AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS

OF PROJECT FAILURE IN GOVERNMENT PROJECTS

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: GHANA AS A CASE
STUDY

ISAAC SAKYI DAMOAH

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Liverpool John

Moores University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

October, 2015
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DECLARATION

I, Isaac Sakyi Damoah, do hereby certify for this thesis that:

a. Except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of myself
alone;

b. The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any
other academic award;

c. The content of the thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since the
official commencement date of the approved research, and

d. That any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by a third party is acknowledged.

……………………………

ISAAC SAKYI DAMOAH

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My deepest appreciation goes to Dr Yusra Mouzughi, my Director of Studies, and Dr

Cynthia Akwei and Dr Zhang Lihong, my supervisors, for their invaluable contributions
and guidance throughout this project.

I extend my appreciation to Ms Bernie Hobbs for administrative support offered to me

throughout my course of study.

My thanks also go to my dear wife, Barbara Boakye-Yiadom, for her understanding,

support and contribution throughout the period of my studies. I would also like to
appreciate my beautiful kids, Darlene Pearl Sakyi Damoah, Annabelle Sakyi Damoah
and Christablle Serwaa Damoah, and my parents, the late Mr Daniel Damoah and Mrs
Margaret Ama Mansah, for being there for me all the time.

I would also like to thank Dr Joel Oscar Barimah, Mr Ernest Gyapong and Mr Anthony
Ayakwah, for their encouragement before and during the course of the study. I would
also like to thank Debra William for proofreading the thesis for me.

Finally, I would also like to thank Mr Paul Twum, Mr Isaac Asirifi, Mr Charles Acquah-
Ankomah and Mr Charles Banafo, for their assistance and encouragement in gathering
most of the information required for the project.

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DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this work to God Almighty for His protection, guidance and the
knowledge he gave me when carrying out this assignment

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ABSTRACT
In recent years, project management has become an important part of any organisation
and/or government as a result of the changing nature of managing organisations due to
technological advancement, and a complex, competitive global marketplace. Projects
require huge capital outlay from organisations and/or governments; however, literature
indicates that huge sums of money are being lost through project failure and Ghana’s
government is no exception to this trend. Therefore, this study investigated the
perception of the extent of project failure, causes of project failure and the effects of
project failure on key stakeholders of Ghana’s government projects. The purpose of this
research is to bridge literature gap(s) in project management and also to provide
statistical data that can be used by project management practitioners and policy makers
in Ghana and other developing countries.

An initial literature review was conducted to development theoretical framework that

was used to determine the extent of projects failure, causes and effects of projects
failure in Ghanaian government projects. Ten (10) semi-structured interviews (general
public (2), contractors (2) and project management practitioners (PMP) (6)) were carried
out to evaluate the perception that the participants about the extent of failure, causes
and effects of Ghana government projects failure. The data were analysed using
content and thematic data analysis techniques. The literature reviewed and the
exploratory data identified six (6) project failure criteria that were used to assess the
extent of project failure in Ghanaian government projects. Thirty-two (32) and twenty-six
(26) possible causes and effects of Ghanaian government project failure were identified
respectively. Further data were collected through questionnaire surveys of 265
(contractors=78, PMP=81 and general public=106) participants. The questionnaire data
were analysed using statistical techniques which included Descriptive Statistics, Means,
Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients, and Kruskal-Wallis H test of difference in
ranks.

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The findings showed that all the three categories of the study’s participants (contractors,
PMP and general public) agreed that Ghanaian government projects fail on all six
criteria; however, the extent of failure differs from criterion to criterion. They agreed that
the worst performing criterion is meeting the projected time, followed by cost,
deliverables, stakeholders’ satisfaction, contribution to national development and
contribution to the sector where the project is implemented respectively.

Secondly, the 32 causes of Ghanaian government projects failure included: monitoring,

corruption, political interference, change in government, bureaucracy, fluctuation of
prices, lack of continuity, planning, delays in payment, release of funds, change in
project leadership, management practices, procurement processes, project funding,
commitment to project, selection of project managers, project team formation, project
management techniques, feasibility studies, communication, supervision, scope
change, capacity, task definition, definition of specification, requirement, regulations,
culture and belief systems, user involvement, labour, pressure groups (media, NGOs,
political activities etc.), and natural disaster. Further, most of these causes of Ghanaian
government projects failure were linked to leadership; however, this was not
practitioners but political leadership.

The effects identified included: it slows down economic growth, loss of revenue by state,
unemployment, bad image for government, collapse of local businesses, cost
escalation, government sector underdevelopment, loss of foreign aid/grants,
discourages investment, stricter donor regulations, loss of election, financial institutions
lose confidence in the state, loss of revenue by the citizens, lack of capacity, sub-
standard infrastructure, it slow down citizens' human empowerment, loss of worker
hours, pollution, armed robbery and theft, relocation of services, denial of citizens' basic
rights, loss of properties, emotional stress on citizens, accidents and deaths,
imprisonment, and abandonment of homes. The study revealed that some of these
effects are direct whilst others are indirect. Thus, the findings show that the effects are
interrelated and sequential – one effect could lead to another effect and in that order.

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Moreover, the causes and effects were not of equal importance; however, there was a
high degree of agreement between the three categories of the study’s participants on
the most important causes and effects of failure in Ghanaian government projects.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ ii

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................. iii

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................xiv

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................................xvi

LIST OF ORGANISATIONS THAT PROVIDED VARIOUS FORMS OF SUPPORT ................. xviii

LIST OF PAPERS PRESENTED/PUBLISHED/SUBMITTED .......................................................... xix

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS .....................................................................................................xx

CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 BACKGROUND AND NEED FOR THE STUDY ........................................................................ 1
1.2 RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................... 5
1.2.1 Aims............................................................................................................................................ 5
1.2.1 Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................................... 7
1.4 THE LOCAL CONTEXT ................................................................................................................. 8
1.4.1 The Ghanaian Economy.......................................................................................................... 8
1.4.2 Ghanaian Politics ................................................................................................................... 10
1.4.3 Ghanaian Socio-cultural factors ........................................................................................... 11
1.4.4 Ghanaian Government Project Cycle .................................................................................. 13

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1.4.5 Ghana’s Procurement Procedure ........................................................................................ 15

1.4.6 Overview of Ghanaian Government Projects..................................................................... 16
1.5 ORGANISATION OF THESIS ..................................................................................................... 19
1.6 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................................... 21

LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................................... 21

2.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 21

2.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT ................................................................... 22
2.1.1 Defining Project and Project Management ......................................................................... 24
2.2 THE CONCEPT OF PROJECT FAILURE ................................................................................. 29
2.2.1 Defining Project Failure ......................................................................................................... 30
2.2.2 The Distinction between Project Failure and Project Management Failure .................. 37
2.3 GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE........................................................................................ 40
2.3.1 Ghanaian Government Project Failure ............................................................................... 43
2.4 CAUSES OF PROJECT FAILURE ............................................................................................. 46
2.4.1 Communication ....................................................................................................................... 46
2.4.2 Planning ................................................................................................................................... 49
2.4.3 Socio- cultural factors ............................................................................................................ 49
2.4.4 Scope Change ........................................................................................................................ 50
2.4.5 Resources ............................................................................................................................... 51
2.5 CAUSES OF PROJECT FAILURE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES .................................... 55
2.5.1 Socio-Culture and Project Failure in Developing Countries ............................................ 57
2.6 CAUSES OF PROJECT FAILURE IN GHANA ......................................................................... 62
2.6.1 Project Management Education in Ghana.......................................................................... 63
2.6.2 Financial Difficulty and Project Management in Ghana ................................................... 63
2.6.3 Corruption and Project Management in Ghana ................................................................. 64
2.6.4 Ethical Issues in Project Management Practices in Ghana ............................................. 66
2.6.5 Socio-cultural factors and Project Management in Ghana .............................................. 67
2.7 EFFECTS OF PROJECT FAILURE ........................................................................................... 69
2.8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................................. 72
2.8.1 Stakeholder Theory ................................................................................................................ 72

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2.8.2 Stakeholders and Project Management.............................................................................. 84

2.8.3 Stakeholder Theory and Government Project Failure ...................................................... 87
2.9 OTHER THEORIES CONSIDERED ........................................................................................... 88
2.9.1 Resource Dependency Theory ............................................................................................ 88
2.9.2 Resource-Based View Theory.............................................................................................. 89
2.9.3 Knowledge Management Theory ......................................................................................... 91
2.9.4 Corporate Social Responsibility ........................................................................................... 91
2.9.5 Square Root Framework ....................................................................................................... 93
2.10 STAKEHOLDERS OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECTS ....................................... 95
2.11 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS .................................................................... 97
2.12 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 99
CHAPTER THREE................................................................................................................................. 101

METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................... 101

3.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 101

3.1 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY....................................................................................................... 102
3.2 PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS.......................................................................................... 102
3.2.1 Ontology................................................................................................................................. 103
3.2.2 Epistemology......................................................................................................................... 104
3.2.3 Axiology ................................................................................................................................. 104
3.3 RESEARCH PARADIGM ........................................................................................................... 105
3.4 PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION.................................................................................................... 106
3.4.1 Positivism............................................................................................................................... 106
3.4.2 Interpretivism......................................................................................................................... 108
3.4.3 Realism .................................................................................................................................. 109
3.4.4 Pragmatism ........................................................................................................................... 109
3.4.5 Empiricism ............................................................................................................................. 110
3.4.6 Phenomenology .................................................................................................................... 110
3.4.7 Constructionism .................................................................................................................... 111
3.4.8 Hermeneutics ........................................................................................................................ 111
3.4.9 Postmodernism ..................................................................................................................... 112
3.4.10 Feminism ............................................................................................................................. 112

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3.4.11 Structuration Theory .......................................................................................................... 113

3.4.12 Selected Research Philosophy ........................................................................................ 114
3.5 RESEARCH STRATEGY ........................................................................................................... 115
3.5.1 Experiment ............................................................................................................................ 116
3.5.2 Survey .................................................................................................................................... 116
3.5.3 Archival .................................................................................................................................. 117
3.5.4 Case Study ............................................................................................................................ 118
3.5.5 Ethnography .......................................................................................................................... 119
3.5.6 Action Research ................................................................................................................... 120
3.5.7 Grounded Theory ................................................................................................................. 121
3.5.8 Narrative Inquiry ................................................................................................................... 121
3.5.9 Research Strategy Used ..................................................................................................... 122
3.6 RESEARCH APPROACH .......................................................................................................... 123
3.6.1 Deductive Approach............................................................................................................. 123
3.6.2 Inductive Approach .............................................................................................................. 124
3.6.3 Abductive Approach ............................................................................................................. 125
3.6.4 The Selected Research Approach ..................................................................................... 126
3.7 THE TECHNIQUES (TOOLS) OF RESEARCH ..................................................................... 127
3.7.1 Semi-structured Interview ................................................................................................... 127
3.7.2 Questionnaire ........................................................................................................................ 128
3.8 RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................................................. 129
3.8.1 Quantitative Research ......................................................................................................... 129
3.8.2 Qualitative Research............................................................................................................ 130
3.8.3 Research Design Used........................................................................................................ 131
3.9 TYPE OF STUDY ........................................................................................................................ 133
3.9.1 Exploratory Studies .............................................................................................................. 134
3.9.2 Descriptive Studies .............................................................................................................. 134
3.9.3 Explanatory Studies ............................................................................................................. 135
3.9.4 Type of Study Used.............................................................................................................. 135
3.10 SAMPLING METHOD............................................................................................................... 136
3.10.1 Probability Sampling .......................................................................................................... 136
3.10.2 Non-Probability Sampling ................................................................................................. 138

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3.10.3 Mixed Methods (MM) Sampling ....................................................................................... 139

3.10.4 Sampling Method Used ..................................................................................................... 141
3.10.5 Sampling Frame ................................................................................................................. 141
3.11 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. 143
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................................... 144

METHODS............................................................................................................................................... 144

4.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 144

4.1 POPULATION AND SAMPLING SELECTION ....................................................................... 145
4.2 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE ........................................................................................ 148
4.3 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY .................................................................................................... 150
4.3.1 Validity .................................................................................................................................... 151
4.3.2 Reliability ............................................................................................................................... 152
4.4 PROTECTION OF HUMAN SUBJECTS ................................................................................. 153
4.5 DATA CLEANSING AND MANAGEMENT .............................................................................. 154
4.6 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE .............................................................................................. 155
4.6.1 Qualitative Analysis .............................................................................................................. 155
4.6.2 Quantitative Analysis ........................................................................................................... 156
4.7 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 158
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................................................ 159

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS ......................................................................................................... 159

5.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 159

5.1 INTERVIEW RESULTS .............................................................................................................. 159
5.1.1 Categories of Personnel Engaged ..................................................................................... 160
5.1.2 Respondent’s Profile ............................................................................................................ 160
5.1.3 Ghanaian Government Project Failure ................................................................................. 162
5.1.3.1 Time Criterion .................................................................................................................... 162
5.1.3.2 Cost Criterion ..................................................................................................................... 163
5.1.3.3 Deliverables Criterion ....................................................................................................... 163
5.1.3.4 Stakeholder Satisfaction Criterion .................................................................................. 164
5.1.3.5 Sector Contribution Criterion ........................................................................................... 165
5.1.3.6 National Development Criterion ...................................................................................... 166

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5.1.4 Causes of Ghanaian Government Project Failure .............................................................. 166

5.1.4.1 Leadership ......................................................................................................................... 167
5.1.4.2 Management & Administration Practices ...................................................................... 173
5.1.4.3 Resources .......................................................................................................................... 178
5.1.4.4 External Forces ................................................................................................................. 182
5.1.5 Effects of Project Failure on Key Stakeholders ................................................................... 183
5.1.5 1 Economic ............................................................................................................................ 184
5.1.5.2 Social .................................................................................................................................. 188
5.1.5.3 Political ............................................................................................................................... 191
5.1.5.4 Psychological ..................................................................................................................... 192
5.2 PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS ................................................................................... 192
5.3 FULL QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS ........................................................................................ 194
5.3.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ....................................................................................... 195
5.3.2 PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS ......................................................................................... 195
5.3.3 Ghanaian Government Project Failure ............................................................................. 204
5.3.4 Causes of Ghanaian Government Project Failure .......................................................... 207
5.4.5 Effects of Ghanaian Government Project Failure on Key Stakeholders ...................... 215
5.4.6 The Key Stakeholders Most Affected by Ghanaian Government Project Failure ...... 222
5.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 224
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................................................ 226

DISCUSSIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 226

6.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 226

6.1 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................... 227
6.1.1 Gender ................................................................................................................................... 227
6.1.2 Age Group ............................................................................................................................. 228
6.1.3 Regional Differences ........................................................................................................... 228
6.1.4 Education ............................................................................................................................... 229
6.1.5 Position at work .................................................................................................................... 229
6.1.6 Year of experience in current position .............................................................................. 230
6.1.7 Years of experience at work in general ............................................................................ 230
6.1.8 Sector ..................................................................................................................................... 231

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6.1.9 Industry .................................................................................................................................. 231

6.2 GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE ................................................................ 232
6.3 CAUSES OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE........................................ 236
6.3.2 Group Rankings .................................................................................................................... 248
6.4 EFFECTS OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE ON KEY
STAKEHOLDERS .............................................................................................................................. 254
6.4.1 Grouping of the Effects ........................................................................................................ 262
6.5 THE MOST AFFECTED KEY STAKEHOLDERS OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT
PROJECT FAILURE .......................................................................................................................... 265
6.6 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 268
CHAPTER SEVEN................................................................................................................................. 269

CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 269

7.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 269

7.1 GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE ................................................................ 269
7.2 CAUSES OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE........................................ 270
7.3 EFFECTS OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE ON KEY
STAKEHOLDERS .............................................................................................................................. 273
7.4 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................ 275
7.5 CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE ..................................................................................... 277
7.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH ........................................................................................ 279
7.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ......................................................... 280
7.8 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 281
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 282

APPENDICES......................................................................................................................................... 314

APPENDIX A: Semi-structured Interview Guide ........................................................................... 314

APPENDIX B: Questionnaire ........................................................................................................... 316
APPENDIX C: NVivo 10 Data Analysis .......................................................................................... 322
APPENDIX D.CONSENT FORM ..................................................................................................... 323
APPENDIX E. PARTICIPATION INFORMATION SHEET ........................................................................... 324

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LIST OF TABLES PAGE

Table 1 Country Lending Summaries - Ghana .................................................................................... 18

Table 2 Nationwide survey on Project Failure in New Zealand ........................................................ 30
Table 3 Types of ontology..................................................................................................................... 104
Table 4 Research Philosophy .............................................................................................................. 108
Table 5 Other Research philosophies ................................................................................................. 113
Table 6 Research Approach ................................................................................................................. 125
Table 7 Probability and non-probability sampling ............................................................................. 139
Table 8 Respondents Category ........................................................................................................... 160
Table 9 Respondents Profile ................................................................................................................ 161
Table 10 Percent of questionnaire distribution and their responses .............................................. 195
Table 11 Ghana Government Project Failure (Mean ranking and related Ranks) ....................... 205
Table 12 Causes of Ghana Government Project Failure (Mean ranking and related ranks) ..... 207
Table 13 Mean Ranking and Ranks of Causes of Group of Factors ............................................. 210
Table 14 Rank Correlations between Contractors, PMP and General Public for causes of project
failure........................................................................................................................................................ 213
Table 15 Effects of Ghana Government Project Failure (Mean rankings and related Ranks) ... 216
Table 16 Mean Rankings and Ranks of Effects of Group of Factors ............................................. 218
Table 17 Rank Correlations between Contractors, PMP and General Public for effects of project
failure........................................................................................................................................................ 220
Table 18 Effects of Ghana Government Project Failure on Stakeholders (Mean Rankings and
related Ranks)......................................................................................................................................... 223

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LIST OF FIGURESPAGE

Figure 1 Ghana Project management life cycle ................................................................................. 15

Figure 2 Return On Investment (R O I) ................................................................................................. 35
Figure 3. Return On Investment (R O I)................................................................................................ 35
Figure 4 The Cause-Effect Diagram...................................................................................................... 54
Figure 5 Design–actuality gaps .............................................................................................................. 59
Figure 6 Actuality-supporting application and nature of design ........................................................ 60
Figure 7 The competencies of hybrids .................................................................................................. 61
Figure 8 Stakeholder typology ............................................................................................................... 79
Figure 9 Stakeholder Map....................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 10 Stakeholder Matrix Grid......................................................................................................... 83
Figure 11 Square Root Framework ....................................................................................................... 94
Figure 12 Square root framework for Ghana government projects .................................................. 95
Figure 13A model of the symbolic interactionist view of question-answer behaviour ................. 150
Figure 14 The Research Design .......................................................................................................... 131
Figure 15 Gender of respondents with regards to stakeholder ....................................................... 195
Figure 16 Age group of respondents with regards to stakeholder................................................. 196
Figure 17 Regional location of respondents with regards to stakeholder ..................................... 197
Figure 18 Educational level of respondents with regards to stakeholder ...................................... 198
Figure 19 Position of respondents with regards to stakeholder ...................................................... 199
Figure 20Years of experience in current position with regards to stakeholder ............................. 201
Figure 21 Years of experience in general with regards to stakeholder ......................................... 202
Figure 22 Sector of respondents with regards to stakeholder......................................................... 203
Figure 23 Industry of respondents with regards to stakeholder ...................................................... 203
Figure 24 Line graph for Ghana government projects failure .......................................................... 206
Figure 25 Top 10 causes of Ghana government projects failure .................................................... 209
Figure 26 Group rankings of causes of Ghana government project failure .................................. 212
Figure 27 Kruskal-Wallis H test of difference in rankings for causes of project failure ............... 214
Figure 28 top 10 Effects of Ghana government projects failure on key stakeholders ................. 217
Figure 29: Kruskal-Wallis H test of difference in rankings for effects of project failure ............... 221
Figure 30 Ranking of the level of severity of effects on key stakeholders .................................... 224

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AfDB African Development Bank

BoK Body of Knowledge

CSR Corporate Social Responsibility

CPM Critical Path Method

GSS Ghana Statistical Services

IMF International Monetary Fund

IS Information Systems

IPMA International Project Management Association

IEA Institute of Economic Affairs, Ghana

IT Information Technology

KPMG Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler

MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies

PERT Program Evaluation and Review Technique

PM Project Management

PMP Project Management Practitioner

PMBOK Project Management Body of Knowledge

RBV Resource-Based View Theory

RDT Resource Dependency Theory

R&D Research and Development

SGI Standish Group International

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SHS Senior High School

TI Transparency International

WB World Bank

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LIST OF ORGANISATIONS THAT PROVIDED VARIOUS

FORMS OF SUPPORT

1. Knatto Complex Ltd. Santasi Anyinam, Kumasi, Ghana

2. DAL Consultancy Co. Ltd. Accra

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LIST OF PAPERS PRESENTED/PUBLISHED/SUBMITTED

 Damoah, S. I., Akwei C. & Mouzughi, Y. (2015) Causes of government project

failure in developing countries – Focus on Ghana. Conference proceedings.
British Academy of Management (BAM Conference 2015 at University of
Portsmouth). The value of pluralism in advancing management research,
education and practice. 8-10 September, 2015, ISBN: 978-0-9549608-8-9

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INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

Project Management Institute (PMI) – Member

Higher Education Academy (HEA) – Associate Member
Institute of Administrative Management (IAM) – UK – Fellow

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the need for this research by highlighting how project failure has
become a rule rather than an exception. It paints a clear picture about project failure in
the world and developing countries in particular, and how companies and governments
are losing huge sums of money through project failure. It also provides an overview of
project failure in the local context of this study.

This chapter further discusses the aims and objectives of this research and, by its
name, it introduces the rest of the chapters and how they are organised. The ultimate
purpose of this chapter is to be a building block for the study.

The rest of the chapter is presented as follows: section 1.1 discusses the background
and the need for the study; 1.2 provides the research aims and objectives. Section 1.3
discusses the relevance of the study, whilst 1.4 analyses the local context for the study.
Section 1.5 presents how the entire research is organised. The final part, which is 1.6,
summarises the chapter by highlighting the main points discussed in the chapter; and
introduces the next chapter.

1.1 BACKGROUND AND NEED FOR THE STUDY

In recent years, project management has become an important part of any organisation
(Maylor et al., 2006). This is as a result of the changing nature of managing
organisations due to technological advancement, and a complex, competitive global
marketplace (Maylor et al., 2006; Panayides et al., 2015; Ramazani & Jergeas, 2015;
Klein et al., 2015; Nguyen et al., 2015). Projects require huge capital outlay from

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organisations and/or governments (Panayides et al., 2015) and, as such, it is crucial to

have good project management practices to deliver value for money projects and
programmes. The importance of good project management practices cannot therefore
be ignored by corporate managers, as failure destroys shareholders’ value and, in the
government or public sector; it can have a significant effect on various stakeholders
associated with the project. However, studies indicate that companies and governments
all over the world are losing huge sums of money through projects as a result of project
failure (Espiner, 2007; McManus & Wood-Harper, 2008; Asay, 2008; Fabian & Amir,
2011). Research into 214 projects showed that only one in eight information technology
projects can be considered truly successful (McManus & Wood-Harper, 2008). Asay
(2008) reports in the Guardian that the UK has wasted over US$4 billion on failed IT
projects between 2000 and 2008. Health and Information Systems in South Africa, IS
projects in China, and all World Bank-funded projects in Africa are all examples of either
total failure or partial failure (Heeks, 2002, 2005, 2006). An example is the World Bank’s
Chad-Cameroon Pipeline project. The project, which cost US$4.2 billion, was
abandoned in 2007, citing misuse of revenue by the Chad’s president (Fabian & Amir,
2011).

Project failure in developing countries is as high as that in developed countries, if not

higher (see Saad et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2011; Aziz, 2013). In their quest for
development, developing countries engage in projects such as building of roads, dams,
plants, pipes, industries, theatres, e-government services, telecommunication, ICT, and
others. These projects, which are normally financed by the International Monetary
Fund(IMF), World Bank or tax-payers, face several setbacks such as abandonment
(Kumar & Best, 2006), cost deviation (Kaliba et al., 2009; Aziz, 2013), schedule
deviation (Sweis et al., 2008; Fallahnejad, 2013; Marzouk & El-Rasas, 2013), scope
deviation (Liu et al., 2011), and stakeholders’ dissatisfaction (Ahonen & Savolianen,
2010).

In Ghana, project failure rate is high and the cost associated with such failures is very
excessive (Daily Graphic, 2006; Amponsah, 2013). Many cases of project failure are
reported in the media, World Bank reports and IMF (World Bank Report, 2004,

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2007;Central Press, 2011; Daily Guide, 2012; GNA, 2012, 2014), especially
International Development (ID) projects which seek to enhance the lives of the general
populace (Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010).

Amponsah (2013, p.3) estimates “that at least one out of every three infrastructural
development projects in Ghana either fails or is challenged to achieve one of the
objectives of Scope, Cost or Time. In [a] few cases they do not achieve the intended
purpose for which they were undertaken”. Sometimes, donor agencies are reluctant to
provide aid for infrastructure projects due to the disappointing results of project
outcomes (Daily Graphic, 2007; Amponsah, 2013). This has resulted in donor apathy
towards projects in Ghana (World Bank report, 2007).

Ghanaian government projects have a high failure rate; there are numerous reported
cases of abandoned projects and projects not finishing on time, not being within budget,
and not meeting requirements and/or stakeholders’ needs (Central Press, 2011; Daily
Guide, 2012; GNA, 2012). Over the years, significant amounts of money have been
solicited from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank and other donor
agencies by the Ghanaian government to embark on projects that seek to improve
socio-economic development. Notable among them in recent years is the US$547
million under the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) solicited in 2006 (Republic of
Ghana’s Ministry of Finance Report, 2007). In the 2012 Ghanaian budget, the country
borrowed US$3.0 billion from the China Development Bank (CDB) to embark on
infrastructure deficit projects. Specific projects identified to be funded by this loan were:
Accra Plains Irrigation Project, Coastal Fishing Harbours and Landing Sites Project,
Tema-Akosombo-Buipe Multi-modal Transportation Project, Western Corridor Gas
Infrastructure Project, Helicopter Surveillance Fleet for Western Corridor “Oil Enclave”,
Development of ICT Enhanced Surveillance Platform for Western Corridor “Oil
Enclave”, Western Corridor “Oil Enclave” Road Re-development Project, Western
Railway Line Modernization, Takoradi Port Rehabilitation/Retrofit, and Sekondi
Industrial Estate (Republic of Ghana Budget, 2012).

However, most of these projects have not achieved their anticipated objectives (AfDB,
2006; Amponsah, 2010; World Bank, 2012; Amponsah, 2013). This failure has cost the

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country significant amounts of money (AfDB, 2006; Daily Graphic, 2006, 2011;
Amponsah, 2013). This has prompted stakeholders to express concerns about the
phenomenon. For instance, in a conference for project managers organised by the
African Development Bank in 2006 in Accra, the Deputy Minister for Finance and
Economic Planning, Professor Gyan-Baffour, noted that project implementation
performance in the country had declined in all sectors of the economy.

From the literature, it can be deduced that project failure has become part and parcel of
organisations and governments undertaking projects; however, these reported failures
might not necessarily be so, depending on who is defining what constitutes project
failure (Lyytinen & Hirschheim, 1988; Agarwal & Rathod, 2006; Procaccino & Verner,
2006; Ika, 2009) or who is doing the evaluating (Carvalho, 2014), and the timing of the
definition or evaluation of the performance of the project in question (Heeks, 2002,
2006) or the criteria used in measuring project success/failure (Amir & Pinnington,
2014). Therefore, using different success/failure criteria, this study aims to find out the
extent of project failure within Ghanaian government projects.

Causes of project failure is one of the most discussed topics in recent years by
academics, practising managers, governments, and many social commentators all over
the world. An extant literature is therefore devoted to the discussion, and various
reasons have been identified for the causes of project failure. For instance, Frimpong et
al. (2003) and Long et al. (2004) identified 26 and 64 causes of project failure
respectively. For example, when looking at schedule delays in road construction
projects in Zambia, the following were identified as the reasons behind such delays:
financial processes and difficulties on the part of contractors and clients, contract
modification, economic problems, materials’ procurement, changes in drawings, staffing
problems, equipment unavailability, poor supervision, construction mistakes, poor
coordination on site, and changes in specifications (Kaliba et al., 2009).

This project failure trend in developing countries has attracted the attention of
researchers; and project failure research can be categorised into three groups. The first
group takes a generic view of project failure (Frimpong et al., 2003; Kaliba et al., 2009;
Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010; Liu et al., 2011; Amid et al., 2012; Aziz, 2013). The second

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group focuses on private sector projects (Mangione, 2003). The last group, which looks
into public or government sector projects, has focused exclusively on single case
projects (Kumar & Best, 2006; Maubeta et al., 2008; Fabian & Amir, 2011; Patanakul,
2014) – this makes the research industry-specific by default, and therefore affects
generalisability. This study will therefore contribute to project failure literature by
studying government projects in general, which will make the research cross industries.
This study focuses on an investigation of the causes of project failure in developing
countries by using Ghana as a case study.

It also goes further to explore the effects that government project failure brings to key
stakeholders of such projects. The effects of these project failures are many; however,
research on the effects of project failure is rare. In addition, previous research on these
effects has been centred on ‘effects in relation to the projects’ completion’ – thus, it has
been devoted to the effects in the project under investigation (Aibinu & Jagboro, 2002;
Manavazhia & Adhikarib, 2002; Sambasivan & Soon, 2007; Pourrostam & Ismail, 2011).
This research therefore bridges this gap by investigating the effects on key stakeholders
associated with such projects. Moreover, earlier studies have been concentrated on
specific projects and/or specific industries’ projects (Aibinu & Jagboro, 2002;
Manavazhia & Adhikarib, 2002; Sambasivan & Soon, 2007; Pourrostam & Ismail, 2011;
Zhang, 2013) – which makes the research industry-specific by default, hence affecting
generalisability. This research bridges this gap by looking at government projects in
general in one specific country. Therefore, the third objective of this research is to
identify the effects of the Ghanaian government’s project failures on key stakeholders of
such projects. It will further identify the most affected stakeholders of Ghana
government projects.

1.2 RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1.2.1 Aims
The aim of the research is to find out the extent of project failure, causes of project
failure and the effects of project failure on key stakeholders of the Ghanaian

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government’s projects.

1.2.1 Objectives
Specifically, the study intends to achieve the following objectives:
 To evaluate the extent of failure in Ghanaian government projects by using
different failure criteria. These failure criteria will be compared in order to
determine the failure criteria where Ghanaian government projects fail most.
 To identify and evaluate possible factors that cause Ghanaian government
projects to fail, and their relative importance (influence).
 To identify and evaluate the effects (negatives) of Ghanaian government project
failure on key stakeholders associated with such projects and their relative
importance (severity). This will further evaluate the stakeholders most affected by
Ghanaian government project failure.

In order to achieve the aims and objectives, the following steps will be followed:
 Literature review – The study will comprehensively review relevant literature on
project failure in order to develop a theoretical framework for the study which will
be used to identify failure criteria, and the causes and effects of Ghanaian
government project failure.
 Data collection – An exploratory work will be carried out using semi-structured
interviews to collect data, which will be analysed using content and thematic data
analysis techniques in order to validate the information from the literature.
Further data will be collected through questionnaire surveys in order to validate
the data collected from the semi-structured interviews.
 Analysis – Statistical analysis using SPSS will be used to make sense of the
survey data collected. The methods of analysis such as Descriptive Statistics,
Mean Average, Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients, and Kruskal-Wallis H
test of difference in ranks will be adopted to evaluate the most significant failure
areas, and causes and effects of Ghanaian government project failure.
 Discussions – The findings from the results will then be juxtaposed with existing
literature to enable the researcher to tease out the academic and practical
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contributions that this study offers.

 Finally, the researcher hopes to propose a critical direction for future research
and practical guidance for management of projects in Ghana and developing
countries in general.

1.3 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this research is to bridge literature gap(s) in project management and
also to provide statistical data that can be used by project management practitioners
and policy makers in Ghana and other developing countries. Moreover, like many
developing countries, Ghana is at a very crucial part of its development as a result of
the prospect of the oil revenues from its oil reserves (Ahadzie, 2009). It is estimated as
the world leader in economic growth, with a rate of 20% (Economy Watch, 2011), and
as such projects have become a focal point in this development.

The question as to whether these projects will be successful in sustaining this growth
has become an issue for many Ghanaians and some commentators, because past
governments have been enthused about similar projects before but these projects
ended in failure (Central Press, 2011; Daily Guide, 2012; GNA, 2012). Therefore, using
Ghana as a case study will benefit the Ghanaian government by throwing more light on
extent of projects failure, why projects fail and how this failure negatively impacts on key
stakeholders of such projects. This will help the government to be more proactive in
awarding project contracts in the future.

This study will also contribute to theories of project failure, causes of project failure and
the effects of project failure on stakeholders in developing countries. This will make a
contribution to both the academic and the practical fields. Thus, by studying
government projects failure in Ghana, the study will contribute to both the local and
broader academic context in project management. As stated in section 1.1, previous
literature on government projects have been specific cases and therefore by using
general government, this gap would be bridged. Further, in the local context, the
literature have been mainly media, company and commentary reports and therefore this

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study will add academic lens to the literature.

1.4 THE LOCAL CONTEXT

This section provides an overview of the local context for the study. The main objective
of this research is to find out the extent of project failure, and causes and effects of
government projects failure in developing countries, with the ultimate purpose of
reducing project failure in developing countries. Data are collected from the Ghanaian
public, contractors and project management practitioners. It is therefore imperative to
provide a local context for the study. Specifically, this section has two main objectives.
One, to provide a general overview of the country as a developing country, and two, to
provide the state of project management practices in Ghana and government projects in
particular by highlighting the role of politics, economics and socio-cultural factors in
project management practices.

The rest of the section is arranged as follows: sections 1.4.1, 1.4.2 and 1.4.3 discuss
the economic, political and socio-cultural position of Ghana respectively, by highlighting
how these could influence the Ghanaian government’s project performance and how
they relate to this research. Section 1.4.4 discusses the Ghanaian government’s project
life cycle and why this can influence its project performance; section 1.4.5 gives a
general overview of the procurement procedure that the Ghanaian government projects
follow. The final section, 1.4.6, gives a general overview of the Ghanaian government
projects and highlights the state of project failure in them.

1.4.1 The Ghanaian Economy

Ghana is a developing country with a gross domestic product of (GDP) US$39.20 billion
as at 2012 (Trading Economics, 2012; Republic of Ghana Budget, 2012), with GDP
growth of 14.3% as at the end of 2011 (World Bank, 2012), but this had declined to
US$38.58 billion in 2014 (World Bank, 2015). According to the World Bank (2012),
Ghana is one of the leaders in economic growth with a rate of 13.7% and has an

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inflation rate of 8.7%. The main export products are cocoa, gold, oil and gas, timber,
bauxite and diamonds; these greatly contribute to the country’s economic growth. For
instance, in March 2011 when parliament approved the Petroleum Revenue
Management Act to commence commercial exploitation of the newly discovered oil and
gas reserves (Republic of Ghana Budget, 2012), this resulted in a very high economic
growth rate at the time – the economic growth was ranked as the highest in the world,
with a rate of 20.07% (Economy Watch, 2011).

As at 2012, the country’s interest rate was 9.1% per cent and its Gross International
Reserves were US$4.98 billion (Republic of Ghana Budget, 2012). In 2012, the country
attained Lower Middle Income status with per capital income of US$1,410 (World Bank,
2012). Nonetheless, this had declined to 18% in 2015 (World Bank, 2015).

Moreover, in 2012, Ghana had a budget deficit of GH¢1,132.2 million (Revenue of

GH¢12,825.0 million and expenditure of GH¢15,565.5 million), representing 2.0% of
GDP (Republic of Ghana Budget, 2012). Further, the country’s 2012 budget shows an
external debt of 19.8% of GDP and the total public debt is estimated to be 41.5% of
GDP. However, the World Bank rates the country’s risk of external debt distress as
moderate (World Bank, 2012). Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty line (% of
population), according to the World Bank, was 28.5% in 2006 (World Bank, 2012).
However, over the last six years (2009 to 2015), Ghana's economy has grown each
year by an average of 6%, hitting a record-breaking 15% in 2011, but there has been a
sharp decline in growth in the following years. However, in 2015 economists expect the
country to post strong growth of around 8% (CNN, 2015).

From the above data, it can be argued that the economy is not stable and therefore it
can be said that this economic state in the country will have an influence on project
implementation and performance. This therefore provides inside knowledge to this study
on the government’s economic ability to carry out projects.

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1.4.2 Ghanaian Politics

Ghana is a unitary state that practices constitutional democracy in her governance. The
country has witnessed political stability since 1992 and has not witnessed any civil war
in her history. The country practices multi-party democracy; however, there are only two
main political parties who are capable of winning presidential elections and form a
government. From 1992 to date, there have been six successive free, fair and
transparent elections. Ghana is now seen as the ‘eye’ of Africa in terms of democracy
by international organisations and unions such as the Africa Union (AU), ECOWAS, and
the European Union (EU). In 2010, Ghana’s population and housing census (released in
2012) showed that the country has 10 administrative regions with 197 municipal and
district assemblies (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012).

It can be argued that this political stability could have a positive influence on project
management in Ghanaian government projects. However, this has not always been the
case. Many projects in Ghana, and government projects in particular, have suffered
several setbacks – as a result of companies and government officials’ non-compliance
with rules and regulations (see Institute Of Economic Affairs, Ghana (IEA) Presidential
Debate, 2012). In Ghana, politics play a major role in project management;
management are constantly faced with numerous bureaucratic and political barriers to
get projects implemented. Politicians influence government projects in Ghana (IEA
Presidential Debate, 2012). In some circumstances, projects encounter problems
because politicians ‘play politics’ with them. Reported cases of abandoned projects due
to changes in government are numerous. This has become a major talking point among
the general public and prompted a major debate among presidential aspirants in
the2012 general elections (IEA Presidential Debate, 2012). Though there has not been
empirical research to prove why politicians abandon projects, it has been said that one
of the main reasons for government project abandonment is political motivation.
Different governments fail to continue their predecessor’s projects because the project
does not ‘belong’ to them (IEA Presidential Debate, 2012).

Moreover, Ghanaian government projects suffer from continuous changes in

government leadership. There is a change of leadership as soon as there is a change in

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government; taking the NHIS project for instance, the head of the project was changed
as soon as NDC took over government from NPP in 2009 (Government of Ghana,
2015). This implies that, if the management of a project want to be successful, they
have to build political skills that can be directed towards building trustworthiness,
mobilising support and blocking opposition on behalf of the entire project (Warne, 1997).
However, instead of political leaders being spotless and leading by example, they play
politics with projects by being partisan. There have been instances where all members
of an opposition party have boycotted parliament over project bills and the incumbents
going ahead with the project because they are the majority in parliament, and, in
Ghana’s parliament, voting is made on a simple majority (see GNA, 14, Sept. 2003 for
NHIS bill). It can be argued that the political terrain in Ghana will have an influence on
the country’s public projects.

1.4.3 Ghanaian Socio-cultural factors

Ghana is a country with a rich culture which is well respected by her citizens. According
to the World Factbook, Ghanaian society is hierarchical in nature – practising a master-
servant relationship where the rich and those in authority, especially religious and
political leaders, are reverend (World Factbook, 2012). People in higher and
management positions are more respected and as such Ghanaians feel proud to be
addressed by their academic and professional titles. Moreover, age, experience and
wealth are accorded a high level of respect, with older people being viewed as “wise”
and as such they are given preferential treatment in most cases when they are in a
group. Like most African countries, there is a very strong family bond, which serves as
the primary source of identity, loyalty and responsibility. Family responsibility is more
important than anything in life - including work. The country practises an extended form
of family and as such respect, connections and links are often attained through the
extended family’s standing in society.

Religious values are well adhered to by Ghanaians. Sometimes, when projects do not
go as expected, pastors and other religious leaders are called upon to pray for the
project. There have been instances where prayers had to be offered to some gods

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before projects were allowed to commence (Ghana News Agency (GNA), 2012;
Ghanaweb, 2012). In these cases, projects managers have to pay money to priests in
the form of ‘sacrificial items’ for use to appease gods. A typical example is the
Gh¢215m (£8,000 equivalent; market rate at the time) paid to the priestess of the Tohor
deity; Mame Kpolakeh of Atuabo, in the Ellembelle District before the commencement of
a Ghana National Gas Company (GNGC) project that was being undertaking by a
Chinese contractor (Ghana News Agency (GNA), 2012; Ghanaweb, 2012;
Peacefmonline.com, 2012; Ghana Headlines, 2012, Modern Ghana, 2012). It was
reported that, on the9th of November 2012, a donor-sponsored project worth US$2m
was on the verge of coming to a premature end because “River-god Stops … the
project”. The ‘Tindana’; a “custodian of the Vea Dam in the Upper East region says the
river-god is not happy with the project” (Daily Guide, 2012, p.2). The report further
states that all the necessary stakeholders and parties concerned had been contacted,
all the necessary rituals made, and money paid to the custodian, yet there had not been
any progress, and as such the donor agent was on the verge of taking away its money.

It can therefore be argued that Ghana’s unique culture will have an influence on the
project management and project performance of Ghanaian government projects. This is
because studies on cross-cultural management and project management prove that
management practices do not have cross-cultural validity (Hofstede, 1983; Muriithi &
Crawford, 2003; Maube et al., 2008; Amid et al., 2012). This is re-visited in the next
chapter under sub-section section 2.4.3.

Apart from the political, economic and socio-cultural conditions in the country, there are
other factors that can influence Ghanaian government projects. These factors can be
found in the World Bank and other donor agencies’ guidance on how projects should be
carried out by borrowing and/or receiving countries. Ghana is a typical example of a
developing country that relies heavily on the World Bank, IMF and other donor countries
and agencies, and therefore this guidance is necessary for project implementation and
project performance. Even though there is no statistical evidence, it is estimated that the
public sector makes up 80% of the economy. Therefore, government projects are
crucial to the development of the country. Specifically, these can be found in

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procurement guidance for borrowing countries and project life cycle that the World Bank
prescribes for Ghana. The next section discusses this guidance.

