application questions
of every lesson.
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MODULE 4
Environmental Geosciences
Module Overview
Given the increasing significance of environment on national and international

agendas, this module aimed to improve the awareness of the students of
geosciences. Lessons include distribution of water on earth and natural hazards.
Module Outcome
At the end of the module, the students are expected to have better
understanding on the concept of watershed and be able to discuss natural
hazards. Further, the students are able to explain the relationships between the
natural hazards, extreme events and disasters; and compare several major
examples of natural hazards.
Lesson 1
Lesson Title: Distribution of Water on Earth: Watershed and Groundwater
Time Frame: 3 hours
Introduction:
Water distribution on earth surface is extremely uneven. Only about 3 per cent
of the total water on the earth is fresh and the remaining 97 per cent resides in
the ocean. Of the 3 per cent freshwater, 69 per cent in glaciers, 30 per cent
underground and less than 1 per cent located in lakes, rivers, and swamps.
Looking at the data, only 1 per cent of the 3 per cent freshwater is usable by
humans. This lesson is designed to provide students concepts on the
importance of water. Discussion is focused on key topics of watershed and
groundwater.
 Activity
Sketch one (1) major watershed in the Philippines showing the different rivers
within the watershed.
 Analysis
1. Describe how topography influences water movement over land.
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 Abstraction
Watershed
A watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a
common outlet such as the outflow of a reservoir, mouth of a bay, or any point
along a stream channel. Watershed can be a small as a footprint or large enough
to encompass all the land that drains water into rivers and finally to the ocean.
The map below is an example of set of watershed found in Agusan del Norte
with watershed boundaries, one watershed is known as hydrologic unit.
The word watershed is sometimes used interchangeably with drainage basin or

catchment. Ridges and hills that separate two watersheds are called the
watershed divide or boundaries. The watershed consists of surface water –
lakes, streams, reservoirs and wetlands. All underlying the different types of
surface water is groundwater. Larger watershed contain many smaller
watershed. It all depends on the outflow point. All of the land that drains water
to the outflow point is the watershed for that outflow location. Watersheds are
important because the stream flow and the water quality of a river are affected
by things, human-induced or not, happening in the land area “above” the river-
outflow point.
A watershed is a collector of precipitation. Most of the precipitation that falls

within the drainage area eventually collect to the catchment, run down into
gullies and small creeks and then drain into the main stream. All water that fell
to the ground as rainfall would eventually flow by the watershed-outflow point.
However, not all precipitation that falls in a watershed flows out. There are many
factors that determine how much water flows in a stream. These factors are:
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Precipitation. The greatest factor controlling stream flow, by far, is the amount of
precipitation that falls in the watershed as rain or snow. However, not all
precipitation that falls in a watershed flows out, and a stream will often continue
to flow where there is no direct runoff from recent precipitation.
Infiltration. When rain falls on dry ground, some of the water soaks in, or
infiltrates the soil. Some water that infiltrates will remain in the shallow soil layer,
where it will gradually move downhill, through the soil, and eventually enters the
stream by seepage into the stream bank. Some of the water may infiltrate much
deeper, recharging groundwater aquifers. Water may travel long distances or
remain in storage for long periods before returning to the surface. The amount
of water that will soak in over-time depends on several characteristics of the
watershed:
 Soil characteristics: The type of soil affects infiltration. Like for

example, rocky and clayey soil absorbs less water and at slower rate
compared to sandy soils. Soils absorbing less water results in more
runoff overland into streams.
 Soil saturation: Like a wet sponge, soil already saturated from
previous rainfall can't absorb much more ... thus more rainfall will
become surface runoff.
 Land cover: Some land covers have a great impact on infiltration and
rainfall runoff. Impervious surfaces, such as parking lots, roads, and
developments, act as a "fast lane" for rainfall - right into storm drains
that drain directly into streams. Flooding becomes more prevalent as
the area of impervious surfaces increase.
 Slope of the land: Water falling on steeply-sloped land runs off more
quickly than water falling on flat land.
Evaporation. Water from rainfall returns to the atmosphere largely through

evaporation. The amount of evaporation depends on temperature, solar
radiation, wind, atmospheric pressure, and other factors.
Transpiration/Evapotranspiration. The root systems of plants absorb water from

the surrounding soil in various amounts. Most of this water moves through the
plant and escapes into the atmosphere through the leaves. Transpiration is
controlled by the same factors as evaporation, and by the characteristics and
density of the vegetation. Vegetation slows runoff and allows water to seep into
the ground.
Storage. Reservoirs store water and increase the amount of water that
evaporates and infiltrates. The storage and release of water in reservoirs can
have a significant effect on the stream flow patterns of the river below the dam.
Groundwater
Water is an important resource of which much of it comes from surface sources

like rivers, streams, lakes, etc. that are easily accessible.
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However, some water is accessed from underground sources known as

