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Electronics Theory and Practice

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Electronics Theory and Practice

Gerardo Mesias, CEng, MIEE

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First published by Newnes

This edition published 2011 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

First published 1993

Copyright © 1993, Gerardo Mesias. All rights reserved

The right of Gerardo Mesias to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or
storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some
other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in
accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of
a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England
WIT 4LP. Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce any part of this
publication should be addressed to the publisher

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 0 7506 1679 2

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Contents

Preface

1 Fundamental theorems

2 Biasing

3 Load lines

4 Transistor modelling

5 Current gain

6 Voltage gain

7 Cascaded systems

8 Bode plots

9 Effect of capacitors

10 High frequency

11 Operational amplifiers: general

12 Operational amplifiers: applications

13 Operational amplifiers: oscillators

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14 Bandwidth gain considerations

Index

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Preface

This book has been written to help you learn how to solve problems in
electronics. Whether studying for BEng, HND or Graduate Diploma, you
need to be able to cope with assignments and face examinations with
confidence.
The basis of this confidence is practice in tackling problems. In solving
a problem in electronics you are trying to express the circuit in
mathematical terms: you are building a mathematical model of the circuit.
The problems in this book, which are the result of long experience of
student?’ needs in tutorial and remedial work, show how this is done.
All the problems are supplied with answers and complete worked
solutions. This is useful because the answer obtained varies according to
the method followed and the approximations made: two different results,
such as 6.94 V and 7.06 V, may both be acceptable answers to a problem.
Some simpler problems can be solved in a number of different ways. This
can be a way of checking your result – by comparing the results by
different methods. You should always arrive at the same result unless
approximations have been made somewhere along the line. If you have
gone wrong, you can check against the solution given in the book: try to
identify exactly where you went wrong and how you can put it right.
The first chapter covers all the main laws and theorems needed to solve
the problems in the following chapters. Each chapter starts with a concise
explanation of the theory, which is followed by graded problems, starting
with simple examples and progressing to the more complicated problems.
The chapters are self-contained, and can be tackled independently in any
order, referring to the first chapter as required for the basic theorems.
This book is intended for your own study. Once you are familiar with it
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you will find the way of using it that suits you best: in mastering the
fundamental theorems and the different electronics topics, and in preparing
for your examinations.

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 To
Camilo,
Thomas Oliver,
Ana-Claudia and
Gaston

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1
Fundamental theorems

Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law is given by

V = IR

The voltage in a passive element is given by the product of the current

multiplied by the resistance.
We can also easily deduce that:

Some people prefer to use the magic triangle. This is of unknown origin,
but is apparently widely used in secondary education. The magic triangle
can be seen in Figure 1.1. In order to find V in the triangle, you cover V and
you are left with IR. If you want to select another value, you cover the one
you want and get the answer in the uncovered part.
Figure 1.1

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There are two points that need to be made at this stage, about Ohm’s law.
First, in Ohm’s law the three elements of the formula, V, I and R must be
related, i.e., the current must be going through the resistor and the voltage
will appear as a consequence of that current across the resistor. Remember
that the voltage refers to the difference in voltage between two points. If a
point is said to have 12 V, we imply that there are 12 V from that point to a
reference point. The reference point is usually ground, at 0 V. If the
reference point is other than ground, the value is clearly stated.
Secondly, it is important to realise from the very beginning, that the
voltage will have a polarity, depending on the direction of the current that
goes through the resistor. The relationship is shown in Figure 1.2. The side
of the resistor where the current goes in is the positive side of the voltage.
The side where the current goes out is the negative side of the voltage.
Figure 1.2

Another point that we would like to make is that Ohm’s law does not apply
to a voltage source, nor to a current source. By definition, a 12 V source
will provide any current at 12 V. We can have 12 V and zero current or 12
V and 10 A, but we would not try to find a resistor in this case. Similarly
for a current source. The current source will produce a current at any
voltage. It is important to take this into account when solving problems

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with current and voltage sources.

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

This law refers to the currents in a junction or node. It is illustrated in
Figure 1.3. The algebraic sum of the currents going into a node is equal to
zero. Currents going in are positive and those going out of the node are
negative.
Figure 1.3

Another easier way to understand is to say the sum of the currents going in
are equal to the sum of the currents going out of the node:

∑Iin = ∑Iout

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

The sum of the voltages around a closed loop are equal to zero. Another
way of saying the same thing, that is perhaps easier to understand is: the
sum of the voltage sources is equal to the voltage drops around a closed
loop. This can be seen in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4

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The equations are:
For Kirchhoff’s law:

−12V + V1 + V2 + V3 = 0

For the second alternative:

12V = V1 + V2 + V3

PROBLEM 1.1 KIRCHHOFF

Figure 1.5

The two-mesh circuit has a current-dependent voltage source V. The

polarities are as indicated. Find the value of i2.

Answer: i2 = 6 A

The sum of the voltages is equal to the sum of the voltage drops in the
left mesh.

Similarly, in the second loop

From equation (1)

10 = 5i1
i1 = 2 A

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 Replacing this value in equation (2)

PROBLEM 1.2 KIRCHHOFF

Figure 1.6

Find the value of V and VAB.

Answer: 10 V and 5 V

There is only one current and to produce 2 V in the 20 Ω resistor it must

be

From KVL

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 Also

PROBLEM 1.3 KIRCHHOFF

Figure 1.7

Calculate I1, I2 and V if I3 = 2 A.

Answer: I1 = 3 A, I2 = 1 A and V = 36 V
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 On the 12 Ω branch we can apply Ohm’s law

V = IR = 2 × 12 = 24 V

The 24 Ω branch has the same voltage as the 12 Ω branch. We apply

Ohm’s law again

According to KCL

V is given, according to KVL, by

PROBLEM 1.4 KIRCHHOFF

Figure 1.8

Find the value of I1, I2 and R, if I3 = 1.5 A.

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 Answer: I1 = 1 A, I2 = 0.5 A, R = 16 Ω

VAB = 6 + I3R = 6 + 1.5 × 4 = 12 V

On the left branch

VAB = 14 − 2I1
12 = 14 − 2I1
−2 = − 2I1
I1 = 1 A

On the right branch

VAB = 20 − I2R

Note the sign of the voltages, given by the rule of polarity. I2 can be
found from KCL

PROBLEM 1.5 KIRCHHOFF

Figure 1.9

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 Find I1, I3 and R if I2 is equal to 0.5 A.

Answer: I1 = 1 A, I3 = 1.5 A and R = 2 Ω

Following the sense of the currents shown, the polarity of the 16 Ω

resistor will oppose the 20 V supply.
The voltage AB will be

VAB = 20 − 16 × 0.5 = 20 − 8 = 12 V

Then

From KCL

I1 = I3 − I2 = 1.5 − 0.5 = 1 A

R produces a voltage drop of

PROBLEM 1.6 KIRCHHOFF

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 Figure 1.10

Find I1, I2 and I3.

Answer: 15 A, 1 A and 0.5 A

Total resistance

RT = R1 + R2 ‖ R3

The parallel bar signifies that R2 and R3 are in parallel.

Ohm’s law

Voltage AB

Ohm’s law

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 Check

PROBLEM 1.7 KIRCHHOFF

Figure 1.11

Find I1, I2 and I3.

Answer: 2 A, 1.6 A and 0.4 A

I1 = 2 A, as this is the same as the current source.

VAB = 5 I2 = 20I3

Therefore

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 KCL

Now the value of I2

PROBLEM 1.8 KIRCHHOFF

Figure 1.12

Find the value of R.

Answer: R = 5Ω

The value of R is given by Ohm’s law

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 The voltage of R is

VR = 24 − 9 = 15 V

The current is given by KCL

PROBLEM 1.9 KIRCHHOFF

Figure 1.13

Find the value of R.

Answer: R = 50 Ω
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 We can find the total current using Ohm’s law. We know the resistance,
we can calculate the voltage and then the current.

KCL

We now apply Ohm’s law

PROBLEM 1.10 KIRCHHOFF

Figure 1.10

The voltage in the centre mesh is a current dependent voltage source V.

Find the value of i2 as indicated.

Answer: −3 A

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 The circuit on the left mesh is independent.

Figure 1.15

First mesh

Second mesh

Substitute in equation (1)

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 PROBLEM 1.11 KIRCHHOFF
Figure 1.16

Find R, I1, I2 and I3.

Answer: R = 1Ω, I1 = 0A, I2 = 5 A, and I3 = 2.5 A

The voltage on the 2 Ω resistor is

V = IR = 5 × 2 = 10 V

Using KVL, the voltage on the 10Ω resistor is

60 − 10 = 50 V

(Work out the polarities to confirm this.)

Ohm’s law

In node A, 5 A go in and 5 A go out.

Therefore, I1 must be zero (KCL).

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 Resistor R

Dividing voltage and current

When solving electronic problems you will often find that you need to use
either the current division rule, or the voltage division rule. As long as the
resistors are known you will be able to find the total voltage from a portion
of the voltage or vice versa. And similarly with the current. We are going
to examine them now starting with voltage division.

Voltage division rule

The voltage is directly proportional to the resistance in a potential divider.
In the potential divider, shown in Figure 1.17, the current is:
Figure 1.17

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The current is common to both resistors. The voltage at R1 is given by

The voltage at R2 is given by

We can make a double check by adding both voltages and we should get
the total voltage V, as expected.

The voltage division, although the same problem as before, could appear in
a more complex situation. This is the case in Figure 1.18, where a voltage
source feeds a voltage amplifier. In this example the output voltage vOUT
depends on the input voltage vIN and the amplification A of the amplifier.
The input voltage depends on the value of the voltage source Vs, the
resistance of the voltage source Rs and the internal resistance of the
amplifier RIN.
Figure 1.18

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Rs and RIN form a potential divider and the same rule applies, i.e.

Current division rule

To illustrate this rule we refer to Figure 1.19. We know the total current
and we know R1 and R2.
Figure 1.19

It is reasonable to think that the branch with more resistance will carry less
current. To demonstrate this we start with the fact that R1 and R2 have the
same voltage as they are in parallel.

Using the principle of proportions:

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But

so

Similarly,

Try to remember that when calculating I1 that R2 goes on top in the

formula, that is to say for a current in one branch, we use the resistor of the
other branch in the formula. This makes sense when you think that the
more resistance a path has, the less current it will carry. In mathematical
terms we say that resistance and current, for a given circuit, are inversely
proportional.
The problem of three resistors, shown in Figure 1.20, can be reduced to
the previous one of two resistors in parallel, if we join two of them into one
using the parallel resistor formula.
Figure 1.20

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Normally, we are interested in one current on any current divider. As this
may not always be the case, it is worth considering the more general case,
as we do next.

General case
Alternatively, we can look at the general case, that is to say N resistors in
parallel, where we know the total resistance and we want to know the
current going through one particular branch. The circuit in Figure 1.21, is
equivalent to the circuit of Figure 1.22, where the parallel resistors have
been replaced by RP.
Figure 1.21

Figure 1.22

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The voltage between A and B will be

VAB = IT × RP

Similar expressions are valid for any of the branches:

When we are looking for a particular path, or current divider, we can say

IxRx = ITRP

and

This is the general formula where:

Ix is the current in any of the branches

IT is the total current coming into A
RP is the parallel equivalent of all the resistances in parallel
Rx is the resistance associated with current Ix

This general case, has to apply to the particular case of two resistors R1 and
R2 in parallel. Let us see if this is true.
If we are looking for I2

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RP for two resistors is

and replacing RP we obtain

Which takes us back to the basic current division rule, for the case of two
resistors in parallel.
We will be using this particular form of current division (two resistors
in parallel), in problems throughout the book. As you will see later, the
current amplification of a transistor is calculated with the aid of the current
division rule, in the input circuit and the output circuit.

PROBLEM 1.12 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.23

Find the value of V1 in terms of V.

Answer:

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 60Ω and 30Ω are in parallel

Voltage division

PROBLEM 1.13 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.24

This problem was done (problem 1.7) using only Ohm’s law and KCL. It
is repeated here using the current division rule.

Answer: 2A, 1.6A and 0.4A

I is the same as the source

I1 = 2 A

Current division rule

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 I is the same as the source

I1 = 2 A

Current division rule

Current division rule

PROBLEM 1.14 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.25

Find I1, I2 and the total current I.

Answer:
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 The 24Ω resistor has 8 V applied to it.

The 45Ω resistor has 9 V applied to it.

Total current

PROBLEM 1.15 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.26

What is the change of the voltage at A, if we connected a 5Ω load in AB?

Answer: From 10V to 6.32V

Without the 5Ω resistor

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 Connecting the resistor, we have

Total resistance this time

7 + 2.5 = 9.5Ω

And the voltage is

PROBLEM 1.16 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.27

Find I1, I2 and V1.

Answer: 5A, 3A and 200V

I3 is not required by the question, so we will not calculate it. Instead we

can go straight to I1 using the current division rule.

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 Voltage

PROBLEM 1.17 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.28

Find I1 and IT as a function of I2.

Answer: I1 = 2I2 and IT = 3I2

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 Total current

PROBLEM 1.18 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.29

I1 = 2A. Find I2, I3 and the voltage AB and CD.

Answer: I2 = 1.6, I3 = 0.4A, IAB = 40V and VCD = 24V

Voltage AB

Voltage division

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 Current division

Current division

PROBLEM 1.19 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.30

Find the value of VA and VB.

Answer: VA = 12V and VB = 15V

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 Voltage division

Voltage division

PROBLEM 1.20 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.31

Find the voltages AB, BC and Vs.

Answer: 12V, 12V and 24V

Voltage BC

VBC = IR = 2 × 6 = 12V

Current BC

KCL

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 IAB = 2 + 3 = 5 A

Voltage AB

VAB = IABR = 5 × 2.4 = 12 V

Source voltage

VS = VBC + VAB = 12 + 12 = 24V

PROBLEM 1.21 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.32

Find the voltage at VA, the total current and the branch currents.

Answer: 12 V, 2 A and for branches

Three resistors in parallel

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 VA by voltage division

Total resistance of circuit

6 + 18 = 24Ω

Total current

Branch current: All equal.

Check current sum

PROBLEM 1.22 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Figure 1.33

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 Find the value of the resistor to be added to AB, in order to reduce the
current in the 12Ω resistor to 7A.

Answer: R = 28Ω

We can use the current division rule with the following information:

total, current 10A

partial current 7A
known, resistor 12Ω

Unknown resistor

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Thevenin’s theorem
Any circuit or part of a circuit can be replaced by the simple equivalent of a
voltage source with a resistor in series. Figure 1.34 shows a general circuit
to be converted completely to a Thevenin equivalent. Sometimes it is more
practical to convert only part of the circuit into a Thevenin equivalent. We
see this situation in Figure 1.35. All we need to find is how to obtain VTH
and RTH. Before we do that we must identify points A and B and isolate
them from the part of the circuit which will not be included in the
equivalent circuit. In Figure 1.34, all the circuit is included in the equivalent
circuit, so there is nothing to separate. In Figure 1.35, however, the load
resistor will not be included in the equivalent circuit and we separate it
from the rest of the circuit. This is how we obtain our points A and B.
Figure 1.34

Figure 1.35

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Once we have separated the circuit that we want to transform, we can
proceed to find the value of VTH.

Value of VTH
There are two possibilities:

(a) We are in the lab and we have the actual circuit in front of us. All we
then need to do is to measure the voltage AB with a suitable meter. The
voltage indicated by the meter is VTH.
(b) More often than not, we will be working on a piece of paper, with a
drawing of the circuit. In this case we use our knowledge of circuit
analysis to calculate the voltage AB of the separated system.

Value of RTH
Having calculated the value of VTH, we need to move on to the value of RTH.
This is more complicated, because we now have to find out the equivalent
resistance of the circuit, excluding the influence of the voltage or current
sources that are part of the system. What we want is the resistance of the
voltage source, without the voltage source, and similarly for a current

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source.
Once you have mastered the theorem and you understand what it is
doing, you will find that this make sense, but it will be difficult to accept it
at first. Even if you don’t fully understand it, by following step by step the
procedure below, you will be quite safe (just like trying a cookery recipe).

(1) Disable all the sources in the circuit. In order to do this you:
• Short circuit the voltage supplies
• Open circuit the current supplies
(2) Measure (if you are in the lab) or calculate (if you are working on
paper), the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

PROBLEM 1.23 THEVENIN

Figure 1.36

Change the right-hand side of AB to Thevenin and then calculate the

value of I.

Answer: I = 20A

Thevenin voltage

Thevenin resistance

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 Now we can easily identify our next equation

PROBLEM 1.24 THEVENIN

Figure 1.38

Find the value of the current through the 20Ω resistor by converting the
circuit at the left of AB into a Norton equivalent

Answer: I = 4A

When the circuit is separated at A and B, only the left loop remains. We
will calculate the current first and then the voltage at AB which is the
Thevenin voltage.

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 Also

Thevenin resistance

Figure 1.39

With the circuit redrawn, it is easy to find the value of the current

PROBLEM 1.25 THEVENIN

Figure 1.40

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 Convert to Thevenin equivalent the circuit at the left of AB and then
calculate the value of I3.

Answer: I3 = 2.25A

Thevenin voltage

Thevenin resistance

Figure 1.41

It is now easier to calculate the current

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 PROBLEM 1.26 THEVENIN
Figure 1.42

The approximate values for the currents are

I1 = 42.55A, I2 = 9.8A and I3 = 52.35A.

Verify I2 by converting to Thevenin the circuit at the left of AB.

Answer: Yes, it is 9.8A

Thevenin voltage

Thevenin resistance

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 Figure 1.43

The expression for the current now follows

PROBLEM 1.27 THEVENIN

Figure 1.44

Find the value of I by converting the circuit at the left of AB to Thevenin

Answer: I = 0.4A

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 Thevenin voltage

Thevenin resistance

RTH = 40‖25 + 40 = 55.38Ω

Now the value of the current

PROBLEM 1.28 THEVENIN

Figure 1.45

In this circuit I1 = 12A. Verify this by converting to Thevenin the circuit

at the right of AB.

Answer: Yes, it is 12A

Thevenin voltage
This is a special case of Thevenin. There is no source of any kind in

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 the circuit. Therefore it is Zero.

VTH = 0

Thevenin resistance

Figure 1.46

The current is therefore

PROBLEM 1.29 THEVENIN

Figure 1.47

It has been found that I1 = 20A, I2 = 30A, and I3 is 50A. Verify the value of
I2, by converting the circuit at the left of AB to Thevenin.

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 Answer: Yes, I2 = 30A

Thevenin voltage

Thevenin resistance

Figure 1.48

We can now produce the expression for I2

PROBLEM 1.30 THEVENIN

Figure 1.49

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 In the circuit we have

I1 = 2A, I2 = 3A and I3 = 5A.

Verify the value of I1 by converting the circuit at the right of AB to

Thevenin.

Answer: Yes, I1 = 2A

Thevenin voltage

Thevenin resistance

Figure 1.50

The expression for I1 is now

PROBLEM 1.31 THEVENIN

Figure 1.51

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 Convert the right of AB to the Thevenin equivalent, in order to find the
value of I.

Answer: I = 2A

Thevenin voltage

Thevenin resistance

RTH = 10‖40 = 8Ω

(Current supply open circuit to calculate RTH)

Figure 1.52

The value of I is now

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 PROBLEM 1.32 THEVENIN
Figure 1.53

Find the value of R to produce I = −1A.

Use conversion to Thevenin at the right of AB.

Answer: R = 2Ω

Thevenin voltage

Thevenin resistance

Figure 1.54

The value of I, which we know, is given in terms of R:

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 PROBLEM 1.33 THEVENIN
Figure 1.55

Find the value of I using the Thevenin equivalent on the left of AB.

Answer: I = 0.25A

When we open A and B, VA and VB can he obtained as potential dividers

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 Thevenin voltage

VTH = 45 − 20 = 25V

(VB > VA, so VTH is upside-down, and the current is pointing in the right
direction).
Thevenin resistance. (120V supply shorted out to calculate RTH)

RTH = 60‖12 + 40‖24 = 10 + 15 = 25Ω

The current is now given by

Norton’s theorem
This theorem is very similar to Thevenin’s theorem and we will follow the
same approach, so that you can compare the two theorems. Any circuit or
part of a circuit can be replaced by a very simple circuit composed of a
current source, with a resistor in parallel. Figure 1.56 shows a general
circuit, to be converted completely to a Norton equivalent. In order to solve
a problem it might be more practical to convert only part of the circuit into
a Norton equivalent, as we see in Figure 1.57.
Figure 1.56

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Figure 1.57

All we need to do is to find out how we can obtain IN and RN. Before we try
to find IN and RN, we must be very clear which circuit we are converting to
a Norton equivalent. We must clearly identify points A and B of the circuit.
Once we have done this, we can move onto the next step which is to find
the value of IN.

Value of IN
There are two possibilities:

(a) We are in the lab and we have the actual circuit in front of us. In this
case we short circuit points A and B and we measure the short circuit
current with a suitable meter. The reading of the meter is the current IN
that we are looking for.
(b) More often than not, we will be working on a piece of paper with a
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 drawing of the circuit. In this case we use our knowledge of circuit
analysis to calculate the short circuit current through AB, now joined
together in short circuit.

Value of RN
The method of calculating RN is identical to the calculation of RTH. That will
allow us to simplify the explanation and to state the method, as follows:

(1) Disable all sources in the circuit. To do this, you

Short circuit the voltage supplies
Open circuit the current supplies
(2) Measure (if you are in the lab) or calculate (if you are working on
paper) the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

PROBLEM 1.34 NORTON

Figure 1.58

Find the value of VA by converting the circuit at the left of AB, to a

Norton equivalent

Answer: 24V

Norton current

Figure 1.59

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 Now we have a circuit where both currents feed in the same direction,
therefore they add, and there are two resistors in parallel that can he
considered as one.

PROBLEM 1.35 NORTON

Figure 1.60

Find the value of I by converting to Norton the circuit on the left of AB.

Answer: I = 0.4A

The Norton current is found by calculating the total current of the circuit
(with A and B shorted) and then using the current division rule as we
will see,
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 Figure 1.61

Total resistance

RT = 40 + 25‖40 = 55.384 6Ω

Total current

Norton current (by current division)

Norton resistance

RN = 40 + 25‖40 = 55.384 6Ω

(This is not the same as RT above, but the values are the same as the
circuit is symmetrical.)
Figure 1.62

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 The value of I can be obtained from the simpler circuit using the current
divison rule

PROBLEM 1.36 NORTON

Figure 1.63

Find the value of the current through the 20Ω resistor by converting the
circuit at the left of AB into a Norton equivalent

Answer: I = 4A

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 Figure 1.64

We have two independent meshes.

Left loop

Right loop

Norton current

IN = I1 + I2 = 20 A

Norton resistance

RN = 61‖30 = 5Ω

Figure 1.65

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 The current in question is given by the current division rule

PROBLEM 1.37 NORTON

Figure 1.66

I1 = 20A. Verify this by converting the circuit at the right of AB to

Norton.

Answer: Yes, I1 = 20A

Norton current

Norton resistance

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 Figure 1.67

We now verify the current I by calculating the voltages at AB from both

sides Voltage at AB from both sides
Voltage at AB

VAB = 220 − 20 × 6 = 220 − = 100V

Voltage at AB should also be

This proves that I1 = 20 A is the correct solution.

PROBLEM 1.38 NORTON

Figure 1.68

Find the voltage at VC by converting the circuit on the left of AB to a

Norton equivalent.

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 Answer: 40V

Figure 1.69

The Norton current is obtained by first calculating the total current of

the circuit at the left of AB with AB shorted.

Norton Resistance

RN = 8‖8 + 8 = 12Ω

Figure 1.70

Both generators are feeding current in the same direction

Total current

Voltage VC

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 PROBLEM 1.39 NORTON
Figure 1.71

Find the voltage Vx by transforming to a Norton equivalent, the circuit

on the right of AB.

Answer: Vx = 15V

Norton current
The Norton current is calculated by current division, after finding the
total current of the circuit with A and B shorted together.
Figure 1.72

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 The circuit now is
Figure 1.73

Applying KCL, we get

Note: A further explanation of this method, a form of nodal analysis, can

be found on page 206.

PROBLEM 1.40 NORTON

Figure 1.74

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 Convert to Norton the circuit on the left of CD. Find the value of I by
first calculating VA and VB.

Answer: I = 2A

Norton current

Norton resistance

RN = 20Ω

The circuit can be redrawn

Figure 1.75

Applying KCL (a form of nodal analysis)

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 Applying KCL (a form of nodal analysis)

We multiply equation (1) by 5 and equation (2) by 4

25 480 − 182VA = 0 VA = 140V

Replacing VA in equation (1) we get

2600 − 6440 + 20VB = 0

−3840 + 20VB = 0 VB = 192V

Finally we can calculate the current

PROBLEM 1.41 NORTON

Figure 1.76

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 In this circuit I3 = 3A. Verify this by converting the circuit at the left of
AB to Norton.

Answer: I3 = 3A

Norton current

Norton resistance

RN = 6‖1.5 = 1.2Ω

The circuit can be redrawn

Figure 1.77

The answer is found after applying the current division rule

PROBLEM 1.42 NORTON

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 Figure 1.78

The approximate value of I2 is 9.8A. Verify this by converting the circuit

at the left of AB to Norton.

Answer: Yes

Norton resistance

Figure 1.79

Voltage drops on 4Ω resistor

I2 × 4 = 9.8 × 4 = 39.2V

The polarity is such that if is opposing the voltage source.

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 VAB = 144 − 39.2 = 104.8V

On the 1.5Ω resistor the current is

60 + 9.8

Therefore

VAB = (60 + 9.8)1.5 = 104.7V

The answer is yes.

PROBLEM 1.43 NORTON

Figure 1.80

Find the value of Vx by converting to Norton at AB and CD.

Answer: Vx = 57.6V

At AB

At CD

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 Figure 1.81

The redrawn circuit allows us to calculate the requested voltage

Vx = IR = 85.7143 × 0.672 = 57.6V

PROBLEM 1.44 NORTON

Figure 1.82

Find the value of I using Norton on the left of AB.

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 Answer: I = 0.25A

Norton resistance

RN = 60‖12 + 40‖24 = 10 + 15 = 25Ω

Norton current
This value is difficult to obtain in this case. We need of the help of
the next figure, to solve this problem IN has to flow from A to B. It is not
the case on the left. It is the case on the right and for this we need
Kichhoff’s law.
Figure 1.83

600 ’ 20VA = 0 VA = 30V

240 − 60 − 129I − 300 = 0
I = −1A
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 The current goes from B to A!
Figure 1.84

Thevenin–Norton conversions
In certain cases the conversion from Thevenin to Norton and vice versa can
help us to obtain the solution to a problem.
A typical case is illustrated in Figure 1.85. This type of problem can be
solved by mesh analysis, nodal analysis or by calculating the total
impedance, total current, etc. Any of these methods will be quite
complicated. The last method mentioned would be straightforward if it
were not for the capacitor on the right-hand side. With the capacitor we
will have imaginary and complex numbers to contend with.
Figure 1.85

We can use, with advantage, Thevenin–Norton conversions which are

simple and progress to the right as shown in Figure 1.86. In the sequence
shown, the values of voltage and current sources have not been indicated
and, of course, they change.
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Figure 1.86

The resistors, when in parallel, can be combined and the series resistors
added, but in Figure 1.86, have been left without combining to show the
method of working the problem.
A useful though unexpected fact is that the resistance for a Norton to
Thevenin or Thevenin to Norton, is the same, as shown in Figure 1.87, the
resistor is 10Ω in one case and also in the other. Remember that to calculate
the impedance in Norton or Thevenin we disable the supplies. That is to
say, we short the voltage supply and open-circuit the current source. So, in
both cases we end up with 10Ω.
Figure 1.87

Calculating the equivalent resistances will be no problem, in the case of

Figure 1.86. We will only have to use parallel and series conversions.
We will now see how we calculate the value of the current source if we
go from a Thevenin to a Norton equivalent (see Figure 1.88). According to
the Norton theorem we have to short A and B and measure or calculate the
short circuit current through AB. It is

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Figure 1.88

The only part now left, is how to calculate the value of the voltage source
when we go from a Norton to a Thevenin equivalent. We now use Figure
1.89.
Figure 1.89

According to Thevenin’s theorem, the voltage is obtained by measuring or

calculating the voltage at points A and B, when they have been separated
from the rest of the circuit. It is

VTH = INR

There are several problems that will be solved by this technique in future
chapters. You need to master it well in the examples that follow.

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 PROBLEM 1.45 THEVENIN–NORTON
Figure 1.90

I2 = −2A. Verify this value by converting the left of AB from Norton to

Thevenin.

Answer: Yes, I2 = −2A

Thevenin voltage

VTH = 4 × 10 = 40V

Thevenin resistance

RTH = IN = 4Ω

We now redraw the circuit

Figure 1.91

The voltage AB, calculated from both directions is

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 The current value is alright.