1.4.4 Ghanaian Government Project Cycle

The World Bank prescribes a project cycle consisting of six parts for Ghanaian
government projects (World Bank, 2015). Firstly, country strategy and project
identification: here, the World Bank works with the borrowing country to determine how
financial and other assistance can be designed to have the largest impact on the
borrowing country. This involves the identification of project(s). At this stage, the two
parties agree on the initial project concept and its beneficiaries. This is then recorded by
the bank official in a Project Concept Note. The note contains proposed objectives,
imminent risks, alternative scenarios, and the likely timetable for approval process. Two
other documents generated at this stage are: one, the project Information Document –
containing useful public resources for tailoring bidding documents to the proposed
project. Two, the Integrated Safeguards Data Sheet – containing key issues related to
the Bank’s safeguarding policies for environmental and social issues.

Secondly, project preparation: this involves the conducting of feasibility studies and
preparation of engineering and technical designs by the borrowing government. An
Environmental Assessment Report is made by referring to the Bank’s Safeguards
documents made at the project identification phase. The main objective for this is to
ensure that; if there will be a very hazardous environmental impact on the indigenous
people, appropriate measures are put in place to reduce it. This is done by the agency
or agencies nominated by the government. These agencies are often government
sector ministry or government departments. During this period, the government or the
departments contract consultants and other public sector companies for goods and
services. At this phase, prospective beneficiaries and other stakeholders are then
consulted for their support. This is the time when the project is subject to public debate.
The media then become very vital in this debate. It is the sole responsibility of the
borrowing country to perform this task; however, the World Bank plays an advisory role
when necessary during this period.

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Thirdly, project appraisal: this is the phase where stakeholders are given the opportunity
to review in detail the project design and any outstanding questions are resolved. The
government and the World Bank further review the proposed project based on the work
conducted during the first two phases, and a confirmation of all aspects of the project is
made. Under this review, all parties involve agree on the set goals, timetable, and an
efficient way of executing the project. This must also meet the bank’s operational
standards. The project’s Information Documents are then updated for approval for
funding.

Fourthly, project approval: this is the phase where all documents are sent to the World
Bank’s Board of Executive Directors for approval. This is when all other legal
documents are signed by all parties involved. Once the project is approved, it can
commence.

Fifthly, project implementation: as the names implies, this is where the actual project
begins. During the implementation phase, the World Bank still provides technical
assistance to the government. This implementation involves procurement, financial
management, etc. The implementation government must submit regular report to the
bank’s team, set up to monitor the project. If things are not working as agreed upon,
mitigation procedures can take place to amend some parts of the project if necessary.

Lastly, evaluation: this is where the project’s output is measured against the project’s
objective by the bank’s Independent Evaluation Group. They also assess institutional
impact and other stakeholders’ impact. From time to time, they produce Impact
Evaluation Reports. The pie chart below gives a clear picture of the project life cycle.

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Country
Evaluation Assistance
Strategy

Implementation
Identification
and Completion

Preparation,
Implementation
Appraisal and
and Supervision
Board Approval

Figure 1 Ghana Project management life cycle

Source: World Bank (2012)

Even though the World Bank provides guidance on how procurement of projects should
be conducted in Ghana, the country has her own procedure that government projects
need to follow. This is presented in the next sub-section.

1.4.5 Ghana’s Procurement Procedure

As the main objective of this study is to find the extent of projects failure, causes and
effects of project failure in government projects in developing countries, by using Ghana
as case study, the procedure for awarding Ghanaian government projects is very
important. This is because this procedure can influence project performance. This
section therefore provides a brief description of this procedure.

The procedure for Ghanaian government project procurement is enshrined in the Ghana
Public Procurement Act, 2003 (Act 663). The Act was enacted “to provide for public
procurement, establish the Public Procurement Board; make administrative and
institutional arrangements for procurement; stipulate tendering procedures and provide

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for purposes connected with these” (Ghana Procurement Authority, 2015). The authority
consists of a board, whose main duty is to harmonise the processes of public
procurement in the public service to secure a judicious, economic and efficient use of
state resources. In other words, the board is supposed to ensure that public
procurement is carried out in a fair, transparent and non-discriminatory manner which
will help reduce corrupt practices in the public procurement processes.

The Act applies to four main areas: (a) the procurement of goods, works and services,
financed in whole or in part from public funds except where the Minister decides that it is
in the national interest to use a different procedure, (b) functions that pertain to
procurement of goods, works and services including the description of requirements and
invitation of sources, preparation, selection and award of contract and the phases of
contract administration, (c) the disposal of public stores and equipment, and (d)
procurement with funds or loans taken or guaranteed by the State and foreign aid funds
except where the applicable loan agreement, guarantee contract or foreign agreement
provides the procedure for the use of the funds. There is a Tender Committee, which
meets at least once every quarter to deliberate over various biddings from performing
organisations. The panel sees to it that, at every stage of the procurement activity,
procedures prescribed in the Act have been followed by exercising sound judgement in
making procurement decisions. They can refer to the appropriate Tender Review Board
for approval if necessary. This evaluation is performed according to the predetermined
criteria set out in the bidding documents prior to bidding. After approving any bid, they
prepare a procurement plan to support it. This document contains contract packages,
estimated cost for each package, the procurement method and processing steps and
times. They submit it to the Tender Committee for final approval, which is also subject to
budget approval from parliament. After this, the winner is published in the Public
Procurement Bulletin.

1.4.6 Overview of Ghanaian Government Projects

Government’s policies are often translated into programmes and projects (Goodman &
Love, 1980). In other words, they are the instruments upon which government policies

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are achieved and, because projects measure economic growth (Alzahrani & Emsley,
2013), government project performance is key to every government, and Ghanaian
government projects are no exception. As a result of the good economic and political
standing of the country, the need to embark on “more effectively targeted programs to
help the poor” and to improve development has become very crucial in Ghana (World
Bank, 2012, p.9). This has prompted the government to make significant efforts to
undertake more developmental projects (World Bank, 2012). For example, the main
focus of the 2012 budget was mainly to provide key infrastructure to the various sectors
of the economy – by stimulating public sector growth and making private sector support
a priority, so that jobs could be created for the Ghanaian workforce (Ghana Republic
Budget, 2012). For these reasons, the 2012 budget was crafted around the theme
’Infrastructural Development for Accelerated Growth and Job Creation’.

These proactive policy and regulatory interventions are backed by the World Bank, IMF
and other development partners such as the China Development Bank (CDB) (see
World Bank: country at glance, 2012; Ghana Republic Budget, 2012).The key
infrastructure projects earmark for implementation in 2012 were mainly in Electricity, Oil
and Gas, Water and Sanitation, Railways, Roads and Ports, Health, Education, and
Agriculture. As can be seen from the table below on how much the World Bank had lent
to Ghana in 2012 for programmes and projects, the country had borrowed greatly from
the World Bank for her projects and programmes in 2012. However, reports (AfDB,
2006; World Bank Report, 2004, 2007; Republic of Ghana’s Ministry of Finance Report,
2007; Klutse, 2009; Central Press, 2011; Daily Guide, 2012; GNA, 2012) indicate that
this is not the first time that such initiatives have been taken by the government.
Prominent initiatives in recent years include the Affordable Housing Units projects
(Klutse, 2009; Imani, 2010; GNA, 2012; Ghanaweb, 2012), educational reform projects
(Nyarko, 2011), National Identity Card (ID card) project (NIA, 2011; Abissath, 2012),
Ghana @50 projects (Daily Guide, 2013; Central Newspaper, 2012), and Ghana
National Insurance Scheme (NHIS) (World Bank, 2007a; Agyeman, 2009; Mensah,
2009).

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However, some of these projects failed to achieve their intended objectives (AfDB,
2006; World Bank, 2012). Media reports and existing literature show that Ghanaian
government projects have witnessed a number of failures – ranging from infrastructure
to services projects. This project failure is fully discussed in the next chapter, under
Ghanaian Government Project Failure. The table below provides an overview of the
Ghanaian government’s borrowing standing with the World Bank.

Table 1 Country Lending Summaries - Ghana

World Bank Client

Connection

Country Ghana
IBRD/IDA Country Lending Summary
Number of Loans/Credits/Grants
NP
IDA Credits DCRT L Total
Disbursing 25 2 0 0 0 0 0 27
Repaying 13 0 0 0 1 0 0 14
Fully 111 0 13 0 1 10 1 136
Repaid
Other 30 6 0 1 0 0 0 37

Loans/Credits/Grants Summary In USD Equivalent

IBRD IDA Credits IDA Grants Total
Original 190,500,000.00 7,814,556,042.11 382,200,000.00 8,387,256,042.11
Principal
Cancellations 780,020.83 311,322,243.31 883,449.52 312,985,713.66
Disbursed 189,719,979.17 6,270,909,937.14 309,153,452.82 6,769,783,369.13
Undisbursed 0 1,382,401,420.42 84,199,991.11 1,466,601,411.53
Repaid 189,339,979.17 4,180,707,176.99 0 4,370,047,156.16
Repaid third 380,000.00 0 0 380,000.00
party
Due 0 2,463,452,911.25 0 2,463,452,911.25
Exchange 0 0 0 0
Adjustment
Borrower 0 2,463,452,911.25 0 2,463,452,911.25
Obligation

Source: World Bank (2012)

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1.5 ORGANISATION OF THESIS

Chapter one presents the introduction to the research. As the name suggests, this
introduces the entire research by highlighting the need and purpose for this study. It
also discusses the local content of the research. It then introduces the rest of the
chapters.

Chapter two reviews the prior relevant literature on the subject under study. This
discusses in detail the prior studies on project failure, causes of project failure and
effects of project failure. It also discusses the theoretical framework for the study.

Chapter three presents the methodology for the study by discussing the research
philosophies underpinning this research, the choice of research methods, research
strategies, types of research, sampling techniques, and justifications for the various
choices made for this study.

Chapter four explains in detail how the data for the study were collected and analysed.
This is only for the groundwork undertaken during the actual data collection and data
analysis processes.

Chapter five presents the research results. This is specifically focused on the field data
collected.

Chapter six presents the results of the study by linking them to the literature review to
determine how different and similar this study is to prior studies.

Finally, chapter seven presents the conclusion of the research by summarising the main
findings of the study. It also highlights the contributions that this study makes to both the
academic and the practising fields. It also highlights the limitations of the study and
makes recommendations for further studies.

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1.6 SUMMARY
This chapter has discussed the need for this study by highlighting how project failure is
increasing, and the need to improve project management in order to reduce wastage of
money by companies and governments. It also looked into the objectives of this
research.

Moreover, this chapter has provided a brief overview of the local context in which this
study is being conducted. The main objective was to provide a general overview of the
country as a developing country and to explain the state of project management
practices in Ghana and government projects in particular by highlighting the role of
politics, economics and socio-cultural factors in project management practices. It has
also discussed the state of the Ghanaian government’s projects.

The economic, political and socio-cultural factors were highlighted to provide how these
influence Ghanaian government projects. The chapter also looked at how World Bank
directives as well as the Ghana Procurement Act can influence the Ghanaian
government’s project performance.

The next chapter looks at the prior literature on the concept of project failure, and
causes and effects of project failure. This is used to develop research questions and
hypotheses; and a theoretical framework for the study.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION
This section reviews prior studies on the subject being researched. A literature review is
“a useful methodology to gain in-depth understanding of a research topic. A systematic
examination of existing publications can help researchers in identifying the current body
of knowledge and stimulating inspirations for future research” (Mok et al., 2015, p.447).
This serves as a guide for the development of a theoretical framework and hypotheses
for this study. This will enable the researcher to apply them to the research findings to
arrive at justifiable recommendations and conclusions.

This chapter is divided into four (4) main sections. Section one discusses the concept of
project failure. The main rationale is to paint the broader picture of project failure within
which the Ghanaian government project failure framework – which will subsequently be
discussed in the next sub-sections – can be better appreciated. As the main purpose of
this study centres on project failure, this section provides the various schools of thought
about what constitutes project failure by highlighting the extent to which projects fail in
the world, and developing countries and Ghana in particular. However, because this
study is about projects and project management, it begins by throwing light on what
constitutes a project and project management. In the main, this section starts by
discussing a brief history of project management as a body of knowledge, and then
defines the terms project and project management by highlighting the main differences
that exist between the two concepts. It goes further to discuss in detail the various
definitions of the concept of project failure and the dichotomy between project failure
and project management failure.

The second section discusses in detail causes of project failure and the effects of
project failure on stakeholders by highlighting the flaws of these studies, and how this
research intends to bridge the literature gap.

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The third section discusses the theoretical blocks that underpin this study. Specifically, it
intends to achieve two main objectives. It discusses the theories upon which this study
is based, by trying to show how they fit into the research topic and provides justification
for the choice by linking them with previous research that used these theories. The main
aim is to describe the theoretical blocks upon which this study is based. This will help
the researcher to develop a theoretical framework for the research. The last section
summarises the chapter.

2.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Project management evolved from management discipline in the 1950s (Cleland &
Gareis, 2006), although it is difficult to provide a specific history of the field (Pollack &
Adler, 2015). The use of project management as a management practice can be traced
back to the advent of business management, but the discipline being recognised as a
body of knowledge or subject of studies can be dated back to the1950s and 1960s
(Peckendorff, 1995). Soderlund (2004) specifically traces the genesis of project
management to the publication of Gaddis’ work in 1959. Modern-day project
management can be credited to the work of Henry Gantt, who invented the Gantt Chart
as a standardised project management model (Wren, 1979; Partington, 1996).
Moreover, this era witnessed the use of planning tools such as Critical Path Method
(CPM) and Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) in project management
(Peckendorff, 1995). Prior to this era, project management was confined to the US
army, and projects were managed on an ad-hoc basis with the use of Gantt Charts and
informal techniques and tools (Kersner, 2009; Soderlund & Lenfle, 2011).

The field of projects and project management has received much attention and have
become very popular of late with the media, academia and practitioners due to
projectisation and programmification of companies (Mayor et al., 2006), project failure
(Amid et al., 2012; Aziz, 2013; Marzouk & El-Rasas, 2013), and the money being
wasted by organisations and/or governments (see Fabian & Amir, 2011; Amid et al.,
2012; Daily Guide, 2012; GNA, 2012; Central Press, 2013; KPMG, 2013). Moreover,

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projects and project management have become strategic tools for many growth
industries and large investment companies and government undertakings of late
(Soderlund & Maylor, 2012; Serra & Kunc, 2015). As a result, projects and project
management are having a significant impact on companies and governments
(Soderlund & Maylor, 2012); and as such some authors have labelled society as being
‘projectified’ (Molloy & Stewart, 2013). Therefore, project management is “becoming
increasingly important” to organisations (KPMG, 2013, p.9). However, despite rapid
development in project management as a field of academic endeavour in recent years
(Berggren & Soderlund, 2008), it lacks universally accepted theories for its research and
practices as a body of knowledge (Soderlund, 2004), it is narrowly focused (Ludin &
Soderholm, 1998; Crawford et al., 2006), and the pace of its research is too slow
(Morris, 1994) and insufficient (Davis, 2014).

Moreover, research on project management has a scanty theoretical basis and lacks
concepts (Shenhar & Dvir, 1996). The theories underpinning project management are
relatively small, and these theories are too generic and lack empirical backing
(Peckendorff, 1995; Partington, 1996). This has marginalised project management as a
field for academics; critics argue that “the area is too applied, too closed to practice for
academic study” (Soderlund & Maylor, 2012, p.691), and therefore there is a strong
need to build and test models in order to get a theory for its academic research (Kwak &
Anbari, 2009).

However, this view is in sharp contradiction with Soderlund’s assertion that there is no
universal theory that can be used in project management due to the fundamental
differences that exists across projects, and that no project is similar to another
(Soderlund, 2004). This is echoed by Klein et al. (2015), who assert that, due to the
uniqueness of projects, there is the need for improvisation during project management.
Soderlund’s argument is premised on the categorisation of project management into two
traditions: the engineering tradition and the social science tradition. The engineering
tradition avoids uncertainties to achieve determinateness whilst the social science
tradition assumes uncertainty to achieve indeterminateness, and the two traditions are
incompatible. In view of this, Soderlund (2004) argues that there can be two separate

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theories on project management, one being generic and the other being specific. The
reason is that there are some elements of projects that are generic whilst other aspects
are specific; for example, all projects have uniqueness, task complexity and time
limitedness. The general aspect can have a generic theory or one theory that is
applicable to all projects and then the other varied aspect can have another theory.
However, Soderlund (2004) failed to prove either of these two theories.

The two views about projects and project management having a significant impact on
companies and government and at the same time being marginalised by academia for
its research have created a paradox between “the logic of impact” and “the logic of the
academy” (Soderlund & Maylor, 2012, p.690) and, until this tension is resolved, project
management will continue to face challenges as an academic field. Thus, “the debate
whether ‘project management’ research fits into practice or academia is long standing”
(Davis, 2014, p.189). This is echoed in the work of Ramazani and Jergeas (2015),
whose study concludes that there is a gap between what is offered in project
management education and the real world (practice). In fact, Pollack and Adler (2015)
specifically argue that these two opposing positions about project management have
caused diffusion in the field and, as a result, articles have been published in subject
areas which relate to industries where projects are implemented. Klein et al. (2015)
argue that this dichotomy has created complexity in applying theories, models and
framework to the practice (Klein et al., 2015). Due to this, researchers have not reached
consensus about a particular theory, method or approach to project management (Klein
et al., 2015). This paradox about project management is perhaps the reason why there
is no universally accepted definition of project and project management, or what should
constitute universally accepted project management practices. The next section, 2.1.1,
is devoted to the various definitions that have been provided by authors, and highlights
which one(s) are applicable for this research and why.

2.1.1 Defining Project and Project Management

The meanings of project and project management are well documented in project
management literature. Different authors and different countries’ Body of Knowledge

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(BoK) have attempted to define or describe project and project management but the
literature indicates that they have not reached a consensus. The next sub-sections,
discuss in detail the meanings and the main differences that exist between the two
concepts by highlighting opposing views held by various authors and BoK, and common
characteristics of the concepts. This section also provides a definition of the two
concepts for this study.

2.1.1.1 Project
Cleland and King (1983) describe a project as a complex effort to achieve a specific
objective within a schedule and budget target and this typically cuts across
organisational lines. This task is unique and is normally not repetitive within the
organisation. Smith (1985) shares similar views and describes a project as a one-time
unique endeavour to do something that has not been done that way before. Barnes
(1989) defines a project as something which has a beginning and an end. The
definitions provided by Cleland and King (1983), Smith (1985) and Barnes (1989) fail to
recognise the purpose of embarking on projects and the human resources that are
involved in them. This makes the definitions incomprehensible, hence, unable to cover
the whole concept of the term ‘project’.

On the other hand, Andersen et al. (1987) and Turner (1993, 1999) each provide a
more comprehensive definition which covers the whole concept. These definitions do
not only make provision for the purpose of projects but also the resources needed for
the accomplishment of a project. Andersen et al. (1987) for instance define a project as
a human endeavour which creates change, is limited in time and scope, has mixed
goals and objectives, involves a variety of resources and is unique. Turner (1993)
defines a project as “an endeavour in which human, material and financial resources
are organized in a novel way, to undertake a unique scope of work, of given
specification, within constraints of cost and time, so as to achieve beneficial change
defined by quantitative and qualitative objectives” (Turner, 1993, p.35). In Turner’s
subsequent book, published in 1999, he simply defines a project as “an undertaking to
deliver beneficial change” (1999, p.13). In this book, three main characteristics are

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visible: a project is unique – no project before or after will be exactly the same; it is
undertaken using novel processes – no project before or after will use exactly the same
approach; and it is transient – it has a beginning and an end (Turner, 1999, p.19). In
other words, Turner’s (1999) definition implies that there are fundamental differences
that exists across projects, and that no project is similar to another (Soderlund, 2004),
or: if different projects have similar characteristics, this does not mean they are same
and can be managed in the same way.

This study adopts the definition of Turner (1993) as it the most suitable. It definition is
comprehensive and its covers all the aspects of the Ghanaian government’s projects. It
is the most appropriate because the Ghanaian government’s main purpose for
embarking on projects is to add ‘hard or soft’ (as Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010 put it)
benefits to its citizens (see GNA, 2012; Daily Guide, 2012; Ghanaweb, 2012). As
pointed out in the previous chapter, Ghanaian government projects often bring about
beneficial change to the country. This involves resources that bring about incremental
changes to the country as a whole (see Ghana Government budget, 2012, 2015).

2.1.1.2 Project Management

Many authors have provided different definitions of the concept of project management.
However, to date, these definitions can be grouped into two main areas: (1) those who
view project management as a science that follows specific models and management
practices, and (2) those who do not view project management as a science that follows
specific models and practices.

Taking the first group, Turner (1993), for instance, summarises project management as
the art and science of converting vision into reality. Oisen (1971) describes project
management as the application of a collection of tools and techniques such as CPM
and matrix organisation to direct the use of diverse resources toward the
accomplishment of a unique, complex, one-time task within time, cost and quality
constraints. Each task requires a particular mix of these tools and techniques structured
to fit the task environment and life cycle which is from conception to completion of a

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task. The British Standard for project management BS6079 (1996) defines project
management as planning, monitoring and controlling of all aspects of a project and the
motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the
specific cost, quality and performance. Kersner (2009) defines project management as
planning, organising, directing, and controlling of company resources for a relatively
short-term objective that has been established to complete specific goals and
objectives.

The Association of Project Management (APM) UK describes project management as

planning, organising, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the
motivation of all involved to achieve the project objectives safely and within agreed time,
cost and performance criteria and the purpose is to manage change. According to the
Project Management Institute (PMI, 2008) Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), project management is the application of knowledge, skills
and techniques to execute projects effectively and efficiently. It’s a strategic competency
for organizations, enabling them to tie project results to business goals — and thus,
better compete in their markets.

The theoretical foundation upon which this (PMI’s) very definition is based has been
criticised by Koskela and Howell (2002) as being implicit and obsolete. They further
argue that the theoretical bases for its definitions and practices have serious
deficiencies, because the understanding of the nature of a project is faulty. This
accounts for why there are many models for project management practices, and calls
for wider and more powerful theoretical foundations for project management definition
and practices (Koskela & Howell, 2002). Despite the flaws in these definitions and the
model of practices prescribed by this body, the PMI continues to dominate in project
management. This study argues that this is so because there is no perfect alternative.

On the other hand, the views of the second group are in sharp contrast to those of the
first group. For instance, Hogberg and Adamsson (1983) argue that project
management is not an exact science following given laws or established rules. It is
rather, a task which is largely based on human relations and the specific knowledge,
experiences, character and cultural background of each individual. They cite the

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differences in culture of America and Scandinavia by comparing their work ethics to

back their claims. Whilst the former’s work ethics is based on individualism – where the
individual is seen as a hero, a champion for work well executed – the latter is based on
collectivism, where group work and achievement is appreciated. Their assertion is
drawn from earlier work of Hofstede (1983) that argues that the existing project
management models being used by the USA are based on the American culture, and
that the widespread of the American project management model over the world is as a
result of their lead in development. Hofstede’s (1983) work, which studied the mental
programming of people from 53 geographical areas, shows that cultural differences
affect the approach needed for successful project management in these countries.

Hofstede (1983) and Hogberg and Adamsson’s (1983) view of culture in project
management is backed by a relatively recent study conducted by Maumbe et al. (2008)
on Questioning the pace and pathway of the government development in Africa: A case
study of South Africa’s cape Gateway project. The study found that governments in
Africa are adopting e-government without considering its regional importance. The pace
and manner in which the governments of Africa are making copy–cut from the
developed world is not compatible with local environments, such as cultural and social
class differences, and this partly accounts for e-government project failure in Africa, and
South Africa in particular.

It can therefore be argued that defining project management as a science that requires
a specific methodology is flawed, given that cultural differences across geographical
locations can influence project performance. On the other hand, defining project
management without set models, frameworks and management practices because of
culture is not enough, in that project managers will not be able to manage projects
efficiently without following any set models, frameworks and management practices.
Given that neither of the two opposing views about project management is
comprehensive enough to apply to this research, the study adapts the two views.
Therefore, for this study, project management is defined as the use of management
models, tools and practices accepted in the local socio-cultural management practices’
context; to plan, organise, direct and co-ordinate an organisation’s resources to

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accomplish a task with a defined start and end date to achieve specific goals and
objectives. This definition is applicable in Ghana’s situation: the Ghanaian government
projects involve all the project management practices outlined – they follow project
management practices and models prescribed by the World Bank in the ‘project life-
cycle for developing countries’, as discussed in chapter one (World Bank, 2013).
However, because management practices differ from country to country due to the
cultural differences that exist across different countries (Hofstede, 1983; Hogberg &
Adamsson, 1983; Maumbe et al., 2008; Amid et al., 2012), and Ghana is no exception,
it can be argued that this definition fits this study.

From the various definitions provided, it can be argued that project management (PM)
and project are not the same. However, they share certain common characteristics such
as time limitedness, predefined requirement, and the use of resources. Project
management can be considered as a subset of project (Munns & Bjeirmi, 1996), in that
project management is the means by which the aims of a project are accomplished (Ika,
2009; Young et al., 2012). In other words, project management is a means to an end
(the end is the project’s goals). The aim of a project is often aligned to long-term
strategic goals of the organisation whereas PM is aligned with the short-term goal of
delivering the product of the project (Munns & Bjeirmi, 1996; Savolianen et al., 2012).

2.2 THE CONCEPT OF PROJECT FAILURE

This section discusses the concept of project failure. The aim of this research is to find
causes and effects of project failure and therefore, this section provides the various
schools of thought about what constitute project failure. This highlights the extent to
which projects fail in the world and developing countries, and Ghana in particular.

The main rationale is to paint the broader picture of project failure within which the
Ghanaian government project failure framework that will subsequently be discussed in
section 2.5 can be better appreciated.

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2.2.1 Defining Project Failure

Over the years, a number of companies and governments all over the world have
witnessed project failure (e.g. McManus & Wood-Harper, 2008; Ruuska & Teiglanad,
2009; Liu et al., 2011; Havila et al., 2013; Patanakul, 2014). This has cost companies
and governments huge sums of money. For example, a study conducted in 2001 by
KPMG found that 56% of firms had to write-off at least one Information Technology (IT)
project in 2001 as a failure (Electic News Business, 2002). The study, which covered
134 listed companies in the UK, US, Africa, Australia, and Europe, indicated that the
average losses incurred as a result of these failures was estimated to be about €12.5m,
with the single biggest write-off valued at almost €210m. A nationwide survey in New
Zealand in 2010 found that two-thirds of organisations have experienced at least one
project failure in the previous year, thereby losing approximately NZ$15M on the
average (KPMG, 2013). The same study shows that more than half of the respondents
did not achieve their projected project results. A relatively recent study by the same firm
shows that “only 33% of projects were delivered on budget” (KPMG, 2013, p.18). The
study also indicates that only 29% and 35% of projects were delivered on time and
scope respectively. By comparing the two studies, there is a clear indication that project
failure is on the increase, as indicated in Table 2 below.

Table 2Nationwide survey on Project Failure in New Zealand

2010 2012
Consistently on budget 48% 33%
Consistently on time 36% 29%
Consistently delivering stated 59% 35%
deliverables
Source: KPMG (2013, p.19)

A study into 214 projects shows that only one in eight information technology projects
can be considered as truly successful (McManus & Wood-Harper, 2008). It was
reported in the Guardian that the UK has wasted over US$4 billion on failed IT projects
from 2000 to 2008 (Asay, 2008). A study in 2009 by Standish Group International into
projects in US found that the overall project failure rate was 72% (SGI, 2009). In fact,
IS/IT project failures are many and this has motivated practitioners and researchers to

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investigate the problems behind such failure (Patanakul, 2014). Health and Information
Systems in South Africa, Information System (IS) projects in China, and almost all
World Bank-funded projects in Africa are either total or partial failures (Heeks, 2002,
2005). An example is the World Bank’s Chad-Cameroon Pipeline project. The project,
which cost US$4.2 billion, was abandoned in 2008 (Fabian & Amir, 2011). In fact,
deviations in projects and project management (which is a typical example of project
failure) have become normal in organisations (Pinto, 2014). In the case of construction
projects, cost overrun has become a common problem not only in developing countries
but all over the world (Cheng, 2014). For example, a study into the impact and
sustainability of e-government services in Nadu, India, found that, after one year of
successful operations, it had to be abandoned because the project was unable to
maintain the necessary levels of local political and administrative support to remain
institutionally viable (Kumar & Best, 2006). Reports about World Bank-funded projects
in Africa show that they have witnessed either total failure or partial failure (as Heeks,
2002, 2005 puts it). Reports in Ghana indicate that Ghana lost US$128million through
ineffective project implementation between 2009 and 2011 (Daily Graphic, 2011;
Amponsah, 2013).

These works show that project failure is high; however, these reported failures might not
necessarily be so, depending on who is defining what constitute project failure (Lyytinen
& Hirschheim, 1988; Agarwal & Rathod, 2006; Procaccino & Verner, 2006; Ika, 2009) or
who is doing the evaluating (Carvalho, 2014), and the timing of the definition or
evaluation of the performance of the project in question (Heeks, 2002, 2006) or the
criteria used in measuring project success (Amir & Pinnington, 2014). For instance, a
study conducted by Ruuska and Teiglanad (2009) on Bygga Villa (Sweden) identified
satisfaction of the individual stakeholder’s needs as a subjective component of project
success. In their analysis of five cancelled software projects, Ahonen and Savolianen
(2010) found that one of the projects was classed as successful by the supplier
(performing organisation) but considered as a failure by the customer (owner). The
supplier considered it as successful because it was able to meet the project’s baseline
but the customer never used the new system. Therefore, what is considered as failure
might not be viewed as such by other set(s) of stakeholders or individuals assessing the

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performance of the project. A more recent study by Davis indicates that the factors used
to determine project success are subjective of different stakeholders’ perception of what
constitutes project failure/success (Davis, 2014). In fact, what constitutes project
success or failure “depends on the issues of definition, measurement and interpretation”
– thus, it is the practitioner who determines what constitutes this failure/success (Molloy
& Stewart, 2013, p.81). Some authors specifically assert that project success is a matter
of perception (Baccarini, 1999; Flvbjerg et al. 2003).

Nevertheless, the studies’ of Heeks (2002, 2006) challenge the subjectivity of project
failure to some extent. The studies contend that, if a project fails at the initiation phase,
that project could be classed as a total failure. In other words, if an initiated project is
abandoned before implementation, such an outcome could be defined relatively
objectively. The work of Puri et al. (2000) can be cited as a clear example here. The
study concluded that, after a year of planning, analysis and design, the information
system which was proposed by India’s Indira Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre to
be a national information provider based on a set of core environmental information
systems had to be abandoned. Another example is the Senior High School (SHS)
educational reform project initiated in 2007 by the Ghanaian government to extend the
three-year (3) duration of senior secondary education to four (4) years. After only one
and half years of implementation, it was abandoned (Imani, 2007, GNA, 2012). If the
context of project failure is subjective and/or relatively objective, what then is project
failure, and how can projects be classed as failures or successes?

The extant literature has attempted to define or explain what constitutes project failure
over the years; nevertheless, the literature indicates that a consensus has not been
reached. There has been a traditional definition that is centred on the project baseline,
otherwise known as project constraints or what Atkinson (1999) famously terms as the
‘Iron Triangle’. This definition does not view project success/failure beyond the product
or delivery stage. The traditional definition restricts project performance to only the
managerial phase of a project (Abednego & Ogunlana, 2006). However, recent
developments in project management practices, and authors and practitioners’
awareness of the existence of numerous stakeholders associated with projects,

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especially public or government projects (Patanakul, 2014), have caused a paradigm

shift from the traditional definition of project success/failure towards after-delivery stage
or post-delivery phase to the impact stage (Todorovic et al., 2015). Despite this
paradigm shift in the definition of project success/failure, this change is not visible in
some projects such as software development projects (Savolianen et al., 2012). For
example, even though the study conducted by Toor and Ogunlana (2010) indicated that
the management of Thailand’s mega construction projects were conscious about the
traditional success criteria factors, issues such as safety, efficiency, and conformance to
stakeholder satisfaction were dominant factors.

Advocates of the traditional definition of project failure such as de Wit (1988), Turner
(1996), Kappelman et al. (2006), El Emama and Koru (2008), and Anda et al. (2009)
have concluded in their studies that project success/failure should be judged on whether
the project has met the set time, cost and requirement. Proponents of this definition
contend that a project is said to have failed when it fails to meet one and/or all the triple
constraints. However, de Wit (1988), Turner (1996) and Wateridge (1998) did not rule
out existence of possible success/failure criteria.

Other writers argue that project failure should go beyond the traditional axiom that has
been postulated by authors such as de Wit (1988), Pinto and Slevin (1988), Turner
(1996), Kappelman et al. (2006), El Emama and Koru (2008), and Anda et al. (2009).
For example, Wideman and Shenhar (1996) argue that there have been some
instances whereby projects were unable to meet baseline time, budget, and
requirements, yet those projects were still considered successful; thus, it is not enough
to assess project performance on the traditional key performance indicators (KPIs) (as
Toor & Ogunlana, 2010 prefer to call them). The widely cited Sydney Opera House
project supports this assertion. Despite the project taking 15 years to complete, at 14
times over budget, it is considered an engineering masterpiece (Jugdev & Muller, 2005;
Ika, 2009; Savolianen et al., 2012). In software development projects, the traditional
approach can be strongly questioned. In these projects, the requirement(s) are almost
certain to change before the actual commencement of the project but rarely are

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estimates of schedule and cost adjusted before the start and this, therefore, will
automatically cause deviation in schedule and cost (de Bakker et al., 2010).

In the work of Meredith and Mantel (2002) and McManus and Wood-Harper (2008),
there is a total deviation away from the traditional perspective to stakeholder
perspective. In this view, project failure or success is based on stakeholder satisfaction.
In other words, a successful project is one that meets stakeholders’ satisfaction. This
implies that any project that fails to satisfy stakeholder(s) is to be considered as a
failure, although the project might have met all the three baselines of the project. The
International Project Management Association (IPMA) adds that project success/failure
should be assessed from the stakeholder’s point of view (IPMA, 2006). Further, project
failure or success is therefore dependent on how stakeholders are managed and failure
to manage them properly means the project is bound to fail (Mulenburg, 2007; Bourne,
2008; Haughey, 2008; Thompson, 2009). However, satisfying all stakeholders
associated with a particular project is extremely difficult due to the numerous amounts
of them, especially in public sector projects (Jensen, 2001; McManus & Wood-Harper,
2008). Nonetheless, these stakeholders should be satisfied to a certain degree, or the
majority of them must be satisfied (McManus & Wood-Harper, 2008).

Mangione (2003) in his article, Software Project Failure: The Reasons, The Costs,
comes out with a very interesting but contentious argument. This takes an economic
position in the definition of what should constitute project failure. The literature contends
that economics determine the success of any software project and its value to a
company, in that the amount of money spent on development of the software
determines the cost of the asset and, as such, the return generated by the product is its
value. It posits further that the difference between the returns on the investment made
and the cost incurred on that investment is called Return On Investment (ROI). Thus,
the difference between cost of investment and value of returns is termed ROI.
Therefore, a project is said to have failed if the ROI is negative and successful if the
ROI is positive. This postulation, therefore, implies that not meeting the project
constraints or not satisfying the stakeholders are not what constitute project failure but
rather project failure is seen as the difference between the cost of finishing the project

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and the value of the project’s deliverables. The figure below throws more light on the
theory.

Figure 2 Return On Investment (ROI)

Source: Mangione (2003, p.1)

The ROI of a product is the difference between its cost of production and its return. If
the return is greater than the cost of production, then it is said to possess a positive
ROI. Therefore, organisations must consider the cost of adding features to a product.
Figure 2 above shows a software project whose returns outpace the cost of production,
thus producing a positive ROI. Therefore, from the figure above, the project is
successful according to this definition of what constitutes project failure proposed by
Mangione (2003).

Figure 3. Return On Investment (ROI)

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Source: Mangione (2003, p.2)

Figure 3 depicts a product that initially has a positive ROI, but whose added features
cost (marginal cost) more than the amount of returns generated by the features. Thus,
this initially profitable product becomes a drag on the company. ROI is said to be
negative if it costs more to produce a product than it generates.

Even though Mangione (2003) makes a good argument on the economic perspective,
the definition fails to recognize that organizations and governments work within time,
budget and requirements, and as such awarding projects to performing companies and
agents without giving them any set timeframe, budget to work with, and meeting set
standards for their end-users is not possible. Hence, failure to recognise project
constraints makes the economic perspective argument fundamentally flawed because it
is in contradiction with the very definition of a project. Secondly, this approach fails to
recognize that various projects have other motives apart from increasing shareholders
value and as such the motive of embarking on any project should also be considered in
assessing its success or failure, and not only the economic value. For instance, if the
motive of a project is to serve as a social responsibility towards its immediate
environment or community, or the project is to add ‘soft’ value to the citizenry of a nation
or local community (Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010; Hermano et al., 2013); this implies that
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the project might not necessarily bring any quantifiable economic value to its
shareholders. Further, there are other projects which do not have shareholders but have
other stakeholders, and therefore, this concept will not be applicable. A typical example
is government sector projects – on which this study is focused. Moreover, the argument
is centred on the capitalist economy which makes it myopic and inapplicable in other
socialist states. Therefore, the proposed ROI as a yardstick to measure project
success/failure is not comprehensive. Although, there are many flaws with the
economics perspective, the notion of adding value to companies and its shareholders
have been emphasised by previous and ensuing writers (Munns & Bjeirmi, 1996;
Cooke-Davies, 2002; Kersner & Saladis, 2009; Kersner, 2010). However, they did not
restrict it to only increasing shareholders’ value, but, also stakeholders as echoed in
Salazar-Aramayo et al. (2013).

Atkinson (1999) shares the view of Wideman and Shenher (1996) that project failure
should go beyond the triangle stage. Atkinson (1999) contends that to judge projects’
performance at the ‘iron triangle’ phase is not sufficient. Like De Lone et al. (1992),
Meyer (1994), and Toor and Ogunlana (2010), he posits that project success/failure
should go beyond the time, cost, and requirement phase to include the post-delivery
phase in order to look at the product phase. In view of this, Atkinson (1999) adds three
more ways in which projects should be assessed. This is called The Square Route
Framework. This is fully discussed under the theoretical framework in sub-section 2.3.3.

2.2.2 The Distinction between Project Failure and Project Management Failure
Another debate worth noting is the project failure and project management failure
distinction. A sharp distinction between the traditional definition and recent school of
thought has been made in the project failure discussion. Proponents of this distinction
contend that there is a clear distinction between project failure/success and project
management failure, and therefore it is not valid to assess the performance of a project
using the same criteria (Munns & Bjeirmi, 1996; Ika, 2009; Young et al., 2012; Salazar-
Aramayo et al., 2013).

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Project management failure is linked to the iron triangle or the triple constraints whilst
project failure is linked to the impact of the project on the client or the end users of the
project deliverables (Munns & Bjeirmi, 1996) and/or the benefits that the organisation
receives from the project (Serra & Kunc, 2015). Munns and Bjeirmi (1996) argue that
there have been situations where projects have failed to meet the baselines, yet such
projects were still considered to be successful after a period of time, based on the
benefits gained from the their outputs. The premise upon which their
assertion/conclusion is based is that authors have confused themselves with the
differences between project and project management definitions and their purposes.
They agree that these two terms are mutually dependent and overlap, yet there is a
clear distinction between them. A project can be considered as achieving of specific
objective, which involves a series of activities and tasks which consumes resources that
is to be completed within a specific set time span. On the other hand, project
management is the process of controlling the achievement of project objectives (Munns
& Bjeirmi, 1996). Thus, project management involves the use of a company’s resources
to manage projects by the use of tools and techniques (Serra & Kunc, 2015). Whereas
a project looks at the long-term benefits to the company (client/end user), project
management looks at the short-term goal that will contribute to achieving the long-term
goal(s) of the company that the project seeks to achieve. Munns and Bjeirmi (1996)
contend that the long-term goal of the project is to bring about return on investment,
profitability, competition and marketability. These goals could be affected or could be
influenced by: objective, project administration, third parties, relations with clients,
human parties, contracting, legal agreements, politics, efficiency, conflicts and profits.

On the other hand, project management deals only with goal setting and the
implementation of the goals, and therefore project management becomes a subset of
the wider context of the project (Munns & Bjeirmi, 1996). Thus, the goal of project
management is to ensure the success of the project (Berssanti & Carvalho, 2014).
Project management can be influenced or affected by: inadequate basis for projects,
wrong people as project managers, unsupportive top management, inadequately
defined tasks, lack of project management techniques, misuse of management
techniques, project closedown not planned, and lack of commitment to the project

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(Munns & Bjeirmi, 1996). As a result, success is assessed by using Key Performance
Indicators (KPIs), which is an adherence to budgets, schedule and technical
specifications (Bryde, 2005).

The ultimate aim of project management is to achieve the triple constraints; hence,
failure to reach any such targets is called project management failure (Jugdev & Muller,
2005; Salazar-Aramayo et al., 2013). On the other hand, project failure also means
failure to achieve the long-term goals of the client company or the end-users not being
satisfied with usage of the deliverables (Ika, 2009; Savolianen et al., 2012; Salazar-
Aramayo et al., 2013). In other words, project failure is tied to long-term strategic goals
of the parent company whilst project management failure is tied to the iron triangle. This
is echoed in an attempt by Serraa and Kunc (2015) to analyse the Benefits Realisation
Management influence on project success in Brazil, the UK and USA. Patanakul and
Shenhar (2012) link this to the contribution of the project to the business strategy (which
is often long term). They analyse success from two dimensions – project management
performance, which is linked directly to budget, schedule and requirement goals, and
the benefits accrued from the deliverables of the project (thus, long-term and wider
goals).