groundwater which is found within the soil formation below our feet.
Groundwater represents the terrestrial subsurface component of the hydrologic
cycle. As such, groundwater is generally in motion, moving from elevated areas
of recharge to lower areas of discharge. Groundwater usually moves in
accordance with Darcy’s law (Dalmont, Paris: Les Fontaines Publiques de la
Ville de Dijon, 1856). Groundwater residence times can be under a day in small
upland catchments to over a million years in subcontinental-sized desert basins.
This water occurs in two principal zones, namely;
1. The unsaturated zone which constitutes the voids or spaces between

particles of clay and silt, sand grains and gravel as well as cracks or
fractures within the competent bedrock formations that contain both air
and water. Although a considerable amount of water can be present in
the unsaturated zone, this water cannot be readily accessed because it
is held too tightly by capillary forces.
2. The saturated zone is the upper surface of the unsaturated zone. The
water in the saturated zone is referred to as the groundwater. The
containment of the water is called aquifer and the upper part of the
saturated zone is the water table. The water in this zone is readily
accessible for human use.
Aquifer
Aquifer is an underground formation or permeable rock or loose materials

which can produce useful quantities of water when accessed by a well.
Aquifers come in all sizes and the origin and composition varied. There are
two different types of aquifers that exist beneath the landscape. The first is
known as the “water table”. This is the water that is first struck when we dig
below the surface. The water table represents the surface of groundwater
within an “unconfined aquifer” – unconfined because the upper surface is
open to the atmosphere. As such, the water table represents the surface at
which the water pressure is at atmospheric pressure. The second type of
aquifer is a “confined aquifer”. These aquifers are so-called because they are
confined from above and below by sediments of lower permeability. These
lower permeability layers isolate the aquifer from direct interaction with the
atmosphere or other overlying and underlying aquifer intervals. The sealing
nature of the confining layers results in an increased pressure of the water in
the aquifer, such that is a well is drilled and installed into a confined aquifer,
the water level in the well will stabilize above the top of the aquifer sediments.
The resulting surface provided by numerous wells completed in the same
interval over a given area is called a “potentiometric surface”
Role of groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle
The Hydrologic (or Water) Cycle is a dynamic system. It is a closed system,

meaning that nothing can be lost, it can only be relocated to another part of
the system.
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To start the cycle, water evaporates from the oceans and condenses as
clouds that eventually float across the landscape and deliver their moisture
in liquid (rain) or solid (snow, ice pellets) form. Some of this water runs off
the landscape back to rivers that eventually flow back to the oceans,
completing that part of the cycle.
Water that enters the subsurface as recharge similarly flows back to rivers
through small to large scale flow systems and discharges through their bases
to form “base flow.” Or it may flow directly back to, and discharge into, the
ocean via deep groundwater flow systems.
 Application
1. Why watershed is often interchanged with drainage basin or catchment?

2. Explain the effect of land cover on infiltration and rainfall runoff.
3. How important is groundwater to human existence?
 Closure
This lesson provides the student better understanding of what is a watershed.

The topics discussed give insights on the origin of freshwater flowing in rivers
and streams leading them to appreciate the importance of water to human.
Lesson 2
Lesson Title: Natural Hazards
Time Frame: 3 hours
Introduction:
This lesson focuses on natural hazards. Natural hazards are threats of natural
events that cause harm to humans or to other things that we care about. Many
natural hazards are not initially caused by humans, but the damage inevitably
has a strong human component. We start the final sets of modules this way
because studying hazards helps us understand environmental impacts on more
local scales, giving us valuable perspective on global environmental change.
 Activity
The Philippines is within the Pacific of Fire. Being within the ring of fire it is
subjected to the different natural hazards. Name at least three (3) natural
hazards that frequently visiting the Philippines. And discuss briefly each
hazards.
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 Analysis
Answer the following briefly:
1. Explain why Eastern Visayas and the Bicol region are frequented with
typhoons in terms of geographical location, environmental characteristics
and population.
2. What are the differences between hazards and disaster? (Explain in

minimum of 10 sentences).
 Abstraction
Definition of natural hazards
"Hazard always arises from the interplay of social and biological and physical
systems; disasters are generated as much or more by human actions as by
physical events." (Geographer Gilbert F. White, the “father of floodplain
management”). A hazard is distinguished from an extreme event and a disaster.
A natural hazard is an extreme event that occurs naturally and causes harm to
humans – or to other things that we care about, though usually the focus is on
humans (which, we might note, is anthropocentric). An extreme event is simply
an unusual event; it does not necessarily cause harm. Note that many hazards
have both natural and artificial components. Because hazards are threats of
harm mainly to human systems, human activities play a large role in how severe
a hazard is. A natural hazard escalates into a natural disaster when an extreme
event caused harm in significant amounts and overwhelms the capability of
people to cope and respond. The severity of a disaster is commonly measured
in terms of the dollars of damage it causes or in the number of deaths it causes.
All else equal, a disaster that causes more monetary damage will usually also
cause more deaths.
Common types of natural hazards
Natural hazards can be classified into several broad categories: geological

hazards, hydrological hazards, meteorological hazards, and biological hazards.
Geological hazards are hazards driven by geological (i.e., Earth) processes, in

particular, plate tectonics. This includes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. In
general, geological extreme events are beyond human influence, though
humans have a large influence on the impacts of the events.
Meteorological hazards are hazards driven by meteorological (i.e., weather)

processes, in particular those related to temperature and wind. This includes
heat waves, cold waves, cyclones, hurricanes, and freezing rain. Cyclones are
commonly called hurricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons in the Pacific Ocean.
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Hydrological hazards are hazards driven by hydrological (i.e., water) processes.