PROBLEM 1.46 THEVENIN–NORTON

Figure 1.92

Find the value of VX using Thevenin to Norton conversion at AB.

Answer: VX = 40V

Norton resistance

RN = RTH = 5Ω

Norton current

The new circuit is

Figure 1.93

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 Resistance

Total current

10 + 3 = 13A

Voltage

PROBLEM 1.47 THEVENIN–NORTON

Figure 1.94

Find the value of VX by changing Thevenin to Norton on both sides.

Answer: VX = 96V
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 Left - hand side

Norton current

Norton resistance
RN = 60Ω

Right- hand side

Norton current

Norton resistance
RN = 24Ω

We now redraw the circuit

Figure 1.95

Total current

5 + 3 = 8A

Total resistance

60‖40‖24 = 12Ω

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 and finally, the voltage

VX = IR = (5 + 3)12 = 8 × 12 = 96 V

PROBLEM 1.48 THEVENIN–NORTON

Figure 1.96

Find the voltage AB by converting Thevenin to Norton on both sides.

Answer: 100V

Left - hand side

Right - hand side

We now redraw the circuit

Figure 1.97

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 Total resistance

RT = 6‖2‖4 = 1.090 9Ω

Voltage

VAB = 91.666 × 1.0909 = 100 V

PROBLEM 1.49 THEVENIN–NORTON

Figure 1.98

Calculate I3 by Thevenin–Norton conversions left to right.

Answer: I3 = 1A

Norton current

Norton resistance

RN = 3Ω

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 We now redraw the circuit
Figure 1.99

The 3 and 4Ω resistors can be joined together. Then we can go from

Norton to Thevenin and get nearer to the solution

Thevenin voltage

Thevenin resistance

The circuit is redrawn once more.

Figure 1.100

The current can now be calculated

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 PROBLEM 1.50 THEVENIN–NORTON
Figure 1.101

Find the value of I2 by converting Thevenin to Norton.

Answer: I2 = 5A

There is only one Thevenin circuit, the 135V source with the 5Ω resistor,
we convert this one.

The new circuit is

Figure 1.102

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 The current are opposing. The equivalent current source is therefore 27 −
2 = 25A.
I2 is obtained by current division.

PROBLEM 1.51 THEVENIN–NORTON

Figure 1.103

Find the value of I2 by making Thevenin–Norton conversions from left to

right until them are two voltage sources linked directly by resistors.

Answer: I2 = −1A

Thevenin to Norton

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 The result is shown
Figure 1.104

Norton to Thevenin

VTH = 15 × 7.5 = 112.5V

RTH = 7.5Ω

The new circuit is shown

Figure 1.105

The value of I2 can be calculated.

Because the direction is opposite to the one above, we must call it −1A.

PROBLEM 1.52 THEVENIN–NORTON

Figure 1.106

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 Use Norton–Thevenin conversions on the right-hand side to show that
the current on the 20V battery is 0.8A

Answer: 0.8A

Thevenin voltage

VTH = 1.6 × 20 = 32V

Thevenin resistance

RTH = 1.6Ω

The new circuit is shown

Figure 1.107

The next conversion is

Figure 1.108

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 and the last transformation is
Figure 1.109

The current can now be evaluated

PROBLEM 1.53 THEVENIN–NORTON

Figure 1.110

We know that in the circuit shown I1 = 14A, I2 = 2A and I3 = −12A.

Verify the value of I2 converting the left of AB to Thevenin and the
right of CD to Norton. Then check if the value of I2 is correct.

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 Answer: I2 = 2A

Thevenin

Norton

The new circuit is shown

Figure 1.111

Therefore I2 = 2A is alright.

PROBLEM 1.54 THEVENIN–NORTON

Figure 1.112

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 Use Thevenin–Norton conversions to demonstrate that the circuit shown
is equivalent to a current source of 2A with a load of 4Ω.

Answer: Yes

Thevenin to Norton conversion

Figure 1.113

Norton to Thevenin conversion

Figure 1.114

Thevenin to Norton conversion

Figure 1.115

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 PROBLEM 1.55 THEVENIN–NORTON
Figure 1.116

Convert Norton to Thevenin for both sources, to find the value of I.

Answer: I = 4A

Thevenin voltage

VTH = 8 × 5 = 40V

Thevenin resistance

RTH = 5Ω

Thevenin voltage

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 VTH = 4 × 10 = 40V

Thevenin resistance

RTH = 10Ω

The new circuit is shown

Figure 1.117

Superposition
Superposition is a very useful technique to solve complicated problems. We
will certainly use it in the solution of operational-amplifier (Op–Amp)
problems, where there is more than one input.
If the system has two inputs, you can consider the output of the system
when one input is ‘reduced to zero’, leaving only the other input to produce
an output.
Then you ‘reduce to zero’ the other input and consider the output with
only the input that was ‘reduced to zero’ in the first place.
The total output is given by the sum of the two outputs:

V0 = V01 + V02

This is really an application of a more general principle, that of the cause

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and effect: two causes and two effects.
Care must be taken to make sure that we are not in saturation where
cause and effect no longer applies, i.e., it must be a linear system that we
are considering. Additionally, you must be careful with the ‘reduction to
zero’ as this has two meanings. In the case of a voltage source, the voltage
is ‘reduced to zero’ by replacing the (unwanted) voltage source with a short
circuit. You could say short-circuiting the (unwanted) battery. In the case
of a current source, the opposite is true. In order to ‘reduce to zero’ a
current source, you replace the current source with an open circuit.
Figure 1.118 shows the superposition when the circuit has active
sources of voltage sources. Here we see a simple example of how to deal
with the voltage sources under superposition.
Figure 1.118

In Figure 1.119, we see how to deal with a problem under superposition

when the source is a current source.

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Figure 1.119

PROBLEM 1.56 SUPERPOSITION

Figure 1.120

Find the value of I1, I2 and I3.

Answer: 2A, 1A and 1A

First case
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 Figure 1.121

Total resistance

Currents

I2 and I3 obtained by current division

Second case
Figure 1.122

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 Total resistance

Currents

Now we join the two results together

PROBLEM 1.56 SUPERPOSITION

Figure 1.123

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 Use superposition to find the values of I1, I2 and I3.

Answer: I1 = 2A, I2 = 1A and I3 = 3A

Superposition. Left-side supply on

Figure 1.124

Total resistance

Currents

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 Second case. From the other side
Total resistance

Total values

I1 = 3.5 − 1.5 = 2A
I2 = −0.875 + 1.875 = 1A
I3 = 2.625 + 0.375 = 3A

PROBLEM 1.58 SUPERPOSITION

Figure 1.125

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 I1 = 2A, I2 = 4A and I3 = 6A

Demonstrate this using superposition.

Answer: Yes

Case a)
Total resistance

RT = 36‖12 + 36 = 9 + 36 = 45Ω

Figure 1.126

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 Case b)
Total resistant, the same as before
Figure 1.127

Result

I1 = −1.2 + 3.2 = 2A
I2 = −0.8 + 4.8 = 4A
I3 = 2.4 + 3.6 = 6A

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 PROBLEM 1.59 SUPERPOSITION
Figure 1.128

The value of currents are: I1 = 6A, I2 = −1A and I3 = 5A. Verify this using
superposition.

Answer: Yes

Case a)
Figure 1.129

Total resistance

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 Case b)
Figure 1.130

Total resistance

Result:
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 I1 = 7.077 − 1.077 = 6A
I2 = −5.31 + 4.31 = −1A
I3 = 1.77 + 3.23 = 5A

PROBLEM 1.60 SUPERPOSITION

Figure 1.131

Using superposition find the value of the voltage at VX. Calculate the
current flowing through the 4Ω resistor first.

Answer: VX = 96V

Case a)
Figure 1.132

Total resistance

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 Case b)
Figure 1.133

Total resistance

Result

IX = 0.9 + 1.5 = 2.4A

VX = IR = 2.4 × 40 = 96V

PROBLEM 1.61 SUPERPOSITION

Figure 1.134

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 Using superposition find the value of VX. Calculate the current through
the 30Ω resistor to calculate VX.

Answer: VX = 72V

Case a)
Figure 1.135

Current

Case b)
Figure 1.136

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 Current

Result

I = 0.8 + 1.6 = 2.4A

VX = 30 × 2.4 = 72V

PROBLEM 1.62 SUPERPOSITION

Using superposition to find VX. Find the current through the middle
branch first.

Answer: VX = 72V

Case a)
Figure 1.138

Current (both resistors being of the same value, the current is half the
value of the generator).

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 I = 0.5A

Case b)
Figure 1.139

Current

Total

I = 1 + 0.5 = 1.5A
VX = 1.5 × 48 = 72V

PROBLEM 1.63 SUPERPOSITION

Figure 1.140

Find the values of I1, I2 and I3 using superposition.

Answer: I1 = 20A, I2 = 8A and I3 = −3A

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 Case a)
Figure 1.141

Total resistance

Currents

Case b)
Figure 1.142

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 Resistance

Currents

Result

I1 = 22.153 8 − 2.153 8 = 20A

I2 = 12.307 7 − 4.307 7 = 8A
I3 = 6.153 8 − 9.153 8 = −3A

PROBLEM 1.64 SUPERPOSITION

Figure 1.143

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 Use superposition to find the value of I1 and I2.

Answer: I1 = 18A and I2 = 22A

Case a)
Figure 1.144

Currents (by current division)

Case b)
Figure 1.145

Currents

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 Result

I1 = 14.181 818 + 3.818 181 = 18A

I2 = 11.818 181 + 10.181 818 = 22A

PROBLEM 1.65 SUPERPOSITION

Figure 1.146

Use superposition to find the value of I.

Answer: I = 4A

Case a)
Figure 1.147

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 Current (by current division)

Case b)
Figure 1.148

Current

Result

I = 2 + 2 = 4A

PROBLEM 1.66 SUPERPOSITION

Figure 1.149

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 Use superposition to find the value of I.

Answer: I = 6A

Case a)
Figure 1.150

Resistance

RT = 24 + 36‖12 = 24 + 9 = 33Ω

Current

Case b)
Figure 1.151

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 Resistance (only the three resistances on the left)

R = 6 + 24‖36 = 6 + 14.4 = 20.4Ω

Current

Total:

I = 2.545 4 + 3.454 5 = 6A

Nodal analysis
Nodal analysis is a direct application of Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL). It is
based on the fact that at a node or a junction point, the sum of the currents
is equal to zero.
According to what we said before, currents going into a node are
considered positive and currents going out are considered negative. A
simple example is illustrated in Figure 1.152. In order to solve this problem
we first indicate the nodes in the drawing. We have three nodes in the
upper part, with one reference node at the bottom. Secondly we assume
some voltages at the nodes, say, V1, V2 and V3 for nodes A, B and C,
respectively. Thirdly, we assign the currents, that is to say we give them
names and directions. In the circuit shown in Figure 1.153, the currents
have the same number as the resistor where they circulate, but this is
purely accidental, you could use any numbers that you want.
Figure 1.152

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Figure 1.153

The sense of the current is not important at this stage, you can make an
intelligent guess, but the important consideration, is to give a direction and
then stick to it. If the sense of the current is not in the same sense as in
reality, then you will get a minus sign in the result for this particular
current.
Node A

I0 − I1 − I2 = 0

Node B

I2 − I3 − I4 = 0

Node C

I6 − I4 − I5 = 0
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Please note that this equation is true because it corresponds to the direction
in Figure 1.153. If we change the direction of any current, then the equation
will change the sign for that particular current.
The next stage is to replace the currents by their equivalent in voltages
and resistances according to Ohm’s law.
Node A

Node B

Node C

In this case we know the current sources I0 and I6. We also know the
resistors. The unknowns are V1, V2 and V3. As we have three unknowns and
three equations, we can solve the problem.

PROBLEM 1.67 NODAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1.154

Find the values of I1, I2 and I3.

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 Answer: I1 = 3A, I2 = 1A and I3 = 4A

Currents

PROBLEM 1.68 NODAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1.155

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 Find the value of the voltage VX with respect to 0V and subsequently find
the values of I1, I2 and I3.

Answer: VX = 10V, I1 = 2A, I2 = 1A and I3 = 1A

Currents

Now the values of currents

PROBLEM 1.69 NODAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1.156

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 Using nodal analysis calculate VA and VB.

Answer: VA = 78V and VB = 48V

Node A (+ into node; − out of node)

Node B

Add equation (1) and (2) (multiplied by 14)

1560 − 28VA + 13VB = 0

2520 − 98VB + 28VA = 0

4080 − 85VB = 0 VB = 48V

Replace in equation (2)

−180 + 336 − 2VA = 0 VA = 78V

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 PROBLEM 1.70 NODAL ANALYSIS
Figure 1.157

Find VA and VB.

100V and 60V

The sum of the currents into the node are equal to the sum of the
currents out of the node.
Node A

Node B

There are two equations and two unknowns. We can solve it Multiplied
by 120.

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 Replace equation (4) in equation (3)

Replace VA in equation (4)

PROBLEM 1.71 NODAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1.158

Find the voltages VA, VB and then the value of I.

Answer: VA = 97.2V, VB = 66V and I = 4A

Node A

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 Node B

Equation (1), plus equation (2) multiplied by 2.

1263.6 − 24VA + 16.2VB = 0

280.8 + 24VA − 39.6VB = 0
1544.4 − 23.4VB = 0 VB = 66V

Replace VB in equation (2),

140.4 + 12VA − 1306.8 = 0

12VA − 1166.4 = 0 VA = 97.2V

and finally

PROBLEM 1.72 NODAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1.159

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 Find the value of VX with respect to 0V using nodal analysis.

Answer: VX = 40V

Assume currents as shown.

The sum of currents going in is equal to the sum of currents going
out.

PROBLEM 1.73 NODAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1.160

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 Find VX by nodal analysis.

Answer: VX = 96V

(Current in positive, currents out negative.)

PROBLEM 1.74 NODAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1.161

Use nodal analysis to find the value of VX and VY.

Answer: VX = 216V and VY = 192V

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 Equation (1), plus equation (2) times 6.

PROBLEM 1.75 NODAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1.162

Use nodal analysis to find the value of VX and VY.

Answer: VX = 90V and VY = 66V

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 Equation (1), plus equation (2) multiplied by 8

390 − 8VX + 5VY = 0

336 − 16VY + 8VX = 0
726 − 11VY = 0 VY = 66V

Replace VY in equation (2)

42 − 2VY + VX = 0
42 − 132V + VX = 0
−90 + VX = 0 VX = 90V

PROBLEM 1.76 NODAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1.163

Using nodal analysis find the voltages VA and VB.

Answer: 20V and 20V

Node A (sum of currents in equals zero)

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 Node B

Equation (1) times (−3), plus equation (2)

−3VB + 9VA = 120

3VB − VA = 40
8VA = 160 VA = 20 V

Replace VA in equation (2)

3VB − 20 = 40 VB = 20V

PROBLEM 1.77 NODAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1.164

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 Find VA, VB and the value of I.

Answer: 22.5V, 41.25V and 0.25A

Equation (2) plus equation (1) times 6

−8VA + 48VB − 1800 = 0

408VA − 48VB − 7200 = 0
400VA − 1980 = 0 VA = 22.25V

Replace in equation (2)

−180 + 48VB − 1800 = 0

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 48VB − 1980 = 0 VB = 41.25V

Current

Mesh analysis
Mesh analysis is a direct application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
Mesh analysis comes in handy in the derivation of a transistor model (more
of that in Chapter 4). It is based on the fact that the sum of the voltages
around a closed loop is equal to zero. A typical circuit is shown in Figure
1.165.
Figure 1.165

First of all we identify, arbitrarily, the sense of the currents in the different
meshes. This is not a triviality, but as we saw at the beginning, the sense of
the current dictates the sense of the voltage that appears in the resistors.
The chosen direction for currents can be seen in Figure 1.166. From the
author’s experience, students prefer to use a modified KVL, but still a KVL,
that is to say:
Figure 1.166

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The voltage sources around a closed loop are equal to the voltage drops in
the loop.

NOTE: If the voltage source in the loop is against the sense of the
current in that loop, as it is the case in the third loop, then the value of
the voltage source is written as negative.

We can now write the equations:

Mesh 1

V1 = I1R1 + I1R2 − I2R2

Mesh 2

0 = I2R2 + I2R3 + I2R4 − I1R2 − I3R4

Mesh 3

−V2 = I3R4 + I3R5 − I2R4

This can be simplified and tidied up, giving:

Mesh 1

V1 = I1(R1 + R2) − I2R2

Mesh 2

0 = −I1R2 + I2(R2 + R3 + R4) − I3R4

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Mesh 3

−V2 = −I2R4 + I3(R4 + R5)

This is more presentable and looks better. It can easily be transferred into
matrix notation. Matrix notation is only an abbreviated form of writing the
equation, but we are not interested in matrices at this moment.

PROBLEM 1.78 MESH ANALYSIS

Figure 1.167

Find the value of I1 and I2.

Answer: I1 = 2mA and I2 = −4.8mA

Mesh 1

0.55 = 275I1 I1 = 2mA

−0.41 = −0.05 + 75I2
−0.36 = 75I2 I2 = −4.8mA

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 PROBLEM 1.79 MESH ANALYSIS
Figure 1.168

Find the values of I1 and I2.

Answer: I1 = 3A and I2 = 4A

Mesh 1

Mesh 2

Add equation (1) and (2)

9 = 3I1 I1 = 3A

Replace in equation (2)

11 = −9 + 5I2
20 = 5I2 I2 = 4A
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 PROBLEM 1.80 MESH ANALYSIS
Figure 1.169

Find the values of I1, I2 and I3.

Answer: 28.36A, 6.55A and 34.91A

Mesh 1

Replace in equation (1)

PROBLEM 1.81 MESH ANALYSIS

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 Figure 1.170

Find the valure of VX, by first calculating I1 and I2.

Answer: 96V

Equation (1) divided by 10 and equation (2) divided by 8

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 Voltage

PROBLEM 1.82 MESH ANALYSIS

Figure 1.171

Find the mesh currents I1, I2 and I3.

Answer: I1 = 5.6A, I2 = 2A and I3 = −0.8A

Mesh equation

40 = I1(2 + 8) − I28
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 0 = −8I1 + I2(8 + 6 + 6) − 6I3
−20 = −I26 + I3(6 + 4)

Eliminating I1 from equations (1) and (2)

160 = 40I1 − 32I2

0 = −40I1 + 100I2 − 30I3
160 = 68I2 − 30I3
−60 = −18I2 + 30I3
100 = 50I2 I2 = 2A

Replace I2 in equation (1)

40 = 10I1 − 16 I1 = 5.6A

From equation (3)

−20 = −12 + 10I3 I3 = −0.8A

Checking mesh currents

Figure 1.172

Having established from mesh analysis the values of I1, I2 and I3, it easy
to verify these values.
At node A for instance VA is given by

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 From equation (2)

(5.6 − 2)8 = 28.8V

From equation (3)

4 − 2 × 5.6 = 28.8V

From equation (1)

VB is also equal to

VB is also (at BD)

Any discrepancies would be revealed with these tests.

PROBLEM 1.83 MESH ANALYSIS

Figure 1.173

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 Find the values of I1, I2 and I3.

Answer: 10A, 5A and 3A

Mesh equations

160 = I1(6 + 20) − 20I2

0 = −20I1 + I2(20 + 8 + 30) − 30I3
0 = −30I2 + I3(30 + 20)

Rearranged

From equation (3)

Replace I3 in (2)

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 PROBLEM 1.84 MESH ANALYSIS
Figure 1.174

Find I1, I2 and I3.

Answer: 22.4A, 8A and −3.2A

Mesh equations

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 From equation (1)

Replace I1 in equation (2)

From equation (1)

80 = 5I1 − 4I2 = 5I1 − 32

5I1 = 80 + 32 = 112 I1 = 22.4A

From equation (3)

−40 = 5I3 − 3I2 = 5I3 − 24

5I3 = −16 I3 = −3.2A

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 PROBLEM 1.85 MESH ANALYSIS
Figure 1.175

Use mesh analysis to find IX and IY.

Answer: IX = 6A, IY = 32A

I3 is known to be 28A. We make equation for I1 and I2.

Add equation (1) plus equation (2) times 3

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 The currents are

PROBLEM 1.86 MESH ANALYSIS

Figure 1.176

Find I1 and I2

Answer: I1 = 1.8A and I2 = 1A

I3 = 3A
Mesh 1

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 Mesh 2

Adding equations (1) and (2)

3 = 3I2 I2 = 1A

Replace I2 in equation (2)

−2 = −5I1 + 7
5I1 = 9 I1 = 1.8A

PROBLEM 1.87 MESH ANALYSIS

Figure 1.177

Find the values of I1, I2 and I3 using mesh analysis.

Answer: I1 = 1.625A, I2 = −1.96875A and I3 = −0.25A

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 Mesh 1

Mesh 2

Mesh 3

From equation (1), I3 is

I1 = 6I1 −10

Repalce I3 in equation (2)

Replace I3 in equation (3)

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 Add equations (4) and (5)

325 = 200I1 I1 = 1.625A

Replace in equation (5)

370 = 354.25 − 8I2

15.75 = −8I2 I2 = −1.96875A
I3 = 9.75 − 10 I3 = −0.25A

PROBLEM 1.88 MESH ANALYSIS

Figure 1.178

Use mesh analysis to find IX and IY.

Answer: IX = 18A and IY = 22A

I1 and I3 are known, 26A and 14A sources. We can make an equation for
I2.
Mesh 2

0 = I2(5 + 3 + 3) − 5I1 + 3I3

Note that the sign of I3, positive as I3 and I2 have the same direction in

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 the 3Ω resistor.

0 = 11I2 − 130 + 42
11I2 = 88 I2 = 8A

Currents

IX = I1 − I2 = 26 − 8 = 18A
IY = I2 − I3 = 8 + 14 = 22A

Miller’s theorem
Miller’s theorem states that a given impedance can be replaced by two
equivalent impedances. In order to illustrate this we refer to Figure 1.179,
where if the behaviour of the circuits is the same, then the circuits are
equivalent.
Figure 1.179

NOTE
Because of the negative sign that will appear in the formula, the Miller
theorem only works on an inverting amplifier and it becomes
meaningless otherwise.

In circuit (a) we have

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I1 = (V1 − V2)Y

We factorise V1:

The same I1, in circuit (b) is given by

I1 = Y1V1

Equating both of them

Since V1 is common to both circuits, they can be eliminated

If we know the voltage amplification ratio

then

V1 = Y(1 − Av)

We now look at the V2 side

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In circuit b)

I2 = V2Y2

Equating both of them

V2 can be simplified

Using the ratio AV = V2/V1, we have

In a transistor configuration (such as a common emitter), the amplification

is negative and this will get rid of the negative sign. Care should be taken
to ensure that the amplification AV is taken at the points where Miller’s
theorem is applied. This will be different from the total amplification of the
transistor in most cases.
The usefulness of this theorem consists in separating input and output
circuits of the transistor, obtaining two circuits, instead of one. These two
circuits can be tackled independently in a much simpler way, as we will see
in . Without Miller’s theorem, the analysis of the transistor under high
frequency would be much more complex.

Special case: circuit with resistors

In the case of a circuit with resistors we can say that

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Therefore

rearranging

For the other side

replacing

rearranging

In certain situations it is possible to neglect the value 1/AV because we

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expect a high amplification. If this is the case we can say that:

Y2 ≈ Y and R2 ≈ R

PROBLEM 1.89 MILLER

Figure 1.180

Convert the following circuit using Miller’s theorem from a) to b) when

Av = −100.

Answer: C1 = 504pF and C2 ≈ 4pF

Input side

Output side

Figure 1.181

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 PROBLEM 1.90 MILLER
Figure 1.182

Find the values of CA and CB if the amplification is AV = −180.

Answer: CA = 927pF and CB = 5pF

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 PROBLEM 1.91 MILLER
Figure 1.183

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 Find the value of CA. The amplification is Av = −gmRL. (Rc ≫ RL and is not
taken into account). gm = 0.5S, RL = 400Ω.

Answer: CA = 602pF

PROBLEM 1.92 MILLER

CB’C = 10pF CM1 = 1200pF

Find the amplification

Answer: Av = −119

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 PROBLEM 1.93 MILLER
gm = 0.385S, RC and RL = 1200Ω, CB’C = 4.5pF. Find the Miller equivalent
capacitors.

Answer: CM1 = 1044pF and CM2 ≈ 4.5pF

The amplification is

PROBLEM 1.94 MILLER

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 Figure 1.184

The amplification of this circuit is −200.

Find the Miller equivalent.

Answer: C1 = 4060pF, C2 ≈ 35pF

The equivalent circuit is

Figure 1.185

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 PROBLEM 1.95 MILLER
Figure 1.186

Find the values of the equivalent circuit.

Answer: CM1 = 1452pF, CM2 ≈ 12pF

The circuit can be redrawn

Figure 1.187

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 PROBLEM 1.96 MILLER
Figure 1.188

Find the value of the input capacitance of the amplifier and the value of
amplification that would give an input capacitance of 0.

Answer: CM1 = 1μF, A = 1

Input capacitance

The value of capacitance 0

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 0 = 1pF(1 − A)
1−A=0
A=1

PROBLEM 1.97 MILLER

Figure 1.189

Find the value of RIN using Miller’s theorem.

Answer: RIN = 2.35Ω

The main problem here is to find the voltage amplification of the

transistor, before we can apply Miller’s theorem. We can try nodal
analysis.
Node B

At node A

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 Amplification

Miller

Input resistance

RIN = 2.4‖120 = 2.35Ω

PROBLEM 1.98 MILLER

Figure 1.190

The circuit shown is the equivalent circuit of a transistor with collector

feedback biasing. The amplification is Av and it is a negative number.
Use Miller’s theorem to split the circuit in two at RF.

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 Answer:

The new circuit is shown in Figure 1.191. Note that we are using
impedances now. The formula was developed for admittances.
Figure 1.191

Gain impedance formula

This is a very interesting formula which relates the current gain, the

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voltage gain and the power gain of amplifiers.
It doesn’t matter how many stages there are in a system. We only need
to know the details of the input side of the first stage and the details of the
output of the last stage, as we see in Figure 1.192.
Figure 1.192

Replacing

Therefore

NOTE: Use absolute value if you are not interested in the sign.

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2
Biasing

We examine three types of biasing of the common emitter configuration.

The three types are shown in Figure 2.1. As the transistor is a current
controlled device with IB setting the level of IC, the object of the biasing is
to set an appropriate level of IC by controlling IB. The three types are:
supply resistor biasing, collector feedback biasing and potential divider
biasing.
Figure 2.1

Supply resistor biasing

We now refer to Figure 2.2. We can easily see the voltage loop and we can
apply KVL. In the modified form (sum of voltages equal to sum of voltage
drops)
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Figure 2.2

If the circuit is more complicated and it includes RE, then the loop is
extended to include this new voltage drop which would be IERE.
The rest of the values such as IC and the other voltages can be
calculated after finding the value of IB using the β factor.

Collector feedback biasing

This type of biasing, shown in Figure 2.3, is very interesting from the
academic point of view, but performancewise it is not reliable because of its
dependence on β. β is a difficult parameter to control in production. A
small variation in β will vary IB and IC sufficiently to cause problems. The
analysis, however, is interesting.
Figure 2.3

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In this case the base current will flow through RC. RC therefore carries IC
and IB so we can say that IE flows through RC in this case. Nevertheless it is
only the collector current that goes through the collector of the transistor.
An alternative circuit is shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4

We apply KVL:

VCC − VBE = (IC + IB)RC + IBRF

but

IC = βIB
VCC − VBE = IB[(β + 1)RC + RF]

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If the circuit is more complicated, for instance it includes RE, then this has
to be included in the equation.

GENERAL ADVICE: The best way to tackle the problems in general is

not to memorise the formula, but rather to construct a simpler circuit
from the original circuit and from the simpler circuit to set out your
equations.

Potential divider biasing

There are two methods to calculate the DC conditions under this type of
biasing. They are both relatively simple, but the simpler of the two is the
approximate method.

Approximate method
See Figure 2.5. This method assumes that the transistor has no effect on the
potential divider. Therefore we can calculate
Figure 2.5

Then we calculate VE
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And finally IE

In reality, VB will be affected by the impedance of the transistor. The

following criteria can be used to decide on the approximate method:

10R1 > βRE

If this is true we use the approximate method, if not we use the Thevenin
method.