Although their distinction between project management failure and project failure
sounds like one of the best definitions of project failure/success concepts, the
overemphasis of the goal of the project to the client’s long-term strategic plan is subject
to further debate. It can be argued that not all projects’ goals are directly linked to the
long-term strategic plans of the companies. Some projects are carried out by companies
as a ‘force’ on them from external forces which might not necessarily be part of the
company’s long-term strategic plan. For instance, if a company is forced by government
regulators or environmental activists to assist its immediate environment, it has to
embark on a project that might not necessarily bring any long-term benefits. In this
case, the company could have embarked on a different project which could have served
it better than such ‘forced’ project. One may argue that it will still serve the long-term
goal of survival as the company has to meet its social responsibility in order to survive.
However, this argument could be defeated by asserting that the company will not

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actually benefit in real terms, as the benefits will only be directed towards other
stakeholders at the expense of the parent company. Such projects could even be
detrimental to a company’s progress and profits.

Further, this is arguably the best definition or constituent of the project failure/success
classification debate. However, there is a fundamental error with the terms used.
Advocates of the project management success/failure and project success/failure
dichotomy make it clear that, whilst the former is tied to the triple constraints, the latter
is tied to the product of the project. If that is the case, then this study argues that the
terms used for the latter (project success/failure) should be changed to Product
Success/Failure. Therefore, the terms should be changed to project management
success/failure (tied to the iron triangle), product success/failure (tied to product
success) and a combination of the two called project Success/Failure. Further, both
project management success/failure and product success/failure should be a sub-set of
project success. This study further argues that what constitutes project success is a
project that is able to meet both project management success and product success, and
a project is a failure if it fails to meet either both or one of these.

2.3 GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE

This research is restricted to Ghanaian government projects and therefore there is the
need to discuss government project failure. This will help the researcher to appreciate
government project failure across the world and how this sits in this study. It is on record
that developed economies all over the world have had major infrastructural
development, which means massive projects have occurred at some point in time in
their development history (see Eichengreen, 1994; Eichengreen, 1996; Eichengreen &
Vazquez, 1999). In fact, “project-based work has become a critical component of global
industrial activity” (Pinto, 2013, p.643), and as such projects are inevitable in
development. The post-World War II period saw high levels of economic growth, mainly
in the Western world. This growth, which has been variously named as post-World War
II economic expansion, post-war economic boom, the long boom, Golden Age of

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Capitalism, etc., saw states embark on major strategic projects to facilitate their plans
(Eichengreen, 1994; Eichengreen, 1996; Eichengreen & Vazquez, 1999). The shift away
from agricultural development strategy pre-World War II to science development
through Research and Development (R&D) post-World War II up to date that has made
the United States of America a global superpower was administered through various
projects. Clear examples include government-funded research projects instituted in
universities - for postgraduate students to conduct research to enhance economic and
defence development, for example, the Manhattan Project, which was specifically aimed
at nuclear weapons (Alic, 2008).

More recent growth witnessed in certain countries, especially in emerging economies,

indicates that government or public projects are indispensable. The introduction of an
eGovernment system to facilitate government transactions is a typical example of how
important these projects can be – it helps government(s) to use technology, especially
web-based applications, to enhance access to and efficiently deliver government
information and services (Brown & Brudney, 2001;UN & ASP, 2002; Kumar & Best,
2006), to establish relationships between governments and its citizens, other
governments, and businesses (Means & Schneider, 2000), to use ICT facilities such as
the internet and the web, in the form of databases, networking, discussion support,
multimedia, automation, tracking and tracing, and personal identification technologies
(Jaeger, 2003; Luk, 2009), and to facilitate communication during the implementation of
strategic national developments (Gichoya, 2005). Even the privatised and capitalist
economic growth witnessed by many countries was initiated and regulated by various
governments through projects (see Eichengreen, 1994).

This indicates that governments over the world play a key role in the delivery of public
projects. One may be tempted to argue that no country will be able to develop without
engaging in public projects. These projects are normally funded by the government in
the form of tax-payers’ money, multilateral companies (e.g. Toor & Ogunlana, 2010),
NGOs, and public-private partnerships (e.g. Abednego & Ogunlana, 2006; Ruuskaa &
Teigland, 2009), World Bank (Fabian & Amir, 2011). The focus is often geared towards
enhancing the life of the general populace in the form of ‘physical’ or ‘soft’ benefits

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(Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010; Hermano et al., 2013). However, some of these projects
have witnessed failure of some sort, and this failure is becoming more common and part
and parcel of every government of late; ranging from the developed world to the
developing world (e.g. Espiner, 2007; Kobie, 2009; Savolianen et al., 2012). In fact, in
some projects, such as ID projects, failure has become a rule rather than an exception
(Ika et al., 2012; Hermano et al., 2013). In the case of IT projects, even ‘successful’
projects run well over budget and behind schedule (Pinto, 2013).

One report shows that, even in a developed country like the UK, seven out of
10governments IT projects fail (Espiner, 2007). The chief information officer of the
Department for Work and Pensions (DWP), Mr Harley, noted that only 30 per cent of
government IT projects and programs are successful (Espiner, 2007). The abandoned
UK ID card project is a typical indication of the extent to which projects have been failing
in the government sector (Kobie, 2009). The Royal Academy of Engineering and British
Computer Society (2004) found that 84% of public sector projects ended up in some
sort of failure. After three years of implementation of a benefit scheme that involved the
Department of Social Security, the computer company ICL, and the British Post Office, it
was abandoned at the cost of £300 million (The Economist, 2002). A New Zealand
government study concluded that 59% of its projects had problems and 3%were
considered to be total failures (SIMPL/NZIER, 2000). One-eighth of New Zealand’s
yearly budget, in the region of $N100M, was spent on the police’s IS development
project, which was abandoned in 1999. The question is why do these projects fail?

In this research, government projects, otherwise known as public projects, are defined
as any projects that are undertaken or initiated by the government of a country, be it at
the national level or local level.

As pointed out in chapter one, there are numerous reported cases of the Ghanaian
government’s projects failing and, because this study is centred on this topic, the next
sub-section discusses in detail the state of project failure in such projects. This will
provide the platform by which to understand and appreciate the state of the problem
being investigated.

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2.3.1 Ghanaian Government Project Failure

As stated in an in chapter one, projects failure rate in Ghanaian government projects is
very high. One notable area of this failure is in the housing sector. Studies and statistics
show that there are insufficient houses for Ghanaian citizens and as such most of these
citizens ‘sleep rough’ in kiosks, tents, containers, shops, offices, etc. (homeless people)
(Boamah, 2010). The houses that are available are mostly owned by private individuals
and housing-estate companies, and they are unaffordable for ordinary Ghanaians
(GSS, 2002; Boamah, 2010). Estimates show that Ghana’s housing deficit is over 1m
houses (HFC Bank, 2002; GSS, 2005b; Mahama & Antwi, 2006; Imani, 2009; Boamah,
2010). Due to the magnitude of the housing problem, various government regimes have
attempted to address the problem. For instance, the NPP administration, which held
office between 2000 and 2008, proposed ‘affordable housing units’ to solve the housing
deficit problem in the country (Klutse, 2009). The main purpose of this project was to
help those poor people living in a very deplorable settlement, make the capital city and
other major cities attractive (Amponsah, 2010), and also to create employment,
especially for women (Klutse, 2009). However, the project was abandoned soon after it
started (Klutse, 2009).

In an attempt by the current government (NDC) to address this housing problem, a

similar project was proposed and started but this time with a slight focus in terms of the
target beneficiaries. Whilst the previous government had focused solely on the general
populace, the new government focused on the security personnel. The project was
estimated to cost US$10 billion (Imani, 2010). The target was to build 300,000 houses
over five years, starting with 200,000; 30,000 of the initial 200,000 were to be built for
security personnel in the country (Citifmonline, 2012). Formal approval was given on
23rd of July, 2010, and announced in parliament. The project was to form a partnership
between Ghana and a South Korean company (STX Korea). The Korean company was
supposed to provide the funding needed to carry out the project. However, the project
had to be abandoned after parliament had approved it, lands had been given out to
developers, and a sod had been cut by the president, Evans Atta Mills, on 27th January,

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2011 (Daily Guide, 2012). On 11thApril, 2012, the Minister of Employment and Social
Welfare, E.T. Mensah, announced that the government had to re-possess all 15 sites
that had been handed over to STX Korea (Ghanaweb, 2012). A 2012 report from the
Ghana News Agency (GNA) indicated that the government and its sector ministry (the
Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing) were making efforts to reactivate the
abandoned housing project (GNA, 2012); however, there is no report that shows this
has actually happened.

In education, project failure is not different. Despite the improvements in education after
the colonial era as a result of World Bank and IMF-supported projects (see World Bank,
2004 for example); the sector has witnessed project failure in educational reforms over
the years. Many educational reform projects have attempted to solve the educational
problems since the first Republic of Ghana in 1961 (Nyarko, 2011). These include:
Kwapong 1974 and Dzobo 1972/1987 educational reforms. Despite the huge sums of
money being spent on these projects, the sector continues to suffer from many
setbacks. It has been rightly criticised by commentators and academia for not doing
enough to solve the educational problem (Nyarko, 2011). Results from the 2011 Basic
Education Certificate Examinations (BECE) showed that 50% of students had failed
(Nyarko, 2011), implying that these reforms have not been able to solve the problem
they were intended to solve. It can therefore be argued that these projects are not
achieving their targets, as Atkinson (1999) postulates in his square root project
success/failure framework.

A more recent failed project is the abandonment of the four-year SHS education system
project. In 2002, a committee of 29 members headed by the Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Education – Winneba (UNEW), Professor Jophus Anamuah-Mensah, were
mandated to review the education system (Ghanaweb, 2015). The report led to the four-
year SHS project which was implemented in 2007.At this time, the Ghanaian
government, under the administration of NPP, then commenced the educational reform
project to change the Senior Secondary Schools to Senior High Schools, with the main
change being the study duration time. The purpose was to extend the three-year
duration to four years (Daily Graphic, 2008). In 2009, after one and half years of

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operation, it was formally announced that the project would be abandoned from the
2010/11 academic year.

Another high-profile project worth discussing is the National Identification System (NIS)
project. This was a project to issue ID cards for all nationals and foreign nationals
residing in Ghana. It was set up in 2008 under the National Identification Authority
(NIA). The ID card project has proven to be a failure as it has failed to fulfil its objective.
First of all, the fundamental purpose of the card being used as a national ID card
remained unfulfilled. A 2011 report indicated that issuing of the ID cards had stopped
and the very few that had been issued were not accepted as proof of ID in banks (NIA,
2011). The most discouraging part of this was the fact that the Electoral Commission;
which is a government institution, had registered and issued new voter ID cards for the
December 2012 general election. This registration and issuing of new biometric voter ID
cards for the December 2012 election was a clear indication of the failure of the
National ID project (see Abissath, 2012). Thus, this national ID card was meant to serve
also as a voter’ ID card and therefore issuing of different voter ID card implies that, the
project has failed.

Another notable project that has witnessed failure is the Ghana @50 projects. In 2007,
Ghana celebrated its 50th Anniversary of Independence from colonial rule. To
commemorate the occasion and to provide along-lasting legacy, the anniversary,
among other objectives, earmarked various projects, which included the building of
Jubilee Parks in all 10 regional capitals, construction of toilets in all local communities,
and the building of 140 Golden Jubilee Kindergartens throughout the country (Daily
Guide, 2011; Central Newspaper, 2012). However, reports indicate that most of these
projects have either been abandoned or are not meeting the required standard and
purpose of their usage. One clear example is the total abandonment of the Ghana @50
toilets (Daily Guide, 2011; Central Newspaper, 2012) and the Jubilee parks (Daily
Guide, 2011). With regard to the toilet project, not even a single one of them is in use,
and they have been left in the bushes and under the usage of squatters and ‘area boys’
(gangsters) (Daily Guide, 2011). The question is: what accounts for all these failures?
The next section therefore discusses the various reasons that have been cited for

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project failure in the past. This will serve as a guide to the findings and
recommendations of this study.

2.4 CAUSES OF PROJECT FAILURE

Causes of project failure has been one of the most discussed and talked about topic in
recent years by the academia, practising managers, governments, and social
commentators all over the world, and as a result there is a body of extant literature
devoted to this discussion. A number of studies conducted by these writers indicate that
there are a number of causes of project failure all over the world. For instance,
Frimpong et al. (2003) and Long et al. (2004) identified 26 and 64 causes of project
failure respectively.

Projects are unique due to the fundamental differences that exist across them, and no
project is similar to another (Soderlund, 2004; Mir & Pinnington, 2014). Due to this, the
causes are often unique to certain industries and the systems in the countries where
they are carried out (Amid et al., 2012), geographical location (Ahsan & Gunawan,
2010), and socio-cultural settings (Mukabeta et al., 2008). However, research indicates
that there are common causes that run through the project management literature.
These include: expertise or knowledge (Ruuska & Teigland, 2009), funding (Fabian &
Amir, 2011), planning (Pourrastam & Ismail, 2011), resources (Ruuska & Teigland,
2009), communication (Ochieg & Price, 2010), scope change (Kaliba et al., 2009), and
socio-cultural factors (Maube et al., 2008). The next sub-section discusses these
common causes in detail.

2.4.1 Communication
Studies over the years have proved that effective communication is vital in the project
environment – it helps to avoid duplication of information, and also provides all the
necessary parties involved in the project with relevant, timely information for effective
and efficient delivery of the project (Souder et al., 1997; Ernst, 2002; Chan et al., 2004;

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Cooper et al., 2004; Thamhain, 2004; Close, 2006; Raymond & Bergeron, 2008;
Weijermars, 2009; Wong et al., 2009; Wi & Jung, 2010). Therefore, failure to
communicate effectively prior to and during project implementation is a recipe for
disaster.

In the words of Ochieg and Price, internal and external communication is the invisible
glue that holds dislocated multicultural project team together (Ochieg & Price, 2010).
Therefore, if there is miscommunication, projects are bound to fail (Frese & Sauter,
2003). Frese and Sauter (2003) attribute project failure to four issues: lack of efficient
internal communication links, lack of efficient external communication links, lack of
responsive decision-making and lack of effective teamwork. The first two reasons are
directly linked to communication and the last two are indirectly linked to communication.
Thus, the first two involve internal and external communication among various
stakeholders of a project whilst the latter two cannot take place without communication.
Lack of responsive decision-making and lack of effective teamwork are indirectly
associated with communication. There is normally lack of response to decisions if the
management involved fails to communicate with their subordinates or superiors
appropriately, whilst lack of teamwork normally occurs when team members fail to take
part in decision-making or fail to communicate whatever goes on in the team or in the
project. Communication is seen as a panacea to project success and lack of it is a
recipe for disaster. Lack of good communication can easily turn a corporate strategy or
an Information System (IS) project into a modern day Tower of Babel (Frese & Sauter,
2003). This implies that there will be a state of confusion among project team members
and other key stakeholders associated with the project and, if this happens, the project
is bound to fail.

During the implementation of project(s), there can be schedule, cost and performance
alteration, hence, new data on the project, but this alterations mean nothing if the right
communication is not carried out among the stakeholders who matter (Bourne, 2009).
Bourne (2009) argues that the challenge faced by schedulers and controllers in a
project team is communication and not control.

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The findings of Ochieg and Price (2010) are a confirmation of Bourne’s assertions – in
that effective communication in a cross-cultural team in a multicultural project is the
prelude to project success. The study, which interviewed 20 senior project managers in
Kenya and the UK (10 in Kenya and 10 in the UK) about managing cross-cultural
communication in a multicultural construction project team, shows that both Kenyan and
UK participants agreed that effective communication on projects can be aided by early
establishment of clear lines of responsibility and processes to resolve the project team
members’ disputes or issues. This early establishment of a clear line of responsibility
can only happen through an appropriate communication channel and, if this does not
happen at the right time, projects are bound to fail. The findings show that effective
communication is the key to manage project expectations, misconceptions, and
misgivings on multicultural projects teams. For example, good communication strategies
are primary in establishing, cultivating and maintaining strong working relationships on
heavy construction engineering projects (Ochieg & Price, 2010). This implies that,
without communication, disputes and misconception cannot be resolved, thereby
leaving these problems to escalate, and this eventually causes projects to fail.

One may question the study’s generalisability due to the small sample size; however,
the experience of the interviewees (each had at least 10 years of experience in the field
being studied) makes the findings more reliable.

Lack of communication in some circumstances could lead to conflict in a project’s

management. This is manifested in the study of conflict among project partners by
Ruuska and Teigland (2009). The study concluded that lack of communication leads to
conflicts in projects and eventual project failure. In the study, it was found that almost all
the other problems that lead to conflict in a project were rooted in a lack of
communication. For instance, failure of the various partners of the project to
communicate their goals to each other properly led to the management making a project
plan without incorporating other members’ goals into the plan. Secondly, the project had
no charter because of this same problem. Thirdly, the project manager failed to
communicate clearly with various partners because he lacked broker skills. This shows
that communication is a key issue if a project is to be successful

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2.4.2 Planning
Planning is one of the key elements of every project and failure to plan clearly can
cause a project to fail. This is one of the most common problems that bring about
project failure. If project deliverable and how these would be achieved are not clearly
outlined in the project planning phase, the project is likely to fail (Mochal, 2005; Pinto,
2013). In other words, projects that start without understanding the full content or the
project baseline/constraints of what the project seeks to achieve are susceptible to
failure. In fact, Pinto (2013) specifically traces the root cause of project failure to the
poor initial planning phase of projects.

Research shows that ineffective planning accounts for most project failure. For instance,
in construction projects in Nigeria, studies indicate that planning and scheduling account
for delays (Odeyinka & Yusif, 1997). A similar study identified this same problem in the
Iranian construction industry (Pourrastam & Ismail, 2011). With regard to large
construction projects, the same reason was found to account for project delays (Assaf &
AL-Hejji, 2006). A survey study into causes of delay in construction projects from
contractors and consultants’ point of view also indicates that improper planning
accounts for delays (Odeh & Battaineh, 2002).

2.4.3 Socio- cultural factors

Research on cross-cultural management indicates that Western management concepts,
models and practices are incompatible with other cultural and social settings (Blunt,
1980; Hofstede, 1983; Hogberg & Adamsson, 1983; Adler, 1983; Blunt & Jones 1997;
Dia Mamadou, 1991; Lubatkin et al., 1999; Muriithi & Crawford, 2003). This indicates
that management concepts do not have cross-cultural validity (Muriithi & Crawford,
2003) and as such adopting management practices that are not country-specific can
contribute to project failure. The work of Hofstede (1983) on the mental programming of
people from 53 geographical areas shows that cultural differences affect the approach
needed for successful project management in these countries.

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In relation to project management, this is not different. Studies on project failure in

developing countries show that the fundamental reason often cited for project failure is
culture (Heeks, 2002; Saad et al., 2002; Muriithi & Crawford, 2003; Alsakini et al., 2004;
Maube et al., 2008; Amid et al., 2012). In other words, the political institutions, legality,
identity, and economic policies of different countries could be the same, but there are
informal values, attitudes and behaviours which are intrinsic in citizens that differ from
one country to another and these informal characteristics are formed based on shared
cultural values (Hofstede, 1983). Typical examples of such cultural values include
relationships being more important than task, one’s extended family offering protection
in exchange for loyalty, learning being considered as a one-time process only,
emphasis being on tradition, material success and progress are considered dominant
values in society (Hofstede, 1991).

The importance of socio-cultural differences across national borders in the execution of

projects cannot therefore be overlooked. For instance, studies have shown that political,
sociological and psychological behaviours of citizens differ from country to country
(Hofstede, 1983), and as such project management models and practices do not have
cross-cultural validity (Muriithi & Crawford, 2003; Alsakini et al., 2004; Maube et al.,
2008; Amid et al., 2012). These studies point out that the socio-cultural settings of a
country influence project performance (Hogberg & Adamsson, 1983; Heeks, 2002; Saad
et al., 2002; Muriithi & Crawford, 2003; Alsakini et al., 2004; Maube et al., 2008; Amid et
al., 2012). Project failure in developing countries can be blamed on the context of the
design and usage (design-actuality gap) (Heeks, 2002). That is, the design and usage
are not compatible. This is revisited under causes of project failure in developing
countries in sub-section 2.5.1 to throw more light on the subject matter.

2.4.4 Scope Change

This is one of the main areas that contribute to project failure. Most project research
highlights that scope change is a major contributing factor for project failure (Kaliba et
al., 2009; Liu et al., 2011). In most projects, requirements are either altered before the
commencement of work or altered halfway through the project’s life cycle, but rarely are

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these changes effected by the completion date. This is more evident in IS project
management (Ahonen & Savolianen, 2010).

From a more generic perspective, Zhang (2013, p.1) argues that “project changes have
been conventionally treated as having heavy or negative impacts on project completion
and, in theory, they should not happen if project activities have been perfectly planned
and scheduled”. In other words, changes in the scope of projects are bound to happen
and if they happen, it has negative effects on the completion time – more especially in
complex projects that involves multi-stage iterative process.

2.4.5 Resources
The term resource covers a very broad area and can be classified as tangible or
intangible resources (Teigland & Lindqvist, 2007). These include but are not limited to
financial, human, goodwill, reputation, expertise, and material resources (Teigland &
Lindqvist, 2007). Studies show that many projects fail due to lack of or inadequate
resources. This section discusses the most common resources often cited for failure.

Material Resources – These are the physical goods needed for the execution of a
project and, without them, projects that require physical deliverables cannot be
implemented. In most cases, there is lack of or inadequate physical resources. For
example, in research into conflict in the Bygga Villa project, the study discovered that
one major reason for conflict among project partners was the scarcity of resources,
which contributed to the initial project failure (Ruuska & Teigland, 2009). The size of the
partners (some partner were unable to provide resources due to their organisational
size) and other projects competing for the same resources were the main issues. This
lack of resources can create conflicts among various stakeholders associated with a
project and this in turn leads to project failure (Ruuska & Teigland, 2009). This problem
does not only include inadequate resources and personnel skills; buying the right
material resources is also very important for a project’s success (Krigsman, 2006). For
instance, investigation into Airbus’ A380 mega jet delay found that the former CEO,

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Christian Streiff, chose the wrong software, which was incompatible with the jet, and this
resulted in failure (Krigsman, 2006).

Financial Resources – Financial difficulty is often cited as one of the main causes of
project failure all over the world. Many projects have been abandoned in developing
countries due to lack of or inadequate funding. The Chad-Cameroon pipeline project,
which cost the World Bank US$4.2 billion, failed because the World Bank withdrew its
financial backing (World Bank, 2006; Fabian & Amir, 2011). The project, which was one
of the most expensive projects funded by the World Bank in Africa at the time, is a clear
indication of how a project’s success is dependent on sound financial backing. This
same problem exists in the Malaysian construction industry (Sambasian & Soon, 2007).
In Jordan, the problem is the same: financial difficulty faced by contractors is the most
frequent and first cause of building construction project failure in the country (Sweis et
al., 2008). Most experts believe that this is natural because contractors in Jordan are
independent, small companies who underbid to win contracts, and they have limited
access to credit facilities (Sweis et al., 2008). In construction projects in Nigeria, the
situation is also the same. Studies of construction projects show that financial difficulty
on the part of the client contributes to delays in delivering projects (Odeyinka & Yusif,
1997). In Iran, construction projects suffer from delays due to contractors’ financial
difficulties (Pourrastam & Ismail, 2011).

Human Resources – The research into the conflict in the Bygga Villa project discovered
that one major reason for conflict among project partners was the scarcity of resources,
which contributed to the initial project failure (Ruuska & Teigland, 2009). The size of the
partners (some partner were unable to provide resources due their organisational size),
other projects competing for the same human resources, and lack of academia (human
resources) were the underlying factors for the scarcity of resources. For the latter
reason, the project had to wait for certain researchers to defend their theses before
work could continue. In some situations, contractors on some projects have to hire
foreign nationals before the projects can be completed, and this comes with pros and
cons. A clear example is the case of Malaysia. A study to find causes of construction
project failure in Malaysia shows that inadequate workers and lack of skilled workers

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account for why construction projects were failing (Sambasian & Soon, 2007). A
significant number of construction workers had to be hired from Indonesia to contribute
to Malaysia’s construction projects. The lack of skilled workers and the inadequacy of
the ones available in the country meant that contractors had to rely on foreign workers
and, although foreign workers have their advantages, the problems that may be created
due to different cultures and work ethics cannot be underestimated, as Hofstede (1983),
Lubatkin et al. (1999), and Muriithi and Crawford (2003) have emphasised.

The need for the right people for the right job is very crucial in project management and
as such the need for right people with appropriate skills to correctly execute projects is
very crucial (Mochal, 2005; Lever, 2008). Research on project failure points out that the
failure of many projects can be partly attributable to lack of skills. For example, a study
conducted by Ruuska and Teigland (2009) into the Bygga Villa project indicates that the
project leader lacked broker skills and this was causing conflicts among project
partners, which thereby caused the project to fail. In order for the project to be
successful, management had to replace the project manager with a more appropriate
one. This is further echoed in the work of Hwang and Ng (2013, p.272), which argues
that “a competent project manager is vital to project success”. Thus, in order to manage
projects professionally and successfully, the project manager has to possess the
required knowledge and skills (Hwang & Ng, 2013). Statistically, according to Frank
(2002) as cited by Hwang and Ng (2013), project managers have a 34-47% direct
influence on project success, and therefore failure to recruit, train and nurture the right
project manager for a project’s management is a recipe for disaster.

Perkins (2006) attributes the root cause of project failure to ‘Knowledge’: either project
managers do not have the requisite knowledge, or they do have it but fail to apply it
appropriately. This theory employs ‘The Project Failure Cause-Effect Diagram’ to give
further explanation. According to this theory, there are a number of issues that may
cause projects/programmes to fail, but all these causes can be traced to a root or
fundamental cause, and that is knowledge. In other words, if a project fails because of
any particular reason, that reason can also boil down to the fact that project managers
or senior management might not have the right skills or technical know- how to execute

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such a project, or they do have the right knowledge but have failed to use it
appropriately. For instance, if a project has failed because of failure to manage risks
during project implementation, this failure can be due to either the project manager not
having the right skills or experience to deal with risk management, or s/he did have the
skills but failed to apply the knowledge s/he has of risk management appropriately.

Figure 4 The Cause-Effect Diagram

Source: Perkins (2006, p.13)

There are two questions that the theory fails to address. Firstly, if a project manager has
all the knowledge necessary to undertake the project and knows how to apply this
knowledge but the resources available to undertake the project are insufficient, will the
project be successful? Reports on project failure due to lack of resources abound, more
especially in developing countries or less developed countries where various sectors of
the economy compete for the same scarce resources for development. For instance,
financial difficulty has been cited as the main reason for delays in construction projects
in Jordan (Sweis et al., 2008). The recent financial crisis that has seen the UK
government and many European Union (EU) countries adopt austerity measures such

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as cuts to police budgets is a clear example of how knowledge alone cannot determine
project success (see Metro, 2012, p.5).

Secondly, if a project manager has all the knowledge necessary to undertake the
project and knows how to apply this knowledge and all the resources have been
provided, and in the middle of the project there is some new government legislation or
an external force such as a natural disaster (e.g. flooding, tsunami, hurricane), will the
existing knowledge be enough to make the project successful? In other words, if any
external forces such as Political, Economic, Socio-Cultural and Technological
(PEST/PESTLIED) (Mulenburg, 2007) hit the project, would the knowledge be enough
to protect the project from failure? Natural calamities such as floods and tsunamis have
been partly blamed for causes of delays in International Development (ID) projects in
some Asian countries such as China, India, Bangladesh, and Thailand in recent years
(Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010). These examples indicate that associating the root cause of
project failure only to knowledge is flawed. Although knowledge and skills are not
panaceas for project success or failure it can be said that, without them, all the other
resources used in the implementation of a project will not be enough to make the project
a success.

Therefore, all the other resources need to be present before a project can be
successful. It can be argued that, without resources, there cannot be a project, in that
project activities do not operate in a vacuum. Lack of or inadequate resources can
cause projects to fail. If the resources needed for the project are not up to the required
quantity or quality, irrespective of the skills of the management team, the project is
bound to fail.

2.5 CAUSES OF PROJECT FAILURE IN DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES
Because the research aim is to find the main causes of project failure in developing
countries, this section discusses in detail prior studies on this issue.

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Various reasons have been identified for causes of project failure in developing
countries. For example, an investigation into causes for time and cost overrun on
groundwater construction projects in Ghana revealed 26 reasons for such failure
(Frimpong et al., 2003). It found that, whereas some of these causes were controllable,
others were uncontrollable. In relation to schedule delays in road construction projects
in Zambia, Kaliba et al. (2009) identified financial processes and difficulties on the part
of contractors and clients, contract modification, economic problems, materials’
procurement, changes in drawings, staffing problems, equipment unavailability, poor
supervision, construction mistakes, poor coordination on site, and changes in
specifications as the main causes of such delays.

An analysis of cost and schedule performance of international developmental projects

revealed an extraordinary cost and schedule variance (Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010). The
research, which used China, Thailand, Bangladesh and India as the case study, shows
that cost and schedule variances (cost and schedule overrun) exist in such projects
(Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010). However, the results also show an extraordinary pattern of
variance. Studies over the years (Kaming et al., 1997; Flyvjerg et al., 2003; Matta &
Ashkenas, 2003; Odek, 2004) show that projects that experience schedule overruns
have corresponding cost overruns but the result from Ahsan and Gunawan’s study
shows that the International Development (ID) projects from the four Asian countries
experienced schedule overrun and yet had cost underrun. This extraordinary result is
attributable to: depreciation or devaluation of local currency lower than estimated bid
price, international competitive bidding – international companies are allowed to bid for
the project, hence, making the operational cost less expensive, less use of contingency
fund – this emergency fund is made available for projects, but it is not always used with
ID projects because host countries try to overestimate it to avoid running out of funds
when an emergency happens, the project’s scope is cut, design change, local tax, and
interest policy changes.

In relation to Critical Success factors (CSFs), Kwak (2002) identified a number of CSFs
of ID projects, which included: political, legal, cultural, technical, managerial, economic,
environmental, social, and corruption. Palmer (1986) attributes project failure in

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developing countries to lack of routine maintenance. The use of turnkey project

management practices in developing countries has also seen failures (Alsakini et al.,
2004).

In Africa, a poor relationship among stakeholders is one of the main reasons for
government project failure (Rwelamila et al., 1999). Botswana’s government projects
have experienced a lack of ‘ubuntu’ (African group solidarity) among the various
stakeholders in the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) public building
sector project.

These studies indicate that there are a lot of different reasons for project failure in
different contexts. Moreover, research shows that the causes of project failure in
developing countries are not much different from those in developed countries, except
for the failure caused by the adoption of Western project management models,
methodologies, and project management practices (otherwise known as socio-cultural
factors). The next sub-section, 2.5.1, discusses these reasons in detail.

2.5.1 Socio-Culture and Project Failure in Developing Countries

The fundamental reason often cited as a cause of project failure in developing countries
is the adoption of foreign project management practices and models which do not fit into
local socio-cultural systems (Saad et al., 2002; Muriithi & Crawford, 2003; Alsakini et al.,
2004; Heeks, 2002, 2006; Maube et al., 2008; Amid et al., 2012). Miscommunication in
industrial turnkey projects in developing countries which causes such projects to fail can
be blamed on cultural differences that exist on sites (Alsakini et al., 2004).

The Iranian industries’ attempt to incorporate Enterprise Resources Planning (ERP) into
their operations has witnessed some degree of failure due to this very problem (Amid et
al., 2012). Iran’s unique country system is the main reason why the adoption of ERP
has not been successful (Amid et al., 2012). Although other reasons such as poor
project management, lack of a full-time and balanced project team, and poor human
resource management – over emphasis on technical and financial issues at the
expense of the people involved – have been cited as hindrances to ERP

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implementation, the most dominant and fundamental reason has been Iran’s unique
system (Amid et al., 2012). Iran’s unique system makes it extremely difficult to adopt
foreign ERP models and practices because the country’s organisational and cultural
mind-set makes them incompatible. The study concluded that ERP keeps on failing due
to the Iranian system, which is incompatible with foreign ERP being adopted. The
Iranian organisational structure is hierarchical, with a high degree of bureaucracy and
formalisation; hence, it is difficult to incorporate ERP into management practices.
Further, achieving short-term goals and objectives is more important to managers than
long-term goals due to the structure and nature of the organisational issues. Because
there is a high rate of management substitution and replacement in organisations,
managers are compelled to achieve short-term goals in order to be considered to be
successful, and this is in contrast to ERP philosophy (Amid et al., 2012). Due to the
uniqueness of the Iranian systems, regulations and procedures, especially financial
process, it is extremely difficult if not impossible to implement an international system in
the country. This implies that foreign vendors have to customise these technologies to
suit the Iranian system. This often creates a ‘design-actuality gap’ (Heeks, 2002, 2005,
2006).

Heeks’ (2002) case study into Information System (IS) project failure in developing
countries shows that there is an actuality gap between industrialised IS designs and the
applicability of such designs in developing countries, and that a belief in foreign or
imported products from the developed world accounts for the IS project failure in
developing countries. Using IS as a case study; IS models are designed by foreigners
who are normally from Western countries. They therefore design them in the context of
Western culture and practices, and then implement them in developing countries
(Heeks, 2002). The mind-set of the designer(s) is based on their experience in the
industrialised countries, and therefore what they design does not support local socio-
cultural settings of users in the developing countries, hence, project failure. Thus, there
is a gap between the design and the reality of usage at the local level (developing
countries), and this therefore causes such projects to fail. Figure 5 below illustrates this
further.

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Figure 5Design-actuality gaps

Sources: Heeks (2002, p.105)

Further, this gap can be split into two – hard gap and soft gap (hard-soft gap) (Heeks,
2002). The hard gap is the physical materials being used, and the soft gap has to do
with the knowledge, values, etc. This confirms the ideas of earlier researchers who
argued that culture plays a crucial role in the success of projects and, as such, applying
same project management practices might not be feasible in some cultural contexts
(Hogberg & Adamsson, 1983).

In order to correct this situation (project failure), Heeks (2002) suggests two ways in
which locals could improvise to divert failures – actuality-supporting applications and
nature of design. One, developing countries should have designs that are ceteris
paribus, actuality supporting application[s]. However, according to Akrich (1992, as cited
by Heeks 2002), such designs would be difficult to achieve because of a design-
imposing approach. Thus, a situation is created, whereby these designs are created by
developed countries’ designers for developing countries and, as a result, this actuality-
supporting application even increases failure risk. Two, the nature of design
improvisation can be affected by the balance between explicit and implicit components

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in the design. The explicit components, which include total cost or the type of computer
to be used, are relatively easy to alter to meet user actuality, but it is difficult to alter the
implicit components of the nature of design such as designer assumptions about the
values or knowledge of local users. Again, local ability to be able to manoeuvre to avoid
the actuality gap is contingent upon design divisibility, but this divisibility is lacking in the
developing countries’ IS projects, partly due to the short ‘donor timescale and attention
span’ of funders. Moreover, if there is a local capacity for technology, improvisation
could be possible, but this is also lacking in developing countries. That is to say, if there
is local technology that can combine both imported content and local content (hybrid),
then there could be room for manoeuvre (improvisation) to reduce the risk of failure, but
this is non-existent in local communities (developing countries). In addition,
improvisation-supporting approaches and techniques could be used, but such an
approach is only workable in industrialised countries and as such inapplicable in
developing countries. This approach is the use of participative techniques, where group
working and end-user involvement are used. This is rarely workable in developing
countries due to their cultural mind-set. This is echoed by Klein et al. (2015), who asset
that, due to the uniqueness of projects, there is a need for improvisation during project
management.

Deep- versus shallow-inscribed applications

Figure 6 Actuality-supporting application and nature of design

Source: Heeks (2002, p.109)

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Figure 7 The competencies of hybrids

Sources: Heeks (2002, p.110)

Most African projects fail because they do not have their own project management
models (Maube et al., 2008). Failure of projects in Africa is attributable to human and
technological factors, and management concepts being applied, but this can be traced
to the use of Western project management concepts, which are not workable in Africa
due to the cultural differences that exist between the Western world and African
countries (Heeks, 2002; Saad et al., 2002; Muriithi & Crawford, 2003; Alsakini et al.,
2004; Maube et al., 2008). For instance, efforts made by the Algerian government to
move into industrialisation in the 1960s and 1990s failed because of this same problem
(Saad et al., 2002): projects were implemented but failed due to cultural differences that
existed between the adopted model and the Algerian environment. E-government
projects in Africa have failed because African governments have been adopting models
that are based on the industrialised countries’ models, which do not fit into the cultural
environment of Africa (Maube et al., 2008).

The quest by Muriithi and Crawford (2003) to find causes of project failure in Africa,
found that all the causes were due to the fact that project management concepts,
models, and practices being adopted in Africa were Western, and these models and
practices were incompatible with Africa’s culture and social life. The study concluded
that African cultures are collectivist, have high power distance, moderate uncertainty
avoidance, and are masculine. The collectivist culture, characterised by poverty,
declining real wages, and weak political institutions, means that managers feel and work
towards what will please the family, clan, ethnic group will rather than being neutral –
which is a formal requirement of management. Africans have a deep-rooted moral

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obligation to their poorer relations and this puts pressure on their personal income and
project resources. Power distance, implies that, patronage and tall structures in
organisational management. Top management in these African states are inward-
looking – they do not want to delegate due to risk aversion; managers tend to avoid risk
due to the unstable nature of the socio-political environment in Africa. Foreign
employees earn more than their local counterparts doing similar work, which brings
about ill-feeling. The extent to which a project team or management regard these values
determine a project’s success or failure (Muriithi & Crawford, 2003).

During Algeria’s quest for development between 1965 and 1990, the country’s
government adopted Technology Transfer (TT) projects to facilitate this development
(Saad et al., 2002). These projects failed to some degree, mainly due to the fact that the
technology being transferred was incompatible with the local environment (technical,
organisational, market, social, political, cultural). Failure was due to the restricted
availability of indigenous knowledge and information, among other factors such as poor
preparation procedures before negotiations, lack of proactive search for projects and
partners, selection of projects and partners not based on national realities, significant
dependency on learning by doing and codified knowledge, ignoring the dynamic
dimension of the process of technology transfer and the consolidation stage (Saad et
al., 2002).

2.6 CAUSES OF PROJECT FAILURE IN GHANA

Many reasons have been cited for causes of project failure in Ghana and Ghanaian
government projects in particular. These include socio-political, economic,
technological, knowledge, macro- and micro-global (AfDB, 2006, Moderator’s Report,
2007), and project management education (Moderators Report, 2007; Amponsah,
2010), among others. The next sub-section discusses these causes in detail.

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2.6.1 Project Management Education in Ghana

Project management knowledge in Ghana is very low even among tertiary institutional
lecturers (Moderator’s Report, 2007). This can be attributed to the lack of project
management as a discipline in the country’s curriculum in educational institutions. Until
2006, Ghana had no single tertiary institution offering project management as a course
of study. The maiden one started in the Ghana Institute of Public Administration
(GIMPA), a private institution which introduced an undergraduate degree in Operations
and Project Management. Concerns have been raised by the World Bank and academia
in the country about this issue, and the Moderators’ Reports in 2007 emphasised it.

A report by the World Bank in 2007 indicated that Ghana had performed poorly in
programmes and projects because of a lack of professional managers (World Bank
Report, 2007). Prior to this report, the same institution had reported that the Ghana
National Insurance Scheme (NHIS) was suffering from administrative lapses because of
lack of knowledge on the part of administrators (World Bank Press Release, 2007).
Specifically, this press release, as cited by Damoah (2011), stated that Ghana’s health
insurance system required skilled labour for the DMHISs and the providers to manage
and administer the new health insurance system, yet there was insufficient
administrative, managerial, and technical human capacity to handle the scheme. The
implementation of the NHIS introduced extra administrative overheads to health
facilities. When the NHIC introduced its ICT network platform and the providers start to
develop their IT solutions, managers and administrators in the DMHISs and the
providers needed technical know-how to handle this increasing pressure, but this
knowledge, according to the World Bank, was not adequate in Ghana’s healthcare
sector.

2.6.2 Financial Difficulty and Project Management in Ghana

Ghana’s projects have suffered several setbacks such as total abandonment and delays
in the past, mainly due to financial difficulties. Groundwater projects, which are the main
source of water for rural dwellers, have witnessed delays mainly because of the
difficulty in making monthly payments for completed work (Frimgpong et al., 2003).

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Payment delays sometimes result in project abandonment in Ghana, and, in some

extreme circumstances, contractors go bankrupt (Adams, 2008). In some
circumstances, the project fails to commence after initial planning (as Heeks, 2002,
2005, 2006 puts it). For example, the quest by the Ghanaian government to build
30,000 houses for the security forces (police, military, and customs) to improve the
security personnel’s living conditions has proven that lack of finance can cause good
intentions to come to no avail. The project was initiated and approved by parliament but
failed to commence due to the government’s inability to secure a loan from the South
Korean STX Company (Daily Guide, 2012; p.1). The government’s failure to secure the
loan meant that the government had no choice but to abandon the project.

2.6.3 Corruption and Project Management in Ghana

Corruption has bedevilled project management practices in Ghana and government
projects in particular, and it has become part and parcel of officials undertaking projects
in the country (see TI, 2008; Ghanaian Chronicle, 2012). However, this social vice has
been defended and justified vehemently by some state officials. They cite among other
reasons low salaries, the project not being their personal property, poverty, feeding a
habit, gaining of societal status and sharing of the national ‘cake’. Even though it is
difficult to find a criminal code that defines corruption (Azeem, 2009), corrupt practices
such as bribery of local or foreign government officials and private companies,
facilitation of payments, fraud, embezzlement, theft, collusion, and rent-seeking exist in
the country. A renowned Ghanaian political scientist, Gyimah-Boadi, posits that
corruption is pervasive and has to do with motive and opportunity (Gyimah-Boadi,
2002). According to Gyimah-Boadi, the opportunity for corruption normally occurs when
systems and institutions of accountability are weak – lack checks and balances – and
when moral decency is very low among officials. This social phenomenon fosters an
anti-democratic environment which creates uncertainty, unpredictability and declining
moral values which disrespect constitutional institutions and authority (Gyimah-Boadi,
2002; Mensah et al., 2003).