This includes floods, droughts, mudslides, and tsunamis. Floods and droughts
can cause extensive damage to agriculture and are among the main contributors
to famine. The deadliest natural disaster in world history (not counting
pandemics) was the 1931 Central China floods, killing three or four million
people.
Biological hazards are hazards driven by biological processes. This includes

various types of disease, including infectious diseases that spread from person
to person, threatening to infect large portions of the human population. Many
discussions of natural hazards exclude biological hazards, placing them instead
within the realm of medicine and public health. If biological hazards are counted,
then they include the deadliest disasters in world history, including the Black
Death outbreak of bubonic plague in the 1300s, killing 75-100 million people,
and the 1918 "Spanish" flu pandemic, a global affair (the name "Spanish" is due
to historical coincidence) killing 50-100 million people. A more recent example
is the COVID-19 pandemic. An understanding of geographic concepts has been
integral for answering questions like where the virus is more prevalent, where it
is more deadly, how fast it moves, and how do we prevent its spreading? It is
also helps us to see that natural disasters are not always purely natural. Human
actions have been important for both the spread and containment of the virus.
While biological hazards are undoubtedly important, they are not discussed in
detail in this module.
Vulnerability to natural hazards
The concept of vulnerability encompasses a variety of definitions. In general,

vulnerability means the potential to be harmed. Vulnerability to natural hazards
is thus the potential to be harmed by natural hazards. Some people and places
are more vulnerable to certain hazards than other people and places. While any
one extreme event may be unusual, there are broad trends in natural hazards.
These trends are due to characteristics of both natural systems and human
systems. The risk of specific natural hazards varies widely from region to region.
For example, floods tend to occur in low-lying areas near water. The Sahel
region (the southern edge of the Sahara desert in Africa) is periodically plagued
by droughts. Forest fires tend to occur (as you might guess) in forests.
Earthquakes and volcanoes tend to occur near boundaries of tectonic plates.
Many of the world’s earthquakes and volcanoes occur along the edge of the
Pacific Ocean, along the boundaries of the Pacific Plate. This region is known
as the Ring of Fire for its intense volcanic activity.
The severity of a disaster depends on both the physical nature of the extreme
event and the social nature of the human populations affected by the event A
core point here is that different people, even within the same region, have
different vulnerability to natural hazards. Some important human factors that
tend to influence disaster severity are: wealth, education, governance,
technology, age, disabilities, vulnerabilities associated with social norms and
discrimination, and intersectional approaches to vulnerability.
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Reducing vulnerability to natural hazards
There are many steps we can take to prepare for natural hazards and to respond
when extreme events occur. These steps can be divided into several categories,
though it is important to note that there is no clear distinction between these
categories.
Preparedness. When an extreme event is projected to occur, steps can be taken

to make the event less of a disaster, i.e., to reduce the amount of harm that
occurs. A key part of preparedness is in the projection itself. The more an
extreme events are known ahead of time, and the further ahead of time it is
known, the more effectively one to reduce harm.
Emergency Response. Immediately after an extreme event occurs, emergency

response seeks to reduce harm. A core goal of emergency response is to help
affected people survive: pulling people out from under the rubble, attending to
major injuries, distributing food and water, and building shelter.
Recovery and reconstruction. As the immediate emergency situation settles,

focus shifts to the longer-term project of trying to get conditions back to normal,
or at least as close to normal as can be achieved. As the most dire medical
emergencies have been attended to (including cases in which patients die),
treatment emphasizes bringing people back to full health. Buildings, roads, and
other infrastructure are rebuilt and repaired. Basic needs are covered less and
less from emergency stockpiles and outside aid and more and more from normal
economic activity.
Building resilience in non-disaster times. Even when there are no specific

extreme events that could happen anytime soon, there are steps that we can
take to increase our resilience. These are generally long-term projects to
enhance our physical infrastructure, our awareness, and other steps that will be
useful to have in place when an event does occur. For instance, we can develop
and enforce building codes requiring that buildings be able to withstand
earthquakes or high winds. We can stockpile certain supplies to be available in
times of need. We can develop insurance schemes to help each other recover
from damages that occur. We can design and install warning systems to alert us
to extreme events that may be about to occur. And we can study natural hazards
so that we know how to prepare for and respond to them when an extreme event
occurs.
 Application
Briefly answer the following:
1. Cite two examples of natural hazards becoming an extreme events due