Thevenin method for potential divider biasing

The Thevenin method helps us to reduce the transistor to a simpler form.
Part of the transistor is converted to a circuit with a voltage source and a
resistor. In order to better understand which part of the transistor is
converted and how this is done, we have a sequence of four drawings to
show this method (Figures 2.6–2.9).
Figure 2.6

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Figure 2.7

Figure 2.8

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Figure 2.9

First of all we need to find the points A and B through which we are going
to separate part of the transistor circuit to be converted into a Thevenin
equivalent.
As VCC would get in the way of this separation, we have Figure 2.7
where we have separated the supplies in a totally equivalent circuit, but a
circuit where it is easier to find the points A and B. We can even separate it
with a pair of scissors, without cutting VCC.
In Figure 2.8 the left of AB is transformed to the Thevenin equivalent.
We calculate VTH as a potential divider, then we calculate RTH. Remember
that we have to ‘reduce to zero’ the sources in the circuit. That is why we
have the dotted line shorting the power supply in Figure 2.8. The value of
RTH is then, R1 and R2 in parallel.
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 In Figure 2.9, we show the circuit with the Thevenin equivalent in
place. We have only shown half of the transistor as IB does not use the top
part. In this way we concentrate our attention on what really matters.
We also bring to your attention the idea of the reflected value of RE. We
simply assume that RE has a current of IB, instead of the real IE which is
much larger. Then to compensate for this assumption, we just multiply RE
by (β + 1). This will get us to the solution more quickly. You might prefer a
more mathematical approach, but this is commonly accepted in electronics.

PROBLEM 2.1 BIASING

Figure 2.10

If IC = 2 mA and VO is 6 V at quiescent conditions, find the values of RE

and RB.

Answer: RE = 2985 Ω, RB = 530 kΩ

Emitter current

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 PROBLEM 2.2 BIASING
Figure 2.11

Find IB, IC and VCE.

Answer: 25.07 μA, 2.507 mA, 4.96 V

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 KVL

PROBLEM 2.3 BIASING

Figure 2.12

If the base current is 10 μA. find the values of RB and VC.

Answer: 830 kΩ, 3.6 V

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 PROBLEM 2.4 BIASING
Figure 2.13

Find IC and VCE

Answer: 3.63 mA, 9.06 V

KVL

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 PROBLEM 2.5 BIASING
Figure 2.14

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 Calculate RC to give VC = 10 V

Answer: 2k75 Ω

KVL

For VC = 10, the voltage drop in RC is 10 V, therefore:

PROBLEM 2.6 BIASING

Figure 2.15

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 Find IB and IE.

Answer: 4627 μA. 4.67 mA

KVL

10 − 0.7 = IBRB + IERE

9.3 = IBRB + IB(β + 1)RE
9.3 = IB100k + IB101 000
9.3 = IB201 000
IB = 46.27 μA
IE = (β + 1)IB = 46.27 × 10−6 × 101 = 4.67 mA

PROBLEM 2.7 BIASING

Figure 2.16

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 Find the value of RF that will result in flie voltage at the collector
terminal being equal to half the supply voltage, i.e., 6 V.

Answer: 66k25 Ω

The voltage drop in RF, which is IBRF should be equal to VC − VBE:

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 PROBLEM 2.8 BIASING
Figure 2.17

Calculate IB and VC.

Answer: 38.7 μA, 27.6 V

KVL

30 = 6k2(IC + IB) + 1k5 (IC + IB) + 680kIB + 0.7

but

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 PROBLEM 2.9 BIASING
Figure 2.18

Find the value of RF to give VC = 10 V.

Answer: 736 kΩ

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 PROBLEM 2.10 BIASING
Figure 2.19

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 Determine IC, IB and Vi that will result in the saturation of the transistor.
NOTE: During saturation, the transistor voltage drops. The collector-
emitter voltage is very low, typically 0.2 V or 0.3 V, or as indicated by
the manufacturer. In this case it is reasonable to assume 0 V.

Answer: 2.88 V

PROBLEM 2.11 BIASING

Figure 2.20

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 If Vi is 3 V, find the values of IB and VCE.

Answer: 0.575 mA, 8.1 V

KVL

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 PROBLEM 2.12 BIASING
Figure 2.21

Find the values of IC and VCE for νi equal to 0 V and 3 V.

Answer: 3.39 mA, 7.82 V, 3.99 mA, 4.72 V.

For 0 V input

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 For 3 V input

VE = 2 − 0.7 = 1.3 V

(with respect to −12 V)

Note: for 0 V, the situation is

Figure 2.22

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 IC in this case should be

We had calculated 3.39 mA. There is a small difference here that needs
explaining. The value of IE is 3.424 242.… Using this value, instead of the
one we used, we get VCE = 7.615 V. 4.88 V is revised to 5.085 V and then
the check is the correot 3.39 mA for IC. Bear this in mind in the future.

PROBLEM 2.13 BIASING

Figure 2.23

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 Find ICE using the Thevenin method.

Answer: 4 V

Voltage drop across 3k6 resistor

0.976 × 10−3 × 3600 = 3.52 V

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 Voltage drop across 1k5 resistor

IE = (β + 1)IB = 9.89 × 10−6 × 100 = 0.989 mA

therefore

PROBLEM 2.14 BIASING

Figure 2.24

Find VC with respect to 0 V.

Answer: 6.01 V (Thevenin method)

 5.32 V (approximate method)

Figure 2.25

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 Thevenin

PROBLEM 2.15 BIASING

Figure 2.26

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 Find the percentage difference in IC calculating it with the approximate
method compared to the Thevenin method.

Answer: 1%

Approximate method

Thevenin method
Figure 2.27

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 PROBLEM 2.16 BIASING
Figure 2.28

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 If R2 is 12k, find R1 so that VO = 0 V, Use the approximate method, i.e.,
100 Ω resistor has no loading effect.

Answer: 1714 Ω

This is with respect to −5 v.

The voltage difference is −3.75−(−5).

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 PROBLEM 2.17 BIASING
Figure 2.29

For which value of β is IC = 3 mA in this circuit? Use Thevenin’s method.

Answer: 64.54

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 Figure 2.30

PROBLEM 2.18 BIASING

Figure 2.31

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 Determine IEQ using the Thevenin method and the approximate method.

Answer: 3.6 mA, 6 mA

Approximate method

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 NOTE: The approximation is not very good in this case. The criteria
which allows us to use the approximate method, 22k × 10 < 250β or in
this case, 220k < 25k is far from true. The Thevenin method should he
used in this case.

PROBLEM 2.19 BIASING

Figure 2.32

Calculate IC and VCQ using the Thevenin method.

Answer: 2.6 mA, 9.28 V

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 We now draw the new circuit
Figure 2.33

PROBLEM 2.20 BIASING

Figure 2.34

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 Use the Thevenin method to find the values of IE and VC under quiescent
conditions.

Answer: IE = 3.12 mA, VC = 7.35V

Figure 2.35

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3
Load lines

As we know, the transistor operation ranges from cut-off to the active

region and saturation. This can be seen very clearly in a system of
coordinates such as the one shown in Figure 3.1. Apart from the different
states of the transistor we show the limitation due to power dissipation.
Figure 3.1

The load lines, similarly, present a visual form of what is happening with
the transistor with no AC signal and, most important of all, we can see how
much the AC signal can swing, before it hits the limits.

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 One word of warning. When we deal with load lines we forget a little
about saturation and cut-off and we assume that everything is in the active
region. In this way we transform the problem from one of electronics to
one of geometry, that of a straight line. There will be a few other
approximations and we will point them out as we go along. We start with a
simple circuit as shown in Figure 3.2. You will find that most authors
approximate IC = IE when dealing with load lines, and we shall do the same.
Figure 3.2

We draw the system of coordinates as shown in Figure 3.3 on the left-hand

side, then we find points A and B as follows:
Figure 3.3

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(A) This point is obtained when IC = 0. The transistor is cut off. As there is
no current, there is no voltage drop, and therefore the voltage applied
to the transistor is the battery voltage VCC.
(B) This point is obtained when VCE = 0. Then we have the maximum
current IC. The transistor is saturated, i.e., the voltage VCE of the
transistor is 0 V.

This is another approximation. In reality, it is around 0.3 V, or as given by

the manufacturers. Assuming VCE = 0, then the voltage drops in RC and RE.
So:

This last equation assumes that IC = IE. This simplifies your life and mine.
These two points can be joined by a straight line which is the DC load line.

DC load line
The resistors R1 and R2, in Figure 3.4, will ensure that the transistor
operating point is located at one point only along this line.
In Figure 3.4, the base voltage VB is given by

Figure 3.4

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This is another approximation as the Thevenin method would have been
more precise.
We know that the voltage VBE is 0.7 V, another approximation.
Therefore:

VE = VB − 0.7

So:

In this way, we obtain the Q point in the straight line (see Figure 3.5). Q is
short for quiescent, which is the situation of the transistor when it has DC
power but no AC signal.
Figure 3.5

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The Q point should also coincide with the value of VCE calculated as

VCE = VCC − IC(RC + RE)

Straight line review

A straight line is determined by either

two points
one point and the slope

The general equation is given by:

y = mx + c

x and y are the variables, m is the slope and c is the constant.

Two points
See the example shown in Figure 3.6
Figure 3.6

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1 = 0m + c
3 = 2m + c therefore c = 1 and m = 1

Another example is shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7

One point and slope

If we know the slope and a point (X1, Y1) then the equation of the line will
be given by:

y − Y1 = m(x − X1)
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So:

y − 2 = −2(x − 3)
y = −2x + 6 + 2
y = −2x + 8

We will be using this second method in the calculation of the AC load line.

AC load line
We now move onto the AC load line. We consider Figure 3.8. Now that we
are considering an AC signal, the capacitors play an important role. C1 and
C2 let the AC signal through, but block the DC supplies. CE bypasses the
resistor RE. This results in less resistance for the current. The current will be
higher for a given voltage, when RE is bypassed by CE, and the slope will be
higher.
Figure 3.8

The DC resistance was RC + RE with a slope of −1/(RC + RE). The AC

resistance is only RC and the slope is −1/RC.
As we know the slope of the AC line and the Q point, we can now find
the equation of this straight line as follows:

y − Y1 = m(x − X1)

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Using some electronic terms, we obtain:

We now replace x and y for the electronic term

The equation for ic is

Having this equation it is quite easy to find the the points where the
straight line crosses the x and y axes:
For VCE = 0 we have

For ic = 0 we have

vCEmax = VCEQ + ICQRAC

Load lines: equal swing

We now refer to the maximum equal swing in the load lines. This is
illustrated in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9

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The values required to construct the load lines graph are:
For DC

For AC

For equal swing:

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Equation (4) can be rewritten as :

iCMAX = 2ICQ

The straight line equation for the DC load line is:

At the Q point this becomes :

From the drawing we can see that at equal swing:

This is also part of the AC load line. We can replace ICQ in equation (7) for
its value from equation (8):

This can be rearranged as follows :

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and finally:

From the drawing:

VCEQ = ICQRAC

Replacing this in the previous equation :

Which finally gives :

Equations (9) and (10) are very useful in dealing with problems of
maximum equal swing as you will see in the following examples.

PROBLEM 3.1 LOAD LINES

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 Figure 3.10

Find the maximum value of Vs to give the maximum swing on the 1k2
resistor.

Answer: 55.48 mV peak to peak.

We have to find the maximum swing, the voltage amplification, and

then work back towards the source.

Amplification

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 Maximum swing

therefore, the maximum swing is

2 × 2.27 = 4.54 V

voltage at base is

We still have to calculate the value of VS to give VB = 50 mV, We use the

model
Figure 3.11

We have

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 PROBLEM 3.2 LOAD LINES
Figure 3.12

For the circuit shown, draw the load lines.

Answer: See Figure 3.14

DC conditions – approximate method

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 Note: on AC, RE is bypassed by CE.

DC conditions – Thevenin method

Figure 3.13

Values for plotting

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 Figure 3.14

The maximum swing is 2 × 1.4 = 2.8 V

NOTE: The approximate method would have given 3 V as the

maximum swing!

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 PROBLEM 3.3 LOAD LINES
Figure 3.15

Find the maximum voltage swing on the 2k2 resistor.

Answer: 9.12 V

The AC model is
Figure 3.16

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 RAC = 1k5‖2k2 = 892 Ω

Maximum values

AC values

Maximum swing

2 − 4.56 = 9.12 V

PROBLEM 3.4 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.17

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 Find the Q point and the output voltage maximum swing.

Answer: ICQ = 4.9 mA, maximtim swing = 2.94 V

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 Figure 3.18

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 Note: We have used IE = IC here.
Values for plotting

Figure 3.19

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 PROBLEM 3.5 LOAD LINES
Figure 3.20

Find the maximum swing, using the approximate method.

Answer: 6.592 V

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 DC

AC

Maximum swing = VCEQ × 2 = 3.296 × 2 = 6.592 V

Figure 3.21

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 PROBLEM 3.6 LOAD LINES
Figure 3.22

Find the peak to peak voltage output swing.

Answer: 7.68 V

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 Maximum swing either

2ICQRAC = 2 × 5.074 × 10−3 × 1k = 10.148 V

or

2VCEQ = 2 × 3.84 = 7.68 V

Therefore, maximum swing = 7.68 V

NOTE: As seen in Figure 3.9 the right hand position of the Q point is
ICQRAC which this case is 5.074 V. The left hand side of the Q point is
VCEQ which in this case is 3.84 V.
The signal will swing to both sides of the Q point. That is why the
maximum swing is either 10.148 V or 7.68 V.
We have to choose the smaller of the two because the signal as it gets
bigger and bigger, will reach the smaller value first, at one end. From
then on, the signal will be clipped and that is not acceptable.

PROBLEM 3.7 LOAD LINES

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 Figure 3.23

Draw the load lines, using the approximate method.

Answer: See Figure 3.24

Values for plotting

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 DC

AC

Figure 3.24

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 Maximum swing = 2 × 12 = 2.4 V

PROBLEM 3.8 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.25

Draw the load lines and find the maximum swing on the load.

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 Answer: 7.48 V

Approximate method

Values for plotting

DC

AC

Figure 3.26
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 Maximum swing = 3.74 × 2 = 7.48 V

PROBLEM 3.9 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.27

Find the Q-point.

Answer: 2.798 mA. 1.92 V

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 Using the Thevenin method

Figure 3.28

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 PROBLEM 3.10 LOAD LINES
Figure 3.29

Sketch the load lines and find IB, IC, RAC and RDC.

Answer: IB = 19.1 μA, IC = 3.44 mA, RAC = 1k, RDC = 1kl

Use the Thevenin method, as 22k > 18k

Figure 3.30

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 Values for plotting
DC

AC

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 Figure 3.31

Maximum swing = 2VCEQ = 2 × 2.2 = 4.4 V

PROBLEM 3.11 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.32

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 Using the approximate method, find the maximum swing.

Answer: 12.5 V

Values for plotting

DC

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 AC

Maximum swing = 2VCEQ = 2 × 6.25 = 12.5 V

Note: Using the Thevenin method, you would get a maximum swing
of around 14.86 V.

PROBLEM 3.12 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.33

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 Find R1 and R2 to place the ICQ in the middle of the DC load line.

Answer: R1 = 10 kΩ, R2 = 41 377 Ω

If R1 is 10 kΩ, then

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 This is only one of the possible solutions.

PROBLEM 3.13 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.34

Draw the load lines and find the maximum swing on the load.

Answer: 7.1 V

Approximate method

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 RDC = RC + RE = 2k7 + 1k = 3k7

AC conditions
Figure 3.35

RAC = 2k7‖10k = 2126Ω

Values for plotting

VCEQ = 10 − 1.744 × 10−3 × 3k7 = 3.55 V

ICQ ≈ IE = 1.744 mA

DC

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 AC

Figure 3.36

Maximum swing is 2 × VCEQ = 2 × 3.55 = 7.1 V

PROBLEM 3.14 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.37

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 Sketch the load line diagram and find the maximum swing on the load.

Answer: swing = 8.34 V

10R1 vs βRE
47k vs 33k
Therefore, use Thevenin method
Figure 3.38

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 Values for plotting
DC

AC

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 Figure 3.39

Maximum swing is therefore 2 × 4.17 = 8.34 V

PROBLEM 3.15 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.40

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 Find the value of VCEQ, the maximum swing, and draw the load lines if IB
= 50 μA.

Answer: VCEQ = 6.9 V, maximum swing = 5.76 V

RDC = 1200 + 150 = 1350Ω

RAC = 1k2‖800 = 480 Ω
IC = βIB = 120 × 50 × 10−6 = 6 mA

(Assuming IC ≈ IE)

VCEQ = VCC − ICRDC

 15 − 6 × 10−3 × 1350
 15 − 8.1 = 6.9 V

Plotting values
DC

AC

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 Figure 3.41

Maximum swing in this case is 2ICQRAC.

= 2 × 6 × 0.48 = 2 × 2.88
= 5.76 V

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 PROBLEM 3.16 LOAD LINES
Figure 3.42

Draw the load lines, and find the maximum swing on the load.

Answer: 52 V

DC conditions – approximate method

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 Values for plotting
DC

AC

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 Figure 3.43

Maximum swing = 2ICQRAC = 2 × 2.6 = 5.2 V

PROBLEM 3.17 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.44

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 Draw the load lines md find the value of IB that will cause the optimum
maximum swing on the load.

Answer: IB = 68.33 μA, swing = 7.87 V

For optimum maximum output swing

Plotting values
DC

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 AC

Figure 3.45

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 Maximum swing is 7.87 V.
Value of IB.

The location of Q in the DC load line can be moved by varying RB. This
in turn varies IB which, in turn, varies IC, We have worked the example
to achieve maximum optimum equal swing, The values of 3.93 and 3.94
should be the same. The difference is due to rounding off in the
calculation.

PROBLEM 3.18 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.46

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 Find the values of IB, RB, and swing that will place the Q-point at the
centre of the AC load line.

Answer: IB = 32.55 μA, RB = 383 717 Ω, swing = 8.8 V

Plotting values
DC

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 AC

Maximum swing = 2 × 4.4 = 8.8 V (approximation IC ≈ IE)

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 PROBLEM 3.19 LOAD LINES
Figure 3.47

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 Find the value of RB that results in the maximum output swing.

Answer: 609 kΩ

For maximum output,

We draw the load lines to see what happened:

Figure 3.48

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 Note: values should be equal We have gained a small error due to
rounding off in the calculation.

PROBLEM 3.20 LOAD LINES

Figure 3.49

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 Find the values of R1 and R2 to archieve optimum maximum output
voltage swing.

Answer: R1 = 2k7 Ω, R2 = 10.633 Ω

Figure 3.50

Maximum points
DC

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 For optimum maximum output swing

Maximum points
AC

Note that both terms are the same

AC

vCEMAX = VCEQ + ICQRAC

 =1.562 5 + 1.562 5
 =3.125 V

Having found the Q-point successfully to achieve maximum equal

swing, we now need to find the values of R1 and R2 that will produce that

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 Q-point.
Solving by the approximate method:

VE = 100 × 3.125 × 10−3

 = 0.312 5 V
VB = 1.012 5 V

The balance criteria used before to decide between the Thevenin and the
approximate method was

10R1 = βRE

Now to be on the safe side with the approximate method we add an

extra 50%, that is to say:

10R1 = 1.5βRE

This new criteria will allow us to find the value of R1, making the
solution of the problem easier.
Solving the problem, we will arrive at the ratioR1:R2, but not at
individual values. The above criteria reduces the problem.

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4
Transistor modelling

The transistor works with two types of signals, the DC signal and the AC
signal.
The DC signal sets up the transistor at a convenient point within the
working region, which is known as the quiescent point or simply the Q
point. The AC signal works on top of the DC signal, but it is not
superimposed. The AC signal follows a different path from the DC signal,
as there are places where the AC signal can go, which are not accessible to
the DC.
Because of this, it is better to completely separate the DC conditions
which we call biasing, from the AC conditions which we call small signal
conditions.
The DC analysis is straightforward and requires only a knowledge of
circuit analysis, Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws. For the AC analysis we
need two more steps:

Transistor models
Small signal models

Transistor model
In order to find out how we get a model of a transistor it is best to observe
the following procedure from a general study of two-port networks in the
order given:

Open circuit parameters

Short circuit parameters
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Hybrid parameters

Open circuit parameters

It is standard procedure in two-port network study to draw the currents
going into the box, and the voltages pointing upwards, as in Figure 4.1. We
shall do the same.
Figure 4.1

From mesh analysis we know that any passive network can be represented
by the following equations

V1 = I1Z11 + I2Z12
V2 = I1Z21 + I2Z22

This lends itself to be represented in matrix form by

All we now need to do is to find the values of Z11, Z12, Z21 and Z22.
Before we do that, we can relate the previous equation to an equivalent
circuit, term by term. In Figure 4.2, Z11 is an impedance that produces a
voltage I1Z11. Z12I2 is a current-dependent voltage generator. A voltage is
produced in circuit 1 due to the current in circuit 2 and it is proportional to
the current in circuit 2. We can now write:
Figure 4.2

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V1 = I1Z11 + I2Z12

Similarly it can be found that the second part of the circuit corresponds to
the second equation, i.e.

V2 = I1Z21 + I2Z22

Now that we have found this equivalent circuit, which is of the Thevenin
type, we can go further to try to find the values of Z11, Z12, Z21 and Z22.
In order to do this, we open circuit one of the terminals. Let us say that
we make I2 = 0. Because of this, the first equation will become:

V1 = I1Z11  (as I2 = 0)

so

The second equation becomes:

V2 = I1Z21

so

We can follow a similar procedure with the other circuit.

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 We make I1 = 0. In this case, the first equation becomes:

V1 = I2Z12    (as I1 = 0)

so

The second equation becomes :

V2 = I2Z22

so

Because we have made the currents equal to zero by an open circuit to the
terminal, the Z parameters are called open circuit parameters.
A similar definition of the two-port network can be carried out with the
Y parameters. We are still far from the transistor model, but are getting
nearer.

Short circuit parameters

We again draw the general circuit of a passive network in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3

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From nodal analysis we know that any passive network can be represented
by the following equations:

I1 = V1Y11 + V2Y12
I2 = V1Y21 + V2Y22

This can also be represented in matrix form by:

We need to find the values of Y11, Y12, Y21 and Y22. This can easily be done if
we first identify a circuit that can represent the above equation.
In Figure 4.4, Y11 is an admittance and the current going through it is
V1Y11. V2Y12 is a voltage-dependent current generator. The equation is of the
type Ia = Ib + Ic
Figure 4.4

I1 = V1Y11 + V2Y12

Similarly we can identify every term in the second equation

I2 = V1Y21 + V2Y22

With the use of this equivalent circuit which is of the Norton type, we can
go further to try to obtain the values of Y11, Y12, Y21 and Y22. In order to do
this we short-circuit one of the terminals. Let us say V2 = 0. The first
equation then becomes:
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I1 = V1Y11
I1 = V1Y11

so

The second equation becomes :

I2 = V1Y21

so

We can do the same at the other side of the two-port network.

V1 = 0

The first equation becomes:

I1 = V2Y12

so

and the other equation becomes :

I2 = V2Y22

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so

Because we have made the voltages equal to zero, by short-circuiting to the

input and output, the Y parameters are called short circuit parameters.
There is another way to represent the two-port network, by another set
of parameters and this is really of interest to the transistor model.

Hybrid parameters
We now repeat the general drawing Figure 4.5 of a passive network.
Figure 4.5

Using a mixture of current and voltages, hence the name hybrid, we can
define a new set of equations:

V1 = h11I1 + h12V2
I2 = h21I1 + h22V2

Analysing the first equation we see that on the left-hand side of the equals
sign we have volts, then both terms on the right of the equal sign must also
be of the dimension of volts. In order to achieve this, h11 has to be of ohm
dimensions and h12 has to be dimensionless. In the second equation h21 is
dimensionless whereas h22 has the dimension of Siemens (i.e. ohm−1).
The above equation can also be written in matrix form:

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And we can also find an equivalent circuit that corresponds term by term
to the set of equations, as in Figure 4.6. It is interesting to note that what
we have here is a Thevenin circuit followed by a Norton circuit and this is
the form that we want for the transistor model.
Figure 4.6

All we now need is to use the symbols used in the transistor to have the
transistor model. We redraw the circuit in Figure 4.7, with the
nomenclature of a common emitter circuit. In Figure 4.7, the letters follow
the following abreviations:
Figure 4.7

hi input
hr reverse transfer voltage ratio
hf forward transfer current ratio
ho output

The right-hand side of the subscript is reserved for a letter (e, b or c

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[transistor terminals])
Because the reverse transfer voltage ratio is small and because hoe is
high, both can be simplified, arriving at the ‘approximate hybrid equivalent
circuit’.
We see the approximate hybrid equivalent circuit in Figure 4.8. This
approximate circuit can be used in a transistor amplifier as seen in Figure
4.9. This circuit is still not suitable for AC analysis. We still have to use the
small signals equivalent circuit.
Figure 4.8

Figure 4.9

We haven’t yet mentioned how to find the hybrid parameters, but as we

are now in the realm of the transistor, we will do this with the help of the
transistor characteristic curves.
Figure 4.10, shows the output characteristics of a transistor. These
curves are either given by the manufacturers or can be measured in the lab.
There are special oscilloscopes that can give the curves from any transistor
connected to its inputs.
Figure 4.10

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Figure 4.11, shows the input characteristics of a transistor. Looking at the
input characteristics we can calculate hre and hie.

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Figure 4.11

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Circuit transformations

Small signals
Due to the amplification of the transistor, a small signal at the input, will
create a similar but larger signal at the output. If the input is sufficiently
small, the output will neither go into saturation nor cut–off.
The transistor is said to be working in the active region. It is also said

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that when the transistor is operating in the active region, it is working
under ‘small signal conditions’.

Digital operation
The above section described the transistor as an amplifier. We can also use
the transistor in a digital form, i.e., on and off, just like a switch. In this
case the active region is of no use to us. In this mode of operation we
specifically require the transistor to go from saturation to cut-off and vice
versa. Digital operation is not within the scope of this book.

Circuit transformations
The transistor works with two types of signals, both are required at the
same time. They perform different tasks and they follow different rules in
their operation. We are referring to the DC signal or biasing on the one
hand, and the AC signal on the other.
It is also important to realise that we are not talking about
superposition, for DC and AC signals. Cause and effect can be added in
superposition to obtain the resulting effect. In circuit transformations, the
AC signal follows a different circuit to that of the DC, resulting in a
complex system of two different operations in a single circuit.
The concept of two signals operating together to control the operation
of the transistor is difficult to imagine and also difficult to explain even if
you are experienced. Experiments performed in the laboratory where you
can check your theoretical knowledge against practical results help
considerably in understanding the operation. Fortunately, we can treat the
signals separately and this appears to be a convenient way of solving the
problem.
The DC conditions were tackled under biasing and this is
straightforward. There are no complications, only some basic rules such as
Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s law, and other theorems that you are familiar with
and can be revised, if necessary, in the first chapter of this book.
The AC conditions, are more complicated to understand, because under
AC conditions there are extra paths for the AC signal and the circuit
changes quite a lot. When we move to AC conditions, we put DC
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conditions to one side, in the knowledge that the transistor will be properly
biased.
In AC conditions, as the AC signal follows a different path to that of
the DC circuit, we can redraw the circuit to make it easier for us to see
what is happening and to apply the laws and rules of circuit analysis. The
step of redrawing the circuit for AC conditions is very important in solving
a problem. You must also remember that different circuits will have
different models and therefore different equations. Don’t use a formula if
you don’t know exactly which circuit it applies to.
There are two important factors in transforming a circuit:

(1) Capacitor effect

Capacitors in an amplifier are designed to be fully conducting at the
frequencies of interest. Intentionally, capacitors are placed strategically to
block the DC signal and to let the AC signal through.
(2) DC supply transparency to AC
An AC signal placed at one terminal of the DC power supply, will appear
at the other side of the DC supply.