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A study conducted by Transparent International (TI) between 1999 and 2008 points out
that Ghana is far behind in the fight against corruption (TI, 2008).The scores range from
10-0, with 10 being the countries with least corruption and 0 being the most corrupt;
Ghana has always been in the lower brackets (3.3-3.9). In 2007, Ghana had a
Corruption Performance Index (CPI) score of 3.7, thereby positioning the country 69th
out of 180 of the world's countries that were studied (TI, 2008). According to the report,
only countries with an index of 5 and above do not have a serious corruption problem.
Consistent with the definition offered by the World Bank (World Bank, 2013), the
definition of corruption in the study was an abuse of public office for private gain, and
measured the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among a country's public
officials and politicians. Transparency International’s research findings indicate that the
state of corruption in Ghana is serious. Nevertheless, this definition has been criticised
for leaving the impression that it is only people who occupy public office who are
capable of abusing their office or power (Tax Justice Network (TJN), 2008). TJN argues
that the World Bank and TI description of corruption does not provide room for corrupt
practices such as market rigging, insider trading, tax dodging, non-disclosure of conflicts
of interest, and illicit party funding (Azeem, 2009). Even though the TI study’s findings
give a picture of the state of corruption in the country, if TJN’s criticism and definition is
taken into consideration, the state of the phenomenon could even be worse.

Internal reports on corruption in the country show similar findings to that of the TI (2008)
report. For example, a report in 2007 by the Public Accounts Committee on the Auditor-
General’s report in 2006 on Public Accounts submitted to Parliament and the follow-up
public hearings states that there is a serious corruption problem among public officials.
The same report shows a similar trend in the 2010/2011 report published in 2012
(Ghanaian Chronicle, 2012). The 2013 one is not different. A survey on corruption in
Ghana conducted by the Ghana Integrity Initiative (GII) and Ghana Center for
Democratic Development (CDD) also shows a similar problem.

These corrupt practices in Ghana affect project management and project performance.
If this happens, cost escalation becomes inevitable. However, efforts have been made
over the years to curb the phenomenon. The Ghanaian government has made

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significant attempts to curb corrupt practices in the country by enacting laws and setting
up independent bodies and agencies to address the phenomenon (Amponsah, 2010).
Notable among them are the Ghana Public Procurement Act, the Financial
Administration Act and its Regulations, the Assets Declaration Act, the Whistleblower
Act, the Anti-Money Laundering Act, the Public Officers Liability Act, the Serious Fraud
Office (SFO) and the CHRAJ, Ghana Integrity Initiative (GII). Even though these efforts
have helped to expose corruption (Short, 2010), recent reports (Meet the Press, 2009;
Takyi-Boadu, 2011; Ghanaian Chronicle, 2012) indicate that the phenomenon still exists
in the country and in government projects in particular.

2.6.4 Ethical Issues in Project Management Practices in Ghana

Closely related to corruption are ethical issues in the management of projects in Ghana.
Public officials have indulged themselves in practices that raise ethical issues over the
years in execution of government projects. Ethical issues in project management
practices in Ghana are not perceived to be as serious as portrayed by Heidman et al.
(2005). Notable among them in recent years is when the late President, Professor
Evans Attah-Mills, on President’s Question and Answer Time (Meet the Press) stated
that it was normal for a Minister of State to travel for an official government assignment
with his girlfriend and that “it is not the first time it has happened” (Meet the Press,
2009).

There have been instances where a state official chairs a government project, and
becomes the sole supplier of materials for the project at a rate which is above the
market rate for the same project (see Takyi-Boadu, 2011; Ghanaweb, 2011; Ghanaian
Chronicle, 2012). Additionally, in some circumstances, government officials do not pay
contractors on time, which leads contractors to go bankrupt, hence, causing their
business to collapse (Adams, 2008).

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2.6.5 Socio-cultural factors and Project Management in Ghana

Ghana is a country with a rich culture which is well respected by its citizens, especially
with regard to its religious values. As indicated in chapter one, religious values are well
adhered to by Ghanaians. Sometimes when projects do not go as expected, pastors
and other religious leaders are called upon to pray for the project. Communication in
Ghana is mostly indirect and people often resort to silence as a means of getting their
points across. The use of proverbs, wise sayings, and analogies is the most common
practice, and people considered to be wise are those who are often quiet and able to
express themselves in these proverbs and adages. It can therefore be argued that
these cultural traits and practices can influence project management and performance
in the country. For instance, respect for elders as against good management practices
hinders good project performance.

Even though reported cases of project failure in Ghana are many, and a lot of reasons
have been cited for such failure, a review of the literature shows that journal articles
devoted to the subject matter are rare. For instance, the work of Ayee (2000) indicates
that there had not been any empirical evidence to back up this claim for project failure
and, to the best of my knowledge, there has been only one journal article and one thesis
since, and these are Frimpong et al. (2003) and Amponsah (2010) respectively.
However, the former study is full of flaws and the latter is restricted to only three sectors
of the economy – construction, banking and agriculture – and this call for further debate.
The latter for instance, which investigates causes of schedule delay and cost overrun of
groundwater projects in Ghana, indicated that, between 1970 and 1999, 33 out of 47
projects were delayed whilst 38 overran, indicating a 75% schedule and cost deviation
with only 25% meeting the planned and budgeted cost. Further, the study pointed out
that there are 26 reasons why projects fail. Out of these causes, five (5) were seen by
contractors, owners, and consultants (respondents) as the most important factors.
These were: agents having difficulty in making the monthly payments, poor contractor
management, material procurement, poor technical performances, and escalation of
material prices.

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Although this study gives a picture of the state of project failure in the construction
industry, the rigorousness of the study is questionable and, as such, it might not show
the true scale of the situation. First and foremost, the choice of the sample and the
method used in collecting the data is questionable. Using random sampling without
picking a specific number such as the 3rd, 4th, 6th, 10th of the population brings the
reliability of the study into question. Moreover, the study failed to indicate the number of
respondents from both the public and private sectors the study set out to cover. Using
random sampling, and without showing the number of representatives from each sector,
implies that it is possible for the respondents to come from only one sector (private or
public) and therefore the study can be seen as unrepresentative of both sectors. In
addition, the study failed to indicate the level of experience of the respondents in
dealing with groundwater construction and project management in general; therefore,
the respondents’ opinions cannot be relied upon. It is possible that all the respondents
might be junior or newly recruited employees who might not have adequate experience
to provide information that portrays the true picture of the subject matter being studied.
Moreover, the research was conducted in the construction industry, which therefore
makes it industry-specific and unable to reflect the other industries in the country.

Even though much has been researched about causes of project failure, to date, project
management literature can be divided into three groups. Group one takes a generic
view of project failure (Frimpong et al., 2003; Kaliba et al., 2009; Ahsan & Gunawan,
2010; Liu et al., 2011; Amid et al., 2012). The second group focuses on private sector
projects (Mangione, 2003; Consoli, 2006; Mairea & Collerette, 2011).The last group
focuses on government or public sector projects; however, this focuses exclusively on
single case(s) projects (Kumar & Best, 2007; Maubeta et al., 2008; Fabian & Amir,
2011; Patanakul, 2014). This makes the research industry-specific by default and this
therefore affects generalisability.

Moreover, different respondents have different perceptions about those projects that are
of high importance and vice-versa (Kometa et al., 1994; Frimpong et al., 2003;
Amponsah, 2010). Thus, different categories of study respondents differ in their
perceptions of the factors that influence project failure (Frimpong, 2003; Sambasivan &

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Soon, 2007). This research bridges this gap by taking a holistic view of government or
public sector project failure. Secondly, in relation to Ghana, this will provide empirical
evidence to support reported claims of project failure in government projects. Thirdly,
this study contributes to the academic field of project failure in Ghana specifically and in
developing countries in general.

The studies also show that the causes are not the same and that they have relative
importance (Frimpong et al., 2003; Ngacho & Das, 2014). Thus, the various causes of
project failure do not have the same influence in causing projects to fail. In other words,
each cause has a different weight when it comes to its ability to influence (cause)
project failure. In the case of Frimpong et al.’s (2003) research, out of the 26 reasons
that were found to account for groundwater projects’ failure, five (5) were seen by
contractors, owners, and consultants (respondents) as the most important factors. They
were: agents having difficulty in making the monthly payments, poor contractor
management, material procurement, poor technical performances, and escalation of
material prices. In the case of Ngacho and Das (2014), out of the six KPIs – time, cost,
quality, safety, site disputes and environmental impact – time was the most influential
(important), followed by cost, site disputes, environmental impact, quality performance
and lastly safety. Therefore, the question to answer in this regard is: Which of these
factors are more important in causing the Ghanaian government’s project failure?

2.7 EFFECTS OF PROJECT FAILURE

The third part of the research is to find out from the general public, project management
practitioners and contractors what they perceive as the effects of the Ghanaian
government’s project failure on the key stakeholders of such projects. However, in line
with the aims and objectives of this study, effects are restricted to only the negative
ones. Therefore, there is a need to review prior studies in this subject area. This will
provide justification for the research findings and recommendations.

Many effects of project failure have been cited in management and project management
literature; however, a review of the literature indicates that the effects are specific to

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specific projects and/or specific industries. For instance, research into causes and
effects of project failure in Malaysian construction industry by Sambasivan and Soon
(2007) identified six (6) main effects. These were: time overrun cost overrun, disputes,
arbitration, litigation and total abandonment. The study, which used a questionnaire
survey to collect data from clients, consultants and contractors, concluded that there is
a direct correlation between causes of project failure and the effects of project failure.
That is to say, the effects of the project failure could be traced to specific causes of the
project failure.

A study into the effects of construction delays on project delivery in Nigeria also found
similar effects even though the respondents were different (Aibinu & Jagboro, 2002).
The respondents (quantity surveyors, architects and engineers, and contractors) who
were surveyed provided the following: time overrun, cost overrun, dispute, arbitration
and litigation, and total abandonment. A survey investigation into material and
equipment procurement delays in 22 highway projects in Nepal found that there was a
negative impact on the projects (Manavazhia & Adhikarib, 2002). A study into significant
factors causing and effects of delays in Iranian construction projects identified six (6)
major effects: time overrun, cost overrun, disputes, arbitration, total abandonment, and
litigation (Pourrostam & Ismail, 2011).

In development projects, Ayodele and Alabi (2011) identified wasted resources and loss
of tax revenue by the government and other stakeholders associated with such projects
as the main effects of abandonment. Similarly, Ngacho and Das (2014) identified
economic and social effects of the general populace – although they did not specify the
effects. In real property projects, the effect of abandonment is lowering of the value of
the properties within the neighbourhood (Efenudu, 2010). In an assessment of the
causes and effects of abandoned development projects in real property values in
Nigeria, Woka and Miebaka (2014) identified eight (8) effects: it affects the real property
total values reduction; it affects the total income receivable from real property; it
becomes a disappointment to the owner and the populace; it increases the negative
effects of environmental issues on the real property and the built environment; it
negatively reduces the motivation to attract investment in real properties; it becomes a

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waste of financial and material resources; employment opportunities in real property

and other sectors are impacted negatively; and it deprives the government of the
expected revenue from property tax.

When looking at Malaysian housing projects’ abandonment, Abdullah at al. (2014) found
that the main effect of abandoned projects is that house buyers will still pay for houses
before they handed over at a later date. Along the Spanish coast, the abandonment of
urbanisation projects affects the environment in the form of visual effects, landscape
modification, biodiversity decrease and increased pollution (Carrero et al., 2009).
Carrero et al. (2009) further identified the socio-economic effects as unemployment,
conflicts between public administration and private sector, loss of economic value of the
area, marginalisation of the population and transfer of cost between the private and
public sector.

From the literature, it can be said that there is a common trend that these studies follow:
similar effects are associated with projects when they fail (Sambasivan & Soon, 2007;
Enshssi et al., 2009). However, the relative importance is dependent on who is looking
at it, as studies show that different respondents have different views when it comes to
the relative importance of particular factors (Kometa et al., 1994; Aibinu & Jagboro,
2002; Sambasivan & Soon, 2007, Pourrostam & Ismail, 2011).

Even though none of the previous research has looked into effects in relation to
stakeholders, those carried out in relation to project completion show that the effects are
not the same and that they have relative importance (Aibinu & Jagboro, 2002;
Sambasivan & Soon, 2007, Pourrostam & Ismail, 2011). Thus, they have varied
weights. In other words, different respondents have different perceptions about those
that are of high importance and vice versa. Thus, the question here is: Will respondents
from Ghana follow the same trend? Therefore, this study follows the same method to
find out which of these effects are more important.

In addition, because there are no earlier studies on effects of project failure on

stakeholders, there is no literature to use as a guide; however, as earlier stated,
Ghanaian government projects have a strong stakeholder base and as such any failure

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will have effects on the key stakeholders. However, the severity of the effects on these
set(s) of stakeholders might not necessarily be the same. Therefore, this study wishes
identify and evaluate the key stakeholders who are the most affected by Ghanaian
government projects failure. Therefore, the next question is: Which of these key
stakeholders are affected most when Ghanaian government projects fail?

2.8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This section discusses the theoretical block(s) that underpin this study. Specifically, it
intends to achieve two main objectives. Firstly, it discusses the theories upon which this
study is based, by trying to show how it fits into the research topic, and provides
justification for the choice by linking it with previous research that used the theory. The
main aim is to describe the theoretical blocks upon which this study is based. This will
help the researcher to develop a theoretical framework for the research.

2.8.1 Stakeholder Theory

In this study and others that have been reviewed in this section, stakeholder theory is
approached from a project management perspective. In the past, stakeholder theory
was rarely used in project management research. However, growing research into the
subject matter in recent years as a result of writers becoming more aware of the various
stakeholders associated with projects has seen extant research being carried out using
stakeholder theory. In fact, in the past decade, research into project management and
project failure has been conducted using stakeholder theory (e.g. Saebo et al., 2011;
Axelsson et al., 2012). In line with these prior studies, this study therefore adopts
stakeholder theory as the principal underlying theory.

Specifically, this study uses stakeholder theory to analyse the various stakeholders
associated with Ghanaian government projects. Like most government projects, the
Ghanaian government’s projects have a strong stakeholder base and as such this
theory captures all stakeholders in under this study. However, other theories were

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considered before the choice of stakeholder theory was made.

Stakeholder theory was first propounded by Freeman (1984), although some writers
credit the first definition and concept with the internal memo report of the Stanford
Research Institute (SRI) in 1963, which defined stakeholders as those groups without
whose support the organization would cease to exist (Fontaine et al., 2006). The
foundations of the theory claim that firms have “an ethical duty to stakeholders above
and beyond what is required by law and, in particular, ethical duties that require the firm
to operate in ways that will foreseeably reduce long-term profits” (Heath & Norman,
2004, p.249). A stakeholder is any organisation or individual who can affect or is
affected by the achievement of the organisation’s objectives (Freeman, 1984).
According to Freeman (1984), organisations have various stakeholders whose activities
impact on them and vice versa. The stakeholders include governments, investors,
suppliers, employees, and customers. These stakeholders contribute inputs to the
organisation and expect outputs from it (Donaldson & Preston, 1995), and will act for or
against a focal organisation depending on whether their interests are affected positively
or negatively. Stakeholder theory further argues that all persons or groups participating
in a firm’s activities do so to obtain benefits (Freeman, 1984).

There have been major debates about the theory over the years, especially during the
1990s. Authors have provided different views about the theory by criticising Freeman’s
Stakeholder Theory, and different arguments and counter arguments have been
presented. For instance, the Standford definition, which is the genesis of stakeholder
theory, has been criticised as being too narrow; however, Freeman’s definition also
suffers from being too broad (Olander, 2007). Lu et al. (2013) specifically criticise
Freeman’s definition of the term stakeholder as being unambiguously open to include
virtually anyone. In sharp contrast to Freeman’s definition, Clarkson (1994) offers a very
narrow definition to the stakeholder definition debate – which asserts that stakeholders
are only those who bear some level of risk as a result of having invested in the firm in
the form of capital, human or financial resources, or any form of valuable investment, or
those who are placed at risk as a result of the firm’s activities (Clarkson, 1994 as cited
by Lu et al. 2013).

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Goodpaster (1991) contends that stakeholder theory introduces ethics into

management, and that the stakeholder idea is typically offered as a way of integrating
ethical values into management decision-making. In view of this, Goodpaster offers two
approaches to stakeholder theory – the stakeholder analysis and stakeholder synthesis.
He then classified the decision-making process of a company or an individual into six
sequential steps, namely: perception, analysis, synthesis, choice, action, and learning.
He argues that the stakeholder theory as postulated by Freeman (1984) only refers to
stakeholder analysis and as such ends at the analysis stage. This implies that, in the
practical or real world, organisations ignore stakeholders when choices and decisions
are being made as well as when implementing them. Goodpaster (1991) asserts that,
even though decision-makers identify the affected parties in every option and determine
their positive and negative impacts; nevertheless, this information is not considered
further during the decision-making process or the implementation stage of a company.
Furthermore, positive and negative effects on comparatively less powerful stakeholders
may be ignored in the synthesis, choice and action phase. On the other hand,
stakeholder synthesis includes: the synthesis, choice and action phase of the decision-
making process. Under stakeholder synthesis, stakeholders are only taken into account
if they are powerful enough to affect the goals of shareholders. Based on this argument,
Goodpaster splits stakeholders into two groups – multi-fiduciary stakeholders and
strategic stakeholders. The multi-fiduciary stakeholder means ethics without business
and the strategic stakeholder synthesis means business without ethics. Goodpaster
argues that managers who pursue the multi-fiduciary stakeholder orientation face
opposition from advocates of the strategic stakeholder orientation. This clearly indicates
that there can be a strong defence for the multi-fiduciary orientation on the basis of
ethics, and he therefore calls this inconsistent and refers to the situation as the
stakeholder paradox.

Freeman (1994) rejects Goodpaster’s (1991) ‘stakeholder paradox’ claim by criticising

the idea of non-fiduciary obligations surrounding a fiduciary relationship, and therefore
refers to this as ‘moral obligation’. In an attempt to explain ‘moral obligation’, Freeman
appeals to the ‘nemo dat principle’ – shareholders cannot expect managers to disobey
reasonable community standards of ethics. He argues further that, although corporate

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law mandates managers to manage firms in the interests of shareholders, this corporate
law is not the law that governs organisations and that there are other laws and
regulatory bodies in the USA such as the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, the Securities
Exchange Commission, the Environmental Protection Agency and others that govern
organisations. Although Freeman rejects Goodpaster’s stakeholder analysis preposition
and his ‘stakeholder paradox’, he welcomes his interpretation of strategic stakeholder
orientation, but not in the context of ‘business without ethics’.

Donaldson and Preston (1995) offer four (4) these to the stakeholder theory debate –
descriptive/empirical, instrumental, normative and managerial. They contend that the
first three are aspects of the theory, and that these aspects are quite different but they
are mutually supportive. The normative part serves as the basis upon which all other
aspects of the theory are grounded. First and foremost, the theory describes the
corporation as a collection of co-operative and competitive interests who possess an
intrinsic or inherent value. They argue further that this can be tested for descriptive
accuracy. Secondly, the instrumental aspect of the theory provides a link between
means to an end. This provides a framework by which to test the possibility of existence
of a connection between stakeholder management practice and corporate performance
management achievement goals. Thirdly, stakeholder theory is normative, in that it
prescribes how the world would be, and it describes how organisations should treat their
stakeholders. In order to attain this, they make two assumptions – one, stakeholders are
individuals or groups; they are identified by their interests in the corporation and have
lawful interests in corporate activity. Two, stakeholders’ interests have an intrinsic value
in nature and as such stakeholders deserve consideration for their own sake without
necessarily furthering the interests of some other group such as shareholders. Lastly,
the authors opine that stakeholder theory is managerial in nature.

Jensen (2001) criticises the theory by arguing that it fails to show how managers will be
able to make decisions that will make stakeholders satisfied given that various
stakeholders of a corporation have different interests/stakes in the focal organisation.
For him, it is highly impossible for corporate managers to maximise more than one
corporate direction. He argues that goal-directed behaviour requires an idiosyncratic

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valued objective function. As a result of this, Jensen contends that stakeholder theory
may best help the interests of managers and directors. Taking directors and managers’
bonuses for instance, he is of the opinion that once this is attached to performance, they
will pursue short-term goals that will maximise their chances of getting a ‘fat’ bonus at
the expense of the numerous stakeholders that are associated with the company. He
also links change of personal management interests to the class of stakeholder(s) being
served. In view of this, Jensen contends that firm value maximisation is meaningless if a
group and/or any of the stakeholder(s) is ignored, and suggests a better alternative to
firm value maximisation, which is called the Enlightened Value Maximisation or the
Enlightened Stakeholder Theory. The theory is similar to the stakeholder theory except
that it offers a criterion for making a trade-off among the various stakeholders with
competing interests. For example, whilst stakeholder theory allows managers and
directors to freely decide which one of the stakeholders’ interests to serve at one
particular point in time without offering a criterion for making the trade-off, the
enlightened stakeholder theory prescribes one firm objective that serves the interests of
all stakeholders – long-term value maximisation.

Nonetheless, despite these diverse opinions about the theory, there is a common thread
that runs through various definitions: stakeholders have an interest in the focal
organisation and will act for or against a focal organisation depending on whether their
interests are being affected positively or negatively (Freeman, 1984; Donaldson &
Preston, 1995; Atkinson et al., 1997; Rowley & Moldoveanu, 2003).

2.8.1.1 Stakeholder Analysis

Thompson (2009) identified two steps that must be followed to manage stakeholders.
Firstly, there should be stakeholder analysis, which is crucial in managing stakeholders.
This involves the identification of stakeholders of the project. The next step is to work
out their power, influence and interest. This identification helps to know on whom to
focus and how to deal with each group (Davis, 2014). Then development of a good
understanding of the most important stakeholders should be worked out to win their
support.

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The second step is management of the stakeholders. This can be done through making
a ‘Planning Tool’ (Thompson, 2009). After this, communication is most important. In
order to communicate effectively with stakeholders, Yang (2014) asserts that
stakeholders have to be grouped according to their interests. This is discussed in detail
in the next sub-section.

One study into stakeholder analysis indicates that there is no one method for
stakeholder analysis is perfect; the selection of analytical perspective is an art with
extensive considerations of ‘when, what, and how’ to choose methods to achieve the
project objectives (Yang, 2014). This implies that stakeholder analysis and identification
of method(s) to be used must be project-specific. The next sub-section provides some
of the methods that have been used in the past.

2.8.1.2 Stakeholder Identification

Alexander and Stevens (2002) provide practical guidance for identifying stakeholders.
This begins with the identification of project leaders. In this approach, managers assist
performing organisation(s) in listing all the various parties and/or people who will be
involved in the implementation of projects. This is done on the basis of decision levels
and hierarchies that exist in the organisational structure. Sharp et al. (1999) present a
methodology where the first step is to define a ‘stakeholders’ baseline’ formed by
stakeholder groups such as users, developers, legislators and decision-makers. They
further evaluate who the suppliers and clients are, and then identify which of those
stakeholders in the baseline interacts with the other. In this way, identification is
concluded when all groups in the baseline are analysed. In a similar way, Robertson
(2000) and Alexander and Robertson (2004) present a model that describes diverse
stakeholder types using ‘the onion model’ and locate each type in one of the ‘onion
levels’ (rings). They work with producers, consumers, sponsors, influencers and
consultants and others as stakeholder types. They explain how each type must be
identified in the model, and then included in each concentric circle. However, they posit
that this approach does not take into consideration the work context of the project.

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However, these procedures have been criticised for being more of a practical than of a
theoretical framework that can be used in stakeholder identification (Ballejos &
Montagna, 2008). In line with this criticism, Mok et al. (2015) assert that the foundation
for stakeholder identification and prioritisation is not strong due to the limited cognition
of project managers and incomplete stakeholder boundaries. Despite this criticism
levelled against stakeholder identification procedures, other stakeholder theories have
successfully been used in stakeholder identification by researchers. One popular
stakeholder theory for such purpose is the Stakeholder Salience Theory proposed by
Mitchell et al. (1997). The work of Elias et al. (2002), Pan (2005) and Olander (2007) is
notable in project failure research – they have successfully applied the theory in
identifying stakeholders in their studies.

In the theory, Mitchell et al. (1997) identify three main criteria – stakeholders’ power
(ability to influence the firm), legitimacy (relationship between stakeholder and the firm
based on contracts and legal title), and urgency (the degree to which managerial delay
in attending to the claim is unacceptable to stakeholders). They call these criteria
stakeholder salience (power, legitimacy and urgency), and are of the view that a
stakeholder should possess at least one of these attributes, but they further opine that
managers tend to pay more attention to those who possess all three attributes.

In view of these stakeholder attributes, Mitchell et al. (1997) further categorised

stakeholders into seven groups: (1) Dormant stakeholders – they possess the power to
impose their will but do not have any legitimate relationship or urgent claim, and their
power remains unused; (2) Discretionary stakeholders – they possess legitimacy but
have no power or urgent claims, therefore there is no absolute pressure for
management to engage in an active relationship; however, they may choose to do so;
(3) Demanding stakeholders – they have an urgent claim but no power or legitimate
relationship; this is bothersome but does not warrant more than passing management
attention; (4) Dominant stakeholders – they have power and legitimacy and therefore
their actions bother management; (5) Dangerous stakeholders – possess power and
urgency but have no legitimacy; they are coercive and have the possibility of being
violent, hence, ‘dangerous’; (6) Dependent stakeholders – possess legitimacy and

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urgency but have no power, therefore they depend on others for power to carry on their
will; and (7) Definitive stakeholders – have power and legitimacy; they are normally part
of the organisation’s dominant coalition and therefore if their claim(s) is urgent,
management gives priority to them. The figure below gives a clear picture of the various
stakeholder categories identified by Mitchell et al.

Figure 8 Stakeholder typology

Source: Mitchell et al., 1997, p.874

Stakeholder identification is very crucial for the success of every project (Ballejos &
Montagna, 2008). However, studies over the years show that researchers have not

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reached a consensus on the process and procedures for their identification. This
indicates that researchers have not reached a consensus as to the criteria and/or
method or approach to be used. It can therefore be said that this is so because of the
differences that exist across different projects and that no project is similar to another
(Suderland, 2004; Kersner, 1993, 2009). However, most of these criteria are drawn from
Freeman (1984) and Mitchel et al. (1997). Even though researchers have not come to
an agreement about this process, many procedures and theories have been proposed.
Some have used stakeholder attributes such as types, roles (Robertson, 2000;
Alexander & Robertson, 2004; Ballejos & Montagna, 2008), influence or power (Ballejos
& Montagna, 2008) and interest, or stakeholder salience (Mitchell et al., 1997).

2.8.1.3 Stakeholder Mapping

This is a strategy used in identification of the various stakeholders associated with a
particular company and/or its project. Specifically, it identifies stakeholders by ‘mapping’
the organisation and/or project to all the individuals and groups of individuals who are
connected to the project. Like the stakeholder matrix, stakeholder mapping traces
stakeholders with either the interest and/or the power to influence a project.

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Figure 9 Stakeholder Map

2.8.1.4 Stakeholder Matrix

Ballejos and Montagna (2008) grouped stakeholders into four quadrants (stakeholder
matrix) according to their power or influence and their interest. The first quadrant (A)
consists of stakeholders who have high interest and high power to influence projects.
The points of view and goals of these stakeholders need to be understood more,
especially their objection to anything in the project. They require much time and
attention in order to grasp their needs (Ballejos & Montagna, 2008, p.288).

The second quadrant (B) consists of stakeholders who have a high level of interest in
the project but their influence is very low. However, they can be a valuable source of

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information when they agree on the projects. In government projects, they are normally
the citizens who concern themselves with the project deliverables (Diallo & Thuillier,
2004).

The third quadrant (C) consists of those stakeholders who have high power to influence
the project but are less interested in the project. These stakeholders therefore do not
pay particular attention to the project’s details, because they consider that these details
do not affect them. However, their needs and requirements need to be met if a project is
to be successful. In some circumstances, they are the sources for financing the project
and therefore their approval of the project is paramount. In this case, enough
information about the project needs to be given to them in order to avoid them being
obstacles to it. Such stakeholders include government and government agencies,
regulatory bodies and industry regulators.

The last quadrant (D) consists of stakeholders who have little interest and minimum or
no power to influence the project and as such little attention needs to be given to these
sets of stakeholders. However, they still need to be given information about projects
when necessary. The figure below gives a full picture of the stakeholder matrix grid.

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Figure 10 Stakeholder Matrix Grid

Source: stakeholdermap.com (2014)

2.8.1.5 Stakeholder Dynamics

Stakeholder theorists and researchers (Atkinson et al., 1999; Haughey ca, 2008;
Yuttapongsontorn et al., 2008) have concentrated on individual stakeholder(s).
However, studying individual stakeholders in isolation is being over-simplistic about the
reality of the subject matter (Pouloudi & Whitley, 1997), in that stakeholders rarely act in
isolation (Pan, 2005; Pan & Pan, 2006; Saebo et al., 2011). As Mitchel et al. (1997) put
it, and as echoed by Ballejos and Montagna (2008) and Saebo et al. (2011),
stakeholders’ salience differs from one stakeholder to another, and, as a result, those
stakeholders with less salience often seek the support of those who have much salience
in order to make their claims heard. In order to do this, they form coalitions to influence

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organisations and/or projects. This indicates that stakeholders can interact to influence
project performance and, as such, attention needs to be given to various coalition
groups during project management (Missonier & Loufrani-Fedida, 2014). Yang (2014,
p.482) refers to this interaction among stakeholders as a “social network”.

Moreover, stakeholders’ interests and power change over time throughout project life
cycles (Freeman, 1984; Aaltonen et al., 2008; Saebo et al., 2011; Missonier & Loufrani-
Fedida, 2014), depending on the strategic issue under consideration (Freeeman, 1984).
Different stakeholders’ interests might change – interest can be low or high or none,
depending on how it is being affected (Pan & Pan, 2006). Further, the mix of
stakeholders of a particular project may change over time – some may join whilst others
leave – due to many reasons, such as not being interested in the project anymore
(Elias, 2002, p.304).

It can be argued that, because those stakeholders who are not powerful enough could
seek claims through others (Mitchell et al., 1997) and could also form coalitions to
influence the project (Pan, 2005; Pan & Pan, 2006; Saebo et al., 2011), they are
dynamic and as such stakeholders should not only be managed as individual(s) but
should also be managed as collective units.

Stakeholder theory has been applied in economics, politics, management, and law,
among other areas. In this study, stakeholder theory is approached from a project
management perspective. The next sub-section, 2.8.2, discusses stakeholder theory
and project management in detail by highlighting the importance of stakeholders’
management in the implementation of projects, and how this theory applies to the case
being studied.

2.8.2 Stakeholders and Project Management

In every project, there are numerous stakeholders whose activities can affect or be
affected by the project and who therefore have interest in the deliverables or output of
the project (Haughey ca, 2008). In other words, stakeholders can impact the output of

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the project or can affect or be affected by the project (Olander, 2007; Heravi et al.
2015).

From a project management perspective, project stakeholders are persons or groups of

persons who have a vested interest in the success of the project and the environment
within which the project operates (McElroy & Mills, 2000; Post et al., 2002). However,
like the Standford definition, this (McElroy & Mills, 2000; Post et al., 2002) also suffers
from being too narrow (Olander, 2007). Project Management Institute (PMI) adopts
Freeman’s (1984) definition and defines project stakeholders as individuals and
organisations that are actively involved in the project or whose interests may be affected
as a result of project execution or completion (PMI, 2004). However, the PMI definition
is also too broad (Olander, 2007). Mulenburg (2007) describes a stakeholder as anyone
who has a stake in the project's outcome and for him ‘stake’ in this context refers to
interest. However, stake and interest are different, and authors have not been able to
provide a sound and clear understanding of the terms ‘interests’ and ‘stakes’ in their
literature (Yuttapongsontorn et al., 2008). However, stakeholders’ interests appear in
diverse forms – they have influence or can influence the focal organisation (Freeman,
1984), they have power, legal and moral rights (Carroll, 1993), desired end states
(Frooman, 1999), legitimacy and urgency (Rowley, 2004, as cited by Yuttapongsontorn
et al., 2008), they have power, legitimacy and urgency (Mitchell et al., 1997).
Stakeholder(s)’ interest can either be direct or indirect; depending on the interest they
have in the project in question (Mulenburg, 2007; Haughey ca, 2008).

Based on the role of the stakeholders associated with companies as postulated by

Freeman (1984), Donaldson and Preston (1995), Rowley and Moldoveanu (2003), and
Mulenburg (2007), it can be argued that the success of every project is largely
dependent on these stakeholders, and as such the need to manage them well at all
levels of the project life cycle is very crucial (Pan, 2005; Pan & Pan, 2006; Heravi et al.
2015). Project success and failure can therefore be linked to the perceptions of
stakeholders about the value created by the project and the nature of the relationship
that exists between the various stakeholders and the project team (Bourne, 2008).
Thus, individuals and institutions that have stakes in the projects need to be explicitly

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managed in order to bring about project success (Missonier & Loufrani-Fedida, 2014).
This implies that, if the value being created by the project team is perceived by the
project stakeholders as unable to create value or conforming to their satisfaction (Toor
& Ogunlana, 2010), then the project will be seen as a failure and vice versa.

These stakeholders can be categorised into two groups – internal and external
(Olander, 2007). As the names suggest, internal stakeholders are those stakeholders
who are directly involved in the implementation of the project. External stakeholders, on
the other hand, are those stakeholders who are not directly involved in the
implementation of the project. Mulenburg (2007) shares a similar view but goes further
to add a third category. According to Mulenburg (2007), the three stakeholder groups
are: (i) stakeholders within the project organisation: senior management, sponsor,
customers, and users. These stakeholders define the need and requirements for the
project. They control the traditional project constraints of cost, time and scope. This
includes the organisation of senior management, the sponsor and possibly others who
by their position may influence the project. They are senior management who approve
and provide resources needed for the project. In most projects, they are the end-users
of the deliverables of the project or clients of the projects who act on behalf of the end-
users; (ii) stakeholders within the project: these include the project manager, core team
members, vendors and suppliers, and support staff. This is where the actual players of
the project can be found. They are those who work directly in the project, carrying out
the actual work of the project. They are very important stakeholders who make the
deliverables come to pass; and (iii) stakeholders from outside organisations: regulators,
licensing agencies, pressure groups, etc. They are indirectly involved in the project or
the performing organisation. They do not participate in the project work. They are,
however, relevant to the project’s success because of their potential impact and/or
influence on the project. In the UK and most developed countries, these stakeholders
are as important as those who are directly involved in projects, as there are a lot of
regulations and pressure groups which can influence the outcome of projects. This
implies that efforts should be made to actively manage important stakeholders (Saebo
et al., 2011).

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In order to manage these stakeholders to bring about maximum co-operation in the

project life cycle, all stakeholders who are directly involved must be part of the goal and
objective setting and must be part of the planning of the project, and this must happen
before the commencement of every project (Mulenburg, 2007; Bourne, 2008; Haughey,
2008). Stakeholders often become interested in projects when they actively contribute
to goal and objective setting and, if this happens, it can improve business performance
(Haughey, 2008). Seeking the views of stakeholders is therefore very crucial to the
performance of the project (Haughey, 2008). Further, stakeholders are not always keen
to participate in the project but engaging them at all stages of the project life cycle helps
to bring about project success. Mulenburg (2007), Bourne (2008) and Haughey (2008)
recommend that project managers should ensure that there is a good relationship
among all stakeholders at all levels of the project life cycle.

In the case of Ghana and developing countries in general, the project management’s
ability to bring on board the various key players is very crucial; this is especially so in
government projects, which have a strong stakeholder base. Most stakeholders provide
resources for such projects and as such they tend to give guidance and orders as to
how such projects should be managed (see World Bank, 2013; Fabian & Amir, 2011;
Ghana Budget, 2013).

2.8.3 Stakeholder Theory and Government Project Failure

Stakeholder theory was first used in the private sector context (Axelsson et al., 2012).
Nevertheless, many writers have applied it in a government or public context in recent
years (e.g. Elias et al., 2002; Pan, 2005; Pan & Pan, 2006; Flak & Nordheim, 2006;
Sæbø et al., 2011)

For instance, Elias et al. (2002) use the stakeholder framework to highlight Research
and Development (R & D) project management in New Zealand. In the study, they
identify 10 stakeholders: special interest group, citizen action, community, media,
financial, internal, government, supplier, legal & political and consumer. This approach
has also been used by Pan (2005) to highlight why poor analysis of the stakeholders of

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Singapore’s e-procurement system project (E-PRO) was abandoned. Olander (2007)

uses stakeholder theory to analyse stakeholder impact in construction project
management. In an attempt to understand the dynamics of stakeholders in Norwegian
government e-participation initiatives, Sæbø et al. (2011) identify politicians,
administrators, consumers, activists and vendors as the stakeholders of these
government projects.

2.9 OTHER THEORIES CONSIDERED

2.9.1 Resource Dependency Theory

The first theory that was considered for this study is the Resource Dependency Theory
(RDT). RDT, which was propounded by Pfeffer and Salackcik in 1978, holds the view
that resources external to organisations affect their behaviour, and as such the activities
of an organisation are influenced by external environmental forces (Pfeffer & Salackcik,
1978). The fundamental assumptions underlying the RDT theory are that: organisations
depend on resources and these resources come from sources external to the
organisation (Hillman et al., 2009); these external environments consist of other
organisations and therefore, the resources that an organisation needs are often in the
hands of other organisations; organisations therefore depend on each other. As a result,
those who possess resources have power; thus, the basis of power is resources.
Therefore, power and resources are directly linked. These resources include: labour,
capital, raw material, and others.

In project management, resources are very crucial for project implementation – as

studies (Krigsman, 2006; Perkins, 2006; Teigland & Lindqvist, 2007; Sweis et al., 2008;
Ruuska & Teigland, 2009) show that, without resources or enough of them, projects are
bound to fail. This means that the project management’s ability to procure the right
resources is very crucial for the project’s performance. In developing countries, reliance
on external sources of resources (especially funding) for developmental projects is very
high (see Fabian & Amir, 2011; World Bank, 2012; Ghana Budget, 2012, 2015), and as
such the need for governments and government agencies and/or performing

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organisations to develop skills necessary to win support from external donors is very
crucial for project management.

Ghana’s government relies heavily on the external environment (international

organisations and governments, donor agencies and NGOs) for resources for project
implementation. As stated in chapter one and in a previous section in this chapter, most
developmental projects are funded by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World
Bank and other donor agencies. These external bodies control these projects directly or
indirectly, depending on the agreement. They do this by setting up rules and regulations
for the implementation of the project (see World Bank project life cycle for Ghana,
2012). Sometimes they set rigid conditionality that even affects the citizens of the
country. Typical examples are the freezing of public sector employment by the IMF in
Ghana in 2009 (GNA, 2009) and the on-going IMF bailout of Ghana (IMF, 2015).
Further, in 2012, the UK Prime Minister, Mr David Cameron, issued a warning that if the
Ghanaian government did not legalise gay/lesbian marriage, the UK would not give aid
to the country again (GNA, 2012; Daily Guide, 2012; Ghanaweb, 2012). Many projects
in Ghana have failed because donors or foreign partners have withdrawn their
resources from them (Imani, 2010; Ghanaweb, 2012).

The literature indicates that Ghana’s government projects depend greatly on external
resources for their implementation. However, this study does not use this theory,
because it only captures the resources part of this study and therefore it is not looking at
the holistic view of the subject matter being investigated. Moreover, there are other
components (such as stakeholders, and planning among others) of the research which
are not captured. In addition, the research is more on the extent of project failure,
causes of project failure and its subsequent effects on key stakeholders. Therefore, the
research is more focused on stakeholders – the reasons (causes) for the failure of
Ghanaian government projects are more related to the stakeholders.

2.9.2 Resource-Based View Theory

The next theory considered is Resource-Based View (RBV) Theory. RBV is closely

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related to RDT. RBV is a strategic management theory that is widely used by managers
in project management (Almarrim & Gardiner, 2014). It argues that resources are rare;
however, they are the main drivers of competitive advantage, especially in project
management capabilities (Almarrim & Gardiner, 2014).

RBV argues further that firms have a competitive advantage over other firms and this is
dependent upon the resources that those firms have, which are rare, inimitable and
non-sustainable, and as such ability to have these can influence a firm’s competitive
advantage (Wu, 2010; Killen et al., 2012; Almarrim & Gardiner, 2014; Ghapanchi et al.,
2014). Thus, competitive advantage and firm performance are strongly influenced by
the firm’s resources: there is a strong link between resources and a firm’s performance
and competitive advantage (Ghapanchi et al., 2014). In other words, resources that are
available to firms are scarce, especially a firm’s resources in the form of capabilities,
and as such the ability to have sustained resources and capabilities gives the firm a
competitive advantage and good performance. In a nutshell, RBV holds the view that
resources are inevitable if a firm wants to have a competitive advantage or good
performance.

In project management, performing organisations develop certain capabilities (human

resources) which are difficult to imitate and this is directly associated with performance;
this gives them competitive advantage (Almarrim & Gardiner, 2014). These resources
are both tangible and intangible (Killen et al., 2012; Almarrim & Gardiner, 2014).

This shows that project success is dependent largely on resources, which indicates that
resources are valuable to firms (Hulland et al., 2007). However, this theory is not used
in this study because, like the Resource Dependency Theory, it concentrates on
resources and focuses slightly on the knowledge and/or skills of project management.
Nevertheless, there are other components (such as stakeholders and planning among
others) of the research which are not captured. Moreover, the research is more on the
causes of project failure and its subsequent effects on key stakeholders. Therefore, the
research is more focused on stakeholders – the reasons (causes) for the failure of
Ghanaian government projects are more related to the stakeholders.