to human intervention.
2. Why does the ring of fire is the home of major natural hazards?
3. Explain why disaster now a days are becoming less deadly but more
costly.
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 Closure
The lesson discussed the natural hazards as an extreme events that cause harm
to humans or to other things that man care about. It also cover vulnerability and
how to reduce vulnerability. Knowledge of the nature of the natural hazard is
very useful in discussing the anthropogenic hazards which is discussed in the
succeeding module.
Module Summary
The module discussed important geological processes affecting humans. Water
is very important resource to human existence, thus proper management of this
resource is crucial in human development. Of the total water of the world, only
less than one per cent can be consumed by human. Natural hazards is an event
that harm humans. Vulnerability to natural hazards and method to reduce
vulnerabilities are also discussed.
Module Assessment
lesson.
MODULE 5
Environmental Pollution and Control
Module Overview
This module is designed is designed to impart scientific knowledge required to
tackle the many problems associated with environmental pollution. The topics
include air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, soil pollution, solid and
hazardous waste management. It will also discuss nature, sources and effects
of pollutants as well as some measures to reduce and control pollution.
Module Outcomes
Upon completing the module, it is expected that the students will:
1. Have gained awareness of the different forms of environmental pollution

and an overview of both causes and consequences to natural, economic
and social systems.
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2. Have been exposed to learning examples of good practice of

technologies and options used to remediate, reduce/eliminate pollution
of the environment; and
3. Be able to analyze, synthesize and evaluate evidence to understand
problems and select control measures.
Lesson 1
Lesson Title: Pollution: Types, Sources and Prevention
Time Frame: 4 hours
Introduction:
This is the only lesson in module 5. This lesson consists of pollution, its types,
sources, and prevention. The time allotted for this lesson is 1 hour and 30
minutes inclusive of the different activities that will be performed. This lesson is
intended to give the students a comprehensible perspective about
environmental pollution covered in the course.
 Activity
List ten (10) ways you can reduce the amount of chemicals into the
environment.
 Analysis
1. How do chemicals and pollutants in the environment affect human

health?
2. Why do you think chemicals affect plant growth?
3. Do you think all chemicals in the environment are bad for human
health?
 Abstraction
Air Pollution
Definition of Air Pollution
The presence in the atmosphere of one or more contaminants in such quality

and for such duration as is injurious, or tends to be injurious, to human health or
welfare, animal or plant life.’ It is the contamination of air by the discharge of
harmful substances.
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Composition of unpolluted air
The air is composed of several gases. The percentage composition of these

gases is constant unless otherwise altered. As shown in Table 4, Nitrogen
occupies that largest volume at 756,500 ppm. Other gases such as Krypton,
Nitrous oxide, hydrogen, Xenon and organic vapors constitute a very small
volume.
The gaseous composition of unpolluted air
The Gases Parts per million (vol)

Nitrogen 756,500
Oxygen 202,900
Water 31,200
Argon 9,000
Carbon Dioxide 305
Neon 17.4
Helium 5.0
Methane 0.97-1.16
Krypton 0.97
Nitrous oxide 0.49
Hydrogen 0.49
Xenon 0.08
Organic vapours ca.0.02
Major Air Pollutants
a) Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas that is produced by the

incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels including petrol, diesel, and wood.
It is also produced from the combustion of natural and synthetic products
such as cigarettes. It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood. It
can slow our reflexes and make us confused and sleepy.
b) Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the principle greenhouse gas emitted as a result of
human activities such as the burning of coal, oil, and natural gases.
c) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are gases that are released mainly from air-
conditioning systems and refrigeration. When released into the air, CFCs rise
to the stratosphere, where they come in contact with few other gases, which
leads to a reduction of the ozone layer that protects the earth from the
harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.
d) Lead is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc.
Lead affects children in particular. It can cause nervous system damage and
digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer.
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e) Ozone occur naturally in the upper layers of the atmosphere. This important
gas shields the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. However,
at the ground level, it is a pollutant with highly toxic effects. Vehicles and
industries are the major source of ground-level ozone emissions. Ozone
makes our eyes itch, burn, and water. It lowers our resistance to colds and
pneumonia.
f) Nitrogen oxide (Nox) causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from
burning fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal. Nitrogen oxides can make
children susceptible to respiratory diseases in winters.
g) Suspended particulate matter (SPM) consists of solids in the air in the form
of smoke, dust, and vapor that can remain suspended for extended periods
and is also the main source of haze which reduces visibility. The finer of these
particles, when breathed in can lodge in our lungs and cause lung damage
and respiratory problems.
h) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a gas produced from burning coal, mainly in thermal
power plants. Some industrial processes, such as production of paper and
smelting of metals, produce sulfur dioxide. It is a major contributor to smog
and acid rain. Sulfur dioxide can lead to lung diseases.
Sources of air pollution
1. Stationary and Area Sources - refers to an emission source that does not
move (i.e., utilities, chemical and manufacturing industries). Often stationary
sources are defined as large emitters who release relatively consistent
qualities and quantities of pollutants. The term area source is used to
describe the many smaller stationary sources located together whose
individual emissions may be low but whose collective emissions can be
significant.
2. Mobile Sources - refers to a source that is capable of moving under its own
power. In general, mobile sources imply on-road transportation. In addition,
there is also a non-road or off-road category that includes gas-powered lawn
tools and mowers, farm and construction equipment, recreational vehicles,
boats, planes, and trains.
3. Agricultural Sources - Agricultural operations, those that raise animals and