Following these two points, we can modify the circuit, in order to make it
easier to analyse. We are trying to solve the problems presented by a
transistor amplifier. With the modified circuit, we are a step nearer to
solving these problems.
All we then need to do is to set the equation that corresponds to the
modified circuit. The rest is just mathematics to get the final result.
We are now ready to analyse the circuit transformations – under AC
conditions only – of three typical examples, each with a sequence of three
diagrams.
The first circuit to be transformed is a very simple common emitter
circuit as shown in Figure 4.12. We have RB in the input circuit and RC in
the output circuit. We can clearly see two circuits with a transistor in the
middle.
Figure 4.12

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This appears even clearer in the second of the three circuits. From the first
to the second circuit, the capacitors have disappeared. They have been
designed to be conducting at the frequency of interest. The frequency of
interest in this case is the midband which is from around 100 Hz to around
20 000 Hz. Below this band, we have the low frequency and above this
band, we have the high frequency.
The other important change from the first to the second diagram, which
for AC conditions are totally equivalent, is that the resistors seem to have
moved from the original position. The explanation for this is that the AC
signal which is placed at vi, will go up through RB onto VCC, which is the
positive side of the DC power supply. This signal goes through the power
supply indicated on the right hand side, to the zero volt side which is the
lower line in each of the diagrams. The second of the three diagrams
clearly shows the path followed by the AC signal which goes in at vi and
comes out at vo.
The final circuit of Figure 4.12, shows the equivalent circuit of the
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transistor inserted in the circuit already modified by the AC conditions. It
is easy to analyse the last circuit and calculate values such as the input
impedance, output impedance, etc.
Note that the DC conditions, without which the transistor cannot work,
do not appear in the diagrams. That was the agreement at the beginning.
As it is too difficult to work with DC and AC signals together, we separate
them completely. We deal with them separately, usually doing the biasing
first.
The second circuit analysed is shown in Figure 4.13. This is also a
common emitter circuit. It is the circuit with classical biasing, the potential
divider biasing. It is also called (3 independent as we mentioned earlier.
Figure 4.13

In the first of the three diagrams, we have the standard circuit as it is

normally drawn. Additionally we have shown the power supply on the
right-hand side. This is important to visualise the extra path followed by
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the AC signal (through the power supply).
Together with the extra path provided by the power supply, the circuit
is modified by the effect of the capacitors. Capacitors block the DC signal
and allow the AC signal to go through.
On the second diagram we have the transistor at the centre. At the left-
hand side of the transistor we have the input circuit. At the right-hand side
of the transistor we have the output circuit.
The capacitors have disappeared as they are just a continuous line
representing a short circuit in place of the capacitors. The capacitor CE,
shorts the resistance RE, which will not appear any more in the
transformation of the circuit. R1 is now in parallel with R2. RC is in parallel
with RL. This is by a combination of C2 being a short circuit and by the path
provided by the power supply to ground for the AC signal.
In the final of the three diagrams of Figure 4.13, we have also replaced
the transistor with its equivalent model.
We end up with two circuits, which are very easy to analyse using the
theorems that we know. Additionally, these circuits are linked by the fact
that the current on the collector is ß times the current in the base.
The last circuit to be transformed is shown in Figure 4.14. It shows an
emitter follower circuit. The input side shows the signal source with its
own source resistance RS. The second circuit of this sequence of three
diagrams shows how the circuit is transformed by two conditions – the
capacitor conducting and the power supply also conducting for the AC
signal. In fact, all the components are part of the input circuit in this
configuration.
Figure 4.14

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There is one complication in this case. In this circuit there are two levels of
current. RS and RB have the base current which is a small current, whereas
re, RE and RL have a comparatively much larger current. Although different,
these currents, are related by the factor (β + 1).
This complication can be overcome with a convenient trick. We use the
reflected value for the emitter current circuit. We explained this as part of
the biasing, but as it is important we will repeat it once more.
In order to simplify the equations, we use the reflected value of re, RE
and RL. We assume that these three resistors are part of the input circuit
where the base current circulates. To compensate for not using the emitter
current which is larger by a factor of (β + 1), we use the base current, but
we increase the value of the three resistors by a factor of (β + 1). The
increased value of the resistors is the ‘reflected’ value of the resistors.
In this way, we set just one equation for the input circuit, which
includes the emitter circuit components. The same result is achieved
‘properly’ by setting an equation with iB and iE, in the normal mathematical
way. Due to the fact that they are two unknowns, mathematics requires

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another equation

iE = iB (β + 1)

There are now two equations and two unknowns, which means that we
can solve the problem.
The reflected value method, however, represents a short cut to the set
of equations, is user friendly and well established in electronic circles.
You might have noticed that we haven’t used the transistor model in
this final example. The equivalent circuit is not required in this case as
there are no components in the collector side of the transistor which is only
useful to provide a return path for the emitter current.

Little re model
Little re is the emitter resistance inside the emitter. This is an imaginary
resistance which can be justified as there is a voltage on the base of the
transistor and a current flowing through the emitter. This is seen in Figure
4.15.
Figure 4.15

The definition of re would be at a constant value of vCE

The transistor must be biased at a convenient Q point. The base emitter
junction must be forward biased.
We can also imagine the transistor as a conducting diode and use the

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exponential relationship between voltage and current in its forward region.
This results in the well known diode equation which can be used to find an
approximate value for re:

where

K Boltzman constant 1.38 × 1023 joule/K (K is the absolute temperature in

degrees Kelvin)
q electronic charge 1.602 × 10−19 coulombs
T absolute temperature (K = 273 + °C) (The value of IE in mA)

You can verify, with your calculator, that

As we watch Figure 4.16, showing the base current as a function of vBE, we

see that it rises very quickly and that at the Q point the voltage will be
around 0.7 V. We use this value as an approximation whenever the
transistor is conducting.
Figure 4.16

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A satisfactory model of the transistor can be obtained by evaluating the DC
conditions to establish the Q point and the value of IE.
According to the ambient temperature, use the approximate formula, in
the box above, to calculate little re. Remember that the value of IE must be
in mA. You can then use this value of re in an equivalent circuit, such as the
one shown in Figure 4.17.
Figure 4.17

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Transistor model for high frequency
For high frequencies a special version of the model is required for the
following reasons:

(1) We first consider the ‘base spreading resistance’. This is a resistance

from the outside of the base to the inside of the base. So we need a new
terminal B’ that is not accessible outside, but is inside the transistor
case.
(2) We need to consider the diffusion capacitance. This corresponds to the
stored charge in the base region
Q = CV
In the active region electrons move from emitter to collector by diffusion,
when the charge is injected from the emitter to the base region. It is a
diffusion capacitance between the new terminal B’ and the emitter
terminal.
(3) The depletion region between the N and P regions gives rise to a
capacitance in the ordinary sense of the word (i.e. parallel plate
capacitance).
(4) We need to allow for the effect of reverse voltage feedback. For this, we
add RB’C which is of the order of 200 MΩ.
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Bearing these points in mind we obtain Figure 4.18, which is the full hybrid
equivalent circuit
Figure 4.18

CB’C is the depletion capacitance

CB’E is the diffusion capacitance
RB’C is the reverse voltage feedback resistance
RB’E is our original hie
RB’B is the base spreading resistance
RCCE is the transistor output resistance

In order to simplify the calculations in high frequency problems, there are

two simplifications which are acceptable (if you have to do calculations by
hand, as opposed to having computer crunching power) to the full hybrid
equivalent circuit
First of all RB’C is very high (see Figure 4.19). In this case, RB’E is 2KΩ
and hre (the reverse voltage transfer ratio) is 10−5. What is the value of RB’C?
Figure 4.19

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It is a case of voltage division

Because of this high value we can simplify the circuit by eliminating RB’C.
We obtain the circuit shown in Figure 4.20. The second simplification
comes from using Miller’s theorem in the circuit of Figure 4.20.
Figure 4.20

As a result we obtain the circuit shown in Figure 4.21.

Figure 4.21

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5
Current gain

Previous knowledge required:

Reflected value of re
Thevenin–Norton conversions
Transistor modelling
Current division rule
Small signals equivalent circuits

The circuit is shown in Figure 5.1. This is a common emitter configuration

with the classical biasing (or beta independent configuration). We should
remember that there are two circuits to the transistor, the primary or input
circuit and the secondary or output circuit.
Figure 5.1

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The definition of current amplification is Ai.

That is to say the current amplification is the ratio of the output current to
the input current. The input current comes from the source, through the
first coupling capacitor, as this is an AC signal. The output current goes
through the second coupling capacitor and through resistor RL, the load
resistor.
In Figure 5.2, we see the transformation of the standard circuit into the
AC model, which in this figure shows only the input side. At first it is
difficult to recognise that these circuits are all equivalent and correspond to
the input circuit of Figure 5.1. For this reason we will briefly mention the
differences.
Figure 5.2

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Let’s concentrate on the input circuit first. The transistor has been replaced
by its equivalent circuit, but we only use the base current circuit, as we are
only considering the input circuit of the amplifier circuit. The other
important transformation is due to the fact that the capacitors and DC
supplies are transparent to AC signals. Therefore the capacitors disappear
and the VCC line is shorted to the earth line, for the AC model. We could
have done the Thevenin equivalent circuit of part of the input, but we are
not using that approach on this occasion.
On the source side we have used a Thevenin to Norton conversion, in
Figure 5.2, from the first to the second circuit, although this is not essential
to solving the problem.
The next transformation, to arrive at the final circuit of Figure 5.2, is
easy to understand and is to simply combine three resistors together. We
don’t combine the four resistors together because we are interested in the
base current which goes through the last resistor, re.
Finally we have used the reflected value of re. The real current going
through re is IE and not IB as we have shown. But because IE is (β + 1) times
IB, we can still use IB provided that we use a larger value of re in the same
proportion, that is (β + 1). This is how we arrive at the value of re(β + 1).
Using the final circuit of the input circuit of the amplifier it is easy to
calculate the relationship between the source current and the current iB,
this is simply the current division rule:

Now, let us look at the output circuit, in Figure 5.3. The resistor RE has
disappeared due to the effect of CE the bypass capacitor, which has an
enormous effect on the feedback and stability of the circuit.
Figure 5.3

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Due to the transparency of the DC supply to AC signals we find that RC in
parallel with RL, this is helped by the coupling capacitor which becomes a
short circuit to the AC signals. This, incidentally, is not accidental, the
values of these capacitors have been chosen to be open to DC signals, but
short-circuit to the frequencies of interest in the midband range of
frequencies.
Once we have the final circuit it is easy to calculate the ratio of the
output current to the collector current. This again is the current division
rule.
The link between input and output circuits is the fact that the collector
current is (β times the base current.

Joining these equations together, with is = ii we obtain

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The minus sign above is due to the way in which the arrows are pointing in
Figure 5.3.

PROBLEM 5.1 CURRENT GAIN

Figure 5.4

Using the approximate method for DC conditions, find the current gain
Ai of the transistor.

Answer: Ai = 78

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 Figure 5.5

PROBLEM 5.2 CURRENT GAIN

Figure 5.6

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 Find Ai for the circuit, using the approximate method.

Answer: Ai = 66.12

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 Figure 5.7

PROBLEM 5.3 CURRENT GAIN

Figure 5.8

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 Find the current amplification Ai.

Answer: Ai = −23.59

Approximate method

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 Figure 5.9

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 PROBLEM 5.4 CURRENT GAIN
Figure 5.10

Find the current amplification, iL/iS.

Temperature = 30°C β = 99, VBE = 0.7 V.

Answer: Ai = −5.06

Approximate method

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 Figure 5.11

PROBLEM 5.5 CURRENT GAIN

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 Figure 5.12

Use the Thevenin method to evaluate DC conditions and find the value
of Ai.

Answer: Ai = 59.3

Figure 5.13

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 AC conditions
Figure 5.14

PROBLEM 5.6 CURRENT GAIN

Figure 5.15

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 Find the value of RL which will result in a current amplification of −50.

Answer: RL = 7181 Ω

10R1 = 120k vs βRE = 96k. therefore use Thevenin

Figure 5.16

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 AC model
Figure 5.17

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 PROBLEM 5.7 CURRENT GAIN
Figure 5.18

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 Find Ai = iL/iIN.

Answer: Ai = −32.79

Thevenin

Figure 5.19

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 AC model
Figure 5.20

PROBLEM 5.8 CURRENT GAIN

Figure 5.21

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 Find the values of IA, IB, IC, IBC, IL and VO in the equivalent model. β = 100

Answer: 6.46 μA, 6.44 μA, 6.44 μA, 0.119 mA, 525 μA, and 0.26 V,
respectively

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 NOTE: Current and voltage directions foliow the rule defined in Figure
12.

PROBLEM 5.9 CURRENT GAIN

Figure 5.22

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 Find the current amplification iC/iS, t = 30°C, β = 99, VBE = 0.7 V.

Answer: Ai = 0.403

Note: CE not present.

Reflected value = 1k5 × 100 = 150 kΩ
Against 2k2 × 10 = 22k, therefore, use approximate method.

AC conditions
Figure 5.23

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 PROBLEM 5.10 CURRENT GAIN
Figure 5.24

Find the current amplification iE/iIN.

Answer: Ai = 2.462

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 Approximate method

Figure 5.25

PROBLEM 5.11 CURRENT GAIN

Figure 5.26

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 Find the current gain.

Answer: A = −65.34

10R1 vs βRE
68 000 52 650
Therefore, use Thevenin.
Figure 5.27

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 AC Model
Figure 5.28

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 PROBLEM 5.12 CURRENT GAIN
Figure 5.29

Find the current gain for the circuit.

Answer: Ai = −0.954
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 AC Model
Figure 5.30

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 PROBLEM 5.13 CURRENT GAIN
Figure 5.31

Use the Thevenin method to evaluate DC conditions. Find the value of

current gain Ai.

Answer: Ai = −64.8

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 Figure 5.32

AC model
Figure 5.33

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 PROBLEM 5.14 CURRENT GAIN
Figure 5.34

Find Ai = iL/iIN by using the Thevenin method.

Answer: Ai = −31.3

Figure 5.35

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 AC Model
Figure 5.36

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 PROBLEM 5.15 CURRENT GAIN
A transistor has the following parameters:

hie = 1500 Ω
hfe = 99
hre = 5 × 10−4
hoe = 25 μS

The collector resistance is 3kΩ. Sketch a small signal model and find the
current gain, Ai.

Answer: Ai = −92.1

Figure 5.37

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 PROBLEM 5.16 CURRENT GAIN
Figure 5.38

Find the current amplification in this equivalent circuit (remember, Ai =

Io/Ii).

Answer: Ai = −688

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 PROBLEM 5.17 CURRENT GAIN
Figure 5.39

Find the value of the output iL for an Input of 5 mA.

Answer: = 123.6 mA

Approximate method

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 AC Model
Figure 5.40

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 PROBLEM 5.18 CURRENT GAIN
Figure 5.41

Find the output current if the ieput is 2 mA.

Answer: iL = −4.17 mA

10R1 vs βRE
120k vs 360k
therefore, use approximate method

AC Model

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 Figure 5.42

PROBLEM 5.19 CURRENT GAIN

Figure 5.43

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 Find the value of current iL.

Answer: iL = −0.561 mA

10R1 = 82k vs Reβ = 7k,

Therefore, use Thevenin
Figure 5.44

AC model
Figure 5.45

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 PROBLEM 5.20 CURRENT GAIN
Figure 5.46

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 Find the amplification with full bypass and partial bypass (capacitor
connected to A or B, respectively). Assume IC = 2 mA, and re = 13 Ω.

Answer: 92.4, 14.76

Figure 5.47

Full bypass

Partial bypass

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6
Voltage gain

The typical circuit to calculate the voltage gain or voltage amplification is

shown in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1

The method to calculate the voltage gain, in summary, is:

• Using DC conditions evaluate the currents. With IE, using the little re
model equation, calculate ie.
• Using the modelling, transform the circuit to AC conditions and work
out the voltages. The ratio vo/vi is the voltage amplification.

Figure 6.2, shows the primary of the transistor, or the input side. The
capacitor CE bypasses RE and this will not show anywhere. The three
resistors R1, R2 and re(β + 1) can be joined into one. We then obtain the
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simple circuit of Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

R3 represent the three resistors together. We now see that the base
voltage vB is given by the potential divider rule:

We notice here that although we are analysing the voltage gain or

amplification, from the source to the base of the transistor we have a
reduction in voltage.
The voltage at the base of the transistor will normally be around half
the voltage of the source. The amplification will come from the base to the
collector of the transistor.
The output side of the transistor can be seen in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4

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Circuit a) is the equivalent model of the output side only. RE is bypassed,
but shown under the current generator. For the equation of input and
output, it is best to imagine the circuit in b). RE has disappeared. The input
voltage is applied to re. RL and RC are in parallel due to the transparency of
the DC source (VCC) to the AC signal and because capacitor C2 is
conducting. The capacitor is designed to be fully conducting at the
frequencies of interest, whilst it should be open circuit for the DC.

vbase = iEre
vout = iC(RC ‖ RL)

It can be seen immediately that a simple relation might result if we accept

the approximation iE ≈ iC In this case:

• so

This equation is only valid for the circuit of Figure 6.1, which is under
consideration.

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 If we are dealing with another type of circuit we must similarly work
out the equation which corresponds to that circuit and which is a
mathematical model of that particular circuit.
From the equation we can see that the gain can be varied greatly if RE is
introduced in the equation. As RE is bypassed by CE, the presence or
absence of CE is crucial.
During our problems we will encounter three different configurations
for the RE circuit, as seen in Figure 6.5. If we are considering DC conditions,
all the resistors form part of the circuit.
Figure 6.5

However, in AC conditions:

for circuit a) RE will be present,

for circuit b) RE will be absent,
for circuit c) RE1 will be present and RE2 will be absent

Emitter follower
The relevant part of an emitter follower circuit is shown in Figure 6.6. In
this case the input voltage vB is applied to the base of the transistor. The
output voltage is taken from the emitter. Under AC conditions, the
capacitor is conducting so the output RL is in parallel with RE.
Figure 6.6

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The input and the output are in phase. The output, although near to 1 is a
fraction less than 1.
In order to understand that the common emitter has an opposition
phase between input and output and that the emitter follower output is in
phase with the input, it is useful to examine Figure 6.7, where both outputs
are allowed from a unique circuit called the phase splitter.
Figure 6.7

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 PROBLEM 6.1 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
If vi = 10 mV, find the voltage across the 10k resistor at 20°C.
Figure 6.8

Answer: −2 V

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 More accurately

PROBLEM 6.2 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Find the voltage amplification for this transistor circuit.
Figure 6.9
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 Answer: −60.02

PROBLEM 6.3 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Find the value of re at 20°C, the voltage amplification, and the value of
the output for an input of 15 mV RMS.
Figure 6.10

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 Answer: re = 4.38 Ω, Av = −249.75, vo = −3.75 V

PROBLEM 6.4 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Assume IEQ1 = 100 μA, IEQ2 = 1 mA. Find RIN and AV.

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 Figure 6.11

Answer: 25k25 Ω, 1802

Figure 6.12

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 PROBLEM 6.5 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
Find the voltage gain.
Figure 6.13

Answer: Av = −240

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 PROBLEM 6.6 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
Find the voltage amplification, Av.
Figure 6.14

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 Answer: Av = −2.74

We find IB using KVL

12−0.7 = IE(3k3 + 470) + IB × 180k

Note: 3k3 Ω resistor has IE and IB, therefore, it IE. (= IC + IB)

PROBLEM 6.7 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

If the input is set to 20 mV, find the value of the voltage across the load:
Figure 6.15

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 (a) with CE present
(b) with CE removed  (temperature = 30°C)

Answer: −1.12 V and −18.28 mV, respectively.

Figure 6.16

Use Thevenin for DC conditions

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 Potential divider for source

Now without a capacitor

The value of re will remain unchanged and it is based on the DC
conditions. The potential divider will change.
The term re(β + 1) becomes

(re + RE) × (β + 1)
(13.07 + 1000) × 101 = 102320

The three resistors in parallel become

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 1k5‖6k8‖102320 = 1214.33 Ω

The amplification changes a lot!

PROBLEM 6.8 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Calculate RIN and .

Figure 6.17

Answer: 1052 Ω, −76.11

DC conditions, approximate method

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 AC conditions
Figure 6.18

PROBLEM 6.9 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Find RIN and Av.
Figure 6.19

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 Answer: 8320 Ω, −1.786

Approximate method

AC conditions
Figure 6.20

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 NOTE: With bypass capacitor for RE, the results are RIN = 1015 Ω, Av =
− 237.

PROBLEM 6.10 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Calculate RIN and Av.
Figure 6.21

Answer: 4939 Ω, 0.977

Approximate method

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 Figure 6.22

PROBLEM 6.11 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Use Thevenin to calculate the DC conditions and find the value of RIN
and Av at 20°C and 30°C.
Figure 6.23

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 Answer: 1820 Ω, −321 (at 30°C)
   1774 Ω, −334 (at 20°C)

DC conditions
Figure 6.24

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 AC conditions
Figure 6.25

NOTE: This is the solution at 30°C. You can verify the results for 20°C.

PROBLEM 6.12 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Find the voltage gain. Temperature = 20°C.
Figure 6.26

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 Answer: −173

Use the approximate method

PROBLEM 6.13 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

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 Find the voltage gain.

a) as shown
b) with bypass capacitor

Figure 6.27

Answer: a) −3.3, b) −80.81

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 AC circuit
Figure 6.28

Transistor gain

Total gain Av = −0.86 × 3.84 = −3 3

With bypass, re is the same.
Figure 6.29

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 Total gain Av = −0.72 × 112.38 = −80.91

PROBLEM 6.14 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Find Av, the voltage gain. Use the Thevenin method.
Figure 6.30

Answer: Av = −91.92

Figure 6.31

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 Figure 6.32

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 PROBLEM 6.15 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
Find the voltage gain, using the Thevenin method.
Figure 6.33

Answer: −61.93

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 Figure 6.34

PROBLEM 6.16 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Assume IC = 1.2 mA, and re = 21 Ω.
Find the voltage amplification, Av.
Figure 6.35

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 Answer: Av = −5.84

PROBLEM 6.17 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION

Find the voltage gain, using the approximate method.
Figure 6.36

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 Answer: Av = 0.938

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 PROBLEM 6.18 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
Find the voltage gain.
Figure 6.37

Answer: Av = −79

10R1 = 330k   vs   βRE = 220k

Therefore, use the Thevenin method
Figure 6.38

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 PROBLEM 6.19 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
Find the voltage ampification.
Figure 6.39

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 Answer: Av = −1.73

Approximate method

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 PROBLEM 6.20 VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION
Find the voltage gain, Av.
Figure 6.40

Answer: Av = −113.72

We find IB using Thevenin (different!)

Figure 6.41

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 AC model
Figure 6.42

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7
Cascaded systems

One or more amplifying stages can be joined together to increase the

overall amplification. The gain impedance formula, seen as part of the
revision earlier in the book, is highly relevant. We are going to concentrate
on two stages and we will see them in the amplification of the voltage and
current.

Cascaded voltage gain

The typical circuit is seen in Figure 7.1. The method employed consists of
breaking up the total voltage gain, into as many independent parts as
possible. Then, we consider each separate part independently, one at a time.
Figure 7.1

We can identify the following parts and therefore this will be the
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method to follow

In this case the total amplification is made up of three parts.

First from the source to the base of the first stage. As we know, from a
single-stage amplifier, this value is usually a reduction to about 50% of the
voltage source, but this depends on the source impedance and the input
impedance of the first stage.
The second part of the above expression is the amplification of the first
stage which is taken from the base of the first stage to the base of the
second stage. This is normally a high value around 100, but depends on the
parameters of the transistor amplifier.
The third part of the expression is the amplification of the output stage
and this should be straightforward.
Before calculating the above values we will need to have the
information resulting from evaluating the DC conditions. Because the
capacitors block the DC supplies, the calculations of the DC conditions are
completely independent for stage 1 and stage 2.

DC conditions
These are applicable to stage 1 and stage 2. There are two methods to
evaluate the DC conditions. The approximate method and the Thevenin
method. It should be noted that the Thevenin method to evaluate DC
conditions on a potential divider biasing is the application of the Thevenin
theorem to this particular circuit.
We also have a criteria to decide whether to use one or the other
method. The criteria consists on comparing RB1 with RE in the following
way.
If 10RB1 < βRE use the approximate method
Using either method we will eventually arrive at IB, IC and IE. With the
value of IE we can obtain the value of re. It is also a good idea at this point
to continue to obtain the input impedances of both stages, as they may be
required later.
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 The circuit to be analysed will most likely be different and it must be
clearly understood that the model that will follow is the model that
corresponds to the circuit of Figure 7.1. So, when you do the equivalent
circuit keep your eyes on your particular circuit. Our equivalent circuit is
shown in Figure 7.2. This part will form a potential divider and the
amplification will have a factor less than 1, from this part.
Figure 7.2

Care has to be taken to make sure that the emitter circuit is properly
included, if it is not bypassed by a capacitor and also amplified by the
factor (β + 1).
The most complicated part is the gain of the first stage, from base one
to base two. The complication is that part of the loading of the first stage is
the input of the second stage. So there are a lot of items to be considered as
part of the equation.
The general equation is:

In connection with the circuit in question we have:

We see this in Figure 7.3. In this circuit we have the collector resistor of
stage 1, plus all the input resistances on stage 2. The circuit on the emitter
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of stage 2 is very important. In this case REB1 is bypassed and it will not
show.
Figure 7.3

The denominator of the equation above correspond to the circuit on the

emitter of stage 1. This is where the input voltage is applied. In this case
REA1 is bypassed and it does not appear in the equation. REA2, however, is
not bypassed and it shows in the equation in series with re1.
The last part of the amplification corresponds to the gain of the last
stage.

The total amplification will be

We mentioned earlier the gain impedance formula to convert from

voltage to current amplification (and vice versa). This was:

(No sign as we are only interested in the magnitude.) RL is clearly

visible in the output of the second stage. RIN is not so noticeable. So, we will
evaluate it (see Figure 7.4).

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Figure 7.4

RIN + RB11 ‖ RB21 ‖ (re1 + REA2) (β1 + 1)

Cascaded current gain

The typical circuit is shown in Figure 7.5. First of all we evaluate the DC
conditions for each of the stages. As both stages are biased by potential
divider types of biasing, we have two possibilities for evaluating the DC
conditions, either the approximate method or the Thevenin method. The
method we use depends on the loading provided by the transistor. The
criterion that we use is:
Figure 7.5

If 10RB1 < βRE we use the approximate method. Otherwise, we use the
Thevenin method.
Using the method decided by the criterion we can find the value of IE in
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each of the stages independently. With the value of IE we can find the value
of re according to the following alternatives:

These formulae accept the value of IE in mA.

For the calculation of the current amplification you need to use the
current division rule. If you are not familiar with it at this moment, have a
look at the first chapter. Otherwise continue with Figure 7.6. In this circuit
we combine RB11 ‖ RB21 which can be called for the moment RB. We will call
RX the resistor associated with the emitter circuit of stage 1.
Figure 7.6

The current out of the transistor 1 into the second stage is:

iIN2 = β1iB1

The current coming out of the first stage will follow the equivalent circuit
shown in Figure 7.7. Again we use the current division rule.
Figure 7.7

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 Before we do that, we join the three resistors into one, which we call RM
for the moment. We call all the resistors associated with the emitter circuit,
RN. This resistor could have been the result of a more complicated circuit,
but this one corresponds to the circuit at the beginning and it is rather
simple.
Remember that the model has to represent the circuit that you are
dealing with. From the model you work out your equations.

From the base of the second transistor we can move to the output of the
second transistor using the β factor.

iC2 = iB2β2

The circuit that we have now is shown in Figure 7.8. In this case we have
the last application of the current division rule:
Figure 7.8

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We need to join all the formulae into one, to obtain the total expression:

It is best not to try to remember formulae of this type. It is best to work out
the model from the circuit and work out the formulae from your model.
If we want to relate the current amplification to the voltage
amplification, we can use the gain impedance formula:

For those of you that like anagrams note that the word RAIL should appear
at one side of the equation. You can resort to this mnemonic rule if you
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don’t remember where the resistors go in the formula. Again RL is easily
identified. Note that if RL is not present, then the ouput current would
circulate only in RC2 and iL would be identical with iC2.
Let us work out RIN. In this case we look at Figure 7.9. The value of RIN
to be used in the gain impedance formula will be:

RIN = RB11 ‖ RB21 ‖ (re1 + REA1) (β1 + 1)

Figure 7.9

PROBLEM 7.1 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.10

Find the overall voltage gain and overall current gain.

Answer Av = 402, AI = 152.5

DC conditions
Criteria
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 10R1 vs βRE Use
10 000 24 000 Approx.
20 000 21 600 Approx.
Stage 1

Stage 2

AC conditions:
Figure 7.11

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 Second stage amplification

Total voltage gain

Av = 2.395 × 167.7 = 402

Gain impedance formula (used as an approximate check)

Current gain
Input side, current division

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 Output first stage
Figure 7.12

Output second stage

Figure 7.13

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 PROBLEM 7.2 CASCADED SYSTEMS
Figure 7.14

Find the voltage amplification and the current amplification for the
above circuit.

Answer: Av = 531.5, Ai = 243

DC conditions
Criteria
10R1 vs βRE Use
390 000 309 600 Thevenin
220 000 170 400 Thevenin
Thevenin resistance

RTH = 39k‖330k = 34 878 Ω

Thevenin voltage
Figure 7.15

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 DC conditions, second stage

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 AC conditions
Figure 7.16

Total voltage gain

Av = 22.89 × 23.22 = 531.5

In order to use the gain impedance formula, we need RIN1:

Figure 7.17

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 Current gain calculation
Figure 7.18

Output of first transistor

Figure 7.19

Output of second transistor

Figure 7.20

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 PROBLEM 7.3 CASCADED SYSTEMS
Figure 7.21

For the cascade amplifier, find the input resistances as shown, the
voltage amplification and the current amplification.

Answer: RIN1 = 2082, RIN2 = 872, Av = 3101 and Ai = 1369.5

DC conditions
Criteria
10R1 vs βRE Use
100 000 120 000 Approx.
Approximate method

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 Second stage
100 000 33 600 Thevenin
Thevenin method

Figure 7.22

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 AC conditions

Total voltage gain

Av = 94.073×32.967 = 3101

Using the gain impedance formula

Calculation of current gain

Figure 7.23

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 Output of first transistor
Figure 7.24

Output side
Figure 7.25

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 PROBLEM 7.4 CASCADED SYSTEMS
Figure 7.26

For the cascade amplifier, find the resistances as shown, the voltage
amplification and the current amplification. Assume the temperature to
be 20°C.