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2.9.3 Knowledge Management Theory

Knowledge Management Theory was also considered for this research; however, it was
not sufficient to capture the necessary elements in the research. Like the RBV,
organisational knowledge serves as a source of sustainable competitive advantage
(Birasnav, 2013). In other words, knowledge is a prelude to competitive advantage. In
essence, a firm’s management of knowledge is directly related to its performance, and
as such firms that are able to manage knowledge correctly have the capability to sustain
competitive advantage (Birasnav, 2013).

Due to the valuable nature of knowledge and the fact that it resides in the brains of
human beings, Birasnav advocates that firms must “develop strategies to create
organisational knowledge through leveraging employees’ knowledge” (Birasnav, 2013,
p.1). Thus, making conscious efforts to manage knowledge enhances a firm’s ability to
innovate and/or develop new products to survive in the turbulent competitive
marketplace (Birasnav, 2013).

This knowledge can be classified into two parts – explicit and tacit knowledge (Parent et
al., 2014). “Explicit knowledge is more easily articulated, written or codified, tacit
knowledge is rather inarticulate, developed with experience, and deepened through
problem solving activities” (Parent et al., 2014, p.2). On the other hand, tacit knowledge
is understood as particularly valuable due to its nature and the degree to which it is
complex, (non)codifiable, (non)teachable, system dependent, and results in observable
products (Zander & Kogut, 1995). However, Parent et al. (2014) associate the
application of the two types of knowledge with both information and knowledge.

2.9.4 Corporate Social Responsibility

Another theory that was considered is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Many
definitions and meanings have been provided by different authors; however, the theme
that runs through CSR is that organisations take responsibility for the impact that their
activities have on their customers, employees, communities and the environment in

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which they operate (Russell, 2008). In other words, CSR has to do with the voluntary
responsibility of an organisation towards its stakeholder(s). However, recent
developments by pressure groups and/or governments over the world have made CSR
go beyond the traditional understanding of the concept. Moreover, in practice, CSR
means something different to corporate managers (Dahlsrud, 2008). A review of 37
definitions of CSR by Dahlsrud (2008), for instance, shows that there are five main
dimensions to CSR: stakeholder, social, economic, voluntariness and environmental
dimensions.

In project management and in the Ghanaian government’s projects in particular, CSR

can be approached from all three dimensions provided by Dahlsrud (2008). From the
stakeholder perspective, Ghanaian government projects have a strong stakeholder
base. In most cases, they are carried out because of foreign influence and donor or
funding agencies. Typical examples have been provided in chapter one and previous
sections of this chapter. Socially, it is the social responsibility of the Ghanaian
government and performing organisations of Ghanaian government projects to provide
help and support to local areas where projects are carried out. This provides the social
well-being of citizens. Economically, it is the responsibility of the government to
implement projects to improve the economic life of the citizens as well as the country as
a whole. Voluntarily, it can be argued that the government is obliged by the constitution
to implement projects; however, this can be viewed from two different perspectives:
one, the donor perspective – this is a situation where donors volunteer to fund projects
to enhance the life of the Ghanaian populace; and two, the performing organisation
perspective – a situation whereby organisations performing government projects
voluntarily provide support to locals in the form of infrastructures, funding for schools,
among other things. The environmental dimension is very crucial in most Ghanaian
government projects (see World Bank, 2013). Most projects carried out in developing
countries have a very significant effects on locals (Campbell, 2012; Cash, 2012), and
the case of Ghana is not different. Projects in Ghana often have environmental hazards
and as such it has become very important for the government to ensure that projects,
carried out by both public and private organisations, provide the necessary support to
the immediate environment in which they operate (Amasa, 1975; Obiri et al., 2006).

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However, this theory was not used because it does not capture all the themes in the
study. For instance, it does not capture resources, communications, knowledge or skills,
among others.

2.9.5 Square Root Framework

This study is supported by the Square Root Framework. In an attempt to define what
should constitute project failure, Atkinson (1999) provides a framework called The
Square Route Framework. According to the framework, project failure should go beyond
the triangle stage. Atkinson (1999) contends that it is not sufficient to judge projects’
performance at the ‘iron triangle’ phase. Like De Lone et al. (1992), Meyer (1994), and
Toor and Ogunlana (2010), he posits that project success/failure should go beyond the
time, cost, and requirement phase to include the post-delivery phase to look at the
product phase. In view of this, Atkinson (1999) adds three more ways in which projects
should be assessed. This framework uses the Information System (IS) as an example
and argues that, apart from the ‘iron triangle’, project should be assessed on the
Information System, benefits to organisations, and benefits to the stakeholder
community. The square root framework further states that a successful IS project is one
that IS has maintainability, reliability, validity, and quality usage. The benefits to an
organisation are provided by an IS system that improves efficiency and effectiveness,
increases profitability, meets strategic goals, reduces waste, and organisational-
learning. The benefits to the stakeholder community include: satisfied users, positive
social and environmental impact, personal development, professional learning,
contractors’ profits, capital suppliers, content project team, and economic impact on the
surrounding community. The diagram below throws more light on the framework.

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Figure 11 The Square Route Framework

Source: Atkinson (1999, p.341)

Atkinson’s (1999) Square Route Framework is comprehensive and all-encompassing;

and therefore, the square root framework is adapted for this study. Thus, this study
adapts the framework by replacing the IS and benefits to organisation with sector and
national development respectively. Therefore, in this study Ghana government project
failure is examined using the six failure criteria outlined in the adapted framework
presented in the figure 12 below.

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Figure 12 The Square Route Framework for Ghanaian government projects

Iron Triangle National development

The Square
Route

Contribution to sector Benefits to stakeholders

development

Source: Author’s Construct (Adopted from Atkinson, 1999, p.341)

2.10 STAKEHOLDERS OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT

PROJECTS
In the case of Ghanaian government projects, the stakeholders are numerous; however,
for the purpose of this research, only key stakeholders are identified and used. In doing
so, Freeman (1984) and Mitchel et al.’s (1997) theories will be used as the basis for
identifying the stakeholders. This offers a wider approach for identification of
stakeholders and their attributes, which can help group the various stakeholders, in
order to know which set(s) of stakeholders are key in Ghanaian government projects.

Using the stakeholder identification methods described above, the following

stakeholders have been identified as key stakeholders of Ghanaian government
projects: the government, general public, contractors, donors, consultants, local
businesses, and financial institutions.

In government or public projects, the emphasis is more often than not placed on the

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general population, be it at the national or local level. The aim is often to create goods
and/or services in the form of ‘physical or soft’ products for the enhancement of their
livelihood. In the case of development projects, Ngacho and Das (2014) specifically
argue that they are able to create both economic wealth and social services in such
countries as well as having negative impacts and these are on the general populace. In
fact, in some projects such as urban development projects, some authors equate
stakeholders to the community or the public (Yang, 2014). Moreover, the citizens can
influence the type of project to be implemented. In Ghana, many projects have been
implemented as a result of citizens’ demands, agitations and demonstrations. A typical
example is the Eastern Corridor Road Project, which commenced in 2014 as a result of
the ultimatum given to the government by the chiefs and opinion leaders of the Volta
Region (Ghanaweb, 2014; Daily Guide, 2014). Therefore, the citizenry becomes one of
the main or key stakeholders, in that the deliverables of the project impact their life. In
addition, in most cases, especially developed countries, such projects are financed by
tax-payers’ money and, as such, the tax-payers become key stakeholders. The public,
therefore, are only interested in the impact the project will have on them (Diallo &
Thuillier, 2004).

Secondly, the government and the party in power: based on the above explanation, it
can be argued that the government is a key stakeholder in Ghanaian government
projects as the government serves as an agency executing projects on behalf of the
citizens. In addition, development projects play a key role in the growth of the economy
in developing countries by contributing to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and through
employment generation – these are regarded as the responsibility of the government to
foster through the implementation of projects (Ngacho & Das, 2014). Therefore, the
sitting government and its political party becomes a key stakeholder in the
implementation of such projects. This is echoed in the work of Amponsah (2013), which
argues that the performance of the Ghanaian government as a whole is partly
influenced by its ability to execute projects successfully and that is the reason why,
when elections are near, the government cuts ‘sods’ and commissions a lot of projects.

Thirdly, the contractors – contractors are the direct executors of Ghanaian government

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projects. Fourthly, donor agencies and countries are those who provide funding in the
form of cash and in kind. Moreover, consultants provide the technical advice and
monitoring services to executors of these projects and therefore could influence the
government’s project performance; as such, failure will affect them and vice versa. In
addition, the local community including their businesses are also key stakeholders
which could be affected by these projects. They could be impacted by the execution of
these projects. Lastly, financial institutions – they provide financial support to these
projects. In fact, in Ghana and many developing countries, financial institutions would
have to raise certificates of payment and other payment on behalf of the government.

2.11 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS

First and foremost, the literature established that Ghanaian government projects fail
(World Bank Report, 2004, 2007, Central Press, 2011; Daily Guide, 2012; GNA, 2012,
2014); however, there were no statistics that indicated the level of failure using different
failure criteria such as time, cost, deliverable, stakeholder satisfaction, contribution to
the sector where they are implemented and national development. Further, it did not
reveal which of these failure criteria perform the worst (thus, fails the worst). In other
words, in comparative terms, the literature did not show which failure criterion was the
worst.

To address this, the study intends to answer the question below:

1. Which of the failure criteria identified in the literature do Ghanaian government

projects fail most?

Secondly, the literature identified a number of factors that cause projects to fail, which
included expertise or knowledge (Ruuska & Teigland, 2009), funding (Fabian & Amir,
2011), planning (Pourrastam & Ismail, 2011), resources (Ruuska & Teigland, 2009),
communication (Ochieg & Price, 2010), scope change (Kaliba et al., 2009), and socio-
cultural setting (Maube et al., 2008). However, it was revealed that projects are unique
due to the fundamental differences that exist across them, and that no project is similar

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to another (Soderlund, 2004; Mir & Pinnington, 2014). Due to this, it was established
that the causes are often unique to certain industries and the performing countries’
systems (Amid et al., 2012), geographical location (Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010), socio-
cultural settings (Mukabeta et al., 2008). This indicates that in the case of Ghana, the
causes might be the same or different and therefore, in order to identify the causes of
Ghanaian government projects failure, the questions below would be answered:

2. What are the factors that causes of Ghanaian government projects failure and
their relative importance?

Thirdly, the literature indicated that different categories of respondents or a study’s

participants agreed on the most important factors (Frimpong et al., 2003; Fugar &
Agyakwah‐Baah, 2010). Therefore this research would find out the degree of agreement
among the study’s participants on the most important (influential) factors of Ghanaian
government projects failure. In order to do so, the following hypothesis will be tested:

Null Hypothesis = H 0 = there is a high degree of agreement among the study’s

participants on the most important factors that causes of Ghanaian government

projects failure

Alternate Hypothesis= H1 = there is a low degree of agreement among the

study’s participants on the most important factors that causes of Ghanaian

government projects failure

Furthermore, the literature indicated that project failure brings about certain effects
(Aibinu & Jagboro, 2002; Sambasivan & Soon, 2007, Pourrostam & Ismail, 2011).
However, in relation to effects on stakeholders; which this study is focused, there were
no specific prior studies that have been devoted to the project management literature.
To identify the effects, the study intends to address the following question:

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What are the effects (negatives) of Ghanaian government projects failure on key
stakeholders associated with such projects and their relative importance (severity)?

In addition, like the causes factors, the study intends to establish whether there is an
agreement among the three categories of respondents on the most important effects,
and therefore the hypothesis to test this is:

Null Hypothesis = H 0 = there is a high degree of agreement among the study’s

participants on the most important effects of Ghanaian government projects

failure

Alternate Hypothesis= H1 = there is a low degree of agreement among the

study’s participants on the most important effects of Ghanaian government
projects failure

Moreover, the study intends to identify the stakeholders that can be affected most by
Ghanaian government project failure. In order to do so, the question below will be
answered:

3. What are the most affected stakeholders of Ghanaian government projects

failure?

2.12 SUMMARY
This chapter was divided into two main sections – a review of prior literature on project
failure and causes and effects of project failure, and the theoretical framework
development for the study.

In this respect, the sub-sections began by discussing the concept of project failure. The
main rationale was to paint the broader picture of project failure within which the
Ghanaian government’s project failure framework could be better appreciated. As the
main purpose of this study centres on project failure, this sub-section provided the

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various schools of thought about what constitutes project failure by highlighting the
extent to which projects fail in the world and developing countries, and Ghana in
particular. However, because this study is about projects and project management, it
began by shedding light on what constitutes a project and project management. In
addition, the sub-section discussed in detail causes of project failure and the effects of
project failure on stakeholders by highlighting the flaws in earlier studies, and how this
research intends to bridge the literature gap.

Secondly, this sub-section has discussed in details the various theoretical blocks that
underpin this study. The section had two main purposes – firstly, it discussed the
theories upon which this study is based, by showing how they fit into the research topic
and provided justification for the choice by linking it with previous research that used the
theories. Secondly, this helped the researcher to develop a theoretical framework for
the study. The section was divided into three main sub-sections. Sub-section one
discussed stakeholder theory as the principal theory for this research. The second sub-
section began by discussing the various theories they were considered but were not
used for this research by highlighting why they were not used.

Further, the section highlighted how this applies to Ghanaian government projects. In
addition, the final theoretical framework for this study was presented – this is adapted
from Atkinson’s square route framework developed in 1999 (Atkinson, 1999). This
discussed the four main basis of assessing project performance: project baseline; time,
budget and requirement; contribution to sector where projects are implemented; and
national development and stakeholder satisfaction. This was found to be more
comprehensive and also fits into the study. Finally, research questions and hypotheses
were presented and developed respectively, based on the literature.

The next chapter discusses the methodology for the study by highlighting on the various
research philosophies, approaches, strategies, methods and sampling techniques
considered for study. Choices and reasons for each choice are provided – this does not
discuss how data was collected.

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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY

3.0 INTRODUCTION
The reason for every piece of research is to reach findings that are not biased, but
reliable and valid by conducting enquiry and investigation (Simon, 1996; Bell & Bryman,
2007; Bryman, 2012). They enable the researcher to make clarification and confirmation
of previously researched information (Simon, 1996). New relevant information on the
research topic could also be unearthed (Simon, 1996).

Research methodology is the overall approach to the research process from the
theoretical underpinning to the collection and analyses of the data (Hussey & Hussey,
1997). It is the technique used for data collection, and this involves specific instruments
such as structured interview, participant observation, questionnaire, group focus
discussions, etc. (Bell & Bryman, 2007). In essence, research methodology describes
the whole processes and procedures use in the undertaking of research investigation
(Bryman, 2012). In other words, research methodology tries to answer the following
questions: (1) why certain types of data are collected; (2) what data in itself are
collected; (3) sources of data collected; (4) how they are collected; and (5) how they are
analysed.

As the name suggests, methodology discusses all the necessary approaches,

procedures, and/or methods that the researcher uses in collating the required and
necessary data for the study being conducted. For this research, all the data and
information that the project needs in order to make justifiable conclusions come under
the methodology. The methods and techniques used for this study are identified, and
the reason for each choice is provided under this section. It comments on limitations
and delimitations of this study. In addition, the strengths and weakness of the approach

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used are discussed. The final section summarises the chapter by highlighting the main
points presented within it.

3.1 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Research philosophy is the development of knowledge in terms of its nature in a
particular field of study (Johnson & Clark, 2006; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Saunders et
al., 2012). It describes the knowledge assumptions adopted by a researcher and how
specific research approaches, research strategies and methods could be used by the
researcher for the research being carried out (Johnson & Clark, 2006; Denzin & Lincoln,
2011; Saunders et al., 2012).

Nevertheless, the particular approach adopted for any piece of research influences the
methodology to be used to carry out the research (Simon, 1996). As Simon (1996)
argues, there is never a single, standard, correct method of carrying out a piece of
research. This is because there are many ways to tackle a problem - some good, some
bad, but probably several good ways. There is no single perfect design. A research
method for a given problem is not like the solution to a problem in algebra. It is more like
a recipe for beef stroganoff: there is no one best recipe. This implies that there are
several research approaches. However, the two main philosophies identified in the
Western tradition of science are positivism (scientific) and interpretivist (anti-positivist)
(Galliers, 1991; Hussey & Hussey, 1997; Jankowics, 2000; Bryman, 2004, 2012). This
section discusses in detail the two main traditions by highlighting their strengths and
weakness. This also indicates the choice for this study, by providing a justification for
the choice. Also, other philosophical approaches are discussed in order to justify the
choice for this research.

3.2 PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS

Researchers’ philosophical assumptions of (about) human knowledge and the nature of
reality are shaped by their understanding of the research subjects – how the
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researchers adopt/adapt their research methods and how they interpret their research
findings (Crotty, 2003; Saunders et al., 2012). Thus, the research philosophies and
assumptions about the world form the bases of the methodology and methods being
used for their research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; Saunders
et al., 2012). In the main, research philosophies consist of three main assumptions:
ontology, epistemology and axiology (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Lincoln et al., 2011). The
next sub-section discusses these in detail.

3.2.1 Ontology
Ontology is mainly concerned with the nature of reality (Saunders et al., 2012, p.130).
Ontology is about how the researcher makes assumptions about how the world
functions (Lincoln et al., 2011; Saunders et al., 2012; Barmayehvar, 2013). Easterby-
Smith et al. (2012, p.18) specifically define ontology as “philosophical assumptions
about the nature of reality”. Accordingly, Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) classify ontology
into four major positions: realism, internal realism, relativism, and nominalism. The table
below provides a summary of these types of ontology. Specifically, this highlights the
nature of reality, and this nature of reality consists of two major opposing views –
objectivism and subjectivism (Creswell, 2007; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Lincoln et al.,
2011). However, both provide researchers with an acceptable, valid way to gain
knowledge (Saunders et al., 2012).

Objectivism points out that, social entities exist in reality external to and independent of
social actors in relation to their existence (Saunders et al., 2012). Thus, their existences
are not subject to the interpretation of social actors. On the other hand, subjectivism, as
the name indicates, posits that social phenomena are in fact created by social actors
through their existence (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Lincoln et al., 2011). In other words,
the existence of a phenomenon is subject to social actors and therefore reality is
subjective and this subjection is based on social actors. In essence, reality is in constant
revision – because social actors keep changing their perception (Saunders et al., 2012).

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Saunders et al. associate this with constructionism or social constructionism. This is

further discussed below in 3.4.7.

Table 3 Types of ontology

Ontology Realism Internal realism Relativism Nominalism
Truths Single truth Truths exist but There are many truths There is no truth
they are obscure
Facts Facts exist and Facts are concrete Facts depend on the Facts are all
can be revealed but cannot be observer’s human creations
accessed directly viewpoint
Source: Easterby-Smith et al. (2012)

3.2.2 Epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerns with what constitutes acceptable
knowledge and the information that researchers consider to be significant in their area
of research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). Easterby-Smith et al. (2012, p.18) specifically
define epistemology as “a general set of assumptions about ways of inquiring into the
nature of the world”. In other words, epistemology refers to the relationship between the
knower and the fact that can be known (Guba & Lincoln, 2005; Creswell, 2007;
Barmayehvar, 2013). Thus, epistemology is about how knowledge can be achieved or
attained (Saunders et al., 2012).

Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) classify epistemology into two opposing positions –

positivism and social constructionism. A full explanation is provided in sub-section 3.4,
Philosophical position.

3.2.3 Axiology
Axiology is the branch of research philosophy that is concerned with ethics, aesthetics,
and religion that play an important role in forming a part of the fundamental
philosophical aspects of paradigms (Lincoln et al., 2011). Thus, axiology studies
judgement about values (Saunders et al., 2012). This points out that people’s values are
the fundamental reasons for encouraging them to participate in a particular action
(Heron, 1996). Axiology highlights the significance of researchers’ judgements about
values and principles during the research process (Creswell, 2007). This means that

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values play an important role in any credible research that reflects the choice of
philosophical approach and this can influence the credibility of the research (Saunders
et al., 2012).

Axiology can assist researchers in viewing the embeddedness of ethics within a

paradigm and considering the role of spirituality in human inquiry within dialogue
(Lincoln et al., 2011; Barmayehvar, 2013). Nevertheless, axiology has been overlooked
in scientific investigations due to the religious elements in the findings (Lincoln et al.,
2011).

In spite of this, the broad definition of religion would embrace spirituality as the
encouragement for constructivists to be closer to participative inquirers and for critical
theorists to be closer to both (Lincoln et al., 2011).

3.3 RESEARCH PARADIGM

A research paradigm can be defined as a set of philosophical assumptions and beliefs
that serve as a guide to the researcher’s actions (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). It describes
the way in which to explore social phenomena through a particular understanding
(Saunders et al., 2012). In other words, paradigm refers to research results as a
scientific revolution from independent and creative thinking which can provide new
theories, change people’s views about the world and provide valuable questions for
scientists (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012).

Until the work of Kuhn (1962), the concept was not popular among researchers;
however, it has increased in popularity in recent years – nevertheless, there are a
number of meanings and interpretations applied to it (Mangan et al., 2004; Saunders et
al., 2012). For instance, Saunders et al. (2012, p.140-141) define a paradigm as “a way
of examining social phenomena from which particular understandings of these
phenomena can be gained and explanations attempted”. This is often used in social
science research (Saunders et al., 2012).

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3.4 PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION

Research philosophy is the assumptions about human knowledge and realities of the
world during research, and this affects how a researcher chooses a research strategy
and methods (Saunders et al., 2012). In other words, these assumptions of the nature
of reality inform or shape the methods and strategies for a particular piece of research.
There are various philosophical positions that can assist a researcher to choose the
most appropriate approach for any piece of research (Cooper & Schindler, 2001;
Barmayehvar, 2013). However, the two main research philosophies in research are
positivism and interpretivism, which epitomise two opposing views about how valid
knowledge can be achieved (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Lincoln et al., 2011).

As Simon (1996) argues, there is no one single way of conducting research; however,
the fundamental assumption is that the researcher needs to adopt certain premises that
would explain the research data (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). For example, in the natural
sciences such as medicine, the approach that is often used is based on positivism
philosophy, whilst in the social sciences such as management, interpretivism is often
used (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). In other words, one approach does not fit all, and
therefore the research needs to adopt a position that best fits the research investigation
(Simon, 1996). The next sub-sections explain the various philosophical positions; and
provide the justification for the selection of the ones used in this study.

3.4.1 Positivism
Positivism is an epistemological position that advocates the application of the methods
of the natural sciences to the study of social reality and beyond (Bryman, 2004, 2012).
Positivism is about how one can make sense to others, with an underlying assumption
that no one is perfect and, as a matter of fact, knowledge is attained by gradually
discovering more about what is out there in the world (Jankowics, 2000). Under
positivist research, the emphasis is often placed on a highly structured and systematic

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methodology in its data collection (Gill & Johnson, 1997; Saunders et al., 2012).

With this research approach, the researcher(s) is independent, and neither affects nor is
affected by the subject of the research (Remenyi et al., 1998). Research results under
this approach provide derivations of laws or law-like generalisations that are similar to
those of the physical and natural sciences (Remenyi et al., 1998) and, as a result, “it is
so embedded in our society that knowledge claims not grounded in positivist thought
are simply dismissed as unscientific and therefore invalid” (Hirschheim, 1985, p.33). Gill
and Johnson (2010) argue that only observable social reality can produce valid
knowledge and the outcome of a study that has adopted a positivism view point can
create law-like generalisations. Some authors assert that only observable phenomena
can produce credible data (Saunders et al., 2012). However, there is a growing debate
as to whether positivism philosophy is entirely suitable for social science research
(Hirschheim, 1985).

Proponents of the positivist approach often associate positivism with the use of
quantitative data (Guba & Lincoln, 2005; Lincoln et al., 2011; Saunders et al., 2012);
however, in certain circumstances qualitative research can also adopt this approach
(Simons, 1996; Saunders et al., 2003).

With this philosophical position, the important point is that the data from this study have
more reliability, as the methodology uses an existing theory to create hypotheses and
the data collected under this study can be used for statistical analysis (Cooper &
Schindler, 2011; Saunders et al., 2012). This leads to testing and re-testing of the
hypothesis – it can be confirmed, refuted or re-tested (Saunders et al., 2012). As a
result, this follows a highly structured method in order for research results to be
replicable and thus be reliable (Gill & Johnson, 2010). In the main, positivism involves
searching for the truth and this can be attained only by embarking on scientific research
with the use of scientific methods (Guba & Lincoln, 2005; Lincoln et al., 2011; Bryman,
2004, 2012).

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3.4.2 Interpretivism
On the other hand, the interpretivism approach to research is subject to consciousness
and each case is viewed as unique (Remenyi et al., 1998). Interpretivism originates
from two intellectual traditions – phenomenology and symbolic interactionism (Saunders
et al., 2012). Phenomenology is discussed in the next sub-heading, whilst symbolic
interactionism is discussed in the next chapter (the Methods chapter), under the theory
behind the development of the questionnaire for this research. The meaning of each
case is therefore subjective to the individual(s) involved in the study. This implies that
the researcher becomes an intrinsic or an integral part of the situation or case(s) being
investigated, hence, the researcher’s perceived knowledge of the situation cannot be
completely separately from the actual situation on the ground that is being investigated
(Saunders et al., 2012). This therefore implies that subjects can influence the research
findings. Here, the researcher becomes a participant or part of the study being
undertaking. However, the purpose of making an investigation is to gain sufficient
understanding of a phenomenon in order to make future predictions (Remenyi et al.,
1998).

Proponents of interpretivism advocate that researchers should understand the

differences between humans in their roles as social actors (Saunders et al., 2012).
Thus, research results are subjective and/or relative, which assumes that realities exist
in mental constructions, social and individual experiments, on a local and specific basis
rather than an objective basis (Guba & Lincoln, 2005), and therefore results may not be
able to be replicated and cannot therefore be generalised (Saunders et al., 2012).

The main distinctions between positivism and interpretivism are summarised in Table 4
below. Moreover, other research philosophies are explained in the next sub-sections.

Table 4 Research Philosophy

Positivism Interpretivism
High reliability Low reliability
Produces quantitative data Produces qualitative data
Generalises from samples to population Generalises from one setting to another
Uses large samples Uses small samples
Concerned with hypothesis testing Generating theories
Highly specific data Rich and subjective data
Artificial location Natural location
Low validity High validity

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Source: Hussey & Hussey (1997, p.54)

3.4.3 Realism
Realism is a philosophical position which comes from the positivism tradition. It takes a
scientific position to the development of knowledge (Saunders et al., 2012). Saunders et
al., 2012) argue that the essence of realism is that what the senses express about
reality is the truth. This means that reality is independent of the mind or human beings
(Mingers, 2004; Saunders et al., 2012), and that we can gain reliable knowledge about
the reality of the world (Mingers, 2004).

There are two types of realism – direct realism and critical realism. Direct realism
assumes that the real world or reality of the world is what people experience through
their senses (Saunders et al., 2012). On the other hand, critical realism assumes that
the experiences of people are the same as their sensation; that is to say, the real world
or reality is the image of things in the world (Saunders et al., 2012). Thus, “the
condition[s] for knowledge does not arise in our minds but in the structure of reality, and
that such knowledge will not be universal and ahistorical” (Mingers, 2004, p.92).
Realism posits further that the world will exist whether there is the existence of humans
or not, and therefore reality is independent of experience (which is experienced by
human) (Mingers, 2004). In other words, reality does not need the existence of humans
to experience it in order to confirm the reality of the world. Critical realism is more about
realism and empiricism, in that it combines observation with causal relationships and
none of them are adequate for knowing reality (Mingers, 2004). Realism argues that
using causal relationships to establish law-like rules is flawed, in that it could be a mere
coincidence (Mingers, 2004).

3.4.4 Pragmatism
Pragmatism assumes that “knowledge and understanding should be derived from direct
experience” (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p.344). Thus, pragmatism is “about the
purpose of science – that it is essentially a practical activity aimed at producing useful

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knowledge rather than understanding the true nature of the world” (Mingers, 2004,
p.90). Therefore, in effect, pragmatism is about resolving a problem in a specific
situation (Mingers, 2004). In other words, knowledge of the world can only be achieved
through practical experience of reality, and reality here means a specific situation and/or
problem (Saunders et al., 2012). Saunders et al. argue further that the importance of the
meaning of an idea or research findings are enshrined in its practical consequence.

Authors of pragmatism argue that there are multiple realities and diverse ways of
interpreting the world and conducting research since no point of view can convey the
entire picture (Kelemen & Rumens, 2008; Saunders et al., 2012). This implies that
research about reality of knowledge is situation-specific. They uphold that individuals
are always involved in the process of adaptation within the continuously transforming
social world (Jeon, 2004). That is, the ontological position of pragmatism is primarily
concerned with relativism or subjectivism and only slightly associated with internal
realism (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012).

3.4.5 Empiricism
This is a research philosophy that originates from the positivist tradition. It posits that
acceptable knowledge is one that uses science to explain events that can be empirically
observed; this should follow universal laws in the form of certain given conditions:
whenever event X occurs then event Y will occur (Mingers, 2004). Empiricist argues that
anything that cannot be experienced cannot be; thus, existence is dependent on
experience and therefore the ontological position is that knowledge is only achievable
on the basis of experience (Mingers, 2004). This is in sharp contradiction to the realist
view discussed in sub-section 3.4.3

3.4.6 Phenomenology
Phenomenology concerns itself with how human beings experience their worlds rather
than how physical events impacts upon one another (Foddy, 2001). Thus, it considers

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how human beings make sense of the world around them (Saunders et al., 2012). In
other words, meanings of the world are subject to how the actors in society experience
society; therefore, collection of data under this research is sensitive to the actors’
meanings of the world (Foddy, 2001). This is under the subjectivist tradition.

3.4.7 Constructionism
Constructionism, which is also called social constructionism, views reality as being
socially constructed (Saunders et al., 2012). Thus, social actors have different ways of
perceiving reality and how they interpret the reality of the world. This is because social
actors have different ways of viewing the world, which means that the reality of the
world is relative (Saunders et al., 2012). This affects social actors’ relationships with
others; thus, how social actors view and interpret the world influences how they act in
relation to other actors (Saunders et al., 2012). This keeps changing over time, when
these actors change their perception and how they interpret the world. This is under the
interpretivist tradition.

3.4.8 Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics is a research philosophy that holds the view that new ways of interpreting
textual material comprise the formal recording of written texts and spoken words
(Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). The ontological position of hermeneutics is relativism and
somewhat related to internal realism (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012).

The hermeneutics philosophy came about as a result of Protestant groups in

seventeenth-century when Germany was trying to interpret the meaning of the Holy
Bible (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). Proponents of hermeneutics such as Gadamer
(1989) assert that contemporary interpretations of earlier texts are influenced by culture,
and as such interpreters have to understand the contextual situation of the earlier texts’
writers. However, this idea has been criticised as having a gap between the author and
the reader due to temporal differences called distanciation (Ricoeur, 1981). Based on

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this argument put forward by Ricoeur, Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) argue that there may
not be any single accurate interpretation of a particular text, because writings and
readings are context-dependent.

3.4.9 Postmodernism
Postmodernism with nominalism ontology emphases the experimental movement in the
architecture and the arts, but critiques the scientific development due to its
discontinuation and divergence (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). Postmodernism was
originally publicised in Jean-François Lyotard’s (1984) book called The Postmodern
Condition; however, the term had been implicitly used since 1926 (Chia, 2008). This
philosophical position also challenges the role of industrial organisations within society;
however, it highlights the role of invisible aspects of an organisation as a dynamic
community (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012).

3.4.10 Feminism
The feminist research philosophy is nominalist ontology; this came about as a result of a
strong critique of the status and role of women in society since women’s capabilities
were being undervalued by society (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). In social science
research, feminism in terms of epistemology can be categorised into two – empiricism
and standpoint (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012).

Feminist empiricism points out that the problem is not with science itself, although the
procedures should be rectified (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). On the other hand, the
feminist standpoint, which is more of a radical view, posits that social sciences and their
methods are basically defective and therefore they require complete reconsideration
(Easterby-Smith et al., 2012).

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3.4.11 Structuration Theory

Structuration theory, which was propounded by Giddens in 1984, holds the idea of
duality of structures (Giddens, 1984 as cited by Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). Giddens
argues that structure and agency should not be pre-established because each is formed
and reformed by the other; thus, there are continual interactions between social
structure and social action (Giddens, 1984 as cited by Easterby-Smith et al., 2012).
Further, he posits that science has universal laws and it fundamentally differs from the
social sciences, which have contextually dependent laws, and therefore social scientists
should use common language rather specialist language in order to provide meaningful
and effective insights into social science (Giddens, 1984; as cited by Easterby-Smith et
al., 2012).

Table 5 Other Research philosophies

Research Philosophy Characteristics/Features

Realism  Primacy of ontology – the world would exist whether or not humans exist
 Reality exists that is independent of human thoughts and beliefs
 Knowledge is acquired through direct experience and observation
Critical realism  Condition for knowledge is based on structure reality
 Knowledge is not universal & ahistorical
 Rejection of idealism and empiricism as standalones for knowing (epistemology)
 Causal effect of the world implies existence regardless of perception, or reality exists
independent of knowledge of it
 Non-determinist causal tendencies that reside at the level of the real and not the
empirical
 Successful theories are representative of what exists
 Mode of inference is retroduction (neither inductive or deduction)
Pragmatism  Situation (problem)-specific
 Practical or experience
Empiricism  Systematic observation
 Law-like findings that follow natural regularities
 Principles of inductions
 Laws of causality
 Universal generalisation
 What can be perceived exists
Phenomenology  Existence precedes Essence
 Descriptive in philosophy
 Interpretation of phenomena or others’ perceptions
 It seeks to understand the meaning of Being rather than what can be known
 Knowledge can only be acquired through experience
 The researcher can influence the findings because s/he is part of the research.
Constructionism  There are no intransitive objects for social science to investigate
 Social phenomena are intrinsically (inherently) meaningful and knowledge does not
exist independently
 Knowledge is context-specific
 Ontology is relative and methodology is subjective
Structuration Theory  Duality of structures
 Continual interactions between social structure and social action
 Science has universal laws and it fundamentally differs from the social sciences
Feminism  The recognition of females in scientific research
Postmodernism  Ontology emphasises the experimental movement in architecture and the arts

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 The role of invisible aspects of an organisation as a dynamic community

Hermeneutics  Research philosophy that holds the view that new ways of interpreting textual material
comprise the formal recording of written texts and spoken words
 The ontological position of hermeneutics is relativism and is somewhat related to
internal realism

3.4.12 Selected Research Philosophy

The first part of the study uses a qualitative survey instrument – semi-structured
interview. This is under interpretivist philosophy, which states that research is subject to
consciousness and each case is viewed as unique (Remenyi et al., 1998). Due to the
complexity and uniqueness of business situations, business research methods’ authors
(Saunders et al., 2012) have advocated the use of interpretivist philosophy to interpret
the actions of subjects. Therefore, in line with these authors’ prescriptions and the
research objectives, the first part of this study adopts the interpretivist position. The
research intends to find out the perceptions that project management practitioners,
contractors and the general public have about the extent of project failure, and causes
and effects of project failure in Ghanaian government projects. This therefore requires
collecting opinions, views, perceptions and/or how these respondents think about the
subject matter. As a result, qualitative data in the form of perception require an
interpretivist approach. Thus, the perceptions of respondents are interpreted to develop
a theory.

The second part of this study uses a non-experimental quantitative survey evaluation
design. This is situated within the positivism research philosophy, whose fundamental
epistemological position states that genuine knowledge can only be derived from and
validated by science, and that the only knowledge is scientific knowledge, relying more
on quantitative observation data and statistical analysis (Bryman, 2004; 2012; Saunders
et al., 2012). This part of the research seeks to establish facts about the subject under
study, as stated by Saunders et al. (2012). This choice is informed by the research
objective, which wants to have statistical facts on the state of project failure, its causes
and its effects on key stakeholders of the Ghanaian government’s project failure.

However, the overall research approach is based more on an interpretivist research

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philosophy. Researchers assuming this approach hold the view that reality of the world
is not discovered, it is constructed by persons involved in the study by means of
interactions with the object under study (Creswell, 1998; Robson, 2002). Adopting an
interpretive approach to the study will enable the researcher to interact with various
stakeholders associated with Ghanaian government projects, in order to gain valuable
knowledge about causes of their failure and their negative subsequent effects on key
stakeholders associated with such projects. With the adoption of a more interpretive
position to gain knowledge about the causes and effects of Ghanaian government
projects, the relationship between the researcher and the object of study could have an
impact on the research outcome in terms of research bias (Creswell, 1998). By way of a
strategy to reduce the study bias, the author provides a reflective account on how this
was reduced under the Validity and Reliability section.

3.5 RESEARCH STRATEGY

A research strategy concerns the plan put in place by a researcher to answer the
research question(s); thus, how the research question(s) are answered by the
researcher (Saunders et al., 2012). It is the link between the research methodology and
research philosophy as well as the choice of data collection methods and analysis
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). However, the choice of research strategy for a particular
piece of research is dependent upon the research question(s) being asked and the
research objectives – implying that they are not mutually exclusive (Saunders et al.,
2012). Due to this, Saunders et al. assert that more than one strategy can be used in
one piece of research. Saunders et al. (2012) categorise research strategy into eight (8)
types:

 Experiment

 Survey

 Archival Research

 Case Study

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 Ethnography

 Action Research

 Grounded Theory

 Narrative Inquiry

The next sub-section discusses in detail the various research strategies by highlighting
the choice for this research and the justification for that choice.

3.5.1 Experiment
Experimental research strategy is a strategy which is often associated with natural
sciences and is the ‘gold standard’ against which the rigour of other research is
assessed – the root of scientific research; it follows a rigid experiment-based path
(Saunders et al., 2012). This type of research uses hypotheses rather than research
questions; thus, it tests hypotheses and therefore findings tend to be law-like. These
hypotheses are often in the form of variables; thus, dependent and independent
variables that test the relationship(s) between them (Saunders et al., 2012). Moreover,
Saunders et al. link experiment strategy to exploratory and explanatory research to
answer questions such as “‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’” (p.175).

Even though this research strategy is associated with natural sciences, it strongly
features in social science and psychological research (Saunders et al., 2012). Field
experiment may be used where the focus on variables will tend to make sense. The
main reason for using experimental design in social science research is that it is mostly
use as a yardstick against which non-experimental research is assessed (Saunders et
al., 2012).

3.5.2 Survey
Survey research strategy is popular in business and management research; it is

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associated with collection of standardised data from a sizeable population in an

economical way (Saunders et al., 2012). The tool often used in its data collection is the
questionnaire, and it is within the deductive research approach. It answers questions
such as ‘what’, ‘where’ and ‘how much’ (Saunders et al., 2012).

Survey research uses exploratory and descriptive research. This involves collection of
data on more than one case at a single point in time. Under this, data are collected in
the form of quantitative or quantifiable data in two or more variables. The purpose is to
find a pattern of association, and it is a very popular strategy among researchers due to
its perceived authoritative nature (Saunders et al., 2012). It involves the collection of
quantifiable data that allow descriptive and inferential analysis – by establishing
relationship(s) between variables and to produce models of these relationships
(Saunders et al., 2012). It produces research findings that can be generalisable to the
population of the research (Saunders et al., 2012). The major drawback of this strategy
is the nature of having standardised questions, which means that respondents are rigid
as to their responses to questions, especially in a questionnaire survey or structured
interviews (Saunders et al., 2012).

3.5.3 Archival
Archival strategy; also referred to as historical research design, investigates past events
through the collection of data from the past to either refute an issue or to confirm it
(Savitt, 1980; Gall, 2007). Thus, the study uses administrative records and documents
as its main data (Saunders et al., 2012). Information is often gathered from logs, diaries,
official records, reports, archives, maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings. However,
it is difficult to prove the authenticity of these data since they are records from the past,
and as such, it is extremely difficult to validate their authenticity (Saunders et al., 2012).
Nevertheless, archival studies help to unearth past events to confirm current and future
truths and therefore help to answer research questions about past events (Saunders et
al., 2012).

There is a debate as to whether archival studies use secondary data or primary data.

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For instance, Hakim (2000) argues that archival records in the form of administrative
records should not exhaustively be regarded as secondary data because they can be
analysed as day-to-day activities that have been recorded and therefore they become a
direct source of data for research, hence, making them primary data. However,
Saunders et al. (2012) argue that the reality is that archival data were not originally
collected for the purpose of the research in question and therefore to wholly describe
them as a primary source of data is invalid.

3.5.4 Case Study

In this approach, the researcher focuses on achieving an understanding of the
dynamics that are present within a single setting. Case studies are normally associated
with studies that have a specific location such as a community or organisation
(Saunders et al., 2012). Case study is an extensive examination of a single instance of
a phenomenon of interest (Hussey & Hussey, 1998), an intensive investigation into a
single case, and it is often complex in nature (Stake, 1995). Thus, case study is context-
specific (Saunders et al., 2012).

The use of case study as a standalone research approach did not come into
prominence until the late 1970s and early 1980s (Simons, 1996). This era also saw the
emergence of multiple case studies for research, which led to the formal acceptance of
case study research results for generalisations (Simons, 1996). Case study was not
accepted as a standalone research approach prior to this era because it was seen as
being subjective and difficult to make generalisations or was law-like in its results
(Stake, 1978; Philips, 1987; Norris, 1990), and it was associated with qualitative
research. Despite these criticisms against case study, it has now gained popularity with
researchers. This is because it makes room for participants’ perceptions and
judgements in the description and construction of understanding (Simons, 1996).
Simons (1996, p.230) argues that case study data is open and complex, and this
provides multiple perspectives, and therefore it offers opportunities for policy makers to
understand situations, which eventually helps them make better judgements. In other

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words, it can be argued that, because each case is unique, research findings can help
find solutions to specific situations or problems.

There is the temptation to associate case studies with qualitative research; however,
case studies may be suitable for both quantitative and qualitative research (Simon,
1996). A typical example is the use of quantitative analysis to study the promotion
decisions in USA government departments (Powell & Butterfield, 1997). Even though
case study can be used for both qualitative and quantitative research, proponents of
case study research design favour qualitative methods.