grow crops, can generate emissions of gases, particulate matter, and
chemical compounds. For example, animals confined to a barn or area
(rather than field grazing), produce large amounts of manure. Manure emits
various gases, particularly ammonia into the air.
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This ammonia can be emitted from the animal houses, manure storage
areas, or from the land after the manure is applied. In crop production, the
misapplication of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can potentially result
in aerial drift of these materials.
4. Natural Sources - are sources not caused by people or their activities. An

erupting volcano emits particulate matter and gases; forest and prairie fires
can emit large quantities of pollutants; plants and trees emit hydrocarbons;
and dust storms can create large amounts of particulate matter. Wild animals
in their natural habitat are also considered natural sources of pollution given
that there is a certain amount of natural pollution, it is very important to control
the "excess" pollution caused by man’s activities.
Effects of air pollution
a. Smog - is a combination of various gases with water vapor and dust. A large
part of the gases that form smog is produced when fuels are burnt. Smog
forms when heat and sunlight react with these gases and fine particles in the
air. Smog can affect outlying suburbs and rural areas as well as big cities. Its
occurrences are often linked to heavy traffic, high temperatures, and calm
winds. The most harmful components of smog are ground-level ozone and
fine airborne particles.
b. Acid Rain - occurs when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the burning
of fossil fuels such as, petrol, diesel, and coal combine with water vapor in
the atmosphere and fall as rain, snow or fog. These gases can also be
emitted from natural sources like volcanoes. Acid rain causes extensive
damage to water, forest, soil resources and even human health.
c. Fly ash – are ash particles consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium,
and magnesium and toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and
copper.
d. Indoor Pollution - refers to the physical, chemical, and biological

characteristics of air in the indoor environment within a home, building, or an
institution or commercial facility. Indoor air pollution is a concern in the
developed countries, where energy efficiency improvements sometimes
make houses relatively airtight, reducing ventilation and raising pollutant
levels. Indoor air problems can be subtle and do not always produce easily
recognized impacts on health.
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Air pollution control
1. Release of carbon monoxide into the atmosphere can be controlled by:

a. Developing exhaust system which will complete the combustion,
b. Developing pollution free power sources
c. Modifying internal combustion engines to minimize CO emissions
d. Fixing catalytic converter in the exhaust of automobiles.
e.
2. Particulate matter can be controlled:

a. Gravity settling chamber
b. Wet scrubber
c. Fabric filter
d. Electrostatic precipitator
3. Control of ozone depletion

a. Plant trees
b. Use of hydrochlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluoroalkanes in
refrigeration and air conditioning.
Water Pollution
Definition
Discharge of certain foreign substances into water that affects the physical,
biological and chemical properties of water which in turn decreases the utility of
water.
The matter which is responsible for these unhealthy changes in water is called
pollutants. Examples of pollutants are Pb, Hg, CN, As, Cu, acids, alkalis,
pesticides, insecticides, fungicides, animal matter, human excreta, radioactive
wastes etc.
Sources of water pollutants
There are two main sources of pollutants. These are:
1. Domestic wastewater is a liquid waste from residences, institutes,

hospitals and similar establishments. These wastewater contain high
concentration of organic wastes, pathogenic bacteria, plant materials,
pesticides, detergents etc. Domestic wastewater causes water borne
disease like dysentery, cholera, typhoid, and hookworm infection.
2. Industrial wastewater is liquid wastes released by industries. It contains

Pd, Hg, CN, As, Cu, acids, alkalis, pesticides, detergents, insecticides,
fungicides, soap, phenol etc. It can be render harmless by suitable
treatments.
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Effects of water pollution
 Poisons drinking water

 Poisons food animals
 Unbalanced water ecosystem
 Alter hydrologic cycle
Treatment
The organic waste present in water undergoes degradation and breakdown into
simple molecules by bacteria. The bacterial degradation is of two types: 1.
Aerobic degradation or oxidation: Brought about by bacteria in presence of air
and dissolved oxygen of water. Aerobic oxidation produces harmless
compounds like water and CO2. 2. Anaerobic degradation or oxidation:
Brought about by bacteria in absence of air and produces harmful products such
as NH3, H2S, CH4 etc.
The process of removal of contaminants present in the sewage is called sewage

treatment. It involves three stages. i). Primary, ii). Secondary and iii). Tertiary
treatment.
1. Primary treatment: It is the process of removal of course, suspended and

floating solids.
a. Screening: It removes large suspended or floating matter in the sewage.