Answer: RIN1 = 1166, RIN2, = 1166. Av = 8408 and Ai = 4383

DC conditions
Criteria
10R1 vs βRE
56 000 67 000

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 The second amplifier has an identical circuit for DC conditions.
Therefore

re2 = 12.5 Ω

AC conditions
With both emitter resistors bypassed, we have

RIN1 = 5k6‖56k‖12.5 × 121 = 1166 Ω

RIN2 = 1166 (same circuit)

Voltage amplification stage 1

Total

Av = 8408

Using the gain impedance formula

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 Now the current gain (current division)
Figure 7.27

Output first stage

Figure 7.28

Output, second stage

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 Figure 7.29

The gain impedance formula gave 4456, which is not too bad,
considering all the rounding-off.

PROBLEM 7.5 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.30

Find the midband voltage gain and current gain.

Answer: Av = 2286, Ai 3759

DC conditions
Criteria
10R1 vs βRE Use
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 200 000 84 000 Thevenin
Thevenin

Figure 7.31

AC conditions – impedances
Figure 7.32

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 Both input circuits have the same value 1679 Ω.
Gain first stage

Gain second stage

Total

Current gain
Figure 7.33

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 First stage output
Figure 7.34

Output second stage

Figure 7.35

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 PROBLEM 7.6 CASCADED SYSTEMS
Figure 7.36

Find the overall voltage gain.

Answer: Av = 107

Both stages are identical - approximate method

Voltage gain

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 RL of the first stage is RIN of the second stage

Total

Av =8.06×13.28 = 107

PROBLEM 7.7 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.37

Find the current gain and the voltage gain of the amplifiers.

Answer: Ai = 678.55, Av = 208.25

DC conditions - first stage - Thevenin

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 Figure 7.38

DC conditions – second stage – Thevenin

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 AC conditions – current gain
Figure 7.39

Output first stage

Figure 7.40

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 Voltage gain

RL of first stage is RIN of the second stage

PROBLEM 7.8 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.41

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 Find the voltage gain and the quiescent output voltage.

Answer: Av = −1.197, vo = 9.548 V

Thevenin

We assume that there is no load from the last transistor. We find VC on

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 the first transistor

Second stage

Total

Av = −0.977×1.2 = −1.197

PROBLEM 7.9 CASCADED SYSTEMS

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 Figure 7.42

Find the voltage gain. Calculate the voltage output if the Input is fed
with a source of 2 mV peak to peak with an output resistance of 600 Ω.

Answer: Av = 5450, vOUT = 7.63 V

First stage – Thevenin

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 Second stage – approximate method

Resistances

RIN1 = 20k‖180k‖14.97 × 101 = 1395 Ω

RIN2 = 10k‖30k‖5.81 × 181 = 923 Ω

Voltage gain

Total

Av = 47.5×114.74 = 5450

Feeding with 2 V into a load of 600 Ω

Figure 7.43

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 Potential divider effect

PROBLEM 7.10 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.44

Find the voltage gain.

Answer: Av = −261

DC conditions – Thevenin method

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 Figure 7.45

Second stage
KVL

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 Second stage RIN
Figure 7.46

Voltage gain

Total

Av = 0.96 × (−272) = −261

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 PROBLEM 7.11 CASCADED SYSTEMS
Figure 7.47

Find the voltage gain.

Answer: 345

As we have the values of re, we skip the DC conditions and we go

directly to the AC conditions.
Figure 7.48

At the input there is a potential divider network

Figure 7.49

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 Voltage gain

Total

Av = 0.758 × 74.67 × 6.09 = 345

PROBLEM 7.12 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.50

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 Find the current gain iL/iIN.

Answer: Ai = −2997

Input resistance, second and first stage.

Figure 7.51

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 Figure 7.52

PROBLEM 7.13 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.53

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 Find the overall voltage gain at midband frequencies.

Answer: Av = 2891

First stage – DC conditions – approximate method

First stage – AC model

Figure 7.54

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 Second stage, the same as the first stage.
Voltage gain

Total

Av = 64.8 × 44.62 = 2891

PROBLEM 7.14 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.55

Find the current gain.

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 Answer: Ai = 133

First stage – Thevenin method

Figure 7.56

AC model
Figure 7.57

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 Second stage – approximate method

AC model – output of first transistor

Figure 7.58

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 PROBLEM 7.15 CASCADED SYSTEMS
Figure 7.59

Find the total voltage gain.

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 Answer: Av = −112

RIN1 = 40k‖160k‖16(181) = 2656Ω

Load to transistor 1

RL1 5k‖56k‖75k‖(26 + 10k‖56)101 = 2750Ω

Voltage gain

Potential divider at input

Figure 7.60

Total gain

Av = −0.96 × 171.86 × 0.68 = −112

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 PROBLEM 7.16 CASCADED SYSTEMS
Figure 7.61

Find the overall voltage gain.

Answer: Av = 4349

First transistor circuit – KVL

We assume no loading from the second stage

VC1 = 30 − IC1 × 5k6

 30 − 4.395 × 5.6 = 5.39 V

Second stage

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 Voltage gain

Total

Av = 4.38 × 993 = 4349

PROBLEM 7.17 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.62

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 Find the current amplification.

Answer: Ai = 1716

AC model – input side

Figure 7.63

Transistor 1, output
Figure 7.64

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 PROBLEM 7.18 CASCADED SYSTEMS
Figure 7.65

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 Find the voltage gain. re1 = re2 = 3.4 Ω

Answer: 11 184

Voltage gain

Load resistance for first stage

Total

Av = 34,57 × 323.53 = 11 184

PROBLEM 7.19 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.66

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 Find the overall voltage gain.

Answer: Av = −70.3

DC conditions

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 AC model
Figure 7.67

RE1 is in parallel with the reflected value of re2 Potential divider at input

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 Total

Av = −0.91 × 0.99 × 80.26 = −70.3

PROBLEM 7.20 CASCADED SYSTEMS

Figure 7.68

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 Find the voltage gain.

Answer: Av = 273.32

First stage – DC conditions – Thevenin

Figure 7.69

Second stage – DC conditions – approximate method

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 Figure 7.70

Potential divider at input

Figure 7.71

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 Total

Av = 0.718 × 17.04 × 22.09 = 270.26

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8
Bode plots

Bode plots are a simple method of graphically evaluating the frequency

response of a circuit. The plot is done on log–log paper and in this way a
compression of the frequency is effected. The gain is plotted on one graph
and there is a different graph to plot the phase angle. If you join the gain
and the phase angle in one graph, you obtain the Nyquist plot. The general
arrangement is shown in Figure 8.1. We have a network in the middle. A
sweep generator on the input of the network and an oscilloscope or a
frequency analyser in the output.
Figure 8.1

With the help of this simple circuit we can define the transfer function.
The transfer function is the ratio between the output and the input. In this
simple example the circuit is a potential divider and this will be shown in
the transfer function.

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Using the complex frequency operator s = σ + jω we can rewrite

In general the transfer function of any passive network will be of the form

With reference to the simple quadratic equation we can say that if X1 and
X2 are the solutions of a quadratic equation, then (X − X1)(X − X2) = 0 is the
equation.
Example

X2 − 7X + 12 = 0
(X − 3)(X − 4) = 0

3 and 4 are the solutions of the equation. Similarly, in the general equation,
Z is a zero value, that is to say, a value that will make the top term equal to
zero.
P is a pole, that is to say a value that will make the denominator equal
to zero. Zeroes and poles are the solution of the transfer function and it can
be plotted in a system of coordinates.
In frequency response we are interested in the magnitude of the
function and in the phase angle at a given frequency. The magnitude is
given by

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The value in-between the bars is the absolute value. Because the function is
factorised and in polar form, the angle is simply found

In order to systematically plot these factors as Bode first suggested, we use

the general equation to see how many different forms we will encounter.
These are:

The first form F(s) = K, is only a constant. As such it is not affected by the
frequency. That is to say, its value will not change with a change in the
frequency. It will, however, affect the magnitude of the function. It can be
argued whether or not this is a Bode form. We don’t mind, but we will
concentrate on the four types of Bode forms, types A to D. The four
different types are shown in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2

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 We have replaced the complex frequency operator s = τ + jω by just jω
as we are mainly interested in the sinusoidal oscillations. The magnitude is
the absolute value of the function and j will not form an important part of
the plot. For the angle representation the j is very important. In type A, the
angle is always 90° for any value of ω.
For type B, the angle is always −90°. In order to see this we go back to
the system of coordinates in Figure 8.3. The real values go on the X axis
and the imaginary values go on the Y axis. The angles are measured from
the real axis in an anticlockwise direction.
Figure 8.3

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 In type B

So far, we have seen type A and type B. They are both straightforward.
The magnitude plot is a straight line going up for one, down for the other
and crossing the zero line at one point.

Slope
An interesting part of this representation is that the slope of the line in type
A is 20 dB per decade, whereas in type B it is −20 dB per decade. Some
authors refer to it as 6 dB per octave.
Let us see where these values come from. The representation of Bode
plots is done on log–log paper. That is to say, we represent the frequency in
a log scale and the magnitude in decibels.
An octave from music is the distance between two notes where one is
twice the frequency of the other

A = 20 log 2
 = 20 × 0.30103
 = 6.0206 dB 6 dB per octave is an approximation.

A decade is a factor of 10 up or down in the frequency scale

A = 20 log 10
 = 20 × 1
 = 20 dB 20 dB per decade is an exact value.

Using a slope of 20 dB per decade means that we can easily construct the
plots. All we need to know is the point where they cross the ω axis. We can
then draw the straight line up for type A, or down for type B, with a slope
of ±20 dB per decade.
As we saw in Figure 8.2, type C and type D have a bent line. The point
where the line bends is called the corner frequency or break frequency.
As you probably suspect by now, type C and type D are very much
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related. We will only consider type C in detail, but by extension you will
find type D.

Type C
We would start with something like:

j25ω + 75

with suitable factorising and normalising we obtain the basic form which
is:

H(ω) = jω + 1

The absolute value of this function is:

As ω → 0, | H(ω) | → 1   A → 0 db
As ω → ∞, | H(ω) | → ω   A → ∞

Another way of explaining this is the Bode way. We distinguish three

cases:

a) |jω| ≫ 1. If this is the case we can ignore the 1 as it would be

insignificant compared to the ω term. The value of magnitude A in
decibels will be:
A = 201og ω dB
b) |jω| ≪ 1. In this case the term jω can be ignored and the 1 will be the
significant part of the function.
A = 201og 1 = 0 dB
c) The other alternative is
|Jω| = 1   ω = 1

The imaginary part is equal to the real part. The line changes direction and
we have the corner, or break frequency.
For the magnitude plot of the type C function, all we need to do is to
find the corner frequency. The left-hand side of this is a straight line at 0
dB level. To the right of this we have a straight line at 20 dB per decade.

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 On type C functions the angle plot is more complicated, but we can
come to an agreement that will make the plotting straightforward. First of
all, at the corner frequency the real part is equal to the imaginary part. This
means that the angle of the combined vector is 45° as seen in Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4

In Figure 8.5, if ω increases, the real part will still be 1, as before, but
the imaginary part will grow. The angle that was 45° will be larger. As ω
increases, the angle will become larger and larger, but the limit will be 90°.
Figure 8.5

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 Conversely, as we see in Figure 8.5, if ω decreases, the real part will still
be 1 as before, but the imaginary part part will become smaller. The angle
that was 45° at the corner frequency, will now be smaller.
As ω decreases the angle will become smaller and smaller, but it will
never be smaller than the limit which is 0°. The agreement that is necessary
here to simplify matters is to define:

angle = 90° at 10 times the corner frequency

angle = 0° at 0.1 times the corner frequency

We can now see the three alternatives for the type C function. You can
work out the type D which is very similar, but with a negative angle.
Just to clarify matters at this stage we show Figure 8.6. We can see the
angle plot for a type C and type D. CF stands for the corner frequency.
Figure 8.6

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 We are almost ready to start solving problems with Bode plots, but
before we do so we must add one more comment. As you saw at the
beginning, the general transfer function will be several factors that
multiply or divide. Every one of these factors will be either type A, B, C or
D. As it is in logarithmic form, these will add individually.
Example

log 12 = log (6 × 2) = log 6 + log 2

 = 1.079 18 = 0.778 15 + 0.301 03

This logarithmic transformation of products into sums means that you can
do the individual components separately and join them in a graphical sum
to obtain the total response. The same technique can be applied to angles.
You plot individual angles of each factor and add them (taking care of the
sign) together.
Figure 8.7 shows a full page Bode form to be used in problem solving.
Copy as required. There is a choice of whether you use f cycles per second
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or ω in radians per second (delete one of them when you have decided).
The scales in decibels are for you to adjust trying to accommodate the
response in the space provided. The same is valid for the angle scale that
you can adjust to suit your problem.
Figure 8.7

PROBLEM 8.1 BODE

Figure 8.8

Find the transfer function for this circuit.

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 Answer: Type C and type D

This is a type C and a type D

PROBLEM 8.2 BODE

Figure 8.9

Find the transfer function for this circuit.

Answer:

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 We factorise by R1 + R2

The first part is a constant and the second part is a Bode type D.

PROBLEM 8.3 BODE

Figure 8.10

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 Find the transfer fraction and the value of R2 that will produce a corner
frequency at ω = 500 rad/s. What is the frequent of the other break?

Answer: R2 = 1500 Ω, corner frequency 100 rad/s

Factorising

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 One type C and one type D functions.
Corner frequency

PROBLEM 8.4 BODE

Figure 8.11

Find the transfer function.

Answer:

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 Replace i1 + i2

vi = vA + vAjωCR + vojωCR
 = vA + (1 + jωCR) + vojωCR

Replace νA

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 Figure 8.12

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 Find the transfer function. Alternative method (using s operator).

Impedance Z

Potential divider

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 Replace νx

PROBLEM 8.5 BODE

Figure 8.13

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 Draw the Bode plot for the above circuit.

Answer: See Figure 8.14.

Figure 8.14

Transfer function

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 Type D function, Corner frequency

PROBLEM 8.6 BODE

Figure 8.15

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 Draw the Bode plot and check the values of magnitude and phase angle
for 5 and 50 rad/s.

Answer: −20.9 dB, 72.41°, −7.22 dB, 54.15°

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 Normalisinig (achieved by fractorising)

The Bode plot of this function is seen in Figure 8.16.

Figure 8.16

Magnitude for 5 rad / s

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 Angle

Magnitude for 50 rad / s

Angle

PROBLEM 8.7 BODE

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 Figure 8.17

Find the transfer function and express it in the standard Bode form. Find
the limits of a resistor that will produce a corner frequency from 1000
rad/s to 10000 rad/s.
Draw the Bode plot for R = 10 kΩ for magnitude and angle and obtain
the value of magnitude and angle for ω = 5000 rad/s

Answer: , R = 10 kΩ tp 100 kΩ magnitude 0 dB, angle

− 30 °

Only one type D

Corner frequency (when imaginary part is equal to the real part)

ωCR = 1
At ω = 1000

At ω = 10 000

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 From the Bode plot (Figure 8.18)
Figure 8.18

PROBLEM 8.8 BODE

Figure 8.19

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 Draw the Bode plot and find, from the plot, the maximum magnitude in
dB and the range of frequencies at which the phase angle is greater than
zero.

Answer: See Figure 8.20, maximum magnitude −1 dB, angle 20 to 4000

rad/s

Figure 8.20

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 We factorise to obtain the form (jωK + 1)

We replace values

We have a constant, a type C and a type D function.

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 From the plot in Figure 8.20, the maximum magnitude is −1 dB. The
angle is greater than zero from 20 to 4000 rad / s

PROBLEM 8.9 BODE

Figure 8.21

Find the transfer function and draw the Bode plot for magnitude only.

Answer: See Figure 8.22,

Figure 8.22

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 Transfer function

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 Factorising

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 Replacing values

The quadratic for s2 + 120s + 1000

Constant 0.01001

20 log 0.01001 = −39.99 dB

PROBLEM 8.10 BODE

Figure 8.23

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 Find R1 and R2 such that the transfer function has a corner frequency at
ω = 104 rad/s and the value of the transfer function is −2.5 at ω = 0.

Answer: R1 = 40 kΩ. R2 = 105Ω

Equating currents (ν− is the virtual earth)

Transfer function

For ω = 0

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 Corner frequency type D when

PROBLEM 8.11 BODE

Figure 8.24

Find the phase and magnitude of the transfer function at v = 5000 rad/s

Answer: magnitude = 1, angle = 90°

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 But R2 = R3

Transfer function

Replacing values and making s = jω, with ω = 5000 rad / s

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 Magnitude = 1
Angle

PROBLEM 8.12 BODE

Figure 8.25

Draw the Bode plot for this band pass filter and find the two corner
frequencies.

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 Answer: See Figure 8.26, 0.05 Hz and 500 Hz

Figure 8.26

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 This represents: a constant, a type A and two type D functions. The
constant and the type A can he combined into just one as required.
Note: The minus sign represents a shift of 180°. As the angle plot is not
required in this case, the minus sign has no significance in this problem.
Replacing values

Crossing type A

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 The Bode plot is seen in Figure 8.26.

PROBLEM 8.13 BODE

Figure 8.27

Find the transfer function and draw the Bode plot.

Answer: See Figure 8.28,

Figure 8.28

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 We can use the complex frequency operator s = σ + jω. The transfer
function is made up of three parts.

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 Change into Bode form, ready for plotting

Constant

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 K = 1 20 log K = 0 dB

This gives one type C and two type D. See the plot in Figure 8.28.

PROBLEM 8.14 BODE

Figure 8.29

Find the transfer function, including the amplification constant and

express it in the standard Bode form.

Answer:

This type of problem is a reverse Bode. The function is given. We have to

find the transfer function.
We try to find the original components of the transfer function. It is
possible that you might find more than one possibility. This is possible,
although you will find that they will all end up in the same transfer
function. If you imagine a base level, a type A, two type D and a type C
as shown will produce the desired response.
Figure 8.30

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 The base level is at 20 dB and this will give us the constant.

20 log K = 20 dB
log K = 1
K = 10

The type A will be of the type jωK (a different K). The crossing of the
base level is at 30 rad/s. We need a value of jω/30 because at ω = 30 the
value is 1 which in dB is 0.
The type C has a corner frequency at 800 rad/s. The factor will be

We can now write the transfer function

We amplify by 800, 5000 and 30 to remove the denominators

finally

PROBLEM 8.15 BODE

Figure 8.31

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 Given this response, find the transfer function and verify the value of
magnitude at ω 100 rad/s.

Answer:

Magnitude = 34.06 dB

The diagram has a zero at ω = 5 and three poles at ω = 30, 200 and 500
rad/s.
Normalised branches will be

The response has been ‘lifted’ by 20 dB

20 log K = 20
K = 10

The transfer function is

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 Rearranging it

Exact response for ω = 100 rad / s

PROBLEM 8.16 BODE

Figure 8.32

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 Given the response shown, find the transfer function and verify the
values by calculating the magnitude and angle for 10, 125 and 2000 rad/s.

Answer: 15.48
dB, 76.21°, 28.59 dB, −7.9°, 6.433 dB, −143°

Constant

30 dB = 20 1og K

K = 31.623

Transfer function
One type A and 3 type D.

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 The Bode plot can be seen in Figure 8.33.
Figure 8.33

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 We need to obtain the values for the three frequencies requested.
For ω = 10 rad / s

For ω = 125 rad / s

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 For ω = 2000 rad / s

Bearing in mind that Bode plots are only approximations, the results are
reasonably good.

PROBLEM 8.17 BODE

Given

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 Draw the Bode plot and find the gain and phase angle for 30 rad/s

Answer: magnitude = −30 dB, angle = −225°, see Figure 8.34.

Figure 8.34

We transform the function to standard Bode form for plotting.

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 Constant

20 log 1000 = 60 dB
Zeroes at ω = 100 (type C)

Poles (type D) at

ω = 0.1 ω = 1 and 10 rad / s

We can now draw the Bode plot of Figure 8.34.

Figure 8.35

From the Bode plot for 30 rad / s the magnitude is −30 dB and the phase
angle is −225°.
Check the magnitude

which is − 28.7 dB
Check the angle:
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 which compares very well with the plot.

PROBLEM 8.18 BODE

For the following expression draw the Bode plot and give the exact value
of magnitude and angle for a frequency of 100 Hz.

Answer: See Figure 8.36, magnitude = 36.94 dB, angle = 225°

We examine the denominator

What is

in terms of type A, B, C or D?
Amplify by j

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 This is a type A and a type D as seen in Figure 8.35
We can now draw the plot of Figure 8.36
Figure 8.36

Constant

log 100 = 2
20 log 100 = 40 dB

Exact value

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 PROBLEM 8.19 BODE
Given

draw the Bode plot, find the frequency at which the phase shift is 180°
and the critical value of β.

Answer: ω = 105, β = 10−2

There are three type D functions ready for plotting with corner
frequencies at 10 krad/s and two at 100 krad/s.
Constant

20 log 1000 = 60 dB

The Bode plot is shown in Figure 8.37.

Figure 8.37

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 The critical value is found from the plot at ω = 105 rad/s with the
magnitude being 40 dB.

A = 40 dB
 = 20 log A   A = 100

The critical value of β is when Aβ = 1. Therefore β = 10−2.

By calculation (at ω = 105)

For this value

Note: The Bode plot is an approximation. The real output is rounded at

the corner and this should be taken into account in the interpretation of
the results.

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 PROBLEM 8.20 BODE
Given β = 10−4 and the function

Draw the Bode plot and find the phase and magnitude margins.

Answer: See Figure 8.38. phase margin 48°, gain margin 35 dB

Figure 8.38

ω and f readily can be exchanged as they are different units like miles
and kilometres.
Here we have four type D functions
Constant

k = 105

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 20 log k = 100 dB

The value of interest from the plot is

The difference between the magnitude and the 80 dB line is

When this difference is zero in dB the value of Aβ = 1. The phase margin,

therefore, can be seen at this frequency. When we move to 180° phase,
we can see the magnitude margin. From the plot the phase margin ≈ 48°
and the gain margin ≈ 35 dB.

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9
Effect of capacitors

It is customary when introducing electronics to students to assume that

there are no effects from the capacitors and that β is constant. Sooner or
later, however, you will come to know that β drops with increasing
frequency and that you reach a point where the transistor ceases to
amplify. There are also parasitic capacitors which spoil the operation of the
transistor at high frequency. However, we are now concentrating at the
lower end of the frequency spectrum. We are not talking about parasitic
capacitances, but about capacitors that we have purposely put in the circuit
to block the DC supply or to manipulate the feedback.
Figure 9.1, shows the change in output of a transistor against the
variation of frequency. This Shows a uniform output at mid frequency,
whereas there is decay both at high frequency and low frequency.
Figure 9.1

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Input capacitor C1
We start with the general circuit shown in Figure 9.2. We first look at
capacitor C1. It is best to draw the equivalent circuit using our knowledge
of transistor modelling.
Figure 9.2

The point to notice here is that it would be too difficult to consider all
the capacitors in one go. So what we do is to consider each capacitor at a
time, assuming that the others are not affecting the circuit. So when we
calculate the effect of C1, C2 and CE are considered to be impedances.
Let us look at Figure 9.3. This is the equivalent circuit. At the corner
frequency
Figure 9.3

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 Remember that R in this case is RS + RIN and that

RIN = R1 ‖ R2 ‖ re (β + 1)

Output capacitor C2
The equivalent circuit associated with C2 is shown in Figure 9.4.
Figure 9.4

Note that RE or CE do not appear anywhere. This is in line with what

we have said before. That is, that when we calculate the effect of one
capacitor, in this case C2, we assume that the others are working normally
on very low impedances. This means that CE is conducting and bypassing
RE. So the emitter of the transistor is at ground potential.
Many students have difficulty in knowing whether RC and RL are in
series or parallel for the charging or discharging of the capacitor. In order
to resolve this dilema, we use a Norton to Thevenin conversion. The result
is shown in Figure 9.5.
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Figure 9.5

We can now see clearly that they are in series.

Bypass capacitor CE
This circuit is more complicated than the two previous ones. We are now in
the emitter circuit and this circuit is linked to the base circuit.
We draw the equivalent circuit starting from the capacitor CE as shown
in Figure 9.6.
We can use a Thevenin to Norton conversion to get the circuit shown
in Figure 9.7. In this circuit the left-hand side is in the base circuit. On the
right-hand side we have iE which is (β + 1) times iB. We can compensate for
this, assuming that iE flows everywhere, if we modify the values of RS, R1
and R2. In this way we arrive at the circuit of Figure 9.8.

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 R in this case is

Figure 9.6

Figure 9.7

Figure 9.8

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Cascaded 3 dB points
We wish to calculate the corner frequencies due to capacitors Cl, C2 and C3
as indicated in Figure 9.9.
Figure 9.9

We start by looking at capacitor C1 which forms part of the input side

of the first stage of the amplification. We draw the equivalent circuit under
AC small signals conditions as we see in Figure 9.10. In problems of this
nature we will be looking for the corner frequency for a given capacitance
or finding the value of a capacitance to achieve the corner frequency at a
given point. We are trying to define the edge of a passband, therefore we
are defining the bandwidth of the midband, at the lower end.
Figure 9.10

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 For the corner frequency we have

R = XC

R is the total resistance of the circuit ‘seen’ by the capacitor. In this case
the resistance is

R = RS + R1A‖R2A‖re1(β1 + 1)

Effect of C2
Now we move onto the effect of the second capacitor which is located
between the stages. As is normal in a cascaded system, the load of the first
stage is the input resistance of the second stage. This can be seen in Figure
9.11, where we show the equivalent circuit around C2.
Figure 9.11

We can convert from Norton to Thevenin on the left of Figure 9.11, to

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obtain Figure 9.12, where it is easier to see the circuit around capacitor C2.
Figure 9.12

The resistance of the circuit is

R = RCA + RB2 ‖ RB1 ‖ (re2 + RE1B)(β2 + 1)

Cascaded C3
We now move to examine C3 in the cascaded system shown in Figure 9.9.
This should be the same as the output capacitor of a single stage. However,
in this case the emitter resistor is not fully bypassed and RE1B will appear in
the equivalent circuit. The equivalent circuit appears in Figure 9.13. In this
case C3 sees a resistance of RL in series with RCB.
Figure 9.13

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 In order to see this we transform the left of AB into a Thevenin
equivalent. The resulting circuit is shown in Figure 9.14.
Figure 9.14

VTH = IRCB
RTH = RCB (current source open circuit)

In this case the resistor RElB is not seen by capacitor C3. The total resistance
of the circuit is RCB in series with RL.

PROBLEM 9.1 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

Figure 9.15

Find the break frequency due to C1 and the value of C2 to give a break

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 frequency of 70 Hz.

Answer: 30 Hz, 0.27 ΜF

Capacitor C1

Capacitor C2

PROBLEM 9.2 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

Figure 9.16

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 Find the corner frequency due to C1.

Answer: 134.7 Hz

AC model
Figure 9.17

Frequency

PROBLEM 9.3 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

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 Figure 9.18

Find the corner frequency due to C2.

Answer: 23.97 Hz

AC model
Figure 9.19

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 PROBLEM 9.4 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS
Figure 9.20

Use the approximate method to evaluate the DC conditions and calculate

the value of C2 to produce a corner frequency of 120 Hz.

Answer: 30 μF

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 DC conditions

AC model
Figure 9.21

PROBLEM 9.5 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

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 Figure 9.22

Find the corner frequency due to CE.

Answer: 214.78 Hz

Resistance

AC model
Figure 9.23

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 PROBLEM 9.6 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS
Figure 9.24

Find the lower 3 dB frequency if C1 is 1 μF.

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 Answer: f = 70.42 Hz

Approximate method

AC model
Figure 9.25

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 PROBLEM 9.7 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS
Figure 9.26

Find the value of CE that wiil produce a corner frequency at 40 Hz.

Answer: CE = 341 μF

DC conditions

82k vs 47k use Thevenin

Thevenin

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 Figure 9.27

AC model
Figure 9.28

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 PROBLEM 9.8 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS
Figure 9.29

Find the corner frequencies due to C1 and CE.

Answer: 1.43 Hz, 39.22 Hz

AC model

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 Emitter capacitor
Figure 9.30

PROBLEM 9.9 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

Figure 9.31

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 Find the corner frequencies due to C1, C2 and CE.

Answer: 28.93 Hz, 398 Hz and 66.75 Hz

AC model C1. See Figure 9.32.

Figure 9.32

C2

CE
Figure 9.33

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 PROBLEM 9.10 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS
Figure 9.34

Find the lowest corner frequency due to C1, C2 or CE.

Answer: 6.97 Hz (due to C1)

DC conditions

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 C1 – AC model

C2

Bypass capacitor
Figure 9.35

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 The lowest corner frequency is due to C1 and is 6.97 Hz.