In the work of Scapens (1990), four types of case studies approach are identified: (i)
descriptive – the focus is on describing current practice, (ii) illustrative – the researcher
attempts to illustrate new and possibly innovative practices adopted by particular
companies, (iii) experimental – the research is on difficulties in implementing new
procedure and techniques in an organisation and evaluating benefits, and (iv)
exploratory – an existing theory is used to understand and explain what is happening. In
this research, the exploratory case study approach is used.

Some well-known studies have been conducted using case study strategy, including but
not limited to the study of factories (Buraway, 1979; Pullet, 1981; Cavendish, 1982),
management in organisations such as Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) (Pettigrew,
1985), pilferage in a single location like a bakery (Dalton, 1977), a single police service
(Holdaway, 1983), and the forensic analysis of the Seattle popular monorail authority
(Yuttapongsontorn et al., 2008). Studies into project failure in the past and present have
been conducted mostly with the use of case study (e.g. Elias et al., 2002; Abendnego &
Ogunlana, 2006; Pan & Pan, 2006; Toor & Oganlana, 2010; Fabian & Amir, 2011).

3.5.5 Ethnography
Ethnography research strategy is basically about the study of groups in an organisation,
society or an area (Saunders et al., 2012). This is within the qualitative research design
and the earliest strategy in the qualitative divide (Saunders et al., 2012). Ethnography

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studies can be categorised into three types – realist ethnography, impressionist or

interpretive ethnography and critical ethnography (Cunliffe, 2010).

With realist ethnography, researchers report exactly what they observe among groups;
thus, facts of the phenomena being investigated are directly observed and reported as
the observer sees it and it should be free from bias and personal passions about the
group under study (Saunders et al., 2012). The direct opposite of realist ethnography is
interpretive ethnography. This is where the ethnographer interprets what he or she
observes in a group and therefore it is subject to the social actor (interpreter). Under this
research, the researcher makes contextual meanings by highlighting different meanings
to a particular action of the groups under study (Saunders et al., 2012). Lastly, critical
ethnography is a type of research where the researcher assumes the position of an
advocate in order to bring about changes that will help the marginalised in society or in
an organisation, and therefore researchers try to find out the impact of the most
powerful in society on the vulnerable (Saunders et al., 2012).

3.5.6 Action Research

Action research was first used by Lewin in 1946, and management researchers have
used it extensively in subsequent research (Saunders et al., 2012). Action research
design follows a characteristic cycle whereby originally an exploratory position is
assumed – where an understanding of a problem is established and strategies are
made for some procedure of an interventionary approach (Gall, 2007). This type of
research tries to solve real organisational problems by using a collaborative approach
(Saunders et al., 2012).

The purpose of action research is to promote organisational learning to produce

practical outcomes through the identification of issues, planning action, taking action
and evaluating action (Saunders et al., 2012). Thus, action research is about “research
in action rather than research about action” (Coghlan & Brannick, 2010, p.4). This
means that action research is about taking an action to solve an organisational problem;
thus, practical research. Action research is therefore emergent and iterative (Saunders

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et al., 2012). In other words, action research goes through several stages, whilst the
research focus and questions keep changing throughout the stages depending on the
findings at each stage; thus, planning actions, actions and evaluations of actions are
made in a continuous process until the problem is solved (Saunders et al, 2012). The
evaluation serves as a guide for a new direction if necessary.

3.5.7 Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is a research strategy which uses qualitative data to develop a theory
based on an inductive research approach (Saunders et al., 2012). The theory was first
developed by Glaser and Strauss in 1967 as a response to the extreme positivism at
the time by disputing the view that social research should use a paradigm based on a
premise that theory will reveal a pre-existing reality (Saunders et al., 2012, p.185)

Grounded theory is used as a means to develop theories that explain the social
interactions and the processes in a wide range of contexts including business and
management (Saunders et al., 2012). Thus, in grounded theory research, the focus is to
develop a theory which is ‘grounded’ on the data collected from social actors gained by
social interactions (Saunders et al., 2012).

This research strategy involves continuous data collection and analysis by the
researcher throughout the research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). It also involves the use of
a coding procedure to construct analytical codes from the data collected by using a
comparative method as a means to evaluate the similarities and differences within the
data, and the writing of memos to record the relationships and gaps among the coded
categories (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Saunders et al., 2012).

3.5.8 Narrative Inquiry

Narrative research strategy, as the name implies, narrates a story in a sequential order
of events (Saunders et al., 2012). Data collection can also be in the form of observation.
This follows qualitative data collection methods such as in-depth interviews and

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personal accounts of events that actually occurred; thus, it is very specific and lies
within a specific context. This strategy uses a very small sample size but participants
are ‘typical of the sample’ (Saunders et al., 2012); thus, the sample should be able to
represent the population, even though it is small. Based on this sample nature, narrative
research often uses a purposive sampling method (Saunders et al., 2012).

This strategy is similar to grounded theory; however, narrative strategy provides

theoretical explanations but it does not follow the rigorous approach employed in
grounded theory strategy (Saunders et al., 2012). The ultimate purpose of narrative
research strategy “is to derive theoretical explanations from narrative accounts whilst
maintaining their integrity” (Saunders et al., 2012, p.190).

3.5.9 Research Strategy Used

This research uses more than one strategy, employing a combination of grounded
theory and survey strategy. As asserted by Saunders et al. (2012), a researcher can
used multiple strategies in a single study or mixed methods research. They further
argue that this often happens in business and management research. Therefore, in line
with Saunders et al.’s (2012) assertions, this research uses the two research strategies
to complement each other. This will help improve the reliability of the research findings.

These strategies have been chosen because of the research objectives and the data
collection methods used. The research objectives are to find out the extent of failure,
and the causes and effects of failure in Ghanaian government projects. Therefore, the
first part of the research collects qualitative data to explore the phenomenon under
investigation. This is based on the grounded theory strategy; thus, initial theories are
developed, which are ‘grounded’ in the data collected in the form of semi-structured
interviews. This follows an inductive research approach. A full theory is not developed,
but the theories (themes) that came out of the qualitative data analysis are used as
guide together with the literature reviewed in order to embark on the survey research
strategy.

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The second part uses a non-experimental survey in the form of a questionnaire. The
reason for this is to perform statistical analysis in order to evaluate the most significant
failure criteria, and the causes and effects of failure in Ghanaian government projects.

3.6 RESEARCH APPROACH

The research approach can be categorised into two types – deductive and inductive
(Thomas, 2004, Saunders et al., 2012). However, they can either be used as a
standalone approach during research or they can be used together in a single study
(Thomas, 2004; Saunders et al., 2012). The next sub-sections explain these two
approaches in detail by highlighting their strengths and weaknesses, and also explain
the justification for the choice of approach used in this study.

3.6.1 Deductive Approach

Deductive reasoning in a research approach assumes that valid and logical conclusions
are derived from a set of premises in that, if the conclusions become true, then all the
premises are true (Saunders et al., 2012). That is, logical conclusions are deduced from
a set of premises, which if they are true will make the conclusion true. In this reasoning,
the approach is from general to particular and therefore, this approach is built on direct
studies (Saunders et al., 2012). In other words, in the deductive approach, the
conclusions will be valid based on the premises but might not necessarily be true. In this
type of research approach, hypotheses are developed by the researcher that are linked
to a theory from academic literature; thus, from theory to data (Saunders et al., 2012).
The researcher then has to design a research strategy to test the theory (Saunders et
al., 2012). In this approach, a theory is developed or is known before being subject to a
test through the collection of data; thus, a theory is developed before data collection
begins (Saunders et al., 2009).

Moreover, this requires rigorous testing of research findings in order to confirm or deny
hypotheses; and this often leads to explanations of causal relationships between

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different variables relating to a phenomenon under investigation (Saunders et al., 2012).

This follows the positivist research philosophy tradition which is often linked to natural
sciences and scientific research (Saunders et al., 2012). This implies that research that
follows this approach must be very structured, and must be able to replicate itself, and
hence be more reliable (Gill & Johnson, 2010). This is quantitative in nature and
provides findings that are law-like (Saunders et al., 2012). In fact, Bryman (2012) and
Saunders et al. (2012) specifically associate the deductive research approach with
quantitative research.

3.6.2 Inductive Approach

Inductive reasoning indicates that the conclusion can be judged and verified through
observations as the supporting evidence since there is a logical gap in the argument
between the conclusion and the observed premises (Saunders et al., 2012). In other
words, data are collected in order to form a theory; thus, from data to theory (Saunders
et al., 2012). This means that valid and logical conclusions flow from specifics to
general – thus, conclusions made before supporting premises are used to confirm the
theory. In other words, conclusions are made based on observations or premises;
however, they might not necessarily be true (Saunders et al., 2012). In this research
approach, researchers have to collect data and generate a theory in the form of a
conceptual framework as the outcome of their data analysis (Saunders et al., 2012;
Barmayehvar, 2013). Thus, it serves as a building block for the development of a theory
(Saunders et al., 2009; Bryman, 2012). This is the direct opposite of the deductive
approach.

This approach is directly linked to social science research that follows an anti-positivism
philosophy or the interpretivist tradition (Saunders et al., 2012). An inductive research
approach uses qualitative data collection (Bryman, 2012; Saunders et al., 2012) and
diverse data collection methods in order to explore different points of view or
perceptions about a phenomenon (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008; Saunders et al., 2012).
Moreover, an inductive research approach requires relatively a small sample size of

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subjects as it deals with specific contexts and events that have already occurred
(Saunders et al., 2012), and therefore, it often uses a non-probability sampling method
for data collection.

3.6.3 Abductive Approach

An abductive approach is one that moves back and forth instead of either from theory to
data (deductive) or data to theory (inductive) (Saunders et al., 2012). In other words, in
abduction research, investigators aim to investigate a phenomenon in order to discover
themes and explain patterns to generate or modify a theory through the collection of
further data (Saunders et al., 2012). In other words, the researcher can collect data first
and, based on the data collected, the researcher can re-direct the research by collecting
other data and/or use different method(s) to collect data (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008;
Saunders et al., 2012). The table below provides a summary of the three research
approaches.

Table 6 Research Approaches

Deduction Induction Abduction
Logic In a deductive inference, In an inductive inference, In an abductive inference,
when the premises are true, known premises are used to known premises are used to
the conclusion must also be generate untested generate testable
true conclusions conclusions
Generalisability Generalising from the Generalising from the Generalising from the
general to the specific specific to the general interactions between the
specific and the general
Use of data Data collection is used to Data collection is used to Data collection is used to
evaluate propositions or explore a phenomenon, explore a phenomenon,
hypotheses related to an identify themes and identify themes and
existing theory patterns and create a patterns, locate these in a
conceptual framework conceptual framework and
test this through subsequent
data collection and so forth
Theory Theory falsification or Theory generation and Theory generation or
Verification building Modification, incorporating
existing theory where
appropriate, to build a new
theory or modify an existing
theory
Source: Saunders et al. (2012, p.144)

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3.6.4 The Selected Research Approach

This study adopts both the deductive and inductive approaches. As Thomas (2004) and
Saunders et al. (2012) argue, the two approaches can either be used on their own in
research or they can be used simultaneously; however, this will depend on what the
researcher is trying to find. Thus, the research design and the purpose of the study can
influence this decision (Thomas, 2004; Saunders et al., 2012).

The first part of the research seeks to find out from project management practitioners,
contractors and the general public of Ghana their perceptions about the subject matter.
Thus, using semi-structured interviews to explore their views on the subject matter will
help the researcher to gain in-depth data or information. In this part, a deductive
research is not appropriate as the information needed is qualitative in nature. Here,
individuals will serve as actors and therefore cannot follow a rigid and/or highly
structured methodology (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008; Gill & Johnson, 2010). However,
the limitation of this research approach lies in the credibility and genuineness of
respondents’ responses (Saunders et al., 2009). Therefore, using an inductive approach
will enable the researcher to develop new theories about the phenomenon being
investigated (grounded theory research design).

Nevertheless, as the second part of the study seeks to rank the study’s variables in
order to find out the most important variables, this requires quantitative data; hence, the
need to use a deductive approach. This also tests a set of hypotheses, using a
structured quantitative questionnaire to collect data. As stated in sub-section 3.6.1, the
deductive approach follows a rigid testing of quantitative data to make findings law-like
(Saunders et al., 2012). This will help to establish the most important failure criteria, and
causes and effects of the failure of the Ghanaian government’s projects. In fact, using a
mixed approach will bridge the gap between the deductive and inductive divide.

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3.7 THE TECHNIQUES (TOOLS) OF RESEARCH

This term refers to the particular step-by-step procedures that can be followed when
gathering and analysing data so as to bring out the necessary information (Jankowicz,
1999). Thus, data collection is one of the most important phases in conducting a
research project (Saunders et al., 2009). The following groupings have been made by
Jankowicz (1999):

 Semi-Structured/Open-Ended Techniques: these include conversation, focus

group, individual interview, and repertory grid.

 Fully-Structured Techniques: include structured questionnaire, structured face-to-

face interview, postal & telephone variants.

 Other techniques: these include repertory attitude scaling and observational

techniques & field experiments.

In order to achieve the research objectives, the study uses both questionnaire and
semi-structured interview to gather information from three groups of stakeholders of
Ghanaian government projects. The choice of the two methods is based on the
research objectives and research questions. The nature of the research topic made
these forms of data collection more appropriate. They will provide raw data about the
project and first-hand information which is from the original source (Mingers, 2004).

3.7.1 Semi-structured Interview

The reason for the choice of semi-structured interview is that it is the best fit for
exploratory studies (Mason, 2004; UK Data Service, 2014). As the study area is new,
this method is the most appropriate technique to explore the extent, causes and effects
of project’ failure in Ghanaian government projects in order to obtain possible new
themes to help shape the quantitative data collection – questionnaire. The semi-
structured interview is flexible and fluid in its structure and collection procedure – the
structure of a semi-structured interview is usually organised around an aide memoire or

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interview guide (Mason, 2004). This contains topics, themes, or areas to be covered
during the course of the interview, rather than a sequenced script of standardised
questions (Mason, 2004). Semi-structured interviewing is more flexible than
standardised methods such as the structured interview (Bryman, 2004, 2012; Saunders
et al., 2012). Even though, in this data collection method, the interviewer will have some
established general topics and/or areas for investigation, this method allows for the
exploration of emergent themes and ideas rather than relying only on concepts and
questions defined in advance of the interview (Bryman, 2004, 2012; Saunders et al.,
2012).

Moreover, this data collection method allows the researcher to ask probing questions to
obtain in-depth knowledge about the phenomenon under investigation (UK Data
Service, 2014). This gives rich and first-hand information that helps improves the
research validity (Bryman, 2004, 2012; Saunders et al., 2012). In other words, the semi-
structured interview helps the researcher to have in-depth knowledge of the subject
matter being investigated. Moreover, this study used purposive sampling, which means
that the researcher wanted to interview specific people with specific knowledge on the
subject matter, and these people are very busy, top-level managers scattered all over
the country, and therefore the best way to reach out to them was in their own time. Other
qualitative data collection methods such as focus-group discussion were considered;
however, due to time constraints, resources and availability of respondents to attend a
roundtable, this method was used.

3.7.2 Questionnaire
On the other hand, a questionnaire provides an efficient way of collecting responses
from a large sample size prior to quantitative analysis (Saunders et al. 2009, 2012).
Jankowicz (2000, p.222) asserts that “Questionnaires are particularly useful when you
want to contact relatively large numbers of people to obtain data on the same issue or
issues often by posing the same questions to all”. The large size of the sample for this
research makes the use of a questionnaire the most suitable method; the researcher will

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be able to contact a large number of respondents at one point in time through hand-
delivery of the questionnaires. With hand-delivery, the researcher can check to find out
who actually responded to the questionnaire at the collection point (Saunders et al.,
2012, p.420).

The advantage of conducting a questionnaire is that it helps the collection of data in a

pre-arranged form which can be readily analysed (Kumar, 2005). Moreover,
questionnaire is one of the most widely used data collection techniques within the survey
strategy. This choice was made based on the objectives of the research – to rank, in
order to find out the most important extent, and causes and effects of Ghanaian
government project failure.

3.8 RESEARCH DESIGN

According to Bryman (2004, 2012), research design means general orientation to the
social science research. Thus, research design is concerned with the general plan of
how a researcher goes about answering the research question(s) (Saunders et al,
2012). Specifically, it involves how the researcher intends to collect and analyse data,
by highlighting the ethical issues as well as constraints relating to the procedure
(Saunders et al., 2012). Research design can be grouped mainly into three categories –
quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods research. The next sub-sections discuss
these three research types in detail; it will also explain and justify the choice of the
design used in this research.

3.8.1 Quantitative Research

Quantitative research, in most cases, is dominated by numerical and statistical analysis
of research data (Saunders et al., 2012). It may also be characterised by the analytical
approach to the data generated and are measured numerically by using statistical
techniques (Saunders et al., 2012). Quantitative research is sometimes portrayed as
being sterile and unimaginative, but it is well suited for providing certain types of factual,

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descriptive information; the hard evidence (De Vaus, 2002). Quantitative research is
often associated with data collection methods such as questionnaires or data analysis
methods such as graphs and statistics, and this is within the positivist research
philosophy tradition (Saunders et al., 2012). Moreover, this research design is
associated with the deductive approach to research and the strategies often used under
this design are experiment and survey research (Saunders et al., 2012). Thus, it
involves the use of a questionnaire or structured interview, where variables can be
controlled to bring about standardised data (Saunders et al., 2012).

Bryman (2012, p.36) argues that a quantitative strategy “can be construed as a

research strategy that emphasises quantification in the collection and analysis of data
and (i) entails a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, in
which the accent is placed on the testing of theories; (ii) has incorporated the practices
and norms of the natural scientific model and of positivism in particular; and (iii)
embodies a view of social reality as an external, objective reality”.

3.8.2 Qualitative Research

On the other hand, qualitative research collects data in the form of words as opposed to
numbers (Bryman, 2012). This is within the interpretivist research philosophy tradition,
which is more of realist philosophy (Saunders et al., 2012). The reason is that reality or
facts are subject to the interpretation of the researcher. Even though data collected
under this research design provide rich information direct from source, such data have
been criticised for lacking generalisability, being too reliant on the subjective
interpretation of researchers and unable to be replicated in subsequent research
(Simons, 1996). Nevertheless, qualitative methods provide rich data about real-life
experience of people and situations (Simons, 1996; De Vaus, 2002). De Vaus (2002)
further argues that qualitative data enable researchers to make sense of behaviour and
to understand this behaviour within its wider context.

Bryman (2012, p.36) argues that a qualitative research strategy is construed as a

strategy where emphasis is placed on words rather than quantification of collection and

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analysis of data, and that “predominantly emphasizes an inductive approach to the

relationship between theory and research, in which the emphasis is placed on
generation of theories; has rejected the practices and norms of the natural scientific
model and of positivism in preference for an emphasis on the ways in which individuals
interpret their social world; and embodies a view of social reality as a constantly shifting
emergent property of individual’s creation”. In fact, qualitative research is often
associated with data collection methods such as interview (Saunders et al., 2012). The
figure below provides an illustration of the extent to which a particular technique or
method can be adopted.

Figure 13 The Research Design

3.8.3 Research Design Used

Based on the distinction made between qualitative and quantitative research
approaches, it can therefore be argued that it is clear that, whilst the research strategy

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of a piece of research can either be qualitative or quantitative, the research method to

be adopted is dependent on the research questions being investigated (Bryan, 2012;
Saunders et al., 2012). Thus, the decision to use a quantitative or qualitative research
design is dependent upon which one is appropriate in the light of the research
question(s) being asked. Therefore, it will be appropriate in some circumstances to
adopt both quantitative and qualitative approaches since the two can be used in a
mutually complementary manner (Bryman, 2012). Saunders et al. (2012, p.161),
specifically argue that “in reality, many business and management research designs are
likely to be combine quantitative and qualitative elements”.

Therefore, in line with the prescriptions and argument put forward by Saunders et al.,
this research adopts both quantitative and qualitative approaches – thus, a mixed
methods approach. Data collected from the semi-structured interviews in the form of
perceptions are analysed with the use of qualitative data analysis techniques. On the
other hand, data collected from the questionnaire in the form of scale, percentage,
numbers and/or statistics are analysed with the use of quantitative data analysis
techniques.

The mixed methods approach is used because the study seeks to explore the extent of
project failure, and causes and effects of the Ghanaian government’s project failure,
and also to establish the most important failure criteria, causes and effects. With
exploratory studies, qualitative data collection is appropriate whilst, in attempt to find the
most important criteria, causes and effects, quantitative data collection is appropriate.
Therefore, the research questions and objectives shaped the choice of the techniques
being used. Specifically, the first part of the study uses thematic and content analysis to
analyse the qualitative data.

Thematic Analysis: Bryman (2012, p.580) defines thematic data analysis as “a

category identified by the analyst through his/her data; that relates to his/her research
focus (and quite possibly the research question); that builds on codes identified in
transcript and/or field notes; and that provides the researcher with the basis for
theoretical understanding of his or her data that can make a theoretical contribution to

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the literature relating to the research focus”. Braun and Clarke (2006, p.6) simply define
thematic analysis as “a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns
(themes) within data”. However, others have argued that there is no clear definition of
thematic analysis and how it is carried out (Tuckett, 2005; Bryman, 2012). Nevertheless,
the focus is to categorise data into themes.

Content Analysis: Qualitative content analysis groups materials or data into categories
that represent similar meanings (Moretti et al., 2011). Thus, the research method
involves subjective interpretation of the content of textual data by systematically
classifying the data through coding and identifying themes or patterns (Hsieh &
Shannon, 2005). In other words, content analysis gives room for researchers to analyse
and interpret qualitative data in a scientific manner (Morretti et al., 2005). From the
definitions and arguments put forth by various research method theorists, it can be said
that thematic and content analyses are mutually complementary, and therefore they are
more appropriate for qualitative data analysis.

On the other hand, statistical analyses performed include Means, Spearman Rank
Correlation Coefficients, and Kruskal-Wallis H test of difference in ranks. The main
purpose of the choice of statistical analysis was to evaluate the most significant causes
and effects of Ghanaian government project failure with the view of making appropriate
recommendations to relevant stakeholders.

3.9 TYPE OF STUDY

Saunders et al. (2012) classify research studies into three types – Exploratory Studies,
Descriptive Studies, and Explanatory Studies. The particular type followed in a piece of
research is determined by the research questions being skewed (Saunders et al.,
2012). Thus, it is the research questions that shape the type of research to follow. The
next sub-sections discuss in detail what each entails and which one is being used in this
research by providing justification for the choice.

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3.9.1 Exploratory Studies

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no
earlier studies to refer to (Cuthill, 2002; Saunders et al., 2012). This study often involves
a search of literature to gain insight into the subject matter, interviewing ‘experts’ in the
subject matter, and conducting in-depth interviews or focus group interview or
discussions (Saunders et al., 2012). It follows an unstructured data collection methods
approach and, as such, it is flexible and adaptable to change in the course of studies
(Saunders et al., 2012). This change comes about as a result of the information
captured in the data collected, and as such an exploratory study is not often used as a
standalone study but as a preliminary study (Saunders et al., 2012).

The main aim is to gain insights into a phenomenon that can lead to further investigation
(Cuthill, 2002; Saunders et al., 2012). In other words, it is a preliminary study to the
main study to gain useful information on the phenomenon of interest (Saunders et al.,
2012).

3.9.2 Descriptive Studies

A descriptive research design is used to attain information regarding the current state of
the phenomena and to describe ‘what exists’ with respect to variables or conditions in a
situation (Anastas, 1999). It answers questions of who, what, when, where, and how
associated with a particular research problem, and this helps to gain an “accurate profile
of events, person or situations” (Saunders et al., 2012, p.171).

It is normally used as a pre-cursor to quantitative research designs, the general

overview giving some valuable pointers to what variables are worth testing quantitatively
(Anastas, 1999). In other words, it serves as a prelude to further investigation; thus, it is
used to gather initial information that can be used to test quantitative research.
Saunders et al. (2012) describe this as descript-explanatory studies. In essence, a
descriptive study often serves as a stepping stone to an explanatory study and as such
management tutors are often wary of it being used as a standalone research, and
therefore demand further studies that answer questions such as … “but so

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what”(Saunders et al., 2012, p.171). Thus, describing what actually exists is not
considered as enough by management tutors and therefore this type of study should be
considered as a “means to an end rather than an end in itself” (Saunders et al., 2012,
p.171).

3.9.3 Explanatory Studies

They study a situation or a phenomenon with variables to find out about the
relationships; thus, explanatory studies are directly associated with studies that intend
to establish causal relationships between variables (Saunders et al., 2012).Thus, this
type of research studies variables in order to explain the relationships that exist
between or among various variables under investigation. It often uses statistical tests
such as correlation to establish clearer relationships that exist between variable
(Saunders et al., 2012).

3.9.4 Type of Study Used

Based on the explanation of the three types of studies and in line with Saunders et al.’s
(2012) advocacy for the use of combined study types in one piece of research, this
research uses both exploratory and explanatory types to answer the research aims. The
three main research questions are: (1) the extent of project failure in Ghanaian
government projects; (2) the causes of Ghanaian government project failure; and (3) the
effects of these failures on the key stakeholders of Ghanaian government projects.
Even though causes of project failure have been extensively researched, government
project failure has only been researched with the use of single cases; thus, to the best
of my knowledge, there is no prior study to refer to. In addition, in relation to project
failure and its subsequent effects on stakeholders, this is the first study of its kind.
Earlier studies on effects of project failure are rare and the few available have been
devoted to project completion (the project in question). This makes exploratory design
the most appropriate for gathering initial data that can help the researcher gain insight
into the phenomenon under investigation. This will provide information needed to

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statistically evaluate the scale of the subject matter. The second part of the research
therefore uses a non-experimental research design, which is under the explanatory
study type.

3.10 SAMPLING METHOD

Social and behavioural sciences methodologists often place research sampling
methods into two groups – probability and non-probability (purposive) (Ross, 2005;
Saunders et al., 2012); however, there is a third, which is a combination of the two main
sampling methods, and this is called mixed methods (MM) sampling (Teddlie & Yu,
2007). Nevertheless, the choice of the sampling method is dependent upon the
research question and/or objective(s) of the study (Teddlie & Yu, 2007; Bryan, 2012,
Saunders et al., 2012). The next sub-headings explain these types of sampling
strategies in detail by stating which one is appropriate for this study and providing
justification for the choice.

3.10.1 Probability Sampling

Probability sampling techniques are predominantly used in quantitatively-oriented
studies and they involve “selecting a relatively large number of units from a population,
or from specific subgroups (strata) of a population, in a random manner where the
probability of inclusion for every member of the population is determinable” (Tashakkori
& Teddlie, 2003a, p.713). In other words, in probability sampling, every member of the
population has the chance of being selected for the study and as such findings from
such studies are representative of the entire population; hence, they are generalisable
(Teddlie & Yu, 2007; Bryan, 2012, Saunders et al., 2012). Probability sampling is often
associated with survey research strategies where inferences can be made from the
population (Saunders et al., 2012).

Probability sampling can be grouped into four types – simple random, systematic
random, stratified random and multi-stage cluster. In simple random sampling, each

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member of a clearly defined population has an equal chance of being selected to

represent the population (Ross, 2005; Teddlie & Yu, 2007).However, this sampling
method is rarely used in practical social research, and the reasons are that: (a) the
selection and measurement of individual population elements is often too expensive;
and (b) certain complexities may be introduced intentionally into the sample design in
order to more appropriately address the objectives and administrative constraints
associated with the research (Ross, 2005).

In stratified sampling, the population is divided into sub-groups called strata so that
each member will belong to a stratum, and then units or members are randomly
selected from those strata (Ross, 2005; Teddlie & Yu, 2007). Stratification sampling is
often employed in the preparation of sample designs due to its ability to generally
provide an increased accuracy in sample estimates without incurring substantial costs
(Ross, 2005). However, this could lead to proportionate or disproportionate sample
design (Ross, 2005).

Systematic sampling is where a researcher selects specific numbers that falls within the
population (Bryan, 2012). Thus, units are directly selected from a sample frame without
resorting to a table of random numbers (Bryan, 2012). For instance, the tenth person
who passes by is selected for the study.

Multi-stage cluster sampling is sampling where the unit is not an individual but a group
(cluster) that occurs naturally in the population, such as neighbourhoods, hospitals,
schools, or classrooms; researchers often use this sampling strategy if they want to
generate a more efficient probability sample in terms of monetary and/or time resources
(Teddlie & Yu, 2007). In other words, due to time constraints and resources in relation
to the large size of a population as well as the distance, the researcher will not sample
individual units, which might be geographically spread over great distances; instead the
researcher samples groups (clusters) that occur naturally in the population (Teddlie &
Yu, 2007; Bryan, 2012). Cluster sampling is sometimes undertaken as an alternative to
simple random sampling in order to reduce research costs for a given sample size; thus,
cluster sampling does not prevent the usage of random sampling but groups elements

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of a population before applying random sampling (Ross, 2005).

3.10.2 Non-Probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling; which is also called purposive by other researchers (Teddlie
& Yu, 2007), is a sampling strategy where units from a population are specifically
selected for a study (Teddlie & Yu, 2007; Bryan, 2012; Saunders et al., 2012). A non-
probability sampling strategy involves selecting certain units or members of a population
“based on a specific purpose rather than randomly” (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003a,
p.713). That is to say, this purpose must be relevant to the objectives of the research.
Non-probability sampling provides in-depth knowledge about a phenomenon under
investigation and it is often associated with qualitative research (Teddlie & Yu, 2007;
Bryan, 2012; Saunders et al., 2012).

Non-probability sampling can be grouped into four main types – quota, purposive,
volunteer and haphazard (Saunders et al., 2012). Quota sampling falls under the basic
mixed methods sampling tradition, where stratified and purposive techniques are
followed (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). Here, a small number of cases are typically generated
through the characteristics of purpose for the study; however, there is little or no strict
procedure on how the elements in each stratum are selected (Ross, 2005).

Purposive sampling is a strategy where members of a population are selected on the

basis of a specific purpose or reason which will help the researcher achieve the aims
and objectives of the research (Teddlie & Yu, 2007; Bryan, 2012). Purposive sampling,
which is also known as judgmental sampling, is also based on the premise that the
researcher is able to select elements which represent a ‘typical sample’ from the
appropriate target population (Ross, 2005).

In volunteer sampling, as the name implies, units or members of a particular population

are invited to participate in a study voluntarily; however, they must possess the certain
characteristics relevant to the study.

Lastly, haphazard sampled, also called convenience sampling is where units or

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members of a population under investigation are selected based on convenience to the

researcher. However, this sampling suffers from representation (Saunders et al., 2012).

Table 7 Probability and non-probability sampling

Dimension of contrast Non-probability Probability
Other names Purposeful sampling Scientific sampling
Non-probability sampling Random sampling
Qualitative sampling Quantitative sampling
Overall purpose of sampling Designed to generate a sample Designed to generate a sample that
that will address research will address research questions
questions
Issue of generalisability Sometimes seeks a form of Seeks a form of generalisability
generalisability (transferability) (external validity)
Rationale for selecting To address specific purposes Representativeness
cases/units related to research questions The researcher selects cases that
The researcher select cases from which are collectively representative
she of the population
or he can learn the most
Sample size Typically small (usually 30 cases Large enough to establish
or fewer) representativeness (usually
at least 50 units)
Depth/breadth of information Focus on depth of information Focus on breadth of information
per case/unit generated by the cases generated by the sampling units
When the sample is selected Before the study begins, Before the study begins
during the study, or both
How selection is made Utilises expert judgement Often based on application of
mathematical formulas
Sampling frame Informal sampling frame Formal sampling frame typically
somewhat larger than sample much larger than sample
Form of data generated Focus on narrative data Focus on numeric data
Numeric data can also Narrative data can also
be generated be generated
Sources: Adapted from Teddlie and Yu (2007, p.84)

3.10.3 Mixed Methods (MM) Sampling

MM sampling strategies involve the selection of units or members for a piece of
research by using both probability sampling (to increase external validity) and non-
probability (purposive) sampling strategies (to increase transferability) (Teddlie & Yu,
2007). In this type of sampling strategy, two sampling strategies are used to
complement each other; thus improving research validity and reliability (Teddlie & Yu,
2007). In other words, it bridges the gap between the probability and non-probability
divide. That is to say, the shortcomings of the two main traditions of sampling methods
are bridged with the use of a mixed methods approach. Teddlie and Yu (2007, p.89)
group MM sampling strategy into five (5) types:

 Basic MM sampling
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 Sequential MM sampling

 Concurrent MM sampling

 Multilevel MM sampling

 Sampling using multiple MM sampling strategies

Basic MM sampling comprises the use of stratified random sampling techniques used
together. In other words, in this sampling technique, the sample population is divided
into strata and then random sampling is applied.

In a sequential sampling strategy, one of the two strategies is used together in a

sequential order; thus, one precedes the other. That is, one sampling method from the
probability sampling tradition is carried out first and one from non-probability sampling
follows and vice versa, depending on the aim of the research. In this tradition, the data
findings from the preceding sampling are used to inform or shape the selection of the
next sampling units (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). Thus, it either moves from quantitative to
qualitative or from qualitative to quantitative strand as Teddlie and Yu put it.

Concurrent MM sampling involves the use of mixed methods simultaneously; thus, both
probability and non-probability techniques are used separately at the same time. Unlike
the sequential type, one method does not inform the other; rather, they are used to
validate each other (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). In other words, one technique does not set
the stage for the other.

Multilevel MM sampling involves the use of probability and non-probability at different

levels of the study (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003a) and it is commonly used in a “context
or settings in which different units of analysis are ‘nested’ within one another, …, and
various types of bureaucracies” (Teddlie & Yu, 2007, p.89).

Sampling using multiple MM sampling strategies involves the use of more than one MM
sampling technique. This typology is a simplified form of the range of MM sampling
strategies that really exist. For example, concurrent and sequential MM sampling

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procedures are based on design types, and those design types are based on qualitative
and quantitative strands (QUAL and QUAN) (Teddlie & Yu, 2007).

3.10.4 Sampling Method Used

Due to the use of two data collection methods (semi-structured interview and
questionnaire), each method requires separate sampling techniques. Specifically, this
research uses a mixed methods sampling technique by following a sequential sampling
approach. In line with a prior study (Nieto et al., 1999), this research follows the
qualitative-quantitative strand as described by (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). The reason for this
choice is that the first part of the research is an exploratory study, which seeks to gather
in-depth information about the phenomenon under investigation and therefore there is
the need to gather qualitative data (non-probability) in the form of perceptions and
views.

Moreover, as earlier stated in the previous chapter, the study seeks to find out about the
relative importance of the extent of failure, causes and effects, and therefore the need
to apply a quantitative sampling strategy (probability) is the most appropriate.

3.10.5 Sampling Frame

A sampling frame is the process of selecting a sample from a well-defined target
population and this includes listing of elements in the population (Ross, 2005). In other
words, this is a complete list of all the cases or elements in the population from which
the sample for the study can be drawn (Saunders et al., 2012). This follows a well-
structured procedure, so that the listing will not be contaminated with the excluded
population (Ross, 2005). It is directly associated with probability sampling, as, without it,
probability sampling is not possible (Saunders et al., 2012).

In this study, the first part (semi-structured interview) will be selected using information
captured in the sampling population list. How this was actually carried out is presented
in the next chapter.

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The second part uses a probability sampling method (simple random). Probability
sampling techniques are predominantly used in quantitatively-oriented studies and they
involve “selecting a relatively large number of units from a population, or from specific
subgroups (strata) of a population, in a random manner where the probability of
inclusion for every member of the population is determinable” (Tashakkori & Teddlie,
2003a, p.713). In other words, in probability sampling, every member of the population
has the chance of being selected for the study and as such findings from such studies
are representative of the entire population; hence, they are generalisable (Teddlie & Yu,
2007; Bryan, 2012, Saunders et al., 2012). Probability sampling is often associated with
survey research strategies where inferences can be made from the population
(Saunders et al., 2012). In this research, survey research method in the form of
questionnaire is used to collect data from the general public, PMP and contractors and
therefore, this is the best fit technique for the data collection. This is further discussed in
the next chapter under population and sampling selection.

Specifically, this is taken from members of professional associations and institutions

such as the Ghana Institute of Engineers, Ghana Association of Managers, Association
of Building and Civil Engineering Contractors of Ghana and Chartered Institute of
Project Management – Ghana. This is to select the project management practitioners
and contractors. The probability sampling size was calculated using Yamane’s formula
(Yamane, 1967, as cited by Israel, 1992) to determine the size of the sample.

Moreover, the general public is also included in the sampling frame. Due to the difficulty
in identifying the sampling frame and for practical reasons, for the general public, a
quota sampling technique is chosen. Quota sampling falls under the basic mixed
methods sampling tradition, where stratified and purposive techniques are followed
(Teddlie & Yu, 2007). Here, a small number of cases are typically generated through the
characteristics of purpose for the study; however, there is little or no strict procedure on
how the elements in each stratum are selected (Ross, 2005). In addition, it is
economically and conveniently viable to use the method for a general population
sampling.

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3.11 SUMMARY
This chapter has discussed in detail the methods that were used for this research and
why the choices were made out of all the methods that are available. It has also looked
into the philosophical assumptions underlying this study by discussing all the possible
methods and philosophies that could have been used.

The research strategies that are available have also been discussed in detail, together
with the choices made for this research – why a particular one(s) was chosen and
others rejected has also been discussed. In all, a semi-structured interview and
questionnaire data collection method has been discussed; this choice is based on the
research aims and objectives. The research follows the interpretivist and positivist
philosophical tradition; however, the entire research is of the interpretivist approach.
The next chapter discusses the methods that were followed in the actual data collection
and data analysis.

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CHAPTER FOUR
METHODS

4.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses in detail the various methods used for this research. As the
name implies, this looks at the step-by-step procedure used in gathering data for the
study. The ultimate purpose is to show how the researcher gathered information to
arrive at research findings and conclusions.

Method is about how the research was conducted; in other words, the actual steps
followed to collate data and analysed. This study used two data collection methods,
semi-structured interview and questionnaire. The semi-structured interview was used to
gather the qualitative data and the questionnaire was used to gather the quantitative
data from the general public, contractors and project management practitioners. This
study used a mixed methods strategy – a combination of qualitative and quantitative
approaches.

Semi-structured interview: this gathers qualitative data. A purposeful selection was

made. This sampling approach uses non-probability sampling techniques. As described
by Patton (2002, p.40), in this sampling approach, there is far less emphasis on
generalising from sample to population and therefore greater attention is paid to a
sample ‘purposely’ selected for its potential to yield insight from its illuminative and rich
information sources. The selection was based on the criteria that those being selected
could have a certain level of knowledge in the subject area being investigated so
information gathered would be reliable.

Questionnaire: this uses random sampling, which is a probability sampling technique.

The reason for this strategy is that one of the objectives of the research is to find
statistical findings to establish which of the failure criteria, causes and effects are more
important; therefore, a sample was required that could represent the sample population.

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However, because the research population is large and there is a very large
geographical distance between them (Teddlie & Yu, 2007; Bryan, 2012), the study used
a simple sampling technique, which is within the probability sampling tradition.

4.1 POPULATION AND SAMPLING SELECTION

In this research, three sets of stakeholders were selected to participate in the collation
of the data – the general public, contractors, and project management practitioners.
Contractors are stakeholders who are directly involved with the implementation of the
projects. They will therefore be able to give first-hand information on why government
projects fail in Ghana.

Like the contractors, Project management practitioners are also consulted in this
research. Project experts possess the technical know-how on project management and
can therefore provide expert opinion about the subject matter.

The general public are the beneficiaries of government projects and they concern
themselves with the impact the project would have on them (Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010);
hence, they possess knowledge about how failure affects them. Further, the purpose of
including them was to find out their perception and not necessarily their technical know-
how on projects management implementation. Further details about the inclusion of the
general public have been presented in chapter under identification of key stakeholders.

Specifically, the PMP and contractors were taken from the Ghana Business Directory
(Project management services and contractors list) (Ghana Business Directory, 2014)
and members of professional associations and institutions such as the Ghana Institute
of Engineers, Ghana Association of Managers, Association of Building and Civil
Engineering Contractors of Ghana and Chartered Institute of Project Management –
Ghana. Companies that appeared in more than one list had only one representation.
Further, after further auditing, all those companies on the Ghana Business Directory list
which were not actively operating were eliminated. To determine this, the researcher
checked their websites to find out all the necessary information about each one. The

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researcher then called the companies that he doubted were operational. This was
based on the researcher’s knowledge as a native of the country and also as someone
who has conducted similar research at Masters’ degree level. After the audit, 722 were
left and were used as the population size. Further, to improve reliability, only individuals
who were working within companies were targeted. The reason is that individual
members of the associations may not be practitioners and therefore may not be able to
provide the needed information.

Yamane’s 1967 formula was adapted to determine the representative sample size for
the PMPs and Contractors. The researcher assumed a normal distribution in the
responses of firms in relation to their operational activities in the country. Based on the
formula, there were 722 registered companies (N = 722). At an acceptable 95% level of
confidence, there is a statistical z value of 2 (z = 2) and with an error limit of 10%.
Adapting Yamane’s formula, the required sample for the contractors and PMPs is
determined as:
𝑁 722 722
𝑛= = =
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2 1 + 722(0.01)2 8.22

722
𝑛= = 87
8,.22

Where,
n = required response

e2 = limit of error

N = sample size

This means that the lowest acceptable number of responses must be 87 at a 95% level
of confidence with level of error at 10%. However, to strengthen the validity, the
researcher distributed 300 questionnaires to the PMP and contractors.

As part of the administered survey, there were159 responses from the individuals within
the companies, which is above Yamane’s required response threshold. As a result of
the sample size exceeding Yamane’s estimate, the researcher adopted the following

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formula to determine the confidence level and limit of error for the actual responses
received.