b. Filtration: The water is passed through conventional sand filter beds to
remove the last trace of suspended matter.
c. Sedimentation: Sedimentation is a process of removing suspended
impurities by allowing the water to stay undisturbed for some time in a
larger tank. Due to gravitation force almost all the suspended particles
settle down.
d. Coagulation: It is a process of removing colloidal particles from water by
the addition of coagulating agents. Potash alum
[K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O] and ferrous sulfate (FeSO4.7H2O) are
commonly used coagulants.
2. Secondary treatment (Activated sludge process): It involves the removal of

organic matter. The waste water after primary treatment is allowed to flow to
large tanks where biological treatment is carried out. Activated sludge
containing microorganisms is sprayed over the water and oxygen is passed
vigorously from the bottom of tank. Under these conditions, aerobic oxidation
of organic matter takes place. The sludge formed is removed and the residual
water (secondary effluent) is treated with chlorine or UV radiations to remove
bacteria and finally discharged into running water or reused for watering
plants. (Sludge: The matter which settles down at the bottom after treatment
is called sludge and the liquid is called effluent).
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3. Tertiary treatment: If the residual water contains high concentration of

phosphates, heavy metal ions, colloidal impurities and non-degradable
organic matter, the water is taken to tertiary treatment. It involves—
a. The removal of phosphate as insoluble calcium phosphate by treating

with lime.
b. The removal of heavy metal ions as insoluble sulfide by treating with
sulfide ions.
c. The removal of remaining organic matter by adding activated
charcoal.
d. The removal of remaining colloidal impurities by adding alum.
Soil Pollution
Definition
Referred to as land pollution involves the following mechanism:

 Deposition of solid waste
 Accumulation of non-biodegradable materials
 Toxification of chemicals into poisons
 Alteration of soil chemical composition (imbalance of chemical
equilibrium to soil medium)
By as much, land pollution of this has amassed globally, everyday threatening

the very foundation and mechanical support of every matter on earth.
Statistically, it has been shown that:
 loss of 6 million hectares of land per year

 loss of 24 billion tons of topsoil per year
 loss of minimum 15 million acres prime agricultural land to overuse
and mismanagement
 desertification of land results in the loss of 16 million per square
miles of world's land surface
The causes for such devastation are generally due to 2 (two) forms of
malpractices:
• Unhealthy soil management methods;
 improper tillage of soil in which excessive tillage result in the

deterioration of soil structure
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 non-maintenance of a proper supply of organic matter in the

soil from the imbalance composition of the reserves of organic
matter especially nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur un-
replenished supply after cultivation of vegetation, living the soil
prone to soil infertility, unable to stabilize the soil physicality
which ultimately led to desertification
 irregular maintenance of a proper nutrient supply of trace
elements gives rise to the use of excessive synthetic fertilizers,
which are non-biodegradable and accumulate in the soil
system which eventually destroys useful organisms such as
bacteria, fungi and other organisms
 improper maintenance of the correct soil acidity which
ultimately disrupt the adaptation of various crops and native
vegetation of different soils as the solubility of minerals present
will be affected. In a more acidic soil, minerals tend to be more
soluble and washed away during rainfall while alkaline soil,
minerals are more insoluble which form complex minerals
unable to be absorbed into the flora system physiological
usage
 Improper irrigation practices

 poorly drained soil result in salt deposits leading to high soil
salinity that inhibit plant growth and may lead to crop failure
 unirrigated land giving rise to stagnation of agriculture waste
products which accumulates and increases land toxicity and
also decreasing
 irregular irrigation leads to decreasing moisturization of land
for soil medium and replenishments of solvents for minerals
Sources of Soil Pollution
 Agriculture
o accumulation of animal manures
o excessive input of chemical fertilizers
o illicit dumping of tainted crops on land
 Mining and Quarrying

o using of explosives to blow up mines
o using of machineries which emits toxic byproducts and leaks to
the ground
 Sewage sludge
o improper sanitation system causes sludge to leak at
surrounding soil
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 Dredged spoils
o improper method of dredging at fertile land causes soil
infertility, leaving the soil more prone to external pollution
 Household
o improper waste disposal system causes waste accumulation
o improper sanitation system
 Demolition and construction
o non biodegradable rubbles or debris which are not cleared
settled in the soil undergo chemical reactions and increase
soil toxicity
 Industrial
o poisonous/toxic emissions of gases which are not filtered or
neutralized
Effects of Soil Pollution
The effects of land pollution is summarized in Table 6. The pesticides used as

farm inputs can poison the land and reduce its productivity. Solid wastes such
MSW can affect the aesthetic value of the land not to mention the effects when
it is degraded. Sometimes, non-biodegradable wastes can cause permanent
damage on land productivity because they will hinder smooth water flow. The
effects of sanitary landfills if not properly operated is similar to littering. Nuclear
wastes pose very high risk in all land pollutants because it has longer half-life
and will take very long time to decompose.
Type Examples Source Effects