PROBLEM 9.11 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

Figure 9.36

Find the value of CE that will produce a corner frequency of 50 Hz and

the value of C2 that will produce a corner frequency of 90 Hz.

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 Answer: CE = 111.5 μF, C2 = 0.133 μF

DC conditions

AC mode – bypass capacitor

Figure 9.37

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 Output capacitor C2
Figure 9.38

PROBLEM 9.12 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

Figure 9.39

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 Find the 3 dB frequency due to C1 if C1 is 0.772 μF.

Answer: 100 Hz (approx.)

Approximate method

AC conditions
Figure 9.40

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 PROBLEM 9.13 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS
Figure 9.41

Find the lower corner frequencies.

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 Answer: 36.87 Hz and 211.3 Hz

AC model – C1
Figure 9.42

Capacitor C2
Figure 9.43

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 PROBLEM 9.14 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS
Figure 9.44

Find the corner frequencies due to C1, C2 and CE.

Answer: 102.88 Hz, 10.25 Hz and 1162.56 Hz

AC model
Figure 9.45

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 Capacitor C1

Capacitor C2

Bypass capacitor
Figure 9.46

PROBLEM 9.15 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

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 Figure 9.47

Find the values of C1, C2 and CE so that the three lower corner
frequencies are at 150 Hz.

Answer: C1 = 0.557 μF, C2 = 0.058 μF and CE = 57.82 μF

AC model
Figure 9.48

Capacitor C1

Capacitor C2

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 Bypass capacitor CE
Figure 9.49

PROBLEM 9.16 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

Figure 9.50

Find the corner frequencies due to C2 and C3.

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 Answer: 71 Hz and 23.4 Hz

Resistance

AC model – C2
Figure 9.51

Capacitor C3

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 PROBLEM 9.17 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS
Figure 9.52

Find the corner frequencies due to C1 and C2.

Answer: 102.75 Hz and 42.45 Hz

Approximate method

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 AC model – C1
Figure 9.53

C1 frequency

C2 frequency

PROBLEM 9.18 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

Figure 9.54

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 Find the values of C1, C2 and C3 to produce corner frequencies at 50, 100
and 150 Hz.

Answer: C1 = 0.77 μF, C2 = 0.165 μF and C3 = 0.022 μF

AC model
Figure 9.55

Capacitor C2
Figure 9.56

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 Capacitor C3

PROBLEM 9.19 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS

Figure 9.57

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 Find the value of CE to produce a corner frequency at 100 Hz.

Answer: 19.58 μF

DC conditions – approximate method

AC model
Figure 9.58

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 PROBLEM 9.20 EFFECT OF CAPACITORS
Figure 9.59

Find the value of C1 that will produce a corner frequency at 77 Hz.

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 Answer: 0.248 μF

DC conditions – approximate method

AC conditions
Figure 9.60

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10

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High frequency

We will now concentrate on the gain of a transistor amplifier at high

frequency. The calculations are complicated and would normally be done
with the help of a computer. We are going to do it with a calculator.
It requires skill to carry out the gain evaluation by hand, as it would be
done under examination conditions. You really need to concentrate, and
dominate all the theorems and all the electronic laws. You need to have a
knowledge of transistor modelling and high frequency performance. You
also need to follow a procedure, and the following is recommended:

1) Evaluate the DC conditions. Obtain the quiescent conditions and

the value of re
2) Evaluate the gain at midband
3) Draw the equivalent circuit for high frequency operation
4) Simplify the circuit as much as possible
5) Apply Miller’s theorem. You will end up with two circuits instead
of one.
6) Use Thevenin–Norton conversions to reach the simplest possible
circuits at input and output sides
7) Make the final calculations in these circuits

There will be several variations depending on the type of load, the type
of emitter resistor bypass, the type of source impedance, the type of biasing,
but on the whole the above procedure can be used as a guide.
A typical circuit is shown in Figure 10.1. The problem here is to find the
voltage gain at a given high frequency.
Figure 10.1

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 We will need more information to be able to complete the problem. The
extra information required could be:

and the temperature.

1) DC conditions
In the circuit above, we have potential divider biasing. We have a choice of
two methods to evaluate the DC conditions: the approximate method, or
the Thevenin method. We will be able to decide which method we should
use by using the criteria:

R1 against βRE

We will find the value of IB, IC, IE and knowing the temperature we can
decide on the two options that we have for re:

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The value of IE is entered in mA

2) Midband gain
We now need the model of the transistor for small signal conditions. We
see this in Figure 10.2. This circuit is similar to the one used previously for
midband gain, with the exception of the right-most resistor which carries
iB. RE is bypassed by CE and it doesn’t appear anywhere. RB’E is the value of
little re, reflected to the input side (i.e., multiplied by (β + 1)). We also need
to include RBB’ and this will be part of the information given at the
beginning of the problem. All the above will represent the value of hie (the
input hybrid parameter under common emitter configuration).
Figure 10.2

All the resistors form a potential divider, where the base voltage will be
a proportion of the voltage source, given by

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We can now evaluate the midband gain as

and

3) HF equivalent circuit
The HF circuit was developed in the modelling, (Chapter 4) and based on
that we have the circuit of Figure 10.3. This will be the basic circuit used
and the information given as part of the problem will allow us to do some
simplifications at this stage.
Figure 10.3

4) Simplifications to the circuit

The value of RB’C is usually very high (2 MΩ) and as it is much larger than
RB’E, RB’C can be disregarded. The next consideration is the source
resistance. If this is small we can assume RS = 0 and in that case we don’t

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need to bother with R1 ‖ R2. If the source resistance is not negligible, then
we can use Thevenin–Norton conversions to simplify the circuit at the left
of B’. This being a purely resistive circuit will present no difficulty with the
Thevenin–Norton conversions.
Miller’s theorem could have been applied earlier. We only need to
know the midband amplification to apply the theorem, but we have
decided to leave Miller’s theorem for step 5.

5) Miller’s theorem
When we apply Miller’s theorem, we divide the circuit in two. The
appearance of the circuit after applying Miller’s theorem is shown in Figure
10.4.
Figure 10.4

The current generator on the left, will be the result of making

Thevenin–Norton transformations from left to right. We started with a
source vS and we end up with a current source as the last resistor is in
parallel with the capacitor. The simplest we can therefore obtain is a
Norton equivalent with the Norton resistor included in the resistor R. We
will see more of this in step 6.
The capacitor C on the circuit in the left is the result of the parallel
combination of

C = CB’E + CM1
CM1 = CB’C(1 − AV)

Sometimes the value of CB’E is not known, although we will know the value
of the transition frequency. In this case, the following relation can be used

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CT (total capacitance) is defined as:

CT =CB’E + CB’C

In the circuit on the right, the capacitor has been shown in dotted lines.
This capacitor corresponds to CM2, the Miller’s theorem capacitor.

Due to the fact that the impedance of the capacitor is usually much
greater than RL’, then the capacitor can be neglected, leaving only RL’, in
the output side of the transistor. RL’, will be a combination of resistors
including

The transistor output resistor

The collector resistance
The load resistance

6) Thevenin–Norton conversions
It is sometimes possible, according to the circuit, to apply Miller’s theorem,
divide the circuit in two and still have some reductions to do.
We could have the situation of Figure 10.5. This circuit can be reduced
by changing the circuit on the left of AB to a Norton equivalent as we see
in Figure 10.6. The resistors at the left of ST can be joined together. As a
result we get the circuit shown in Figure 10.7. The circuit at the left of ST
can be converted from a Norton to a Thevenin. We would continue
reducing the circuit from left to right. This procedure is quite simple and
avoids having to manipulate complex numbers if we get the capacitor

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involved in the calculations.
Figure 10.5

Figure 10.6

Figure 10.7

7) Final calculations
We will finally arrive at two circuits like the one shown in Figure 10.8. We
have the current source
Figure 10.8

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and only two components R and C. We want to find the voltage across the
RC components. This is simply:

In the first instance we use the impedance, in the second we use the
formula with the admittance. The second alternative seems best in this
case.
There is one more simplification which is to use the absolute value of
the admittance as we are only pursuing the gain of the transistor and the
phase angle is of no significance in this case.

So we have

The voltage calculated in this way will be vB’E.

On the output side we will have a circuit as shown in Figure 10.9. The
output voltage is given by Ohm’s law:

vO = −gmvB’ERL’

Figure 10.9

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As vB’E is a function of the input source voltage this expression will give us
the overall gain, which is what we have been looking for.
One question to ask here is: where does gmvB’E come from? We will see
this.

Transconductance
The transconductance is the ratio of output current to input voltage with
the output voltage constant.
Trans, means from input to output and conductance implies the
reciprocal of resistance and it is measured in Siemens.

We are now familiar with the emitter resistance re

VT is the constant which includes the absolute temperature and is referred

as the diode thermal voltage. We defined this as

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The transconductance is related to re in the following way. If the transistor
is working in the active region, that is to say it is not in the saturated
region, then

Therefore we can use approximately:

and this will be the way in which we will calculate the transconductance.

Current sourcegm vB’E

In order to see this more clearly we start with the relation in the transistor:

iC = βiB

In the high frequency model (Figure 10.10) we define the point B’ which is
an imaginary contact inside the transistor, and not accessible from the
outside.
Figure 10.10

Through this point B′ is where iB circulates and that resistor is re.

Remember that RE is bypassed. Normally re carries iE which is (β + 1) times
iB. This is why we use the reflected value of re and simply iB.
The voltage is

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 vB’E = iBre(β + 1)

so

On the output side

iC = βiB

We replace iB, then

As β is usually big we can compromise and simplify β with (β + 1).

So

As we are interested in the voltage gain, we start with a voltage source, vB’E
is a function of the voltage source. That is why the current source gmvB’E
(which is the same as vB’E/re), is also a function of the voltage source. The
expression

vo = − gmvB’ERL’

therefore, contains the overall voltage gain.

The minus sign is to satisfy the current direction chosen in Figure 10.9.
All we wanted to do in this last section was to explain where gmvB’E
came from and we hope that we have done so.
We can now continue with the problems.

PROBLEM 10.1 HIGH FREQUENCY

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 A transistor has a quiescent current of 0.2 mA, fT = 3 GHz, and CB’C = 0.1
pF. The temperature is 20° Find the value of CB’C.

Answer: CB’E = 0.32 pF

PROBLEM 10.2 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find the corner frequency fH.
Figure 10.11

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 Answer: 2.59 MHz

Midband gain

Miller’s theorem

CM1 = CB’C(1−Av) = 2 × 99 = 198 pF

Resistance

R = 10k‖R1‖R2‖(150 + 20) = 10k‖2k‖170 = 154.26 Ω

Capacitance

C = CB’E + CM1 = 200 + 198 = 398 pF

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 PROBLEM 10.3 HIGH FREQUENCY
Find the total input capacitance of the transistor and the corner
frequency fH, due to the capacitance.
Figure 10.12

Answer: 215.9 pF and 764.84 kHz

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 Midband gain (to use in Miller’s theorem)

Input capacitance

CM1 + CB’C = 202 + 13.9 = 215.9 pF

Equivalent resistance

PROBLEM 10.4 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find the high frequency corner frequency.
Figure 10.13

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 Answer: 1.874 MHz

Midband gain

Capacitor CB’E (from transition frequency)

2 + CB’E = 199 pF    CB’E = 197 pF

Miller’s theorem

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 CM1 = CB’C (1−Av) = 2(168.5) = 337 pF

Figure 10.14

Equivalent resistance

R = 270‖10k‖402 = 159 Ω

Equivalent capacitance

C = 197 + 337 = 534 pF

PROBLEM 10.5 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find the high frequency and corner frequency.
Figure 10.15

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 Answer: fH = 411 kHz

Note: C1, C2 and CE are related to the low frequency cut-off. Now we are
concerned with high frequency cut-off. The capacitors do not appear in
the diagram.
AC model
Figure 10.16

Midband gain used to be in Miller’s formula

Transition frequency

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 Miller’s theorem (CB’C split into CM1 and CM2)

CM1 = CB’C (1−Av) = 5(193.3) = 966.5 pF

AC model
Figure 10.17

Equivalent resistance

R = 1k‖5k‖522.6 = 321 Ω

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 PROBLEM 10.6 HIGH FREQUENCY
Find fH.
Figure 10.18

Answer: 569 kHz

We can calculate re from hie.

hie = (β + 1)re

re = = 4.79 Ω

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 Midband gain

Miller’s theorem

CM1 = CB’C (1 − Av) = 4(114.87) = 459.48 pF

AC model
Figure 10.19

R = 6k8‖27k‖651.44 = 581.68 Ω
C = 22 + 459.48 = 481.48 pF

fH = = 569 kHz

PROBLEM 10.7 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find the input and output corner frequencies on the high frequency side.
Figure 10.20

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 Answer: 107 MHz and 127.32 MHz

Note: This is a common base amplifier. The input is in phase with the
output. The Miller effect does not apply as it would need a negative gain!

Output side. CB takes the base to ground

C = 5 pF
R = 500‖500 = 250 Ω

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 Input side

R = re‖RE‖RS = 2.5‖200‖50 = 2.35 Ω

f1H =
f1H = 107 MHz

PROBLEM 10.8 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find the midband gain and the upper corner frequency.
Figure 10.21

Answer: −67.11 and 116.28 kHz

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 Transistor gain

Overall gain – potential divider

Figure 10.22

Voltage gain

Corner frequency

Upper corner frequency

R = 10k‖5050 = 3355 Ω
CM1 = 2(1 + 200) = 402 pF
C = CB’E + CM1= 5.96 + 402 = 407.96 pF
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 f = 116.28 kHz

PROBLEM 10.9 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find the input upper corner frequency.
Figure 10.23

Answer: 1.38 MHz

Midband gain (transistor only)

Amplifier model
Figure 10.24

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 CM1 = 2(1 + 52.06) = 106.12 pF

Input capacitance

C = CM1 + 22 pF = 128.12 pF

Input resistance

R = 1k4‖980k‖2525 = 900 Ω

fH = 1.38 MHz

PROBLEM 10.10 HIGH FREQUENCY

A transistor has a quiescent current of 1 mA. The temperature is 30°.
Additional data: CB’C = 1 pF, CB’E = 10 pF, β = 150.
Find fT and fβ.

Answer: fT = 556.485 MHz, fβ = 3.71 MHz

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 PROBLEM 10.11 HIGH FREQUENCY
Find the upper break frequencies.
Figure 10.25

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 Answer: 271 kHz, 6.8 MHz

Input side – equivalent resistance

R = 900‖4k = 734.69 Ω

   = 271 kHz

Output side – equivalent resistance

R = 500‖20k = 488 Ω

   = 6.8 MHz

PROBLEM 10.12 HIGH FREQUENCY

The amplifier has a gain of −150. Use Miller’s theorem to calculate the
input and output upper corner frequencies.
Figure 10.26

Answer: 90 kHz, 1.179 MHz

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 Miller effect on 24 pF capacitor

CM1 = 24(1 + 150) = 3624 pF

CM2 ≈ 24 pF

Input resistance

R = 600|2k4 = 480 Ω

Input capacitance

c = 3624 + 60=3684 pF

f1H = 90 kHz

Output side

R = 3k‖9k = 2250 Ω
C = CM2 + C2 = 24 + 36 = 60 pF

f2H = 1.179 MHz

PROBLEM 10.13 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find the voltage gain at 2.5 MHz.
Figure 10.27

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 Answer: 205

High frequency model.

Figure 10.28

RB’E = re (β + 1) = 11.36 × 101 = 1147.36 Ω

Miller

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 Transition frequency

Equivalent circuit after Thevenin to Norton conversion

Figure 10.29

Absolute value of admittance in input side

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 PROBLEM 10.14 HIGH FREQUENCY
Find the voltage gain at 2 MHz. For this assume that Rs is reduced to
zero.
Figure 10.30

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 Answer: 585.76

High frequency model (Rs = 0 therefore R1‖R2 not required)

Figure 10.31

RB’E = re (β + 1) = 26 × 201 = 5226 Ω

RL’ = RCE‖RC‖RL = 50k‖3k3‖10k = 2364 Ω

Miller

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 Equivalent circuit after Thevenin to Norton conversion
Figure 10.32

Voltages

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 Therefore

PROBLEM 10.15 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find fβ and high frequency cut-off due to base and collector circuits.
Figure 10.33

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 Answer: 3.093 MHz, 6.366 MHz and 0.833 MHz

Midband gain

AC model
Figure 10.34

Miller’s theorem
Figure 10.35

Cm1 = 1.5(1 + 161.29) = 241.94 pF

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 Cm2 ≈ 1.5 pF

Thevenin to Norton
Figure 10.36

Bandwidth fβ

PROBLEM 10.16 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find the corner frequencies at input and output and fβ.
Figure 10.37

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 Answer: 1.479 MHz, 7.236 MHz and 1.888 MHz

Approximate method

Transistor gain (not overall gain!)

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 AC model
Figure 10.38

Miller’s theorem

CM1 = 1.5(1 + 90.06) = 136.59 pF

CM2 ≈ 1.5 pF

New circuit
Figure 10.39

Input

Output

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 As we don’t have values for either CB’C or CB’E, we assume that they are
the same as CBC and CBE.

and

fT = fββ = 1.888 × 106 × 100 = 188.8 MHz

PROBLEM 10.17 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find the input lower and higher corner frequency. C1 = 1 μF
Figure 10.40

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 Answer: 34.58 Hz and 9.898 MHz

DC conditions – approximate method

Lower corner frequency

R = 500 + 4k7‖47k‖(101)(20 + 1k) = 500 + 4k7‖47k‖103020 = 4602 Ω

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 Voltage gain

AC model
Figure 10.41

Miller’s theorem

PROBLEM 10.18 HIGH FREQUENCY

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 Determine the hybrid π model parameters for a transistor operating with
a quiescent current of 2.6 mA, at a temperature of 300°K and with the
following parameters.
Figure 10.42

hir = 2k2 Ω    hfe = 200

hre = 10−4    hoe = 20 μs
ff = 300 MHz    CB’C = 4 pF

Answer:
RBB’ = 190 Ω    RB’E = 2010 Ω
RB’C = 20.097 Ω   RCE = 50 kΩ
CB’E = 49 pF    CB’C = 4 pF

Little re

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 Capacitances

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 PROBLEM 10.19 HIGH FREQUENCY
Find the voltage gain at 10 MHz.
Figure 10.43

Additional data:

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 β = 199    hoe = 25 μs
RBB’ = 25 ω    CB’C = 3 pF
fT = 300 MHz    RB’C may be neglected
VBE = 0.7 V    t = 30 °C

Answer: 4.4

DC conditions –(Q values)

Ac model
Figure 10.44

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 Miller’s theorem

New circuit
Figure 10.45

Thevenin to Norton
Figure 10.46

Norton to Thevenin
Figure 10.47

Thevenin to Norton

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 Figure 10.48

Magnitude of Y1 at 10 MHz

Magnitude of Y2 at 10 MHz

Therefore

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 If the 3 pF in the output circuit is ignored the result is 4.59 instead of 4.4.
This approximation can be made without affecting the result too much.

PROBLEM 10.20 HIGH FREQUENCY

Find re, the voltage gain at midband frequency (5 kHz) and the voltage
gain ay 5 MHz assuming fT = 250 MHz and CB’C = 4 pF.
Figure 10.49

Answer: 4.85 Ω, −59.86 and 9.78

DC conditions – approximate method

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 Voltage gain midband – AC conditions
Figure 10.50

Thevenin to Norton
Figure 10.51

Norton to Thevenin
Figure 10.52

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 Output side
Figure 10.53

Voltage amplification

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 Voltage gain at 5 MHz
Figure 10.54

CB’E is unknown, but we know fT.

The voltage gain from vB’E to −gmvB’ERL, is − gmRL.

Miller’s theorem
Figure 10.55

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 We now divide the circuit and we change the circuit from Thevenin to
Norton.
Figure 10.56

We work out the magnitude of Y at 5 MHz

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 Output side
Figure 10.57

Ignoring the capacitor 4 pF

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11

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Operational amplifiers: general

Properties
a) Very high open loop voltage gain which is about 100 000 for DC and low
frequency AC. The gain decreases as the frequency increases.
b) Very high input impedance, which is about 108 to 1010 Ω, so that the
current taken from the source is minute. The input voltage is passed to
the Op-Amp with little loss.
c) Very low output impedance, which is around 100 Ω which results in an
efficient transfer of input voltage to any load greater than a few kΩs.

Physical details
With reference to the popular 741 Op-Amp we can say that it has one
output and two inputs. The non-inverting input is marked +, and the
inverting input is marked − as shown in Figure 11.1. Its operation is
convenient, from a dual balanced power supply giving equal positive and
negative voltages Vs in the range of ±5 V to ±15 V. The 0 V is the centre
point of the power supply and is common to the input and output circuits
and is usually the voltage reference point.
Figure 11.1

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Two important consequences
• The difference of voltage at the input is approximately zero.
• The current flowing into or out of the input is approximately zero.

These two consequences are very important and will be used as a technique
to solve most of the Op-Amp problems that will follow.
The first consequence can be stated as V+ = V−. This is sensible due to
the large amplification of the Op-Amp. If we have an output of 5 V and the
amplification is 100 000, it means that the input must be 0.000 05 V. This
quantity being so small can be approximated to 0 V. This is indeed an
approximation, but a very useful one.
The second consequence can be stated as I+ = I− = 0. That is to say, there
are no currents going in or out of the Op-Amp inputs. This is indeed an
approximation, but a very useful one.

Inverting amplifier
The inverting Op-Amp is shown in Figure 11.2. The input voltage is applied
to resistor R1 to the inverting input V−. The output will have a − sign, that is
to say it will be in antiphase to the input. The non-inverting input is
connected to 0 V.
Figure 11.2

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 This configuration is a closed loop, the output is connected to the input
V− through the resistor RF which feeds back some of the output and is called
the negative feedback resistor.
As we mentioned before, V− is at the same potential as V+ and is called
the virtual earth. Under these conditions, the input voltage is applied to
resistor R1 and the voltage across RF is the ouput voltage Vo.
When Vi is positive, the current I flows through R1 and as we said
before, due to the high impedance at the Op-Amp input we assume that all
the current goes through RF. This is a very useful approximation.
So

The closed loop gain is

This brings us the normal formula

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 Another circuit of the inverting Op-Amp, where you can see the
potential divider effect better is shown in Figure 11.3.
Figure 11.3

Offset voltage
In practical terms, when there is no signal present, there may be a slight
quiescent voltage present. This is called the differential input offset voltage.
Although this input signal could only have a value of around 1 mV, due to
the high amplification of the Op-Amp, it would be unacceptable in most
cases.
The 741 Op-Amp has a correction circuit between pin 1 and 5, the offset
null adjustment. A potentiometer of 10 KΩ can be connected to pins 1 and 5
with the centre point connected to the negative of the supply. The
potentiometer is adjusted to give zero output when the input is zero volts.
For AC operation, a capacitor at the output removes any DC voltage
arising from the input offset.

Output current
A typical Op-Amp can supply a maximum output current of 5 mA,
therefore the minimum load that can be fed is roughly 2 kΩ, on an
operation of ±10 V. If a greater input current is required, an emitter
follower output stage or an Op-Amp current booster can be used.

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Input bias current
Although we have approximated the input currents of the Op-Amp to zero
and accepted this as an approximation, the Op-Amp will not work if there
isn’t a current flowing into or out of the inputs of the amplifier. The input
currents are called the input bias currents and are of the order of 0.1 μA in
the case of the 741. As the Op-Amp is symmetrical, the current is normally
balanced out.
In Figure 11.2 we introduced R2 as an input balancing resistor. It will
not affect the formula for the inverting Op-Amp, but it will improve the
performance. R2 is calculated to be equivalent to the load on the V− input,
that is to say, R1 and RF in parallel. If the source impedance is significant,
this is added to R1.

Negative feedback
Op-Amps can use negative feedback obtained by feeding back some of the
ouput to the inverting input. The part of the output fed back to the input
produces a voltage at the output that opposes the one from which it is
taken, thereby reducing the new output of the amplifier. The resulting
closed loop gain A is then less than the open loop gain Ao. In compensation,
a wider range of values of voltage can be applied to the input for
amplification. The opposite would be the result if the feedback is applied to
the non-inverting input (positive feedback). Negative feedback also gives
greater stability, less distortion and increased bandwidth.

Non-inverting amplifier
The non-inverting Op-Amp is shown in Figure 11.4. The formula for the
output of this amplifier is:
Figure 11.4

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 This circuit cannot be used as an attenuator, unlike the inverting
amplifier. The input impedance is very high, approximately equal to the
Op-Amp input impedance.
Figure 11.5 shows the circuit redrawn to show the potential divider
effect of the non-inverting Op-Amp.
Figure 11.5

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Differential Amplifier
The circuit shown in Figure 11.6, shows a differential Op-Amp with inputs
V1 and V2. These correspond to the − and + inputs of the Op-Amp.
Transistors T1 and T2 form the differential part of the circuit and, as shown,
both inputs are identical. One output will be inverted and the other non-
inverted, but that part of the circuit is not shown.
Figure 11.6

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 In a simpler form the emitters of T1 and T2 are joined together and
through a common resistor RE go to the negative rail. In Figure 11.6,
however, we use a constant current generator to supply a constant current
to transistors T1 and T2. The constant current circuit is formed by transistor
T3 which also has temperature compensation by the addition of D1. As the
temperature varies T3 and D2 vary in the same amount. They can be hand
picked to behave as equally as possible.
VR1 is a potentiometer to compensate for the manufacturing differences
between T1 and T2.
An Op-Amp like the 741 will have a differential input like the one in
Figure 11.6, plus several other stages to amplify the signals to the required
level, to shift the level of DC to allow an equal swing of the output, to bias
the different transistors, to protect the output circuits, etc.
In the circuit of Figure 11.6, V1 is compared with V2. If both inputs are
equal, both transistors will be conducting equally and the voltage
difference at the output should be zero.
As soon as one voltage is larger than the other, one transistor will
conduct more than the other and as there is a constant current source, as
one transistor takes more current the other will have to take less. The larger
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output then, will prevail.

Positive feedback
The principle of positive feedback can be understood with reference to the
sequence of three sketches shown in Figures 11.7–11.9.
Figure 11.7

Figure 11.8

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Figure 11.9

The first, Figure 11.7, shows an Op-Amp with an input to the inverting
input. The positive feedback is done by R2 which feeds a fraction of the
output to the non-inverting input. The fraction is R1/(R1 + R2).
We assume an ideal case in Figure 11.7. There is no input, i.e. 0 V input.
We also show a 0 V output. This is only theoretically possible because in
reality, any difference in the input will produce a small output. This small
output will feedback a signal which will increase the previous difference
and the output will continue to grow, the feedback will become larger until
the Op-Amp is saturated.
Normally the difference between V+ and V− is very small. Due to the
large amplification of the Op-Amp a very small input is sufficient to
produce the required output. When the Op-Amp reaches saturation, this is
not the case, as we will see.
Figure 11.8 shows the first case. We know that with zero input and zero
output the Op-Amp with positive feedback is unstable. We assume here
that the first difference was positive. As we described earlier, the feedback
will help the signal and the output will continue to grow until it reaches the
maximum. This maximum is a little less than the rails. The circuit settles at
14 V output, 7 V input which is the positive feedback from the potential
divider. In order to change the output from positive to negative, the input
has to grow to over 7 V.

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 Figure 11.9, shows the second case, when without an input the tiny
difference at the input goes negative. As we already know, the Op-Amp
with positive feedback is unstable and it will immediately reach saturation,
this time negative saturation.
The circuit settles with an output of −14 V. The negative rail is −15 V.
The feedback is −7 V. At the input we have 7 V with the polarity as shown.
The V− side is higher and the output will be inverted, i.e., negative. In order
to change the ouput from negative to positive the input voltage Vi will have
to be lower than −7 V. All the Op-Amp can do is to change from positive to
negative saturation. It behaves in a digital manner with two states. An
interesting analogy is the common light switch which rocks from one
position to the other and it is unstable in the middle. If you want to change
it from one position to the other you have to overcome the latch, but once
it goes, it goes. The analogy is a good one.

PROBLEM 11.1 OP-AMP GENERAL

Find v0 in terms of v1 and v2.
Figure 11.10

Answer:

Superposition. Set v1 = 0 and calculate v0 due to v2 only.