𝑧 2 𝑝(1 − 𝑝) 𝑧 2 𝑝(1 − 𝑝) 22 0.22(0.78) 22 0.22(0.78)

𝑒2 − = −
𝑛1 𝑁 159 722

4(0.2)(0.78) 4(0.2)(0.78)
𝑒2 = −
159 722

𝑒 2 = 0.00392453 – 0.0009506925

𝑒 = √0.002974

𝑒 = 0.0545

e = 0.055 * 100 = 5.5

p = actual response as a percentage of population

N = population surveyed
e = error limit
n1 = actual response received

The results show that a 22% response rate of the total population of 722 at a 95%
confidence level has an error limit of approximately 5.5%. In social science research, a
95% confidence level with an error limit of 10% is acceptable (Yin, 2009). Therefore,
having a lower error margin of 5.5% increases the validity of the data.

On the other hand, the general public was selected using simple random sampling. For
the sample size, due to the large population of Ghana, Yamane’s formula could not be
used and therefore quota sampling is applied here – thus, 200 samples (20 for each of
the 10 regions in Ghana) were used. The researcher has resided in the country since
childhood and has also conducted previous research in the country at Master’s degree
level. Further, it is practically and economically impossible to involve every member of
the general public. Moreover, the use of 20 samples for each region was to ensure

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regional balance and improve representation (Saunders, 2012), as it was assumed that
people from different regions might have different perceptions about the subject matter.
Moreover, this is a validating method (validating the data from the interview) and
therefore the researcher assumed that this number is appropriate.

4.2 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

The data collection procedure is divided into two main stages – initial exploratory data
collection in the form of semi-structured interviews with the general public, contractors
and project management practitioners, and questionnaire survey. Based on the lists,
10participants were selected for the interviews based on their knowledge and assumed
ability to provide valuable information on project failure. Interviews were conducted from
July to September 2013 at homes, offices and construction sites, and were all audio-
recorded. All interviews were conducted by the researcher in English, the official
language in Ghana (Edu-Buandoh & Otchere, 2012; World Factbook, 2015); however,
respondents were given the chance to express themselves in their local language if they
wished; nevertheless, none spoke in a local language.

Based on the literature review and interview information, a questionnaire was developed
for the survey. Initial calls and emails were made to the respective companies and
individuals. In total, 500 questionnaires were distributed to companies and individuals
who were willing to participate in the research through emails and in person. Out of the
500 questionnaires sent out, 270 were returned and of these 265 were fully completed
and good for analysis.

In this research, the questions in the questionnaire were designed based on the three
different approaches advocated by Bourque and Clark (1994, as cited by Saunders et
al., 2012). These are:

(a) adoption of questions used in other questionnaires;

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(b) adaption of questions used in other questionnaires; and

(c) developing your own questions

Each question shows where it was adopted/adapted from and those that were
developed by the researcher. This can be seen in Appendix B.

This was achieved by employing the symbolic interactionism theory, bearing in mind
that the respondents need to be able to understand the purposes and
presumptions/knowledge of what the questions seek to find (Foddy, 2001). Symbolic
interactionism holds the view that social actors are in a continual process of interpreting
the social world around us in that we interpret the actions of others with whom we
interact and this interpretation leads to adjustment of our own meanings and actions
(Saunders et al. 2012).

According to Foddy (2001), in order to collect data that the researcher actually needs in
a survey (valid data) – thus, quantitative and qualitative data, more especially,
qualitative – four things need to be in place. First of all, the interviewer, which is often
the researcher, needs to encode the questions by taking into account her or his own
purposes, and the presumptions/knowledge about the respondent’s
presumptions/knowledge about her/himself (i.e. the interviewer). Secondly, the
respondent should be able to decode the question, taking into account her/his own
purpose and presumption/knowledge about her/himself (i.e. the respondent). Thirdly,
the respondent should encode the answer taking into account her/his own
presumptions/knowledge about the interviewer and perceptions of the interviewer’s
presumptions/knowledge about her/himself (i.e. the respondent). Lastly, the interviewer
should decode answers taking into account her/his own presumptions/knowledge about
her/himself (i.e. the interviewer). A diagram illustration of symbolic interactionism is
provided in the figure below.

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I II

Interviewer Respondent

Encodes question, taking into Decodes question, taking into account

account own purpose, and own purposes and
presumptions/knowledge about the presumptions/knowledge about the
respondent, and perceptions of the interviewer, and perception of the
respondent’s interviewer’s presumptions/knowledge
presumptions/knowledge about self about self (i.e. the respondent)
(i.e. the interviewer)

IV III

Interviewer Respondent

Encodes answer, taking into account

Decodes answer, taking into
own presumption/knowledge about the
account own
interview and perceptions of the
presumptions/knowledge about the
interview’s presumptions/knowledge
respondent and perceptions of the
about self (i.e. the respondent)
respondent’s
presumption/knowledge about self
(i.e. the interviewer)

Figure 14 A model of the symbolic interactionist view of question-answer behaviour

Source: Foddy (2001, p.22)

4.3 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Validity and reliability, which often determine the robustness and the quality of the study
(Saunders et al., 2012) are often confused as meaning the same. Even though the
meanings overlap, there are distinctions among them. This section explains how validity
and reliability of the data for the research were ensured.

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4.3.1 Validity
Validity answers the question as to whether a research instrument such as a
questionnaires or interview actually measures what it was intended to measure or
whether its scores have meaning for a participant (Kouzes & Posner, 1995; Saunders et
al., 2012). Saunders at al. (2012) call this measurement validity. Leedy and Omrod
(2004, p.98) define research validity as “the extent to which the instrument measures
what it is supposed to measure”. Validity is dependent on accuracy and precision;
accuracy is the degree to which bias is absent from a sample, and precision is
measured by the standard error of estimate – a type of deviation measurement, where
the smaller the standard error of estimate, the higher the precision of the sample
(Cooper & Schindler, 2001).

Researchers often refer to questionnaire validity as content validity, criterion-related

validity and construct validity (Bloomberg et al., 2008). “Content validity refers to the
extent to which the measurement instrument questions in the questionnaire provides
adequate coverage of the investigative questions” (Saunders at al., 2012, p.429).
Saunders et al. argue that there are several ways in which this adequate coverage can
be made. One is the use of literature review; the other is the use of a panel to ensure
that the questions in the questionnaire are ‘essential’, ‘useful but not essential’ or ‘not
necessary’. Criterion-related validity, which is also known as predictive validity, refers to
the ability of the measures (questions) to make accurate predictions (Saunders et al.,
2012). Lastly, construct validity is the extent to which measurement questions actually
measure the presence of those constructs the researcher intended them to measure.

To ensure the research findings are valid, the researcher used the literature review as a
guide. As discussed in the literature review, the reviewed literature is directly related to
the research objectives and therefore using this as a guide helped obtain the necessary
data from the respondents. This ensures that the research instruments being used are
appropriate for this study and that the semi-structured interview and questionnaire
questions reflect the topic under study (Saunders et al., 2012). The research
instruments (questionnaires, interview questions) are reviewed by experts in the field,
as Huck and Cormier (1996) and Saunders et al. (2012) advocate. Further, the study’s

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data instruments have been adopted from previous studies, with minimal alterations
made to meet the requirements of this research, as indicated in Appendix B
(questionnaire).

4.3.2 Reliability
Reliability is the degree to which a result can repeat itself over time. In other words
reliability refers to consistency (Saunders et al., 2012; Bryan, 2012). Joppe (as cited in
Golafshani, 2003, p.1) defines reliability as: “…The extent to which results are
consistent over time and an accurate representation of the total population under study
and if the results of a study can be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the
research instrument is considered to be reliable”. Reliability of a measurement
instrument is the extent to which it yields consistent results when the characteristic
being measured has not changed (Leedy & Omrod, 2004). The ultimate test of a sample
design is how well it represents the characteristics of the population it was intended to
represent (Cooper & Schindler, 2001). In other words, if a test can be repeated more
than once and the results are the same, then that research result can be classed as
reliable. For example, a reliable questionnaire is one that will give the same results or
answers from the same sample over different periods.

To reduce bias so that the findings can be reliable, the study does not use specific
projects or periods. In Africa, and Ghana in particular, people give views that are
partisan, so using a particular government project will imply that a particular political
party will be associated with the project. Therefore, people’s opinions about government
project failure are likely to reflect their political loyalties to the party who undertook the
specific project. Successive general elections results over the years indicate that some
regions are patriotic to certain political parties (Ghanaweb, 2015).

Moreover, both data collection were piloted before the full collection of data occurred.
Saunders (2009, p.394) argues that “Prior to using your questionnaire to collect data it
should be pilot tested…the purpose of the pilot test is to refine the questionnaire so that
the respondents will have no problem answering the questions and there will be no

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problem in recording the data”. In other words, the questionnaire is pre-tested to

establish that the questions are fully comprehensible and are understood by the
respondents, in order to ensure the soundness and suitability of the research
instruments (Sekaran, 2003).

Prior to the full interview, initial pilot interviews were conducted to ensure that the
interview question guide was appropriate for the full interview. This consisted of three
(3) participants (one from each category of participants). The pilot interview took place
in June 2013. Secondly, prior to the distribution of the questionnaire, 15 questionnaires
were piloted in June 2014. By pre-testing, the researcher followed the steps that Foddy
prescribes must be followed in order to ensure the research questions’ validity and
reliability (Foddy, 1994). Moreover, this is also in conformance with Mitchell’s (1996, as
cited by Saunders et al, 2012) three common approaches to ensuring reliability of
questions: tests re-test, internal consistency and alternative form.

Further, data from the pilot interviews were analysed to ascertain if there was a need to
make any necessary amendments. After the analysis of the pilot interview, some
questions were eliminated whilst others were added. In the questionnaire pilot, the
analysis of the 15 questionnaires was made using Cronbach alpha. Cronbach’s alpha
allows the researcher to measure the reliability of different variables. It consists of
estimates of how much variation in scores of different variables is attributable to chance
or random errors (Selltiz et al., 1976). As a general rule, a coefficient greater than or
equal to 0.7 is considered acceptable and a good indication of construct reliability
(Nunnally, 1978). All the necessary amendments were made to ensure that the
questionnaire is clear and understandable to respondents. The full analysis is presented
in the next chapter.

4.4 PROTECTION OF HUMAN SUBJECTS

The participants in this research were volunteers recruited by the researcher; they were
informed of the purpose of the study through the invitation to participate letter and

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verbal explanations. The researcher kept the highest standard of ethics at all times
during engagement with the research participants and also conformed to Liverpool John
Moores University’s Ethical Policy.

As recommended by Cooper and Schindler (2001), the study was specially designed so
that participants would not suffer deliberate physical harm, discomfort, mental distress,
humiliation or loss of privacy. In order to safeguard against the above concerns, when
contacting the study’s participants, the researcher communicated the study’s benefits,
taking care not to exaggerate or understate them. In order to be fully knowledgeable
and cognisant of ethical responsibilities and concerns related to this research effort, the
researcher adhered to LJMU’s relevant procedures, as documented in Appendices D
and E.

4.5 DATA CLEANSING AND MANAGEMENT

The data collected were cleansed by removing incomplete questionnaires and those
that the researcher deemed not usable for analysis. The procedure used was that the
researcher personally went through all data that were received to ensure that all parts of
the questionnaire had been correctly filled in. Especially, prior to the analysis, the
survey data were screened in an effort to separate biased inputs and/or any other
inconsistencies contained in the collated data. After careful examination, numerous
entries were removed as being biased or substantially incomplete. Even though the
participants’ understanding of the questions cannot wholly be determined, the
researcher deemed it ethical to contain and/or control certain entries from the data set
in order to minimise the impact of an ambiguous interpretation, as discussed earlier on
in this chapter (under validity and reliability). Accordingly, a couple of survey respondent
data sets were discarded during the data-cleansing procedure. Overall, the cleansing
process was carried out in such a way that maximised the data present in the data set
whilst minimising the potential errors in the sampling techniques used.

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4.6 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

This section discusses the procedure that was used to analyse the data collected. This
is in two parts – the first part discusses the procedure that was followed in analysing the
semi-structured interview (qualitative analysis) and the second part relates to the
questionnaire (quantitative analysis) procedure that was followed. Specifically, data
collected from the semi-structured interview in the form of perceptions are analysed with
the use of qualitative data analysis technique(s). On the other hand, data collected from
the questionnaire in the form of scale, percentage, numbers and/or statistics are
analysed using quantitative data analysis techniques.

4.6.1 Qualitative Analysis

This sub-section discusses in detail the procedure that was followed in the analysis of
the data collected from the semi-structured interview. The ultimate purpose is to
demonstrate how the various themes were arrived at. Specifically, it discusses how the
coding procedure was carried out to arrive at the various themes to generate the
conceptual framework for this part of the study.

4.6.1.1 Transcribing Procedure

All the interviews were audio-recorded and were transcribed after each interview. Each
respondent was labelled and their profiles were clearly marked against their transcribed
script. The various failure criteria, and causes and effects that were mentioned were
highlighted in coloured fonts in Microsoft Word. The purpose of this was to help identify
the key failure criteria, and causes and effects of project failure that were mentioned
during the interviews.

4.6.1.2 Coding Procedure

This followed the coding system suggested by Corbin and Strauss (2008). The texts of

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the semi-structured interviews were analysed with the use of words. This was achieved
with the help of NVivo 10 software and Microsoft Word. The analytical methods used
are Thematic analysis and Content analysis. This enables the researcher to take an
inductive position where analysis is made using the theoretical framework created from
the literature review as a guide.

This coding was performed both manually and via software. The manual coding was
carried out with the use of a computer by highlighting the various themes that were
raised by respondents. This was achieved by using Microsoft Word and NVivo 10. The
transcribed data were coded based on the various performance criteria, and causes and
effects that were mentioned.

First of all, all the performance criteria, and causes and effects mentioned by
respondents were coded. Similar codes were put together to obtain other codes and
subsequently put into main themes. These themes were analysed in order of how often
they were mentioned. In addition, the causes under each theme were also analysed
based on the number of respondents who mentioned that theme. This was based on
two levels of codes: higher and lower. Higher-level codes were used to represent the
main themes that explained the interpretation of the data (interpretivist tradition).
However, the lower-level codes were used to further explain the higher-level ones. The
lower- and upper-level codes shared common content and dimensions that would
collectively fall under one theme. The various codes were further coded according to
their similarity or similar meanings. The last stage was further coded into the main
themes. A screenshot of the coding procedure using NVivo 10 is provided in Appendix
C.

4.6.2 Quantitative Analysis

This involves the analysis of data collected in the form of scale, numbers and/or
statistics with the use of the quantitative software package Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS). The analysis is presented in the form of tables, graphs and
percentages. This involves the use of deductive positions to make analysis.

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This research was conducted using a sample of 265 respondents to assess the extent
of failure, and the causes and effects of the Ghanaian government’s project failure.
Questionnaire variables on the Ghanaian government’s project performance (failure
criteria) were also measured using a five-point Likert scale (1-5), where 1=least
achievement and 5=highest achievement. Likewise, the causes and effects of the
Ghanaian government’s project failure were measured on a five-point Likert scale (1-5),
where 1=strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree. Additionally, the most affected
stakeholders of Ghana projects failure variables were assessed using a seven-point
Likert scale (1-7), where 1= least affected and 7= most affected.

Statistical analyses performed comprised Descriptive analysis, Means, Spearman Rank

Correlation Coefficients, and Kruskal-Wallis H test of difference in ranks. The main
purpose of the choice of statistical analysis was to evaluate the most significant failure
criteria, causes and effects of the Ghanaian government’s project failure with a view to
making appropriate recommendations to relevant stakeholders.

In most research projects, the first step in data analysis is the description of the data
and sample population. The usefulness of this is to provide an initial investigation of the
data and to provide insight into the research findings (Diamantopoulos & Schlegelmilch,
1997). For the purpose of this research project, descriptive analysis was undertaken to
provide respondents’ profiles at a number of different levels – personal respondent
profiles such as age, gender, region, role at work, work experience and sector of
operations. This gave a comprehensive picture of the makeup of the data, allowing
further analyses to be undertaken. The results of the descriptive analyses have been
presented in chapter 5. Secondly, the purpose of the mean calculation was to find the
average response of the participants. The purpose of the Spearman rank correlation
was to establish that the ranks provided by the contractors, PMP and the general public
were not due to chance, and therefore this test was to find out if there is a degree of
agreement between ranks provided by the categories of respondents. Thus, in order to
test the hypothesis in the study, Kruskal-Wallis test is employed (Kruskal & Wallis,
1952, as cited by Field, 2012). The purpose of the Kruskal-Wallis H test was to establish
if the extent of agreement/disagreement across the three categories of the study’s

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participants was statistically significant. The Kruskal-Wallis H non-parametric test of

difference between independent samples was used (Field, 2012). The non-parametric
test means the distribution does not necessarily need to be normal before they can be
applied.

Based on the provision of relevant responses to the research objectives, six variables
were generated to address the issue of the extent of project failure in Ghanaian
government projects. Secondly, 32 key variables identified as causes of failure in
Ghanaian government projects were coded. Thirdly, the identified 26 possible effects of
the failure were coded, and the most affected stakeholders were also coded; these were
seven variable. After the coding, the various statistical testing needed (as mentioned
above) for this research was performed in accordance with the research objectives.

4.7 SUMMARY
This chapter has presented all the procedures that were followed in the collection and
analysis of the data for this research by highlighting the two main methods that were
used. Thus, it has explained how the semi-structured interviews and the questionnaires
were collected and analysed.

Moreover, the methodology and procedure followed in order to improve the research
validity and reliability have been discussed. Further, how the data were managed and
cleansed before the analysis has also been highlighted. The next chapter presents the
results from the data collected from semi-structured interview and the questionnaire.

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CHAPTER 5
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

5.0 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this chapter is to present the results and analyses of the primary data
collection that was undertaken as a part of this research project. Two data collection
methods were used – semi-structured interview and questionnaire. The chapter is
therefore divided into two main parts: presentation of data results and analysis from the
semi-structured interviews, and presentation of data results and analysis from the
questionnaires.

The findings from the data collection are presented based around the main objectives of
the research study, which are: (1) to find out the extent of failure in Ghanaian
government projects (2) to find out the main causes of Ghanaian government project
failure, and their relative importance (influence); (3) to find out the effects of failed
Ghanaian government projects on key stakeholders of such projects and their relative
importance; and (4) to determine which of the key stakeholders are affected most when
Ghanaian government projects fail.

5.1 INTERVIEW RESULTS

The aim of this sub-section is to explore the extent of project failure, and causes and
effects of project failure in Ghanaian government projects with the use of semi-
structured interviews. These exploratory data are then used together with the literature
review to design a questionnaire for the study.

In the main, semi-structured interviews were conducted to seek the perceptions of

project management practitioners, contractors and the general public about the subject
matter. Specifically, this first data collection explores the extent of project failure, the
main causes of Ghanaian government project failure and the subsequent negative

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effects on key stakeholders of such failed projects. The ultimate purpose of this data
collection was to validate the findings from the literature review and to explore further
themes on the subject under investigation. Data from the literature review and semi-
structured interview are then used as a guide to develop a questionnaire and hypothesis
for the study. This sub-section therefore presents the results from the interviews.

5.1.1 Categories of Personnel Engaged

Below are the categories of personnel engaged for the interviews, numbers in each
category and type(s) of engagement.

Table 8 Respondent Categories

Respondent Categories Number Type of Engagement

Project Management Practitioners 6 Semi-structured
Interview
Contractors 2 Semi-structured
Interview
General Public 2 Semi-structured
Interview
Total 10

5.1.2 Respondent’s Profile

To get the respondents’ profiles, they were asked to introduce themselves. This
captured their age, education, position, years of experience in current position,
experience in project management, overall work experience, and the sector and
industry in which they work. The main reason this information is collected is for the
researcher to know the level of knowledge that respondents have in relation to the
subject matter. This will help improve the validity and reliability of the data being
collected. However, because this is the preliminary stage of the data collection, this part
does not analyse the respondents’ personal profiles in detail. The personal profiles of
respondents will be analysed in detail at the second stage of the data analysis, which is

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the questionnaire. An overview of the respondents’ profiles is presented in the table

below.

Table 9 Respondents’ Profiles

Respondents Age Education Years of Work Overall Industry Sector
Experience Experience Work
in Current In Project Experience
Position Management
R1(Administrator) 33 Masters 5 8 8 Healthcare Public
R2 (Consultant & 46 PhD/ 15 15 21 General Public
Lecturer) Professional &
Private
R3 (Architect) 37 BA/PgD/ 4 10 10 General Public
Professional
R4 (Structural 40 BA/ 4 14 14 General Public
Engineer) Professional
R5 (Quantity 39 BA/ 15 15 15 General Public
Surveyor) Professional
R6 (Physical & 55 Masters/ 1 32 32 Education Public
Works Director) Professional
R7 (Finance & 27 Masters 4 15 15 Construction Public
Administrative
Director)
R8 (Director) 45 A-Level 7 7 25 Construction Public
&
private
R9 (Teacher & 38 Diploma 10 - 10 Education & Public
Business Retail &
Woman) Private
R10 (Banker) 31 BA 5 - 7 Banking Public

Below are the findings from the interviews with project management practitioners,
contractors and the general public on the extent of failure, causes of Ghanaian
government project failure and effects of that failure on key stakeholders. Steps that
were followed to arrive at the various themes have been provided in the previous
chapter; a screenshot of the NVivo analysis is also provided in Appendix C, as indicated
in chapter four.

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5.1.3 Ghanaian Government Project Failure

The first objective of the research was to find out the extent of failure of Ghanaian
government projects – thus, the extent of this failure using different success/failure
criteria as presented in the adapted Square Route Framework (Atkinson, 1999) in the
theoretical framework in Chapter two. This serves as a building block to appreciate what
brings about the failure and the subsequent effects on key stakeholders. Therefore, the
first question to interviewees was “how would is assess failure is Ghana government
projects in terms of meeting the projected time, cost and deliverables; contribution to the
sector in which the project is implemented; stakeholder satisfaction; and national
development?”

In terms of the above criteria, all respondents agreed that Ghanaian government
projects fail; however, the extent of failure differs for the various criteria and the
interviewees’ perceptions on the degree of failure also differ. The next sub-sections
present what interviewees perceive about the extent of failure in Ghanaian government
projects using the above failure criteria.

5.1.3.1 Time Criterion

All the respondents were in agreement that Ghanaian government projects do not meet
their projected timescales and that they have witnessed a lot of time overlap. In the
words of R3, for instance, Ghanaian government projects “…hardly meet their time
duration and most of them don’t meet their time duration if I can remember. It’s only
about two or three that were finished within the stipulated time, and even these were
projects funded by donor agencies. Projects which were directly funded by the
government of Ghana hardly meet the time”.

However, respondents were not able to give specific ratings in terms of the failure
percentage. Whilst some the respondents gave their perception of the failure rate (e.g.
R1, R10), others (e.g., R2) did not attempt to rate it at all. For instance, R1 rated time

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overruns at 90% by saying that “looking at time, I can assure you that about 90% of
government projects are unable to meet time”. However, R2 said that “it is not easy to
rate, especially because of the dynamics of the times; it will be difficult to say 50%
achieve that, 20% achieve – I may not be able to say so. But I can say that quite [the]
majority of government projects at least are unable to meet [their] projected time
objective”. Many reasons were cited for why delays happen. These reasons are fully
discussed in the next sub-section.

5.1.3.2 Cost Criterion

In relation to cost or budget, all respondents agreed that there is deviation in most
government projects and the deviation is mostly in terms of cost escalation. As with the
time factor, most of the respondents (R2, R3, R4, R6, R8, R9, R10) were reluctant to
rate cost in terms of percentage; however, they perceived that hardly any Ghanaian
government projects meet this success criteria. Nonetheless, R1 did provide a rating, by
saying that “in terms of budget I can for sure tell you that about 60% are unable to meet
the target budget”. Moreover, R5 rated the degree of cost overruns at 35%. However,
R5 was only able to speculate about this, not having any specific records to confirm this
claim.

The most popular reason they all cited was due to delays in payments by government
and government agencies responsible for payments, which meant that contractors have
to wait and, in waiting, price fluctuations set in – hence, cost escalation. Another reason
was the over-reliance on foreign donors and international financial agencies for funding
of projects: what is called release of funding. The reasons for this are fully discussed in
the next sub-section.

5.1.3.3 Deliverables Criterion

Apart from R4 and R8, all of the respondents perceive that Ghanaian government
projects sometimes do not meet the requirements. In fact those (R4 & R8) who were

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silent on the subject put the three failure criteria (time, cost and requirements) together
and said that Ghanaian government projects rarely meet these criteria.

Specifically, R1 said that, in the area of sanitation for instance, the required deliverables
are not achieved in that “sometimes, these projects do not meet the standard that they
want; especially, women have special needs, so if these needs are not there for them,
they don’t use it”. Further, R1 said that, in relation to requirements or deliverables,
“about 45% do not meet it but the rest [do]”. R8 and R7, who are both contractors, said
that sometimes contractors produce shoddy work, though neither of them agreed that
they had ever done so. However, they did say that their colleagues have sometimes
produced shoddy work, and sometimes the projects do not work at all. In the area of
construction, for instance, both R7 and R8 said that sometimes buildings collapse
before the project is completed.

R9 perceived that, “in terms of quality – the problem is because most of the projects are
executed by foreigners and they don’t know our weather conditions, our culture and
other things that are locally known to the citizens of Ghana, and therefore do the work
anyhow.”

5.1.3.4 Stakeholder Satisfaction Criterion

In relation to stakeholder satisfaction or benefits to the stakeholder, the respondents’
views were similar. All of them agreed that some of the projects benefited the
stakeholders whilst others did not. The main reason cited for non-satisfaction was sitting
projects in the wrong place or embarking on projects where they are not needed – due
to lack of feasibility studies and inadequate consultation of the stakeholders. For
instance, one respondent said “if I should look at it from [an] ordinary man’s viewpoint,
because Ghana is a developing country, and most of these projects are non-existent,
then you may be tempted to say that stakeholders are100% satisfied, but, from the
technical point of view, you can say that about 60/70% are able to meet stakeholder
satisfaction targets” (R1).

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R2 also said that “most often, the stakeholders get the benefit and therefore become
very satisfied with the product from the project but they don’t get it when they actually
need it most.” However, R3 perceived that the degree of benefit or satisfaction depends
on the sector in which the project is being executed:

“…about 40% [of projects] are unable to meet the expectation of the beneficiaries – for
example, using market buildings, about 30% meet satisfaction and 70% [are] unable to
meet expectations of users. In my municipality, a lot of market structures are not being
used – but that is not only in my municipality; if you go to other municipalities, it’s the
same. In the area of health, there are various hospitals, regional hospitals, district
hospitals, teaching hospitals, small clinics called Chiefs’ Compounds. With this health
infrastructure, we have the same problem of bad consultation. The location of these
facilities is very key because various communities have various beliefs attached to them
so if you are providing health facilities, and you don’t consult them, and you site it in a
place which is against these beliefs, they hardly patronise [them]. We have put up quite
a number of them but, even though all of them are being used, they are not [being used]
to our expectations. In the area of sanitation, we provide toilet facilities but because of
bad consultation and location, they don’t patronise them as expected.”

5.1.3.5 Sector Contribution Criterion

In terms of sector contribution, the response was relatively positive. The respondents
agreed that Ghanaian government projects often contribute to the sector in which they
are implemented. R2, for example, said that they “contribute to the sectors, thus, the
main reasons why they are made; but most often; it takes long time to get these
benefits”. R3 also said that “our activities are geared towards several sectors, some are
education, economic, sanitation …; for the education [projects], they are able to meet
the needs of the beneficiaries because people have realised the importance of
education” and as such these projects contribute to the enhancement of their
educational needs.

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The only negative response was that sometimes the projects are not needed or they are
not implemented where they are needed, and therefore the expected contribution to that
sector is not realised. In addition, if a project is abandoned, then it will fail to contribute
to the sector. For instance, R9 perceived that sometimes the government will build a
teacher’s bungalow but they will site it in the wrong place and as such it may not be
patronised as expected.

5.1.3.6 National Development Criterion

Most of the respondents did not talk much about this topic. The reason was that, once
they had contributed to the respective sectors as discussed above in 5.2.5, they
automatically contributed to national development. In the words of R6, for instance, “this
is the same as the contribution to [the] sector as I have already stated”. R2 also said
that, once the projects have been completed, then they contribute to the development of
the country. R1 specifically rated this contribution at 70%, leaving 30% as no
contribution – due to the irrelevance of such projects. He cited political reasons for the
existence of such irrelevant projects.

5.1.4 Causes of Ghanaian Government Project Failure

Respondents’ answers to the second question concerning ‘causes of Ghanaian
government project failure’ have been grouped into the following themes: leadership,
management and administrative practices, resources, and external forces. This section
analyses the main themes that emerged, in order of how often they were mentioned. In
addition, the causes under each theme are also analysed based on the number of
respondents who mentioned them. These themes were arrived at by a coding process
as indicated in Chapter four.

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5.1.4.1 Leadership
Lack of continuity: All respondents said lack of continuity by project leaders
(government leaders) affects the success of Ghanaian government projects. They all
related this to politics. In the words of R10, for instance, “the main reason for project
failure is lack of continuity: when another government comes into power, it decides to
abandon the whole project because it thinks it’s got a good one. This is because they
also want to achieve their manifesto promise on projects”.R8 also added that “In Ghana,
most of these failures, abandonment and delays are because of politics. If a new
government comes to power, they don’t want to know anything about the former
government’s projects”.

Corruption: corruption was mentioned by all respondents. According to them,

corruption has become part of Ghanaian government projects, and the act has become
“normal” (R9). Some even said that “it is an open secret.” (R1, R5 & R9). According to
the respondents, the reasons for corruption are many. One – the bureaucratic
procedure involved in government project implementation leads to corrupt practices. For
instance, they cite that, due to the numerous channels that government project
contractors have to go through to obtain their payment, they end up doing a “follow up”
and, in doing so, they end up making payments to government officials to “speed up the
payment” process. In other words, the slow pace of the payment process and delays in
payment compel contractors to pay bribes in return for quick payment. In addition,
seven (R1, R3, R4, R5, R8, R9, R10) out of 10 respondents said that payment of 10%
of the contract money by contractors to government officials has become the norm, and
that it is extremely difficult or impossible for a contractor who decides not to pay to still
win a contract. Further to this, there are “unofficial middlemen” (R9) between
government officials and contractors during the award of contracts. These men take
money from contractors and government officials to link them up to make a contract
deal. One respondent said “sometimes, contracts are awarded before the official
bidding for the contract. If this corrupt act happens, government officials are unable to
enforce quality of work and other work specifications” (R9). Moreover, contracts are
often given to family and political party members. This is because government officials

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have to reward the party faithful with contracts and, by doing so, they can use the profits
made from such projects to fund the party.

Bureaucracy: Bureaucracy accounts for almost all project delays and partly for most
corrupt practices, according to many of the respondents (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R7 & R9).
Respondents also said that this bureaucratic process of getting projects executed was
meant to bring about a fair and corrupt-free procedure; however, this has turned out to
be the opposite. As one project management practitioner put it: “as a civil servant, how
can I explain at management meetings that I have paid Mr ‘A’ … when the government
has already paid him?” (R1).Nevertheless, the same person said that “some contractors
are compelled to pay government officials to speed-up payment processes”. To back up
this opinion, all the respondents bar R10 (contractors included) said that bureaucratic
procedures in government project implementation “force the hand” of contractors to pay
bribes or use unofficial intermediaries (middlemen) to seek what they want. In their
view, Ghanaian government projects go through a lot of steps and stages even before
their actual commencement and, during the execution stages, each stage also has to go
through a lot of inspections, and officials need to sign documents, which are normally
hardcopies. In some situations, the absence of an officer means that the project in
question has to come to a halt. Some interviewees (R2, R3, R4, & R5) even opined that
sometimes this was because of politics – politics in the sense that, if a project was
awarded by the previous government, the current government officials would want to
stifle it so that they could use delays and non-completion as an excuse to re-award the
project to their party members. One contractor (R8) cited that one project had been in
place for over seven years and it had come to a halt because the government officials
wanted to re-award it, based on non-completion, but before they could do that the
current contractor had to sign documents proofing non-completion. However, because it
was not his fault, he decided not to sign, which led to the project being abandoned.

Further, requirement of hardcopies of projects documents by leaders – respondents, bar

the interviewees from the general public (R9 & R10), said that currently Ghanaian
government projects still use hardcopies of project documents from parliament to the
local level, where projects are implemented. This leads to delays and corrupt practices.

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In the words of R2 “Parliamentarians still require hard copies of every project funding
agreement or document instead of electronic copies … Process flow including
parliamentary approvals, project designs and action plans creates too many delays”.
Nevertheless, respondents did not explain why the Ghanaian government still uses
hardcopies of project documentation instead of electronic ones.

Political interference: According to all the interviewees, politics is perhaps the root
cause of most Ghanaian government project failure. In the words of one contractor,
“everything in Ghana is now politics … and when you wake up and listen to the radio
stations, it’s all politics” (R7). Many government projects are abandoned, come to halt
or are delayed due to political reasons (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, R10). This
is basically a leadership problem stemming from government officials. Political reasons
stem from “personal gains” (R9, R10) and party gains, among others. As mentioned
earlier, most government projects are discontinued because political parties that are in
power fear that, if they continue with previous government projects, they may not win
the following general election. Apart from that, individual politicians also think that they
need to gain certain benefits once they are in power and therefore do not care about the
well-being of the general public, but about their personal gains (R10). They therefore
award contracts to contractors who are often their party faithful or friends and families or
their partners. This eventually leads to corruption, hence, project failure. One
respondent (R2) even said that frequent change in project management leadership is
because of politics and that most often incompetent project leaders are chosen ahead
of competent ones. One contractor said “you need to lobby to get a contract” (R8). Lack
of continuity is also blamed on politics. Interviewees all shared the same perception:
that there is a lack of continuity, which often results in project abandonment, basically
because of politics. The reason is that the sitting government does not want to continue
with the previous government’s projects. The fundament reason is that citizens and the
previous government will tag the project as “belonging to the previous administration”
(R8) and therefore this could affect the incumbent government’s chances of winning the
next general election. Respondents further said that projects are mostly physical
structures that the general public can see and these are the things that can influence
voters. A further question on ‘why’ revealed that most Ghanaians are illiterate and that

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they do not understand issues such as GDP, micro- and macroeconomics, inflation and
the like, so what they care about are the structures that they see. One very experienced
project practitioner even perceived that: “that is the reason why, when elections are
close, a lot of projects are started, sod cut and projects commissioned in Ghana” (R2).
Therefore, continuing the previous government’s projects will mean that the current or
sitting government is not doing “anything”. Respondents said that there are laws in the
constitution that are against such practices, but, due to illiteracy on the part of the
ordinary citizens, and their inability to understand issues about project execution in the
public sector, governments over the years have been compelled to do the same. Thus,
the ordinary citizens judge the performance of government on the basis of projects that
they can witness.

Another dimension to this politics factor is politically-inspired projects rather than

people- or community-inspired ones. Respondents believe that the main reason for lack
of project patronage at both project management and product levels is when projects
are inspired by government (politicians) instead of the community.

Lack of a feasibility study – respondents said that government officials often fail to carry
out proper feasibility studies about where projects are needed. They fail to do so
because of campaign promises. As a result, the government implements projects at
certain places because politicians have promised to provide a specific number of
projects and they have to implement such projects. Politicians therefore ‘dump’ projects
on local communities. This was mentioned by all respondents.

Closely related to political policy is starting more projects than the country can finance:
starting more projects than necessary at a time. All respondents agreed that this a
fundamental reason for projects delays in Ghanaian government projects. Even though
they cited many reasons for this problem, the main or root reason was associated with
politics. Respondents perceived that the government often starts more projects than it
can finance. The reason is that they fail to carry out proper budgeting for these projects
before starting them. Respondents also perceived that the government makes
unrealistic campaign promises about projects without knowing how they are going to
obtain he funds. Therefore, they start such projects as soon as they achieve power. “In

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doing so, they rely on donor promises, so if donors fail them, the projects have to come
to a halt or [be] abandoned altogether. The government starts more projects than it can
finance. There is poor budgetary allocation for projects in the country” (R6).Sometimes
too, instead of finishing one project before starting another, a number of projects are
started at the same time, for fear of other districts complaining about the government
not carrying out projects in their area.

Ineffective stakeholder participation: This has to do with the involvement of various

stakeholders associated with Ghanaian government projects. However, the
interviewees’ emphasis was more on the beneficiaries. Some respondents (R1, R2, and
R7) said that, when a project is a community-inspired one, then stakeholder
participation is normally strong. On the other hand, if it is a government-inspired one or
one that is initiated from national, regional, district or municipal level, then stakeholder
participation is weak. R2 went further to say that this is due to lack of or inadequate
feasibility studies for projects based at the local level. Those respondents (R1, R2, and
R7) who mentioned this reason were of the view that leaders of government projects fail
to conduct proper feasibility studies and therefore the people in the local areas where
the projects are being executed do not assume ownership of them. As a result, they
sometimes pose a threat to the projects’ success, both at the management level and at
the product level (thus resulting in failure to use the projects’ deliverables).

Poor Planning: An interviewee (R6) said that there is poor planning on the part of
government-appointed leaders who co-ordinate government projects. Poor planning
happens at all parts or stages of the project life cycle. However, some interviewees
perceived that, in some cases, the technical competence to plan properly is there but
there is no money to effect such planning. The major reason that was linked to poor
planning was allocation of funds to various government projects. That is, the
government started to implement projects without properly planning how the funds were
going to be distributed among them. One interviewee opined that “I think generally it [is]
because of poor planning … that relates to the funding. Elsewhere you realise that,
when projects are conceived, budgetary allocation is fixed, if you don’t have that budget
allocation, no one even asks you to tender, but here the perception is that the money is

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there, you go ahead and we will pay and, somewhere in between, the government with
the financial institutions will get short of funding. And then everybody will be looking at
the little funds that come through. The major problem is poor planning – poor planning is
everywhere, in every project” (R6).

Feasibility studies were also identified as being part of the poor planning. This is
because, once there is a poor feasibility study, what the whole project is about might not
be known before its initial planning is carried out, and therefore an incorrect plan might
be drawn up. Moreover, respondents also linked planning to projects having the wrong
project leaders or planners. They said that, in some projects, projects leaders are
appointed on the basis of political patronage rather than competence. Apart from that,
some assume the leadership position in a project by virtue of their position in the
company or institution without having any formal knowledge or experience at all in
project management (R6). Thus, these people plan without the necessary technical
know-how.

Lack of commitment by leaders: This is on the part of project leaders especially at the
Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs). According to the practitioner (R2), who
works as a consultant for Ghanaian government projects, most often MDAs officials are
not fully dedicated to the projects and are not very interested in them once they have
been paid. The practitioner also perceived that these MDAs officials are not
“incentivised” to carry out their duties and that they do something because they are
supposed to do it. As a result, the level of commitment that needs to be put into
government project implementation is poor. If this happens, what “you will see is that,
you will go and the project document has been left on his table for months without being
attended to … you go to the ministries and sometimes the project co-ordinators are not
serious about the projects they are managing ” (R2).

Inability of MDAs to justify disbursements of projects funds: One reason cited by

one respondent (R2, the project management practitioner) is inability of MDAs to justify
why donor agencies should disburse projects funds. According to R2, “donor agencies
don’t normally give out the entire money for implementation of government projects but
disburse it in bits. The disbursements are tied to project performance and progress.

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However, in most cases, MDAs are unable to justify why donors should disburse such
funds to projects because, often times, such projects are behind schedule or are not
being used for what they were purported for.” Sometimes, the government (MDAs)
diverts project funds to other projects and therefore is unable to account for such funds
in the name of the project in question. This often leads to project delays, hence, budget
escalation. When this happens, the government has to look for money from somewhere
to continue with the project to the level at which the donors would be willing to disburse
money and, by the time this happens, price fluctuation might have set in.

5.1.4.2 Management & Administration Practices

Corruption: Corruption was mentioned by all respondents bar R6 (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5,
R7, R8, R9 & 10). According to them, corruption has become part of government
projects and the act has become “normal” (R9). Some even argued that it is an open
secret (R1, R4, R3, R8 & R9). They cited many reasons for corruption. One – the
bureaucratic procedure involved with government project implementation leads to
corrupt practices. For instance, they cited that, due to the numerous channels that
government project contractors have to go through to get their payment, they end up
doing a “follow up” and, in doing so; they end up making payments to government
officials to “speed up the payment” (R8) process. In other words, due to the slow f
payment process and delays in payment, contractors are compelled to make payments
to officials, which amount to corruption.

In addition, seven out of 10 respondents said that payment of 10% of the contract
money by contractors to government officials has become the norm, and that it is
extremely difficult or impossible if a contractor decides not to pay (R1, R3, R4, R5, R6,
R8 & R9). Further to this, there are unofficial “middlemen” between government officials
and contractors in the award of contracts (R9). These men take money from contractors
and government officials to link them up to make a contract deal. One respondent (R8)
even said that sometimes contracts are awarded before the official bidding for the
contract commences. If this corrupt act happens, government officials are unable to

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enforce quality of work and other work specifications. Moreover, contracts are often
given to family and political party members (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9& 10).
The reason for this is that government officials have to reward the party faithful with
contracts.

Lack of supervision: Supervision comes in two ways – via government consultants

and through the companies carrying out the projects. Taking the former for instance, all
respondents bar one member of the general public (thus, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7,
R8 & R9) were of the view that government consultants who are supposed to supervise
government projects often fail to turn up as expected. This often delays the projects. If
this happens, contractors are compelled to pay them money to come and inspect the
projects, as failure to do so would stop the project from continuing. R1 andR9 said that
they sometimes had to pay the officials’ fuel costs for them to supervise the projects and
that these payments are unofficial.

In contrast to government consultants’ reluctance to supervise projects to ensure that

they progress, contractors themselves face the challenge of supervision. One contractor
(R8) said that there had been some circumstances where he had to stop work on a
project because he was not available to supervise the workers, and he had previously
had the negative experience of leaving projects in the hands of supervisors who failed
to do the job properly, thereby costing him hugely. In most cases, this does not only
delay projects but also produces a shoddy deliverable.