Toxic Pesticides and Farms and Poisons the land and impacts the
Chemicals Herbicides Chemical environment
factories
Oil
Oil tank
corrosion
Littering Misc. Rubbish Cities / May cause long term damage (un-
Communities of biodegradable)
people
Causes the landscape to look
unpleasant
Landfills Landfills Cities Similar to littering, larger scale
Nuclear Waste Used plutonium Nuclear Power Very long decomposition period
Plants
Highly disruptive to environment /
will kill animals and plants and
causes mutation
Bacteria Leachate Factories Cause illness when it come in
Sewage Landfills contact with open wounds
Animal manure Houses Deadly to fish and animals
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Solid Waste
Definition
It refers to all non-liquid garbage arising from animal and human activities that
are discarded as unwanted and useless. It can be categorized based on
materials such as plastic, paper, glass, metal, demolition materials, wood,
pesticides, insecticides and organic waste. Solid Waste Management is a
planned process of collection, transport and disposal of solid waste materials in
safe and economic manner. Everyday tons of waste is disposing off at various
landfill sites and recycling units. This landfill sites produce foul smell if the waste
is not stored and treated properly.
Sources
The major sources of solid waste are Residential areas, Industries,

Commercial establishments, Institutions, Municipal services, Manufacturing
units, and Construction and demolition sites.
Characteristics
Information and data on characteristics of solid waste are important for selecting
a suitable disposal technique. i) Physical characteristics: Density: It is a crucial
factor to design a solid waste management system, Ex. design of sanitary
landfills, storage and type of collection. Moisture content: It is ratio of weight of
water to the total weight of wet waste.
As the moisture content in waste increases, the cost of collection and

transportation also increases. A typical range of moisture content is 20% to 40%.
Size distribution: It is also important factor for separation and transportation
purpose. ii) Chemical characteristics: If the solid wastes are to be used as fuel
or any other purpose, the chemical properties must be known.
Disposal
This involve the safe disposal of waste to minimize pollution. The following are
the common methods of solid wastes disposal:
1. Landfill is the oldest waste disposal method where waste is directly disposed
into a large pit or trench and is covered with thin layer of soil. Types of landfill:
a. Ordinary landfills are associated with the problems like seepage of
waste into soil and water; and emission of methane from waste into
atmosphere.
b. Scientific landfills are constructed with a base layer of 90 meters of
clay to prevent any seepage or leakage within the landfill and also to
reduce the rate of methane production. Scientific landfills generate
methane slowly which can be used as alternative fuel for electricity or
heat generation purposes.
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2. Composting involves the biodegradation of organic waste. The organic waste

is mixed with water, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen, and microorganisms to
breakdown organic matter to produce compost, which can used as organic
fertilizer.
3. Recycling is a method of disposal that involves taking discarded items for

next use.
a. Primary recycling involves processing of wastes/scraps into a product

with characteristics to those of original materials, e.g. remolding of
plastics.
b. Secondary recycling involves processing of waste/scrap into materials
that have different from the original materials.
c. Tertiary recycling involves the production of basic chemicals and fuels
from plastic wastes using a suitable chemical process such as
pyrolysis. This method is suitable for all types of plastic wastes
including multi-layered plastic.
4. Reuse
a. The organic waste generated from household can be used for making
compost.
b. Waste papers and newspapers can be used for making bags
c. Old electrical appliances and furniture can be reused as far as
possible rather than dumping.
Hazardous Wastes
E-waste
Definition
E-waste can be defined as electronic and electrical equipment/products which

have become obsolete due change in fashion, style, status and attaining the
end of their useful life. "E-wastes are considered dangerous, as certain
components of some electronic products contain materials like mercury, lead,
antimony, phosphorus etc., which are hazardous, depending on their condition
and density. The hazardous content of these materials poses a threat to human
health and environment.
Sources
Discarded computers, televisions. VCRs. stereos, copiers, fax machines,

electric lamps, cell phones, audio equipment, DVDs, CDs, washing machines,
microwave ovens, mother boards. PCBs, batteries, etc., if improperly disposed
can penetrates into soil and groundwater.
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Biomedical waste
Biomedical waste is any kind of waste containing infectious materials. It includes

waste of medical or laboratory origin (e.g., packaging, unused bandages,
infusion kits, etc.), as well as research laboratory waste containing biomolecules
or organisms. Biomedical waste must be properly managed and disposed off to
protect the environment, general public and workers, especially healthcare and
sanitation workers who are at risk of exposure to biomedical waste. Steps in the
management of biomedical waste include generation, accumulation, handling,
storage, treatment, transport and disposal.
 Application
Submit a review of the documentary film entitles Climate Change by Al Gore.
Module Summary
This module is the application of the topics that has been discussed in Modules
1 to Module 4. The topics covered in this module are the different types of
pollution, sources, effects and possible treatment or technologies to reduce or
eliminate pollution.
Module Assessment
lesson.
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COURSE SUMMARY
The course was organized to deal with the interrelationships among the
components of the natural world, environmental problems, their causes,
associated risks, preventive measures and alternative solutions.
The lessons in the modules were mapped out for students to develop an
understanding of the interdisciplinary nature of environment, to be skilled in
communicating environmental information and idea logically and concisely in a
variety of forms, and to develop the ability to identify environmental research
questions and formulate hypothesis or guiding statements.
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REFERENCES
Module 1
Biosphere. http://biosphere.weebly.com/introduction.html. Date retrieved:

August 5, 2020.
Climate Office North Carolina. Humidity. https://climate.ncsu.edu/edu/Humidity.