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 Alternatively we apply the formula

Set v2 = 0. Calculate v0 due to v1 alone (second part of superposition)

Total solution

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 PROBLEM 11.2 OP-AMP GENERAL
Find v0 in terms of v1 and v2.
Figure 11.11

Answer:

Superposition

a) set v1 = 0
b) set v2 = 0

Set v1 = 0

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 Set v2 = 0

Total solution

PROBLEM 11.3 OP-AMP GENERAL

Find v0 in terms of v1 and v2.
Figure 11.12

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 Answer: −10v1 − 2v2

Note that the inputs on the inverting side appear in the result with a
minus sign, whereas inputs to the non-inserting side appear in the result
with a plus sign (as expected).
Superposition

v+ = v− = 0 (virtual earth)

a) Set v1 = 0. The 1 kΩ branch has 0 V at both sides. There is no current

flow through the 1 kΩ resistor in this case.

b) Set v2 = 0. The 5k branch is now dead

Solution

v0 = voa + vob = −2v2 − 10v1

PROBLEM 11.4 OP-AMP GENERAL

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 v1 is equal to 750 mV. Find v0.
Figure 11.13

Answer: 9 V

PROBLEM 11.5 OP-AMP GENERAL

Find the ratio assuming no saturation.

Figure 11.14

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 Answer: −1

This is a simple, but puzzling problem.

At v− we have virtual earth, R2 has no current, The resistor R1 next to
R2, has no current either. The current has nowhere to go. At point A,
therefore, we also have a virtual earth. The current going from vi to vo
will be

but

PROBLEM 11.6 OP-AMP GENERAL

v1 is equal to 750 mV. The Op-Amp saturates at ± 11 V. The variable
resistor is increased. What is the minimum value of the resistor within

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 saturation.
Figure 11.15

Answer: 880 kΩ

When the resistor is increased, the output will go to +11 V.

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 PROBLEM 11.7 OP-AMP GENERAL
Calculate vo if
Figure 11.16

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 a) vi = 0.75 V
b) vi = 0.75 mV sine wave at a frequency where C becomes a short
circuit.

Answer: (a)0.5 V and (b) 300 mV

a) vi = 0.75 V
The capacitor isolates the DC. There is no current through the 10k
resistor.

v+ = v− = vi

The output is a potential divider.

b) C is a short circuit under AC conditions

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 PROBLEM 11.8 OP-AMP GENERAL

Find R such that

Figure 11.17

Answer: R = 80 kΩ

Superposition

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 This must be equal to

PROBLEM 11.9 OP-AMP GENERAL

The input is set at 40 mV.
Figure 11.18

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 Find the value of io. If R4 is increased state whether the output vo will
increase, decrease or remains the same.

Answer: io = 1 μA. The same.

R3 is not conducting. This means that vo = v−. We also have v+ = v−.

If R4 is increased, the voltage on R4 will increase, but vo will still be

given by vo = v− = v+. We assume that the Op-Amp has not reached
saturation.

PROBLEM 11.10 OP-AMP GENERAL

vi is 75 mV. Find vo.
Figure 11.19

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 Answer: 50 mV

There is no current through the 50 kΩ resistor.

vo = v−

At the input end

v+ = v− and then v+ = vo

v+ is part of a potential divider

PROBLEM 11.11 OP-AMP GENERAL

Find i.
Figure 11.20

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 Answer: 5cos 4t mA

This is a non-inverting Op-Amp

PROBLEM 11.12 OP-AMP GENERAL

Find vo in terms of vi.
Figure 11.21

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 Answer:

This is an interesting problem which shows how Op-Amps work. The

200 kΩ resistor has tio current.

vo = v−

Potential divider

But v+ = v−, so

PROBLEM 11.13 OP-AMP GENERAL

Find vo.
Figure 11.22

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 Answer:

Superposition

a) v2 = 0
50k‖200k = 40 kΩ

b) v1 = 0
50k‖100k = 33 333.33 Ω

Amplification

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 PROBLEM 11.14 OP-AMP GENERAL

Calculate as a function of x.

Answer:

Figure 11.23

Inverting the Op -Amp

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 PROBLEM 11.15 OP-AMP GENERAL

Calculate in function of x.

Answer:

Figure 11.24

Non -inverting Op -Amp

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 PROBLEM 11.16 OP-AMP GENERAL
Find the magnitude and phase angle for w = 5000 rad/s.
Figure 11.25

Answer: magnitude = 1, angle = 90°C

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 Superposition. Although there is only one input, we can separate them
into lower and higher branches.

a) Lower branch equal to zero.

voa = −vi inverter with gain 1 to 1.
b) Higher branch equal zero.

For w = 5000 rad/s

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 Magnitude = 1, angle 90°

PROBLEM 11.17 OP-AMP GENERAL

The Zener diode current is 1 mA. The current through the resistive
network is 0.1 mA.
Figure 11.26

Find R1, R2 and R3 to produce an output of 10 V.

Answer: 68 kΩ, 32 kΩ and 8k2 Ω

At Zener

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 At output

PROBLEM 11.18 OP-AMP GENERAL

R1 = 5 kΩ, R4 =R5 = 10 kΩ.
Figure 11.27

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 Find the values of R2 and R3 to give an output of vo = 2v1 + 5v2

Answer: R2 = 2 kΩ and R3 = 10 kΩ

The second Op-Amp is a 1 to 1 inverter. The output required from the

first Op-Amp is

PROBLEM 11.19 OP-AMP GENERAL

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 Find vo.
Figure 11.28

Answer: −v1 + 2v2

a) v1 = 0
v+ = v2

voa = v2 = 2v2
b) v2 = 0
v+ = v− = 0

vob = = −v1

Total output

vo = 2v2 − v1

PROBLEM 11.20 OP-AMP GENERAL

Find the voltages at A and B.
Figure 11.29

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 Answer: −12.5 V and 12.5 V

The first Op-Amp is summing and inverting with a ratio of 1 to 1.

VA = −5 − 7.5 = −12.5 V

The second Op-Amp is inverting also with a ratio of 1 to 1.

VB = −VA = 12.5 V

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12

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Operational amplifiers:
applications

Op-Amps nodal analysis

In some cases, nodal analysis can be an easy and interesting way of solving
operational amplifier problems. It is based on the fact that for a large
amplification, the input differential of an amplifier is very small and it can
be approximated to zero.
Under this approximation, we can say that

V+ = V−

The nodes are usually, one at each input and one at the output, although
you would place them wherever you need them. Sometimes one equation
at one node is sufficient to solve the problem.
The important point here is to set the equation correctly according to
the direction of the current. Let us look at Figure 12.1. In the first case, the
current flows from ν1 to ν2. The equation for the current is
Figure 12.1

In the second case the current flows from ν6 to ν5. The equation for i8 is

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 We assume that one voltage is larger than the other. The current will
flow from the larger voltage to the smaller and the voltage difference will
simply be the larger voltage minus the smaller voltage.
Nodal analysis is only a systematic application of KCL. It is therefore
very important to select the current directions sensibly and to follow them
with the corresponding equations.

Comparator
The Op-Amp can be used as a comparator in an open loop configuration. A
linear voltage can be fed into one of the inputs. The other input can be held
to ground. This arrangement is shown in Figure 12.2. The input and output
waveforms are also shown. When the input is positive, the output is
saturated positive. When the input is negative, the output is saturated
negative. So, in a way, this circuit accepts an analogue input and will
provide a digital output.
Figure 12.2

Using comparators, many different types of circuits and results can be

achieved. What about a voltage level indicator, as we see in Figure 12.3?
Figure 12.3

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 The potential divider selects half of the voltage at the negative input.
For the LED to conduct and glow, the output has to be positive. For the
ouput to be positive, the positive input has to be bigger than the negative
input.
So

If the opposite condition is required, this can be easily arranged as in

Figure 12.4.
Figure 12.4

Window detector
If you only need to detect a band, within the range available, that is also
possible and it is called a window detector. This can be seen in Figure 12.5.
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There are basically two comparators, one for each edge. The top one gives a
low output at high voltage and the lower comparator gives a low for low
voltage. In between, both give a positive output.
Figure 12.5

In order to get the window effect, the output will be high if both
comparators give a high output.
Outside the high band we will have a situation where one comparator
gives a low output whilst the other gives a high output. In this case we
don–t want a conflict between the two signals and we want the low signal
to take preference.
These details are not shown in the circuit, but the problem would be
resolved by using Op-Amps with open collector outputs and possibly a
pull-up resistor in the circuit.

Comparator with hysteresis

A simple comparator has the problem that if the signal is around the
switching point, the ouput will be jumping from one value to the other. We
would prefer a clean jump from positive to negative or vice versa.
It is desirable in this case to introduce an extra condition in the circuit
so as to achieve a differential band. This is called hysteresis. It is similar to
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the ordinary light switch which is not stable in the middle. It will take one
position and it will stay there. But, it can also be forced in the opposite
direction.
The way to achieve this is shown in Figure 12.6.
Figure 12.6

The hysteresis is:

The hysteresis is therefore a proportion of the Vpp voltage. This voltage

is the total swing of the ouput. If the output varies from +12 V to −12 V,
then VPP is 24 V. The size of the differential is given by the amount of
positive feedback allowed by the potential divider formed by R and RF. The
interesting point here is that the size of the hysteresis band does not depend
on VREF at all. See Figure 12.7. VREF only has to do with the location of the
hysteresis band, not its width.
Figure 12.7

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 In order to prove that this is the true, we will work out the size of the
hysteresis (see Figure 12.8). First of all, it must be clear that all the voltages
are measured with respect to 0 V as a reference. The diagram on the left-
hand side of Figure 12.8 shows the situation with the circuit of Figure 12.6,
when the output is high (VH).
Figure 12.8

We want to know the voltage at the positive terminal, when the output
is high. We call the voltage at the positive terminal, V+H.
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 This can be checked against the diagram in the left part of Figure 12.8.
We refer to V+L as the voltage at V+ when the output is low:

We can also do the same equation, not this time from VREF, but from VL.
We get:

The last two equations will reduce to

The window is given by

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 VH + VL is the peak to peak voltage referred to before as VPP.

Voltage to current converter

One interesting Op-Amp application is the voltage to current conversion.
This conversion is widely used with a transducer to transmit the signals
necessary for process control, usually in the range of 4 to 20 mA. The
converter has to sink current into a number of different loads without
changing the voltage current transfer characteristic. The simplest Op-Amp
circuit for this is shown in Figure 12.9.
Figure 12.9

In this circuit:

V+ = Vi (no current through R1)

V+ = V‒
VX = V− (no current through R2)

IL flows through RL and R3. Therefore:

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 IL is independant of RL and it is proportional to Vi.
Although this circuit achieves the desired result, it has the complication
that the load resistor is floating. That is to say that neither end can be
grounded. Remember that the load resistor will be sited away from the
control room, in the plant.
A variation of the circuit can be seen in Figure 12.10. The technique
used here to solve this problem is to use node equations for A and B. This is
the same as KCL or the first Kirchhoff’s law. We later use the equation V+ =
V− at the input of the Op-Amp as an extra equation.
Figure 12.10

From the node A equation we can obtain an expression for V−:

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 From the node B equation we can obtain an expression for V+:

If the Op-Amp is working correctly and is not saturated, then we can

equate V+ = V−
We obtain

As we are only interested in Vi and IL, the equation can be greatly

simplified if the Vo terms can be eliminated. The terms on Vo are made
equal at both sides of the equation. In order to achieve this, we make:

This simplifies to

and by the laws of proportion:

From equation (5) we get:

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 Using equation (8) on equation (9) we get:

Using equation (7) on equation (10) we get:

Again we obtain the desired result that Vi is proportional to IL and

independent of RL.
Another variation of the problem which helps to illustrate the
technique for solving this type of problem is shown in Figure 12.11. We
have nodes A and B again, where we can use Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
and the equation V+ = V−. At node A:
Figure 12.11

At node B:
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 We assume here that the first two currents are going into the node,
whereas IL is going out of the node. If this is not true, then we would get a
minus sign in the result.
We find V− from the first equation, V+ from the second equation and we
equate them, i.e.:

we obtain:

V1R2(R3 + R4) + VoR1(R3 + R4)

= V2R4(R1 + R2) + VoR3(R1 + R2)
− ILR3R4(R1 + R2)

If R1 = R3 and R2 = R4 the term Vo disappears as they are equal and at both

sides of the equation:

V1R2 − V2R4 = −ILR3R4

The current IL is independent of the load and it is a function of the

voltage difference V2 − V1.

PROBLEM 12.1 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

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 Figure 12.12

Using nodal analysis find R such that

Answer: 80 kΩ

At node ν−

At node ν+

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 Therefore

PROBLEM 12.2 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.13

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 Show that νo = 2(ν2 − ν1)

Answer: Yes

Using nodal analysis at node ν−

At node ν+

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 PROBLEM 12.3 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
Figure 12.14

Find the values of R1 and R2 that wil produce an output

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 .

Answer: R1 = 4 kΩ and R2 = 180 kΩ

Use superposition. First we ground Y

This corresponds to the second term requested: R2 must be 180 kΩ.

Now X = 0

This must be equal to

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 PROBLEM 12.4 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
Figure 12.15

Using nodal analysis find νo if νi is equal to 750 mV.

Answer: 9 V

At node ν−

At node ν+

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 PROBLEM 12.5 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
Figure 12.16

Using nodal analysis find νo in terms of ν1 and ν2.

Answer: −10ν1 − 2ν2

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 At node ν− (KCL)

But ν+ = ν− = 0

10ν1 + 2ν2 = −νo

νo = −10ν1 − 2ν2

PROBLEM 12.6 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.17

Find νo as a function of (u2 − u1) and as a function of (ν2 − ν1).

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 Answer:

At OA3

Equating ν+ = ν−

Now at 0A1 and 0A2. Current through R1

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 Replacing u1 − u2 we have

PROBLEM 12.7 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.18

Find νo as a function of ν1 and ν2.

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 Answer:

At the second Op -Amp

Replace νB = ν2

(νA − ν2)R2 = R1(ν2 − νo)

R2νA − R2ν2 = R1ν2 − R1νo

Replace νA

PROBLEM 12.8 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.19

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 Find the current supplied by the output of OAl and OA2.

Answer: 0.6 mA and 2.1 mA

Current OA1

Output OA1

The second Op -Amp has 0 V at ν−. The current also runs into A.
Current OA1

0.3 + 0.3 = 0.6 mA

Current OA 2. This produces three currents

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 Current OA2 = 1.2 + 0.6 + 0.3 = 2.1 mA

PROBLEM 12.9 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.20

Find νo as a function of ν1 and ν2.

Answer: νo = −3v1 − ν2

Superposition ν1 = 0
Input to ν−. R in series with R‖R.
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 At A the input is

The branch to v1 has 0 V at either end.

At point B we have

The current from ν− to B is ν2/3R and also from earth to B. So the

current from B to νo is

Superposition ν2 = 0
The current from ν1 is ν1/R and similarly from B to νo the current is
2ν1/R

Total output

νo = −3ν1−ν2

PROBLEM 12.10 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.21

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 Find the value of the current through R1.

Answer: 0.6 mA

The current from the 5.0 V source

R1 current

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 PROBLEM 12.11 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
Figure 12.22

Find νo in terms of ν1 and ν2 if R2 = 10R1.

Answer: 10(ν2 − ν1)

The output at A from the lower Op -Amp is

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 Therefore the current from ν2 is

PROBLEM 12.12 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.23

Calculate the value of R to produce an output of 880 mV.

Answer: R = 500 Ω
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 Amplification

Proportion (or potential divider)

PROBLEM 12.13 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.24

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 Find the value of νo.

Answer: 6ν1 + 4ν2

We are going to find the value of ν+ and then, use the amplification to
obtain the result.
Amplification

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 PROBLEM 12.14 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
Figure 12.25

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 Using nodal analysis find νo in terms of ν1 and ν2.

Answer:

At node ν−

At node ν+

Now we equate

ν+ = ν−
3ν+ = 3ν−
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 Therefore

PROBLEM 12.15 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.26

Find the voltages at A and B.

Answer: VA = 4 V and VB = 8 V

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 PROBLEM 12.16 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
Figure 12.27

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 Find the value of νo if ν1 = 1 V and ν2 = 2 V.

Answer: νo = 0 V

Output OA1

Output OA2

PROBLEM 12.17 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.28

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 Demonstrate that the mathematical model for this Op-Amp is Vo = V2 +
500V1.

Answer: Yes

Output at A

We now move to the final Op -Amp with inputs A and B.

Using superposition

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 Total output

νo = ν2 + 500ν1

PROBLEM 12.18 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

Figure 12.29

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 Find the gain of the Op-Amp and the output current io.

Answer: Gain = 15. io = 5X mA

Gain

Output current

Using nodal analysis

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 PROBLEM 12.19 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
Figure 12.30

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 Find the value of I1, I2, I3, VA and VB.

Answer: 1.5 mA, 0.5 mA, 2 mA, −3.75 V and −13.75 V

PROBLEM 12.20 OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

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 Figure 12.31

Find νo if the input is 100 mV.

Answer: −600 mA

The first Op -Amp is inverting.

The second Op -Amp is non -inverting

Potential divider output

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13

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Operational amplifiers: oscillators

The circuit shown in Figure 13.1, represents a very user-friendly oscillator.

It is a relaxation oscillator. This is the name given to an oscillator that
produces a square wave.
Figure 13.1

Due to the positive feedback loop, (R1 and R2), the output νo will be
unstable at switch on and the ouput will saturate at a positive or negative
value. If the output is positive, the capacitor will charge through the RC
circuit towards the positive output voltage. The voltage ν+ at the Op-Amp is
given by the potential divider network formed by R1 and R2 and this acts as
a reference voltage point.
The capacitor would normally charge towards the positive saturation
point, but before it gets to this value, it will match the value of ν+ and at
this point everything will change. As the negative input ν−, will be larger
than ν+, the output will saturate at the negative value. Now that we have a
negative output value, the process can be repeated in the other direction,
this time, the capacitor discharges. As the output changes from positive to
negative and so on, the output is a square wave.
We now examine Figure 13.2, to find the frequency of oscillation.

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Clearly this has something to do with the charge and discharge curves.
Figure 13.2

E and −E are the values of the saturated outputs, positive and negative,
respectively. V and −V are the maximum and minimum values at the
positive feedback differential input V+.
So

A simpler case is shown in Figure 13.3. If ν is the instant voltage at the

capacitor, or at ν− and if we are starting from zero the equation of the line
would be
Figure 13.3

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 But as we actually start from −V we have to subtract −V. So the
charging curve will be

Some people would have been able to write this equation by just
looking at Figure 13.2.
Similarly, as they are symmetrical

This applies to the discharge curve, from V to −V.

Now that we have defined the charge and discharge curves, we can see
that in order to calculate the frequency, or the period of this oscillation, we
have two options. First, we can use the first equation and make ν = V. That

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will give us half the time we are looking for, or secondly, we can use the
second equation and use ν = −V. Both alternatives should give the same
result and you can verify this, as we are only going to carry out the second
alternative here.

Remember that V is the crossing point given by the potential divider

effect of R1 and R2. In order to make it simpler, we will allow here R1 = R2.

Taking natural logarithms from both sides, we get

therefore

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T = 2.2RC

Different resistors
More often than not, R1 will be different from R2 (see Figure 13.1). This can
be taken into account by using the potential divider effect of R1 and R2 onto
the crossing point defined above as V.
We start by rewriting the exponential equation we have already
developed:

and with

As V is expressed as a function of E, the whole expression should

simplify and appear as a function of R1 and R2 only.

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 We rewrite the expression as

Taking natural logarithms from both sides, we get:

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 (In is natural logarithm, base e)
This expression can be used to find any parameters when you know the
other parameters. Note that if R1 = R2, we are back at the situation of the
original formula.

555 Timer
The 555 timer circuit is seen in Figure 13.4. Basically, there are two Op-
Amps that control the setting and resetting of a flip-flop register. The flip-
flop operates an NPN transistor and the ouput stage. A capacitor, part of an
external circuit, can be charged through a suitable circuit and it can be
discharged by the NPN transistor.
Figure 13.4

In Figure 13.5, we see such a configuration to operate the 555 as a

multivibrator. There are many other possible uses of this chip as you will
already know.
Figure 13.5

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 The capacitor C charges through R and RA to VCC, but before it reaches
that value, the threshold on pin 6 (2/3 of VCC) is reached and the flip flop is
set. Output 3 goes high. The discharge transistor (on pin 7) goes on. The
capacitor is forced to discharge by the low on pin 7. Whilst the capacitor is
charged through R and RA, the discharge takes place only through R and it
is quicker. This feature can be useful in cases where you want to vary the
duty cycle, or the mark to space ratio of the waveform.
The capacitor is now discharging and the value is monitored on pin 2
where it is compared with the 1/3 VCC at the comparator. As soon as the
capacitor voltage falls below 1/3 VCC, the Op-Amp comparator will give a
positive output and will reset the flip-flop, and we go back to square one.
The waveform can be seen in Figure 13.6. We can identify three
different curves. First, the one starting from 0. This is the initial charge,
when we have just switched on. The capacitor is completely discharged and
it will take longer to reach 2/3 VCC. Once the multivibrator is working
normally, the operation will be the charge curve from 1/3 VCC to 2/3 VCC
and the discharge curve from 2/3 VCC to 1/3 VCC.
Figure 13.6

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 The calculations are lengthy, but quite simple and straightforward.
They will be done as follows:

Charge curve
Time to charge from 0 to 2/3 VCC
Time to charge from 0 to 1/3 VCC
The difference is the charge time.
Discharge curve
Time to discharge from VCC to 2/3 VCC
Time to discharge from VCC to 1/3 VCC
The difference is the discharge time.

From 0 to VCC

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 Take natural logarithms and multiply by −1

From 0 to VCC

Therefore

Δt = 0.693 (R + RA)C
t = 0.693 (R + RA)C

From VCC to VCC

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 From VCC to VCC

Therefore

The period of oscillation is therefore

T = 0.693(R + RA)C + 0.693RC

T = 0.693(2R + RA)C

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Sinusoidal oscillators
In a sinusoidal oscillator, or linear oscillator, positive feedback is used to
make it unstable and with the use of a frequency selective network, we can
achieve oscillation at a given frequency.
The general arrangement is shown in Figure 13.7.
Figure 13.7

If βA = 1 then,
Although mathematically you are not allowed to divide by zero, in
electronic terms this means that you can have an output, without having an
input.
The conditions for oscillation are:
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 Magnitude of βA = 1

Overall phase shift = 0°

In some cases these conditions, although sufficient to maintain oscillations,

are not sufficient to start the oscillations. It is therefore necessary to
increase the gain at the start and decrease it to unity, once the oscillations
have started. We will not be looking into these details. We will only look at
two sinusoidal oscillators, the Wien bridge and the phase shift oscillator.

Wien bridge oscillator

The simplest oscillator is based on the Wien bridge. The Op-Amp is
connected in the non–inverting configuration as in Figure 13.8. The Op-
Amp gain is therefore 1 + R2/R1. The loop gain is βA.
Figure 13.8

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 ZP is the parallel impedance and ZS is the serial impedance.
The gain on the negative feedback determines the amplitude of the
oscillation. The Wien bridge, on the positive feedback, determines the
frequency of oscillation.

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******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******
 We examine the term Zp/(Zp + ZS) in Figure 13.9.
Figure 13.9

The phase angle will be zero, if the imaginary part is zero. Therefore:

At this frequency

To obtain a loop gain of unity we need R2/R1 = 2

Phase shift oscillator

The circuit is shown in Figure 13.10. In this case in order to obtain
oscillations, the loop gain must have an overall phase shift of zero. As we
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are using the inverting input which provides 180° shift, the RC network
must produce another 180°, to make the overall phase shift 0° (see Figure
13.11).
Figure 13.10

Figure 13.11

We want the value of νo/νi. We start from the output and work
backwards to the input

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 We now replace νB with its value obtained a few lines above.

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 We now move to ν1

We now replace νA by the value found a few lines above.

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 We now replace νB and make the denominator (jωCR)3

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 The numerator can now be simplified separately. We will come back to
this equation once we have simplified the numerator.
Numerator only:

Now that we have simplified the numerator we can go back to the

general expression.
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 Inverting

Multiplying by j up and down

For oscillations the imaginary part must be zero

6 ω2C2R2 = 1

Remember that in this configuration we started with the inverting

input, therefore the amplifier provides 180° shift. In order to achieve an
overall phase shift of 0°, we need another 180° shift from the RC network.
Let us see what the effect of the network at the oscillation frequency is.

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 This minus sign signifies an 180° shift which we were looking for, but
as the network produces an attenuation of 29, the amplifier must provide a
gain of 29 to maintain the oscillations.

Complete phase shift oscillator

The complete amplifier can be seen in Figure 13.12. In this circuit R2 = R3 =
R4 = R. The numbers are only to facilitate our discussion. The situation here
is that R4 is in parallel with R1. R4 goes directly to earth, whereas R1 goes to
virtual earth. If R4 value is R and the R1 value is also R, R1 ‖ R4 will be R/2,
which will upset the CR circuitry.
Figure 13.12

This problem can be alleviated by one of two possibilities. In the first

place, we can make R1 significantly larger than R4 so that the loading effect
of R1 on R4 will be reduced or even made negligible.

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 As a second alternative, we can make sure that:

R2 = R3 = R

and that:

R1 ‖ R4 = R

This can be achieved in a number of ways, for instance: R1 = 2R and R4 =

2R. Additionally, this circuit needs a gain of 29 which can be achieved by
making RF = 29R1.

Loading effect
A brief point to be mentioned here is the effect of loading on a circuit. The
basic network is shown in Figure 13.13. It has the following transfer
function:
Figure 13.13

It would be easy to say that three of these networks would give a

transfer function of

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 This would only be possible if between each network we have a buffer
amplifier of amplification 1. Then the networks would be separated and the
above formula would apply.
Due to the effect of loading the third network onto the second and the
second network onto the first one, the correct formula is the one that we
deduced earlier on page 226 and which gave a slight but very important
difference.

It is also possible to exchange C and R in the phase shift oscillator. In

this case we would arrive at a slightly different formula.

PROBLEM 13.1 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS

Figure 13.14

Find RF to produce 100 Hz Oscillations.

Answer: 36k45 Ω

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 PROBLEM 13.2 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS
Figure 13.15

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 Find the value of C that will make the circuit oscillate at 125 Hz.

Answer: 0.4422 μF

PROBLEM 13.3 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS

Figure 13.16

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 Find the frequency of oscillation.

Answer: 455 Hz

Charging time

as R1 = R2

2t is the time for charging and discharging

PROBLEM 13.4 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS

Figure 13.17

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 Design a relaxation oscillator where R2 is three times R1 and it oscillates
at 1 kHz.

Answer: R1 = 10 kΩ, R2 = 30 kΩ, R = 1 kΩ and C = 0.978 μF

Many other combinations of components will produce the same result.

Here we see only one case.
Any valne of R1 and R2 will do as long as they are in the requested
proportion.
Say: R1 = 10 kΩ R2 = 30 kΩ
We now need to find the RC combination.

t is given by the frequency

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 Therefore

If R = 1 kΩ, then, C = 0.978 μF.

PROBLEM 13.5 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS

Figure 13.18

Find the frequency of oscillation.

Answer: 274.7 Hz

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 PROBLEM l3.6 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS
Figure 13.19

Find the frequency of oscillation.

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 Answer: 1002 Hz

PROBLEM 13.7 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS

Figure 13.20

Find the frequency of Oscillation as shown and then the oscillation when
R is exchanged with RA.

Answer: 1025.6 Hz and 1864.3 Hz

As shown

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 Exchanged

PROBLEM 13.8 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS

Figure 13.21

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 Find the duty cycle .

Answer: 39 : 28

Charging constant, through both resistors

τ1 = (RA + R)C = 78 000 × 47 × 10−6

 = 0.036 66
τ2 = RC = 56 000 × 0.47 × 10−6
 = 0.0263 2

Charging time

tC = 0.693(R + RA)C

Discharging time

td = 0.693 RC

Ratio

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 PROBLEM 13.9 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS
Design a Wieii bridge oscillator to work at 2.5 kHz.

Answer: C = 0.001 μF, R = 63 662 Ω, R1 = 12 kΩ, R2 = 24 kΩ

Many components will achieve the same result So we start by fixing an

arbitrary value of capacitance.

C = 0.001 μF

In order to sustain the oscillations we need the condition

Again we have several possibilities, so we ‘fix’ one and calculate the

other. Say

R1 = 12 kΩ

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 Therfore

R2 = 24 kΩ

PROBLEM 13.10 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS

Figure 23.22

Find the frequency of oscillation.

Answer: 15.92 Hz

Note: R1 and R2 will have be adjusted to give the appropriate gain,

but that is not part of the question.

PROBLEM 13.11 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS

Design a phase shift oscillator to work at 120 Hz.

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 Answer: C = 0.1 μF, R = 5414.56 Ω, R1 = 24 kΩ, R2 = 696 kΩ

We decide arbitrarily on a value of C. Say

In order to sustain oscillations, the amplifier must provide a gain of

29. A feedback loop is required of

Say

R1 = 24 kΩ
R2 = 696 kΩ

PROBLEM 13.12 OP-AMP OSCILLATORS

Figure 23.23

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 Find the value of C for the circuit to oscillate at 100 Hz.

Answer: 0.325 μF

Note that

4k‖4k = 2 kΩ

The last effective R from the CR network is also 2 kΩ. The gain required
is also achieved.

for the circuit to oscillate at 100 Hz.

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 PROBLEM 13.13 Miscellaneous Problems
Figure 13.24

This Op-Amp with positive feedback, saturates at 10 V and 0 V.

Calculate the hysteresis (i.e. the difference between high and low trigger
points) for a reference voltage of 6 V.

Answer: 1 V

This is regardless of the value of νREF.

Case a)

νREF = 6 V   output 10 V

Case b)

νREF = 6 V   output 0 V

=5.4 V
Hys = 6.4 − 5.4 = 1 V

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 PROBLEM 13.14 Miscellaneous Problems
Figure 13.25

Determine the upper and lower switching points of the comparator (with
positive feedback).

Answer: High = 0.238 V, low = 0 V

Case b) νo at 0 V
The circuit is now completely symmetrical and we should expect ν+
to be 0 V. We will see.
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 PROBLEM 13.15 Miscellaneous Problems
Figure 13.26

The output of the comparator varies from 0 V to 5 V. Find the upper and
lower switching levels.

Answer: 1.53 V and 1.26 V

This is a case of a small amount of positive feedback to provide

hysteresis for the comparator. There are many ways of solving this
problem. We will use Thevenin–Norton conversions. At the 5 V output
we have:
Figure 13.27

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 All the resistors can be joined in one

R = 15k‖120k‖12k = 6315.789 Ω

All the currents are joined into one

For the second level the output is 0 V.

The combined resistor is the same.

R = 6315.789

The two currents are

1 − 0.8 = 0.2 mA
ν+ = 0.2 × 10−3 × 6315.789 = 1.263 V

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 PROBLEM 13.16 Miscellaneous Problems
Figure 13.28

a) Find
b) If νi = 5 mV calculate the voltage at X and at νo.

Answer: a) −1020, b) −50 mV and 5.1 V

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 For νi = 5 mV

νx = −10νi = −50mV
νo = −1020νi = −5.1 V

PROBLEM 13.17 Miscellaneous Problems

Figure 13.29

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 R is 10 kΩ and νo = −100νi. Calculate R1.

Answer: 102 Ω

KCL i1 + i3 = i2

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 PROBLEM 13.18 Miscellaneous Problems
Figure 13.30

Find the value of the transfer function .

Answer:
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 ν+ = ν − = νi

There is no current going to ν−, i1 appears in two branches. At point

A we have 2νi

PROBLEM 13.19 Miscellaneous Problems

Figure 13.31

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 Find the value of RIN.

Answer:

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 The general impedance converter will change the value of R5 by a
factor made out of the four internal resistances, as shown.

PROBLEM 13.20 Miscellaneous Problems

Figure 13.32

Find the value of ZIN.

Answer:

Due to the properties of the Op-Amps, high input impedance and the
virtual short circuit input, we have

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 In this case there is a frequency -dependent negative resistance.

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14

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Bandwidth gain considerations

At midband frequency, the capacitors of a bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

amplifier, C1, C2 and CE are all conducting. They are designed to be a short
circuit at the frequencies of interest which correspond to the midband. This
can be seen in Figure 14.1. We now look more closely at the left corner
frequencies in Figure 14.1. There are three break frequencies in this part of
the frequency spectrum as seen in Figure 14.2. The first corner frequency
found in a descending order (i.e. coming from right to left), is ω1 and this
will determine the bandwidth.
Figure 14.1

Figure 14.2

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 In most applications, it is required that the gain is constant down to a
given frequency. The gain is considered constant if it stays within

This is:

20 log 0.707 = − 3.010 3 dB

Therefore, the definition of bandwidth is the range of frequencies where

the gain, expressed in decibels stays within a 3 dB gap.

Frequency response of an RC network

Using our knowledge of Bode plots, we can examine the network shown in
Figure 14.3.
Figure 14.3

The transfer function is:

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 We identify this as a type D Bode function.
There is a corner frequency at:

As can be seen in Figure 14.4.

Figure 14.4

This Bode plot shows the error, which is greatest at the corner
frequency. This error can be calculated at the corner frequency.
The magnitude or gain is:

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 In Figure 14.4, we can see the straight line approximation and, the
rounded part which corresponds to the actual curve. The approximation
can be seen to be quite good, as the curve adjusts asymptotically to the
straight line.
This particular response, is exactly the response of the gain of the
transistor at high frequency. We see this in Figure 14.5. Notice that in this
representation we have omitted the low frequency slope, this is due to the
scale we are using. The high frequency takes place at MHz whereas the low
frequency is just a few Hz.
Figure 14.5

In this picture we have introduced three new terms: βo, fβ and fT. They
are very important parameters for high frequency operation. βo is the
midband gain of the transistor, which at midband is considered to be
constant. fβ is the bandwidth. It is taken from 0 frequency, until the gain
starts to drop. Remember that in a straight line approximation this is the
corner frequency, or the point where the line bends. fT is the transition
frequency. The gain is progressively reduced until a value of 1 is reached.
There is no more amplification beyond this point and the amplifier doesn’t
work any more.
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β=1
20 log 1 = 0 dB

If we are plotting in decibels, the crossing is the 0 dB level. For this reason
we have the following accepted names for fT:

Unity gain frequency

Cross over frequency
Gain bandwidth product

The latter will be explained later.

Compensation
We know that the conditions for oscillation for an amplifier with positive
feedback is that the loop gain be 1.

βA = 1

On an amplifier, however, the instability of oscillations is to be avoided at

all cost. We must therefore avoid the condition where βA approaches 1.
Practical amplifiers usually have three poles and they will tend to
oscillate if they are in a feedback configuration. This is why compensation
has to be employed.
The 741 Op-Amp has internal compensation provided by the
manufacturer and this results in a very narrow band response in the open
loop. The single pole is located at 10Hz.
With a single pole roll-off crossing at 1MHz, the other poles that exist
are located above the 1 MHz frequency. This guarantees a phase margin of
45° and the amplifier is stable for all values of loop gain.
We mentioned that the conditions for oscillation were βA = 1. There are
two conditions here. The magnitude has to be one and the phase angle
must be zero. As these are important parameters, we define the gain
margin and the phase margin to allow us to manage the instability
problem.
If the phase shift is 180° on an inverting amplifier, the amount by which
the gain may be increased to make βA = 1 is the gain margin. If the loop
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gain has a value of 1 when the phase angle is ϕ, then the difference 180° − ϕ
is the phase margin. Whenever there is a possibility of instability, the
problem can be cured by the addition of a compensation network.
In the case of the single pole compensation, we add an extra corner
frequency to modify the total response. By placing the new corner
frequency at a lower frequency than that of the first existing corner
frequency we narrow the bandwidth and modify the magnitude and phase
angle of the response. The position of this extra pole is very important and
visualising the response with the help of Bode plots is very useful. In a way
we achieve stability by a reduction of the bandwidth of the amplifier.
Next, we look at three networks that can be used as equalising
networks.

Phase lead network

The phase lead network is shown in Figure 14.6.
Figure 14.6

The transfer function is given by:

First we calculate Z(s)

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 Factorising (R1 + R2):

In this case:

R1 < R1 ‖ R2

which means that we have a zero first and then the pole. This, in Bode
form, can be seen in Figure 14.7. The zero and the pole have been placed
over a decade apart to make the drawing easier to read. This particular
network is widely used in feedback systems as a stabilising circuit.
Figure 14.7

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 The level of the magnitude of this compensation network is attenuated
to start with and later, in frequency terms, it settles at 0 dB level. In order
to confirm this we divide by s top and bottom and then make s tend to
infinity.

as s → ∞

in decibels : 20 log 1 = 0 dB
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 See Figure 14.8. We have put the response of a three-pole amplifier as a
standard amplifier. We have in the same figure included the effect of the
equalising network (or compensating network). In order to make it easier to
see what is compensated and what is the original this has been mentioned
in the graph. In addition we have shaded the gap between the original and
the compensated response.
Figure 14.8

Phase lag network

The next equalising network that we examine is shown in Figure 14.9.
Figure 14.9

The transfer function is given by:

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 The Bode plot of this can be seen in Figure 14.10. With this network a
break is introduced at a particular frequency. The gain rolls off at 20 dB per
decade.
Figure 14.10

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 The network itself has an attenuation given by the factor

Expressed in decibels this is

As can be seen from Figure 14.11.

Figure 14.11

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 We have shown the same three-pole amplifier as we used before to
facilitate comparison. The effect is quite pronounced in the magnitude and
phase angle responses. The location of the pole is indicated and it is at 100
Hz.

Pole zero equalising network

We will now see a compensating network, as shown in Figure 14.12. The
transfer function is:
Figure 14.12

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 There are a pole and a zero and the Bode functions are type C and type
D.
This transfer function starts at 0 dB. This is because when ω tends to
zero the transfer function takes the value of one. This in decibels is 0 dB.
As far as the angle is concerned, the angle of the denominator is larger
than the angle of the numerator as C(R1 + R2) is larger than CR2. The total
phase angle (numerator minus denominator) is therefore negative (see
Figure 14.13). The senses of the vector are taken in an anticlockwise
direction. In this case the phase shift of the output νo lags the phase shift of
the input νi. With lead compensation the angle is positive, with lag
compensation the angle is negative.
Figure 14.13

Again we see the effect of this compensation in the standard three-

poles amplifier used before (see Figure 14.14). In the normal circuit, at the
second pole, the phase angle is −135° giving a phase margin of 45°. If we
want full compensation then we would have to arrange a gain of 1 at the
frequency where the phase margin is 45°.
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Figure 14.14

In this case the gain of the uncompensated circuit for a phase angle of
−180° is approximately −41 dB, at a frequency of approximately 300 Hz. The
gain margin is therefore 41 dB.
With compensation we see that the frequency for a phase angle of −180°
is approximately 30 Hz and the gain is −45 dB. The gain margin in this case
is 45 dB.
It is clear that the location of poles and zeros of the compensating
network, in relation to the poles and zeros of the circuit can drastically alter
the shape of the response.

Measurement of fβ and fT
fT transition frequency
fβ bandwidth

These parameters are measured in the common emitter configuration, with

the transistor output in short circuit.

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 The model that we use is seen in Figure 14.15. As we short circuit the
ouput, CB’C and CB’E are in parallel. RB’E and RB’C are also in parallel, but as
RB’C is much larger, it can be neglected. The result appears in Figure 14.16.
Figure 14.15

Figure 14.16

The short circuit output current is:

iout = −gmνB’E

At the input circuit νB’E is given by Ohm’s law

therefore

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 The current amplification Ai is

νB’E can be simplified

We are dealing with the transistor under short circuit. The incoming
current is iB and the output current is iC, the amplification is therefore β (or
hFE).

NOTE: In certain problems, the transistor gain is stated as different

for AC and DC. In these cases the norm is to use βDC and βAC, or fFE for
DC and hfe for AC.

From the Bode theory we know that if ω ≪ 1, we can neglect the ω term.
Under the straight line approximation we are at the constant β range, or
midband and we can call this βo. So:

βo = gmRB’E

and we can rewrite Ai as follows:

The −20 dB per decade slope can be obtained using the Bode theory. If
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ω ≫ 1, the term 1 disappears and we have:

C is still CB’E + CB’C.

The corner frequency which is the bandwidth of the transistor under
short circuit output, is given by:

so

This can be seen in Figure 14.17. What is difficult to understand about

this diagram is that: fT = βo fβ. We will demonstrate this twice. First, by
looking at the mathematical relationship and later by looking at the
electronic relationship.
Figure 14.17

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Mathematical relationship
We refer to Figure 14.18. The slope of the incline is −20 dB per decade, as
we saw from the Bode theory. Due to this, the portion b is equal to a. The
distance b is that of one decade from the value X to a value of 10X. So the
distance a should correspond to 20 dB. (20 dB per decade).
Figure 14.18

20 log a = 20 dB
log a = 1
a = 10

So

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a=b

Due to the same proportion, d is equal to e. Therefore in the above picture:

cxa=cxb

In log form:

log ca = log c + log a

log ce = log c + log e = log c + log d

Therefore at the limit:

log fT = log ce = log c + log e

log fT = log cd = log c + log d

Therefore: fT = cd

fT = gain × bandwidth

Furthermore, any point along the slope is the corner of a rectangle of

equivalent area, that is to say, the base times the height is constant. We see
this in the second of the two illustrations that follow (see Figure 14.19). The
scales have been arranged in such a way that the slope is 45°. It is easy to
accept that the distance a is the same as the distance b.
Figure 14.19

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 In this case βo = 20 dB

We now change the scale as we see in Figure 14.20.

Figure 14.20

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 In this case, βo = 300

Now the case of the magic rectangles.

At point A:

20 log β = 40 dB
log β = 2
β = 100
fT = βo × fβ = 100 × 3 MHz = 300 MHz

At point B:

20 log β = 20
log β = 1
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β = 10
fT = βo × fβ = 10 × 30 MHz = 300 MHz

This is valid at any point in the slope. The product β times bandwidth is
constant and equal to the transition frequency.

Electronic relationship
We look at Figure 14.21. The transition frequency fT comes from the
necessity of knowing the maximum useable high frequency of the
transistor. The frequency at which the absolute value of the short circuit
common emitter current reduces to one (0 value in dB), is termed the
transition frequency.
Figure 14.21

We go back to the general equation and the Bode approximation:

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 If βo ≫ 1, then we can ignore the term 1, leaving

But fB was

Therefore

fT = βo × fB

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Ideal versus practical Op-Amp
The ideal Op-Amp has the following characteristics
1 Open loop voltage gain infinite (106)
2 Bandwidth infinite (1 MHz)
3 Input resistance infinite (2 MΩ)
4 Output resistance zero (50 Ω)

The main difference between an ideal Op-Amp and a practical one lies in
the voltage gain. In the ideal Op-Amp the gain is considered to be infinite
whereas in practice it is very high. Practical figures are shown in brackets
in the list above. But the main difference in the practical Op-Amp is that
the voltage gain decreases as the frequency increases.
Some Op-Amps allow a capacitor to be added externally to provide
compensation, but most Op-Amps are internally compensated. That is to
say they have RC networks which introduce a pole at a given point
providing a single pole compensation, and therefore giving a predictable
response. When there is internal compensation, the manufacturers produce
curves with details of the bandwidth – gain and phase against frequency
for the open loop response.

Open loop voltage gain

Open loop gain is the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage of an
Op-Amp without feedback. This is illustrated in Figure 14.22. The gain
decreases with increase in frequency.
Figure 14.22

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 This characteristic correspond to the Bode straight line approximation
of a one-pole response. If we call the frequency of the corner frequency ωc
then the type D factor will be given by:

So, G(s), open loop response will be given by

Go is the open loop gain at DC and very low frequency. This is shown
to be 100 dB. The corner frequency is at 10Hz. The curve will reach 0 dB at
the transition frequency fT. The 0 dB value correspond to a ratio of 1 in volt
per volt. This is why this point is also termed the unity gain frequency
(UGF). This value also corresponds to the gain bandwidth product (GBP).

Closed loop bandwidth

We are now interested in the effect of feedback on the bandwidth. We use
negative feedback as seen in Figure 14.23. A is the amplification seen before
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in the case of open loop gain, β is the fraction of the output which is fed
back.
Figure 14.23

In a closed loop situation with negative feedback the gain of the open
loop amplifier is divided by 1 + βA.
If βA is much greater than 1, then the closed loop gain can be
approximated to 1/β. This lower gain, corresponding to the closed loop gain
can be plotted on the previous response. We see this in Figure 14.24. We see
that the closed loop gain intercepts the open loop gain at fCLC (closed loop
corner frequency). This means that at a lower gain we have a larger
bandwidth and that the bandwidth increases as the closed loop gain
decreases.
Figure 14.24

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 These curves are the same type of curve as the transistor under short
circuit high frequency test. If represented by the frequency in a logarithmic
scale and the gain in decibels, then we have the 20 dB per decade incline
and we should be able to verify that the gain bandwidth product is
constant. We see this in Figure 14.25.
Figure 14.25

We can also verify the values of the closed loop gain for given values of
β.
For β = 0.001 and A = 105

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 A is the open loop gain. We ignored the 1 in the above equation to
arrive to the result.
For β = 0.01 and A = 105

We have shown this in Figure 14.26. Negative feedback gives greater

stability, less distortion and an increased bandwidth.
Figure 14.26

By using internal compensation, the voltage gain of an Op-Amp

becomes entirely predictable, independent of the internal details or even
the particular Op-Amp used.
Op-Amps have a very high gain and this is normally in excess of what
is required for a particular application. It is reasonable to sacrifice part of
this gain in favour of stability, no distortion and bandwidth improvements.

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Miller effect on Op-Amps
A degradation of the frequency response, especially at high frequencies,
results from a capacitance between the input and the output of an Op-Amp,
as seen in Figure 14.27.
Figure 14.27

As we saw from the Miller’s theorem, we need an inverting amplifier.

There is no meaning to the theorem if the amplification is non-inverting as
we would end up with an unwanted minus sign.
The transformation after applying Miller’s theorem appears on Figure
14.28.
Figure 14.28

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 If C was 28 pF and we have an amplification of −180, then

C1M = 28(1 − (−180))

C1M = 5040 pF

This capacitor C1M, combined with the input resistance Ri would form a
corner frequency given by

The capacitance between input and output is seen magnified at the

input. This is the Miller’s effect. Because the Miller’s effect reduces the
gain, we can accept a reasonable approximation, the use of the midband
gain to calculate Miller’s equivalent capacitance. Electronics is the art of
approximating. You should be proficient enough to know when to
approximate and when not to approximate.

PROBLEM 14.1 GAIN BANDWIDTH

Figure 14.29

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 Non-inverting Op-Amp, Find the transfer function, assuming finite gain.

Input

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 PROBLEM 14.2 GAIN BANDWIDTH
Figure 14.30

Find the transfer function assuming finite gain.

The input voltage is

Therefore

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 PROBLEM 14.3 GAIN BANDWIDTH
Figure 14.31

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 Inverting Op-Amp. Find the deviation of the closed loop gain from the
ideal value for A = 103 and A = 105.

Answer: 1% and 0.01%

Ideal value

For A = 103

Difference

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 9 − 8.91 = 0.09

A difference of 1% (with reference to 9)

For A = 105

Difference

9 − 8.999 = 0.001

A different of 0.01%

PROBLEM 14.4 GAIN BANDWIDTH

Figure 14.32

Find the deviation of the closed loop gain from the ideal value for A =
103 and A = 105.

Answer: 1% and 0.01%

Ideal value

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 For A = 103

A difference of 1%
For A = 105

A difference of 0.001 which is 0.01%

PROBLEM 14.5 GAIN BANDWIDTH

An Op-Amp has fT = 1 MHz.
Find the corner frequency for gains of 1000, 100 and 1.

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 Answer: 1 kHz, 10 kHz and 1 MHz

Transition frequency

For a gain of 1000

For a gain of 100

For a gain of 1

PROBLEM 14.6 GAIN BANDWIDTH

Figure 14.33

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 Find the cut-off frequency in the closed loop configuration shown if the
open loop gain–bandwidth product is equal to 1 MHz.

Answer: 62.5 kHz

Amplification

Bandwidth

PROBLEM 14.7 GAIN BANDWIDTH

Figure 14.34

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 fT = 1 MHz and the slew rate is 1 V/μs. Find the maximum freqneney of a
01 V peak sine wave, without distortion of the output.

Answer:. 25 kHz.

There are two factors contributing to the limit of the maximum

frequency. The first is the bandwidth due to the gain. The second is the
slew rate.
Amplification

Bandwidth

Slew rate
For a sine wave

ν(t) = k sin ωt

The maximum slew rate is given by

SMAX = kω

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 k is the peak value of sine wave (in volts) and ω is the angular frequency.

In this case the limiting factor is the gain giving a limit of 25 kHz.

PROBLEM 14.8 GAIN BANDWIDTH

An Op-Amp has a slew rate of 0.5 V/μs. The inpnt signal is a ramp which
Increases at a rate of 0.8 V in 20 μs. Find the maximum gala of the closed
loop Op-Amp without exceeding the slew rate.

Answer: 125

With the increase of gain, the rate of change increases as we have a

bigger signal in the same amount of time.
Rate of change

A slew rate of 0.5 V/μs correspond to

500 000 V/s or 500 kV/s

The maximum gain is

PROBLEM 14.9 GAIN BANDWIDTH

Figure 14.35

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 The Op-Amp has a slew rate of 4 V/μs and a transition frequency of 2
MHz. Will it cope with the signal shown?

Answer: Yes

The output will vary 14 Via 5 μs

The rate of 4 V/μs, corresponds to 3.5 /μs for 14 V. So we are alright
with the slew rate.
Bandwidth

Rise time (for single pole response) is

Both conditions are met. the OP-Amp will cope.

PROBLEM 14.10 GAIN BANDWIDTH

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 Figure 14.36

The Op-Amp has a slew rate of 0.5 V/μs and fT = 1 MHz. The input signal
is a 0.2 V rms sine wave. Can it be used up to 50 kHz?
What new value of RF would work up to 50 kHz?

Answer: No, RF = 562k2 Ω

Bandwidth

No problem is here.
Now the slew rate
Input signal 0.2 V rms sine wave
Peak value

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 Maximum frequency allowed by slew rate

Answer: No. The slew rate will not allow 50 kHz.

We need to modify RF to allow 50 kHz.

This is achieved with RF = 56k2 Ω

PROBLEM 14.11 GAIN BANDWIDTH

An Op-Amp has a DC gain of 106 dB and a transition frequency of 2
MHz. Find the gain at 1 kHz and the frequency for a gain of 100.

Answer: 2000 and 20 kHz

20 log X = 106
log X = 5.3
X = 200 000
fT = βB
200 000 = β × 1000
β = 2000

Gain at 1 kHz

fT = βB
2 000 000 = 100B
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 B = 20 000 Hz

PROBLEM 14.12 GAIN BANDWIDTH

Figure 14.37

If the closed loop gain is to be −49.5, find the value of the open loop gain
and the value of the loop gain.

Answer: A = 5049, loop gain = 99

For a gain less than ideal, we have

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 Loop gain
The loop gian is the product of the amplification multiplied by the
feedback factor.
The feedback factor is

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 PROBLEM 14.13 GAIN BANDWIDTH
Figure 14.38

fT = 1.2 MHz. Find the closed loop bandwidth and the closed loop gain at
600 kHz.

Answer: 60 kHz and 2

Gain

At 600 KHz

PROBLEM 14.14 GAIN BANDWIDTH

Figure 14.39

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 The Op-Amp has an open loop gain of 200 000 with a comer frequency
of 5 Hz. Find the gain bandwidth product and the closed loop 3 dB
frequency.

Answer: 1 MHz and 11 111 Hz

fT = gain × BW
 = 200 000 × 5 = 1 MHz

Corner frequency
Closed loop gain

PROBLEM 14.15 GAIN BANDWIDTH

Figure 14.40

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 The transition frequency is 106 Hz for these amplifiers. Find νo in terms
of νi and the maximum useful bandwidth.

Answer: 399 and 47.62 kHz

Both amplifiers are non-inverting.

OA1

OA2

Total A = 19 × 21 = 399
Bandwidth OA1

Bandwidth OA 2

The limit is OA 2.

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 PROBLEM 14.16 GAIN BANDWIDTH
Figure 14.41

The transition frequency for both amplifiers is 750 kHz. Find the upper
corner frequency of the system.

Answer: 10 kHz

Gain OA1

Gain OA 2

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 The system is limited by the first Op-Amp, The upper corner
frequency of the system is 10 kHz.

PROBLEM 14.17 GAIN BANDWIDTH

Figure 14.42

Find the bandwidth of this filter.

Answer: 3244 Hz

High pass
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 Bandwidth = 3310 − 66
 = 3244 Hz

PROBLEM 14.18 GAIN BANDWIDTH

Figure 14.43

Find νo in terms of ν1, ν2 and ν3. The transition frequency is 1 MHz.

Will this amplifier work at 55 kHz?

Answer: No

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 OA2

OA3

OA1

The amplifier will not work at 55 kHz. OA2 and OA3 are alright, but
OA1 has the signal ν1 with a gain of 20 which is more than 18.18. This
amplifier will work only up to 50 kHz.

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Index

Absolute temperature, 90
AC load line, 67
Active region, 65
Admittance, 178
Anagram, 118
Approximate method, 55

Bandwidth:
gain considerations, 237
measurement, 244
Base spreading resistance, 90
Beta, 93
Biasing, 54
Bode plot paper, 138
Bode plots, 135
Bode type A, 135
Bode type B, 135
Bode type C, 137
Bode type D, 137
Bode way, 137
Boltzman constant, 90
Bypass capacitor, 163

Capacitor effect, 87
Cascaded 3 dB points, 163
Cascaded current gain, 117

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Cascaded C2, 164
Cascaded C3, 164
Cascaded DC conditions, 116
Cascaded systems, 116
Cascaded voltage gain, 116
Checking mesh currents, 45
Circuit transformations, 87
Closed loop bandwidth, 249
Collector feedback biasing, 54
Comparator, 206
Comparator with hysteresis, 207
Compensation, 238
Complete phase shift oscillator, 227
Conditions for oscillation, 224
Constant with different resistors, 222
Corner frequency agreement, 137
Critical value of beta, 158
Cross over frequency, 238
Current:
amplification, 92
division general case, 7
division rule, 7
gain, 92
source, 1
source g–v, 179
Cut off, 65

DC load line, 66
Depletion capacitance, 91
Differential Op-Amp, 196
Diffusion capacitance, 90
Digital operation, 87
Diode equation, 89
Dividing voltage and current, 6

Effect of capacitors, 162

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Electronic charge, 90
Electronic relationship, 248
Emitter:
circuit configurations, 105
follower, 105
Equalizing network, 241

Filter, 258
Forward transfer current ratio, 86
Frequency response of RC network, 237
Full hybrid equivalent circuit, 90

Gain bandwidth product, 238

Gain impedance formula, 53
Gain margin, 160, 244
Generalised impedance converter, 235–236

H parameters, 85
High frequency, 162, 176
DC conditions, 176
equivalent circuit, 177
final calculations, 178
mid band gain, 176
simplifications to circuit, 177
Thevenin-Norton conversions, 178
Hybrid parameters, 85

Ideal Op-Amp, 248

Imaginary value, 136
Input:
bias current, 195
capacitor, 162
Inverting amplifier, 194

Kirchhoff’s law, 1
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), 1

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Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), 1

Line review, 66
Little re model, 89
Load lines, 65
equal swing, 68
Loading effect, 227
Logarithmic transformation, 139
Low frequency, 162

Magnitude margin, 160, 244

Mathematical relationship, 245
Matrix notation, 43
Maximum equal swing equation, 68
Mesh analysis, 42, 43
Mesh equations, 45
Mid band, 162
Miller effect on Op-Amp, 250
Miller with resistors, 49
Miller’s theorem, 48
Miller’s theorem high frequency, 177
Miscellaneous problems, 232

Negative feedback, 195

Nodal analysis, 22, 37
Nodes, 38
Non-inverting amplifier, 196
Norton current, 18
Norton resistance, 18
Norton’s theorem, 17

Ohm’s law, 1
Operational amplifiers, 194
applications, 206
consequences, 194
offset voltage, 195

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 oscillators, 221
output current, 195
physical details, 194
properties, 194
Open circuit parameters, 83
Open loop voltage gain, 249
Output capacitor, 162

Parallel resistors, 7
Phase angle, 136
Phase lag network, 239
Phase lead network, 239
Phase margin, 160, 244
Phase shift oscillator, 225
Phase splitter circuit, 105
Polar form, 135
Polarity of voltage, 1
Pole equalizing network, 241
Poles, 135
Positive feedback, 197
Potential divider, 131, 134
biasing, 55
Power limitation, 65
Practical Op-Amp, 248

Q Point, 66

Real value, 136

Reduction to zero of impedance, 31, 56
Reference node, 38
Reflected value of re, 56, 89, 92
Relaxation oscillator, 221
Reverse transfer voltage ratio, 86

Saturation, 65
Short circuit paramaters, 84

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Simplified hybrid equivalent circuit, 91
Sinusoidal oscillator, 224
Slew rate, 254
Slope, 66, 135
Small signals, 87
Superposition, 31
Supply resistor biasing, 54

Thermal voltage, 90
Thevenin method for potential divider, 55
Thevenin resistance, 12
Thevenin voltage, 12
Thevenin’s theorem, 12
Thevenin-Norton conversions, 24
Timer (555), 223
Transconductance, 179
Transistor:
input characteristics, 86
model, 83
model high frequency, 90
modelling, 83
output characteristics, 86
Transition frequency measurement, 244
Transparency to AC, 87, 93
Type A and D together, 155, 158

Unity gain frequency, 238

Value of saturation, 65
Voltage:
amplification, 104
amplification ratio, 49
to current converter, 208–210
division rule, 6
gain, 104
level indicator, 206
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source, 1

Wien bridge oscillator, 224

Window detector, 207

Y parameters, 84

Z parameters, 83
Zenner diode, 204
Zeroes, 135

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