Date retrieved: August 8, 2020.
EarthHow. Oceans of the World. https://earthhow.com/5-oceans/. Date

retrieved: August 4, 2020.
Gupta, Navindu, Jagadamba Prasad and RS Khoiyangbam (2015).

Environmental Sciences: Scope and Importance.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273775410_ENVIRONMENTA
L_SCIENCES_SCOPE_AND_IMPORTANCE. Date retrieved: August 1,
2020
Legaspi, Marvin Rey (undated). The Seven Environmental Principles.

https://www.academia.edu/27495029/The_Seven_Environmental_Princi
ples. Date retrieved: August 1, 2020.
Mondal, Puja (online source). Most important Effects of Temperature on Living

Organisms. YourArticleLibrary. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/
environment/12-most-important-effects-of-temperature-on-living-
organisms/3794 Date retrieved
Module 2
Bloomfield, M.M and Stephens, L.J. (1996). Chemistry of the Living Organisms,
6th ed. John Wiley and Sons Publishing, Singapore
Toxic chemicals in the home. www.cwmi.css.cornell.edu. Date retrieved: 17
August 2020.
Yen, T.F. (1999). Environmental Chemistry – Essentials for Engineering

Practice, Prentice Hall, Inc. NJ.
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Services: Key concept and Applications, Occasional Paper No. 1,
Canberra, Australia.
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Mucina, Ladislav (2018). Biome: evolution of crucial ecological and

biogeographical concept. New Phytologist Trust, an open access journal
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Associates, Inc.
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USGS (undated). Watershed and Drainage Basins. USGS, Science for changing
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College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, Pennsylvania University, USA.
Module 5
Venkatesha, NJ (2019). Environmental Pollution and Water Chemistry.

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94 | P a g e

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Course pack for Environmental Science

Name: Ana P. Ocenar

Name: Khmer Griffin S. Alonzo

For UVE concerns

Office of Students Affairs & Services

Cover page ......................................................................................................1

Module 1 Fundamentals of Environmental Science

Module 2 Environmental Chemistry

Module 3 Environmental Biology

Module 4 Environmental Geosciences

Module 5 Environmental Pollution and Control

Course Summary .............................................................................................92

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES

Premier Research University in the ASEAN.

USeP shall produce world-class graduates and relevant research and

At the end of the plan period, the University of Southeastern Philippines

1. Recognized ASEAN Research University

INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES

Creates and inspires positive changes in the organization; exercises

CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS

Demonstrates creativity, innovativeness, and intellectual curiosity in optimizing

Demonstrates concern for others, practices professional ethics, honesty, and

Demonstrates enthusiasm and passion for continuous personal and

Demonstrates proficiency and flexibility in the area of specialization and in

CORE VALUES OF THE UNIVERSITY

THE COURSE OVERVIEW

COURSE TITLE : Environmental Science

COURSE OUTCOMES : At the end of the course, the students have:

Learning Evidence and Measurement Rubrics

Learning Evidence to Assess: LE1: Reaction Paper

100-93 pts. 92-84 pts. 83-75 pts. Below 75 pts.

OTHER REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS (AA)

Activities in every lessons contained in

AA2 Midterm Exam Score (Analysis and

AA3 Final Exam Score (Analysis and

LE1 Reaction Paper 30%

Passing Grade 75.0 (or 3.00)

< 75 = 5.00 75-76 = 3.00 77-79 = 2.75 80-82 = 2.50 83-85

The Course Map

Fundamentals of Environmental Science

Module 1 of Environmental Science course is designed to provide students with

Title: Definition, Principles and Scope of Environmental Science

Time Frame: 4 hours

1. What do you understand by the term environment?

1. Environment studies is a multidisciplinary subject. How?

The word “environment” is derived from the French word “Environner”

i. According to Boring, person’s environment consist of all the

Therefore, environmental science is the interdisciplinary field that

b. Scope of Environment and environmental science

i. The environment is composed of four segments of earth. These

ii. The scope of environmental science includes i) conservation of

The seven (7) principles of the environment are as follows:

i. Nature knows best

One of the natural processes that needs serious attention is the

ii. All forms of life are important (Principle of ecological balance)

Each organism plays fundamental role in nature and each is

iii. Everything is connected to everything else

In an ecosystem, all biotic and abiotic components interact with

iv. Everything changes