On the other hand, another interviewed contractor did not mention this supervision
problem. This could be due to the size of the two companies, as the former is a small
company whilst the latter is a very big company with over 300 workers.

Bureaucracy: Respondents said that documents and request forms were processed
too slowly. Many felt that bureaucracy accounted for almost all project delays and partly
for most corrupt practices (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R7, R8 & R9). Nevertheless, R7 andR9
did not use the word ‘bureaucracy’ but their arguments implied it. For instance, in the
words of R7 “If there is a change of government, paperwork and documentation need to
be re-visited and this delays the project as it takes a long time”. Respondents also said

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that this bureaucratic process of getting projects executed was meant to bring about fair
and corrupt-free procedures; however, i tended to be the opposite. As one project
management practitioner put it, “as a civil servant, how can I explain at management
meetings that I have paid Mr ‘A’ … when the government has already paid him?”.
Nevertheless, the same person argued that “some contractors are compelled to pay
government officials to speed-up payment processes” (R1). To back up this argument,
all the respondents (contractors included) (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R7, R8 & R9)who
mentioned bureaucracy said that bureaucratic procedures in Ghanaian government
project implementation force the hand of contractors to pay bribes or use unofficial
middlemen to seek what they want.

In their arguments, Ghanaian government projects go through a lot of steps and stages
even before their actual commencement, and during the execution stages. Each stage
also has to go through a lot of inspections, and officials need to sign documents, which
are normally hardcopies. In some situations, the absence of an officer means that the
project in question has to come to a halt.

Lack of capacity – This was explained by respondents to mean two things – skills or
knowledge and material resources. However, those who meant both also added
logistics. In other words, capacity is knowledge/skills and logistics on one hand and
capacity could also mean only knowledge/skills alone on the other hand. Moreover,
other interviewees only meant both knowledge/skills and material resources if they
added the word ‘logistics’.

Respondents who argued about the knowledge part said that most government project
leaders lack the knowledge or the requisite skills to carry out such projects (R1, R2, R3,
R4, R7, R9 & R10). This happens mainly because of politics (R2, R10) or by virtue of
unqualified people occupying certain management positions (R6). Project leaders,
especially government officials, are appointed on a political basis rather than on their
own merits, and that is not about competence but the political party to which a person
belongs. Two of the general public interviewed (R9 & R10) opined that, sometimes,
government officials appoint their own family members to lead projects when they are
not qualified to do so. Moreover, one of the most experienced project management

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practitioners interviewed (R2) opined that, apart from the political issues in appointment
of project leaders in Ghanaian government projects, “there is also lack of project
management professionals in the country and that, most often, they put people with
different a subject area in project leadership positions”.

Those who argued from a material resources perspective are of the view that the
government at times does not have all the necessary logistics in the form of machinery
and other materials to carry out projects (R1, R7). One contractor said that most of their
colleagues did not have all the appropriate equipment to carry out some government
projects and sometimes they had to borrow from them (R7). Further, one member of the
general public said that most often those contractors executing government projects
had to borrow materials and/or machines from other countries or donor countries.
Moreover, interviewee said that when this happens, and “assuming that country is using
the machines, they have to wait till they finish and that delays the project” (R7).

Poor Planning: Some interviewees (R1, R3, R4, R5 & R6) said that poor planning
happens at all parts or stages of the Ghanaian government project life cycle. Moreover,
planning is linked to having the wrong project leaders or planners. Interviewees argued
that, in most government projects, project leaders are appointed on the basis of political
patronage rather than competence. According to R6, some assume leadership of
projects by virtue of their position in the company or institution without any formal
knowledge or experience at all in project management. Thus, these people plan without
technical know-how. R6 cited that there had been instances where head teachers had
assumed the leadership position for constructions projects in their schools, without
having any idea about construction projects.

Lack of communication: Lack of communication was raised by some interviewees

(R1, R2 & R3, R7 & R8); however, it was perceived or explained from different angles or
areas. One – lack of communication among government ministries, department and
agencies (MDAs). Respondent (R2) was of the views that, in Ghana, all government
MDAs have their projects funds by the Ministry of Finance. Apart from that, some
projects are inter-linked between and/or among MDAs, and as such the need to co-
ordinate these MDAs to bring about successful projects execution are paramount.

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However, there is often a lack of or improper communication among them and so

projects do not run smoothly. The reason is that some of these MDAs officials are not
“committed, or to put it in the right way, are not dedicated to the projects”. R2 cited,
among other reasons, them not being “incentivised” to carry out their duties. Thus, there
is no motivation on the part of the leadership at the MDAs to carry out projects.

The second angle opined by respondents (R1, R2 & R3) in relation to communication is
lack of communication between MDAs or government and donor agencies if the projects
are donor-funded. For instance, R3 said “Sometimes, MDAs fail to communicate timely
and appropriately to donor agencies on the progress of projects. This problem leads to
unwillingness for donor agencies to release money for projects, especially funds that
are supposed to be released in batches and on the basis of progress and performance.”

Interviewees (contractors) (R7 & R8) argued that, sometimes, they were unable to finish
projects on time and produced the wrong project requirements because of a lack of
communication between the main contractor and the project team. One contractor cited
that there have been some instances where he failed to communicate appropriately with
the supervisor and that led to the production of wrong (shoddy) work, and “we had to
destroy the whole work and do it again”. As a result, he said “if I am not there to
supervise, we don’t work” (R8).

Moreover, communication was discussed from a stakeholder perspective, with particular

reference to the general public. Respondents R1, R3, R4 andR7 opined that most
projects fail to meet stakeholders’ (beneficiaries) satisfaction or provide benefits to them
because of lack of communication between clients (government officials) and local
community before their implementation. This is because some projects are carried out
as campaign promises instead of community-engineered projects. Citing an example,
one respondent (R1) narrated a situation where the government failed to find out why
member of the local community were contracting a particular disease but assumed that,
by constructing a water borehole, the disease would end. The project was successfully
executed but the community failed to use the borehole because of their traditional belief
in the usage of stream water.

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Poor design and scoping change: Poor design and scoping was perceived from two
angles by respondents – the whole project design and architectural design (R2, R3, &
R4). The whole project design is about the project boundaries and the architectural
design is about the architectural work of the project. According to respondents R2, R3,
and R4, government officials and performing companies most often get the scope of
government projects wrong from the on-set, and therefore have to make changes to
scoping and design during the implementation of such projects. This leads to projects
baseline deviations. Respondents also argued that, in some projects, it would be very
difficult for project implementers to know the exact scope of the project in order to
design it accordingly.

Another reason cited for this is that “sometime when the project is being implemented,
there are some agitations from [the] local community to force a change in scope of the
project” (R3). If this happens, performing companies have no option than to change the
architectural design to suit the new scope, hence, cost, time and requirement
escalation.

Two interviewees (R2, R3) also linked this problem to lack of capacity – capacity in the
sense of qualified and skilled personnel for certain projects and area or sector of
implementation. They also argued that, sometimes, government officials left projects to
those who do not know anything about them. One cited that, in the educational sector
for instance, management of infrastructure projects such as building of school blocks is
left in the hands of head teachers who do not know anything about project
management.

5.1.4.3 Resources
Finance – full funding; delays in counter-part funding and commitment fees; and
delays in payments
One key problem revealed related to finance. This can be grouped into three main
areas – full funding of projects, delays in payment of counterpart/matching funding or
government unable to pay such funding, and delays in payment to contractors.

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For the first category, nine out of the 10 interviewees (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8,
& R9) perceived that this is due to the government starting more at a time than
necessary. That is to say, the government starts more projects than the country can
actually fund. However, this stems from political reasons. That is, politicians and/or
political parties make campaign promises and write such projects in their manifestos. As
a result, when they come to power, they are compelled to carry out such a number of
projects within the promised dates. This leads to governments not making the
necessary budgeting to ensure that they can finance such projects at once.

In relation to counterpart or matching funds and commitment fees, respondent R2

argued from two main perspectives – delays in honouring them and unavailability of
funds. Counterpart funding is defined and explained simply as the funds that donor
partners or agencies request from the government of Ghana before they release their
part of the funds that they promised to donate to the country for such projects. In the
words of R2, counterpart funding “simply means that the donor will say I want to give
you funds or I want to give you a loan or grant to carry out a project like [building a]
road, but I want you to come up with a matching fund. An example is where they donor
countries or agencies demand 10% of the funding money before they release their 90%
of the funding money.” The main rationale is for receiving countries to have some sense
of ownership of the projects. The problem is that, in most cases, the government is
either unable to come up with such money or there is a delay in payment. The
government is unable to come up with the money because of the earlier-mentioned
problem of it starting more projects than necessary at one time. This implies that, if most
of these projects are donor-funded, it will require relatively huge sums of money from
the government to pay these matching funds. For instance, if the government has
started 10major national projects under donor funding, and each one requires payment
of about 10%, and each one is, say, Gh¢10m, it means the government has to pay out a
total of Gh¢100m.

Secondly, the second reason is government delays in honouring these payments

because of lack of communication between donor agencies and government agencies
and among government agencies. Closely related to counterpart funding is what R2

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calls commitment fees. Although similar to counterpart funding, this has to do with a
sense of being committed to the projects. The cause of this is the same as for
counterpart funding explained above.

Lastly, delays in payment of contractors. Unlike the commitment fees and counterpart
funding which was raised by six interviewees – four project management practitioners
and two contractors – this was raised by all 10 respondents in addition to the two initial
interviewees for the pilot interview. Thus, it was a major concern for contractors. The
reasons for this delay are many and each reason also has at least one fundamental
reason. First of all is political – interviewees opined that, if a different political party
comes into power, it is reluctant to pay contractors contracted by the previous
government. Respondents perceived that the reason for this reluctance is that the
government thinks that the contractors hired by the previous government are members
of that party, and that paying them to continue with the project will help their opposition
party. It will do this party in two ways – if the project is completed, it will be ‘tagged’ as
the previous government’s project, hence, be seen as its achievement; and, two, profits
accrued from completing the project could be used by contractors to help fund the
opposition party. Secondly, bureaucratic procedures – obtaining payments from the
government is a very bureaucratic procedure. That is to say, the steps involved in
obtaining payments are long and cumbersome; contractors have to go through a
number of government agencies and individuals before these monies are disbursed.
This is due to the need for documentation and the question of who should be
accountable for these payments. Closely related to bureaucratic procedure is what
interviewees called centralisation. This was raised by all respondents bar R10. They
argued that every payment has to go through the Ministry of Finance. Apart from that,
every payment and everything about government projects, whether at the local or
national level, is centred in the capital city – Accra. That is, the decision-making process
lies in the headquarters and therefore, if there is a delay or problem at the headquarters
or prominent people are absent, payments will be delayed. Lastly, unavailability of funds
– sometimes the government might not have the necessary money to fund a project
and, as mentioned above, if it is a donor-funded project, the government might need to
pay counterpart funds and commitment fees. The question is, why start a project if you

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are not sure of payment? The answer given was that the government has started more
projects than it can finance. These lead contractors into corrupt practices. Respondents,
bar the contractors, said that contractors are compelled to make payments to
government officials who are supposed to disburse the funds to speed-up the
payments. The reason was that “if they don’t do it, they will end up paying more for
whatever money they have borrowed from banks” (R3) due to delays in the completion
of the projects or “they have collected materials from colleagues or shops” that they
have to pay back (R8). They also fear that there will be price fluctuations, but that, “at
the time the money will come, [the] government will not add anything to the original
money” (R8). Even though none of the interviewees confirmed their involvement in
corrupt activities, they said that it is there and it normally happens between the
government officials and contractors.

Moreover, respondents said that the government does not pay contractors upfront and
that they need to pre-finance the projects and some of the relatively small companies or
contractors are unable to get this money. They have to go for loans with collateral
security.

Lack of capacity/skills and knowledge of workers: This is fully analysed under

“management and administrative practices”.

Lack of material resources: These include equipment and machinery needed to

execute Ghanaian government projects. Respondent R7 opined that some local
contractors who are awarded government contracts do not have the requisite equipment
to execute such projects and have to borrow it from colleagues. This hinders the
progress of the projects as sometimes they have to wait for a very long time to get
access to such machines and/or equipment.

They explained that sometimes they struggle to get the required materials such as
gravel, granite and sand for carrying out projects. The reason cited for this is the
traditional belief system. Contractors (R7 & R8) argued that, in some cases, they could
identify land in the bush where they could obtain these materials but landowners, who
are mostly traditional rulers, might not allow them to use such land because the land

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belonged to their ancestors and is not meant to be used for anything. In the words of
one contractor (R7), “sometime you go to a community and the people there will tell you
that … our custom says we don’t want any equipment to touch the ground. Traditional
belief you know, we don’t want equipment to touch the ground, we don’t work on
Tuesdays, we don’t work on Fridays, and we don’t work on Wednesday. All throughout
the week, three days nobody should go out”.

5.1.4.4 External Forces

Fluctuation of prices: In relation to price fluctuation, some respondents (R1, R6, R8 &
R9) perceived that most of the materials used for projects in Ghana are imported from
abroad and, as such, the government does not have control over the prices for them.
This is basically due to two things – one, changes in exchange rate: two respondents
(R1, R9) opined that this has to do with exchange rate in connection to international
trade. They said that most of the resources being used for execution of projects in
Ghana are imported and, as a result, if the cedi depreciates, it affects the prices.

Two, economic instability: one member of the general public (R9) opined that it is not
only the dollar-cedi factor but also economic instability of the country leads to fluctuation
of prices of goods and services, and this has a significant effect on project performance.

Culture and belief systems: Respondents R3, R5, R7andR8 opined that the belief
system in Ghana can be blamed for the failure of government projects. In some cases,
projects are not only delayed because of the belief system in an area but it also
contributes to total project abandonment. This has to do with cultural heritage. One
interviewee (R7) said that there had been some instances where they were forced to
work only five days a week because the local people did not allow them to go to the
project site to work on certain days because those days are observed as “sacred”.
When this happens, they are forced to extend the project duration. Furthermore,
sometimes they are not allowed to use certain sand or land for a project because it
belongs to the community’s gods and ancestors.

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Interviewees said that sometimes projects are not used after completion because the
local people have an alternative product that has been handed down to them by their
ancestors – even though that alternative might be causing harm to them.

Interviewees also argued that, in most cases, performing companies have to make
sacrifices to appease the gods and this adds to project cost. One respondent said that
sometimes prayers have to be offered before a project can commence and, if the
person who is to perform this prayer is not available, they have to wait (R3). R3 further
stated that there have been some instances where “witches and wizards halt projects…
and this is all over in the newspapers and radio stations”.

Natural disaster: Respondents believe that Ghana is not well equipped with the
necessary machinery to determine the future trends in the weather conditions (R1). This
therefore leads to project delays, and abandonment of projects altogether due to natural
events such as floods, heavy rain and hot temperatures. In some parts of the country,
the weather can be very hot in some seasons and therefore worker productivity
declines. If this happens, there are project delays.

According to the respondents, these natural events or disasters are sometimes

associated with the traditional belief system. (R7) said that, in some areas, these events
happen because the local people believe there are some “gods who are angry with the
projects being carried out and that such projects need to be stopped.”

5.1.5 Effects of Project Failure on Key Stakeholders

The third part of the interview questioned the respondents about their perceptions in
relation to the effects of Ghanaian government project failure on key stakeholders
associated with such projects. Specifically, as the second main objective of this
research is to find out about the effects of Ghanaian government project failure on key
stakeholders; this did not look at the general effects but was restricted to only the key
stakeholders of such projects. The key stakeholders identified in this research, as

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presented in Chapter two are: general public, government, financial institutions,

consultants, local businesses, contractors and donor agencies.

Many reasons were given, however, they have been categorised into five main themes:
economic, social, psychological, environmental and election results. These themes
were arrived at using thematic and content analysis with the help of NVivo 10 software,
as shown in Appendix C. The next sub-sections analyse the interviewees’ responses
regarding these themes in detail.

Like the causes, the effects are analysed in order of how often they were mentioned. In
addition, the effects under each theme are also analysed based on the number of
respondents who mentioned them.

5.1.5 1 Economic
Cost escalation: According to the respondents, the Ghanaian government incurs
additional costs for project failure. Respondents R2, R5, R6, & R9) perceived that, if a
project is delayed, more money has to be paid out. This can take the form of
compensation, which, based on the interviewees’ responses, falls into two categories.
One – the government incurs more cost, as opined by R2, R6 and R9. Thus, the
Ghanaian government would have to pay more for project failure, especially when a
project was delayed at the initiation stage, due to price fluctuations. The second
category relates to the contractors spending more money on projects, as opined by R2,
R5 andR8. Contractors would have to pay more for project materials and sometimes, if
they are using credit facilities such as bank loans or purchasing materials on instalment,
then before they pay, more interest would have accumulated.

Moreover, if a project is abandoned, the money is lost to it for good. The final effect is
that it affects the Ghanaian budget – increasing the budget deficit. According to
respondents, if this happens, it has huge implications for ordinary Ghanaians, in the
sense that there is less money to spend on other developmental areas.

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Rise of Unemployment: Respondents perceived that unemployment increases when

Ghanaian government projects fail. Respondents argued from different angles – from
unskilled personnel in the country to termination of contracts. One – Respondents (R4 &
R6) said that when government projects are meant to educate or train members of the
general public or specific groups of citizens, failure will lead to the citizens being unable
to seek employment because they may lack the requisite skills to undertake the
required employment duties. For instance, R6 perceived that the effects of failed
educational programmes and building projects are “lack of spaces for, say, engineers to
be trained; and there are number of multi-million projects being run by foreign nationals,
and some of them come here and realise that some of the local competencies are not
there, [so] they are forced to go elsewhere for expatriates to come and do it.
Unemployment keeps rising because these people cannot fit into the system”.

Two – respondents perceive that, when Ghanaian government projects fail, some
workers are laid-off, and this has a huge effect on those workers as well as on the
society as a whole. In the views of respondent (R8), people who are laid-off very often
have families who depend on them, so the implication is that the livelihood of the entire
family has come to an end. According to one member of the general public (R9), this
could lead to a series of social vices in a society in which such people are unemployed.
She explained that, sometimes, their children become school drop-outs and end up on
the streets engaging in social vices such as armed robbery, drug-trafficking and forming
gangs or what she termed “area boys and girls or ghettos”.

Lack of capacity: Closely related to unemployment is lack of capacity, which

respondents interpreted as members of the general public’s lack of skills or knowledge.
Nevertheless, this was linked to specific government projects – that is, government
projects meant for skills empowerment or educational and training projects. For
instance, R6 opined that “Unemployment keeps rising because these people cannot fit
into the system” and that they do not have the requisite skills needed to undertake
projects and other employment duties.

Loss of worker hours: Interviewees R2, R3, R4 andR9 opined that, if Ghanaian
government projects fail, it sometimes leads to loss of worker hours. That is, hours that

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are meant to be used to work are wasted in traffic and other areas, depending on the
project. This is normally found in projects in construction and ICT projects, especially
road construction in cities and between cities and towns. The respondents cited e-
government services and other failed ICT projects as examples. R2 said that, in the
case of e-government and other ICT projects, sometimes people have to queue for a
long time because workers have to continue to use manual ways of executing their
duties and this causes a lot of delays, hence, loss of worker hours. If projects such as
healthcare projects fail, it also leads loss of worker hours, in that a lot of hours are used
in attending hospitals to seek medical attention rather than being spent on productive
activities.

This brings economic activities to a halt, thereby reducing the country’s productivity. In
the long-term, national development stagnates. The respondents cited stagnation as
having a direct effect on the standard of living of the country’s citizens.

Bankruptcy and loss of capital by contractors: Contractors lose money through

fluctuation and delays in payment or abandonment of government projects. In the words
of R1, “contractors lose money as a result of dollarisation of the cedi”. This reduces their
profit margin and sometimes puts them out of business or they are classified by the
suppliers as not being trustworthy (R8). This also makes them lose confidence in
themselves. Sometimes, suppliers feel reluctant to supply contractors with project
materials on credit for fear they may not be able to get their money back or will not be
paid on time.

Business collapse, according to the respondents, can be put into two main areas –
contractors’ perspective and businesses around project sites. Nevertheless, it all
depends on the type of project and the reason for the cause of the project failure and
type of project failure. In relation to contractors, when the government delays payment
or discontinues projects, contractors can go out of business. Sometimes, they stay out
of business for some time, but at times, they lose their capital, hence, collapse of
business altogether. According to the respondents, if this happens, the consequences
are huge and numerous – stemming from problems for the family to the development of
the country as a whole. One – contractors at times are taken to court and, if they are

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unable to settle their payments, they are imprisoned. As a result of imprisonment,

because the “family (extended and nuclear) has been disgraced, they are compelled to
sell their family properties to bail him/her out” (R8). This has psychological effects on
the entire family. Apart from that, the contractor cannot care for her/his family anymore
and therefore the children might drop out of school. If this happens, the subsequent
effects are many: child prostitution, armed robbery and “area boys” gang culture springs
up.

In line with this, R9 echoed that, if the reason for the project failure is political, it can
influence the contractor and/or the local community from which he/she hails and their
voting pattern in the subsequent general elections. It can make the party in power
unpopular in that community, especially if the company employs a lot of local people. As
a result, unemployment may go up in the area and the country as a whole.

In relation to businesses around the projects, due to environmental pollution such as

noise, dust, smoke and the like, businesses inevitably lose customers and are therefore
compelled to move somewhere else or face the prospect of going out of business
altogether. Like the major contractors, the effects are numerous and the same.

Stagnation of economic development: The long-run effect of project failure is

stagnation of economic development. Respondents R2, R4 and R9 perceived that if
these projects fail, it has a long-term effect of economic stagnation and this has a
significant effect on the standard of living of the citizens. In the words of R4, “project
failure brings about economic hardship on citizens”.

Sub-standard infrastructure: R8 perceived that, if the government fails to pay

contractors on time, sometimes they are compelled to perform “shoddy work” or what
R2 called “sub-standard infrastructure”. The long-term consequence is that such
projects spoil earlier its projected life span and it is the citizens who have to suffer as a
result.

Discourages investment: In the words of respondent R2, “government project failure

discourages investments, more especially foreign investors”. However, the respondent

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linked this to specific government projects. In the area of electricity, for instance, the
respondent perceived that if government projects fail, foreign investors are driven away
as they would need electricity before they can operate effectively and efficiently. There
are many long-term consequences of a lack of investment, as the interviewees opined.
However, the respondent summed it up by saying that it brings about stagnation of
economic development in the country, which eventually affects the ordinary citizens in
the country.

Relocation of services: Another effect mentioned by respondents is relocation of

services lines such as telephone lines, electricity, and water pipes. The subsequent
effects of this are enormous, according to respondent R2. For example, when these
service lines are being relocated with the intention of bringing them back after the
completion of a project, if there are delays to or total abandonment of the project, no
one in the locality is able access these services, which hence affects people’s day-to-
day activities. The respondent added that it also “makes life difficult for local people as
they have to travel all the way to another suburb to access these amenities. Because
they don’t have access to these facilities, life in their homes becomes more difficult.
Sometimes, their electrical gadgets are destroyed without [them] being compensated”
(R2).

According to R2, this further leads to armed robbery and other social vices. The reason
being that, if there are no electricity or telephone lines, criminals are able to operate
without being caught, simple because there is no light for them to be visible to onlookers
and no telephone with which to call the police and report the crime.

5.1.5.2 Social
Accidents & Death: Respondents associated death mostly with healthcare (R1, R2,
R3, R4) and construction projects (R2, R7, R8). In their view, when healthcare projects
are unsuccessful, this leads to deaths of ordinary Ghanaians.

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On the other hand, when construction projects fail, they can also result in death. The
reason being that sometimes abandoned construction projects are death traps – as
there may be holes, wires, and other debris left unattended to. Members of the general
public may fall into a hole and die. Apart from that, the people living in or near a
construction site, especially road construction sites, inhale dust and, if the project
overruns for a very long time, this results not only in diseases but ultimately death.
Moreover, if projects to improve the conditions of a road are delayed, motor/car
accidents will increase, hence, resulting in more deaths.

Denial of citizens’ basic rights: Interviewees R1 andR4 said that, when Ghanaian
government projects fail, those often affected the most are the citizens and the effects
include denial of their fundamental right to a basic life, right to education, and right to
live. For instance, interviewees said that it is the fundamental right for all children to
have basic education. This is also enshrined in the constitution of Ghana. Thus, if
Ghanaian government projects such as education (building of schools or provision of
services) for children of school-going age fail, it is these children who are being denied
their basic right to education and a good life.

Apart from this, it also breeds the next generation of citizens who have no hope of
making it in life, hence, creating the next generation of “vagabonds and armed robbers”
(R5). This is because there will be a number of school drop-outs (R10). Children who
are denied these rights as a result of Ghanaian government project failure also tend to
give birth at an early age and become “irresponsible fathers and mothers”(R5) and
therefore they have no hope in life. Two respondents even attributed life success in
Ghana to the “sort of parents you have … and that teenage pregnancy is associated
with vagabonds who smoke weed and those engaged in armed robbery and
prostitution” (R4 & R5) in the society. According to them, this is cyclical in nature and
may continue forever.

According to respondents, this effect cuts across most Ghanaian government projects –
in that it is not only children’s human rights that are denied but all citizens’ rights.
However, the emphasis was more on children, according to the respondents. The long-

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term effect is what R9 termed “stagnation of social development” of the country or its
citizens.

Armed Robbery and Theft: Respondents R2, R4 andR5 associated an increase in

armed robbery and theft with Ghanaian government project failure. However, they
restricted it to specific projects such as construction projects –building of schools, roads,
dams, toilets and the like.

In their view, for instance, if there is a road construction project, there is an increase in
road traffic and therefore cars move extremely slowly and this creates “inconvenience to
motorists” (R2). If this happens, armed robbers and thieves are able to “high jack you
and take whatever you have.”(R2). Through this, some lose their life and their livelihood.
They also argue that criminals can use abandoned construction project sites such as
schools and hospitals as their hiding place and the “area boys” can even use these
places to engage in social and criminal vices such as rape.

Abandonment of homes and Loss of properties: Sometimes, when projects are

being implemented, people lose their homes and other properties to these projects. In
some cases, they leave their homes and relocate with the view of returning after project
completion. However, if such a project is abandoned halfway through completion, they
are unable to come back. Interviewee R9 said that “these people are not normally
compensated by [the] government because their homes are not being pulled down or
destroyed and therefore [they] could stay in them or could return after project
completion”. This sometime results in demonstrations, hence, loss of worker hours by
the demonstrators. Accordingly, they argue that these demonstrations also make the
government unpopular.

Pollution: Closely related to death is pollution. Pollution comes in the form of noise,
dust and air (R2, R9 & R10), and is associated with construction projects. When
projects are delayed or abandoned, permanent pollution is left in the project environs.
This creates diseases and/or sickness, hence, death. As a result of this, “it also creates
[a great] burden on the healthcare facilities in the country, as sick people would seek

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medical attention” (R9). The ultimate effect, according to R9, is depletion of the ozone
layer.

Respondents R2, R9 andR10 perceived that, when Ghanaian government projects fail,
most of them have huge health hazards; nevertheless, this is dependent on the type of
project. Like pollution, these health hazards were directly linked to construction projects.
However, the level of severity is dependent on the type of project failure. If it is project
delay, it might be less severe, but if its abandonment, then it leaves long-term health
hazards in the local community.

5.1.5.3 Political
Influence on election results: As already stated, one of the major reasons for winning
or losing general elections in the country is project performance (R2, R6, R7, R8 &
R10). They opined that one of the major issues that influence general elections in the
country is projects. In the words of one project management practitioner: “ordinary
Ghanaians don’t know what GDP, micro or macroeconomic, economic indicators,
inflation, fiscal and monetary policies and those issues are … what they know is
physical infrastructures” (R2). This implies that government project failure can have
significant effects on the various parties in the country – the party in power and the
opposition parties. In other words, if the party in power fails to successfully implement
projects, it can lose general elections. If a government project fails, “it is not going to be
palatable for the government” (R6). R2 further opined that project failure “influences
election results; that is why, when elections are close, [the] government starts a lot of
projects and commissions a lot”.

One practitioner (R2) estimated that project implementation had an approximately 50%
effect on whether a political party would win or lose an election. This accounts for why,
when elections are due, a lot of projects are commissioned and others started. Another
contractor (R8) estimated the effect of projects on election performance to be 35%.

Bad image for government: Respondents R2, R7 and10 perceived that Ghanaian
government project failure gave the sitting government and party a very bad image. If

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these projects fail, the citizens feel betrayed by the sitting government and the nation as
a whole and therefore speak against the government, hence, making the government
unpopular. Thus, failure to successfully implement projects gives the government and
party in power a very bad image. It will also be seen as the government is not good at
running the country. “In fact, I will say projects, especially infrastructure projects, are the
main yardstick to measure government performance” (R2).

5.1.5.4 Psychological
Imprisonment as a result of loan default: As discussed earlier in this section, when
contractors default on loans borrowed from banks, they sometimes end up in prison
and, if family members are unable to settle the debt, they remain there until they have
served their sentence. They also end up losing respect in the local society. This,
according to R9m can have a permanent psychological effect on the victims and their
family.

Moreover, two respondents (R2 & R9) perceived that, when projects are being
implemented, people are enthusiastic about them and about the prospect of doing
business alongside them. They therefore apply for loans to start such businesses and, if
the project fails to commence after initiation or is abandoned halfway through
implementation, victims would have long-term psychological mark on their minds.

5.2 PILOT QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS

The results of data analysed for the pilot study are shown below. The ultimate purpose
of the pilot was to improve on the questionnaire’s validity and reliability.

A. Validity Analysis
Data instruments used in this study have been adopted from previous studies with
minimal alterations made to meet the requirements of this research.

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B. Reliability Analysis

Observation:

Cronbach’s alpha allows us to measure the reliability of different variables. It consists of

estimates of how much variation in scores of different variables is attributable to chance
or random errors (Selltiz et al, 1976). As a general rule, a coefficient greater than or
equal to 0.7 is considered acceptable and a good indication of construct reliability
(Nunnally, 1978). However, values lower than 0.7 may be acceptable for exploratory
research.

Cronbach’s alpha for the six-item Ghanaian government project performance goals is
0.66. This Cronbach’s alpha will increase to 0.746 if either “Cost” or “Contribution to
where the project is being implemented” is eliminated from the revised measurement
scale. Cronbach’s alpha for the 29-item causes of Ghanaian government project failure
is 0.695. This Cronbach’s alpha will increase to 0.774 if “Procurement processes” is
eliminated from the revised measurement scale (partly due to the fact that stakeholders
have accepted the Public Procurement Law (Act 663, 2003)).

However, Cronbach’s alpha for the 26-item “Effects of Ghanaian government project
failure” is negative, which violates the reliability model. This is probably due to the huge
variations in the opinions of the 15 respondents. The result is therefore inconclusive and
as such a bigger sample is required.

Based on the observations from the pilot, the following recommendations were
considered before the full questionnaires were carried out.

Key recommendations made:

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1. Delete the “don’t know” element in the scale items for “Ghanaian Government
Project Performance”, Causes and Effects of Ghanaian Government Project
Performance scale items for two reasons:
a. “Don’t know” may confuse respondents since it enlarges the 5-point Likert
scale
b. “Neutral” in the Likert scale also serves the purpose of “not sure” or “don’t
know”
2. Add “donor agencies” to the list of stakeholders in part D question 2

After considering the recommendations, a revised questionnaire was used to collect

data. The results from the full questionnaire data collection are presented in the next
section.

5.3 FULL QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS

This section presents the results of data analysed from questionnaires administered in
the field. Questionnaire variables on the failure criteria, causes and effects of Ghanaian
government project failure were measured on a five-point Likert scale (1-5), where
1=strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree. Additionally, the effects of project failure on
key stakeholders were assessed using a seven-point scale (1-7), where 1= least
affected and 7= most affected.

Statistical analyses performed included Descriptive, Means, Spearman Rank

Correlation Coefficients, and Kruskal-Wallis H test of difference in ranks. The main
purpose of the choice of statistical analysis was to evaluate the most significant failure
criteria, and causes and effects of Ghanaian government project failure with a view to
making appropriate recommendations to relevant stakeholders.

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5.3.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

5.3.1.1 RESPONSE RATE

At the end of the data collection period, 265 completed questionnaires were received
out of the 500 distributed, representing an overall response rate of 53%. The completed
and usable questionnaires were from contractors (78), PMP (81) and the general public
(106), with the PMP having the highest response rate of 54%, as shown in Table 10.

Table 10 Percentage of questionnaire distribution and their responses

Description Contractors and General public Total
PMP
Questionnaires 300 200 500
distributed
Contractors PMP
Number of 78 81 106 265
respondents
Percentage of 53 53 53
responses

5.3.2 PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS

5.3.2.1 Personal Information of Respondents

Gender of respondents

The majority of the respondents were males, 166 (62.6%), and the rest were females.
Male respondents dominated the total number of respondents mainly because of the
contractors category, which is a profession dominated by males in Ghana. Figure 15
shows that the ratio of males to females among contractors is about 7:3.

Figure 15 Gender of respondents with regard to stakeholders

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80.0%

70.0%

60.0%

50.0%
Percent

40.0%

30.0%

20.0%

10.0%

0.0%
Contractor PMP General public Total
Male 71.8% 58.0% 59.4% 62.6%
Female 28.2% 42.0% 40.6% 37.4%

Age group of respondents

Out of the 265 respondents, 13 were below 20 years of age, 88 were between 20 and
30 years, 100 were between 31 and 40 years, 48 were between 41 and 50 years, and
16 were above 50 years of age. Contractors had the highest percentage of respondents
above 40 years (33.3%) when compared with PMP (24.7%) and the general public
(16.9%). Figure 16 gives further details.

Figure 16 Age group of respondents

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50.0%

45.0%

40.0%

35.0%

30.0%
Percent

25.0%

20.0%

15.0%

10.0%

5.0%

0.0%
Contractor PMP General public Total
Below 20 1.3% 1.2% 10.4% 4.9%
20-30 37.2% 28.4% 34.0% 33.2%
31-40 28.2% 45.7% 38.7% 37.7%
41-50 26.9% 14.8% 14.2% 18.1%
Above 50 6.4% 9.9% 2.7% 6.1%

Regional location of respondents

Out of the 265 respondents, the majority (63) were from the Greater Accra Region. This
is followed by Ashanti (56), Brong-Ahafo (32), Northern (25), Upper East (18), Western
(16), Central (15), Volta (15), Upper West (13) and Eastern (12) respectively. Similarly,
the majority of respondents for each stakeholder category, contractor, PMP and general
public, were from the Greater Accra and Ashanti regions, the two most populous
regions in Ghana. Figure 17 gives further details.

Figure 17 Regional location of respondents

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30.0%

25.0%

20.0%
Percent

15.0%

10.0%

5.0%

0.0%
Contractor PMP General public Total
Greater Accra 24.4% 18.5% 27.4% 23.8%
Ashanti 24.4% 17.3% 21.7% 21.1%
Brong Ahafo 10.3% 6.2% 17.9% 12.1%
Eastern 2.6% 6.2% 4.7% 4.5%
Central 7.7% 7.4% 2.8% 5.7%
Volta 5.0% 8.6% 3.8% 5.7%
Western 6.4% 7.4% 4.7% 6.0%
Upper- East 6.4% 9.9% 4.7% 6.8%
Upper -West 9.0% 4.9% 1.9% 4.9%
Northern 3.8% 13.6% 10.4% 9.4%

Educational level of respondents

Out of the 265 respondents, 24 had a High School education, 71 had a HND, 74 had a
Bachelor’s Degree, 55 had a Master’s Degree, 26 had Professional Education, 13 had a
PhD and two had another form of education. PMP had the highest percentage of PhD
holders (11.2%) when compared with contractors (2.6%) and the general public (1.9%).
Figure 18 gives further details.

Figure 18 Educational level of respondents

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35.0%

30.0%

25.0%

20.0%
Percent

15.0%

10.0%

5.0%

0.0%
General
Contractor PMP Total
public
High School 9.0% 3.7% 13.1% 9.0%
HND 24.4% 24.7% 30.2% 26.8%
Bachelor 30.8% 25.9% 27.4% 27.9%
Master's Degree 20.4% 25.9% 17.0% 20.8%
Professional qualification 12.8% 8.6% 8.5% 9.8%
PhD 2.6% 11.2% 1.9% 4.9%
Others 0.0% 0.0% 1.9% 0.8%

5.3.2.2 Professional Information of Respondents

Position of respondents

Out of the 265 respondents, 25 were corporate managers, 92 were senior managers, 51
were junior managers, 45 were supervisors, 44 were subordinates and eight were
temporary staff. PMP had the highest percentage of corporate managers (18.6%) when
compared with contractors (6.4%) and the general public (4.7%). Figure 19gives further
details.

Figure 19 Position of respondents with regard to stakeholders

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45.0%

40.0%

35.0%

30.0%
Percent

25.0%

20.0%

15.0%

10.0%

5.0%

0.0%
General
Contractor PMP Total
public
Corporate management 6.4% 18.6% 4.7% 9.4%
Senior management 33.3% 38.3% 33.0% 34.7%
Junior management 17.9% 16.0% 22.6% 19.2%
Supervisory 24.4% 16.0% 12.3% 17.0%
Subordinate 16.7% 11.1% 20.8% 16.6%
Others 1.3% 0.0% 6.6% 3.1%

Years of experience in current position

Out of the 265 respondents, 39 had less than one year’s experience in their current
position, 104 had between one and 5 years’ experience, 60 had between six and 10
years’ experience, 38 had between 11 and 15 years’ experience, eight had between 16
and 20 years’ experience, six had between 21 and 25 years’ experience, seven had
between 26 and 30 years’ experience, and the remaining three had between 31 and 35
years’ experience in their current positions. PMP had the highest percentage of
respondents with over 20 years of experience in their current positions (9.9%) when
compared with contractors (5.2%) and the general public (3.7%). Figure 20 gives further
details.

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Figure 20 Years of experience in current position

45.0%

40.0%

35.0%

30.0%
Perccent

25.0%

20.0%

15.0%

10.0%

5.0%

0.0%
Contractor PMP General public Total
Less than 1 year 7.7% 13.6% 20.9% 14.7%
1-5 years 39.7% 40.7% 37.7% 39.4%
6-10 years 23.1% 22.2% 22.6% 22.6%
11-15 years 20.5% 11.1% 12.3% 14.3%
16-20 years 3.8% 2.5% 2.8% 3.0%
21-25 years 3.8% 2.5% 0.9% 2.3%
26-30 years 0.0% 4.9% 2.8% 2.6%
31-35 years 1.4% 2.5% 0.0% 1.1%

Years of experience in general

Out of the 265 respondents, 41 had less than one year’s experience in general, 79 had
between one and 5 years’ experience, 70 had between six and 10 years’ experience, 41
had between 11 and 15 years’ experience, 15 had between 16 and 20 years’
experience, four had between 21 and 25 years’ experience, nine had between 26 and
30 years’ experience, five had between 21 and 35 years’ experience and the remaining
respondent had between 36 and 40 years’ experience in general. Contractors had the
highest percentage of respondents with over 20 years of experience in general (8.9%)

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when compared with PMP (7.3%) and the general public (5.6%). Figure 21 gives further
details.

Figure 21 Years of experience in general

45.0%

40.0%

35.0%

30.0%
Percent

25.0%

20.0%

15.0%

10.0%

5.0%

0.0%
Contractor PMP General public Total
Less than 1 year 14.2% 8.7% 21.7% 15.4%
1-5 years 26.9% 38.3% 25.5% 29.8%
6-10 years 19.2% 28.4% 30.2% 26.4%
11-15 years 23.1% 13.6% 11.3% 15.5%
16-20 years 7.7% 3.7% 5.7% 5.7%
21-25 years 1.3% 1.2% 1.9% 1.5%
26-30 years 3.8% 3.7% 2.8% 3.4%
31-35 years 3.8% 1.2% 0.9% 1.9%
36-40 years 0.0% 1.2% 0.0% 0.4%

Sector of respondents

Out of the 265 respondents, 119 were from the public sector, 109 were from the private
sector and the rest (37) were from non-governmental organisations (NGO). Whereas
the majority of the contractors (52.6%) were from the private sector, the majority of the

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PMP (44.4%) and general public (53.8%) respondents were from the public sector.
Figure 22 gives further details.

Figure 22 Sector of respondents

60.0%

50.0%

40.0%
Percent

30.0%

20.0%

10.0%

0.0%
Contractor PMP General public Total
Public 33.3% 44.4% 53.8% 44.9%
Private 52.6% 40.7% 33.0% 41.1%
NGO 14.1% 14.9% 13.2% 14.0%

Industry of respondents

Out of the 265 respondents, 30 were involved in the retail/wholesale business, 26 were
involved in the manufacturing business, 67 were involved in the construction business,
84 were in the services industry, 31 were involved in agriculture, 24 were in mining and
three were in other industries including teaching and fishing. Whereas the majority of
the contractors (33.3%) and PMP (32.1%) were involved in the construction business,
the majority of respondents from the general public (38.7%) were in the services
industry. Figure 23 gives further details.

Figure 23 Industry of respondents with regard to stakeholders

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45.0%

40.0%

35.0%

30.0%

25.0%
Percent

20.0%

15.0%

10.0%

5.0%

0.0%
Contractor PMP General public Total
Retail/Wholesale 11.5% 7.4% 14.2% 11.3%
Manufacturing 7.7% 17.3% 5.6% 9.8%
Construction 33.3% 32.1% 14.2% 25.3%
Service 25.6% 28.4% 38.7% 31.7%
Agriculture 12.8% 12.3% 10.4% 11.7%
Mining 9.1% 2.5% 14.2% 9.1%
Others 0.0% 0.0% 2.7% 1.1%

5.3.3 Ghanaian Government Project Failure

This section presents the rankings provided by respondents on the performance of
Ghanaian government projects with regard to cost, time, deliverables, stakeholder
satisfaction, contribution to where project is being implemented and national
development. The ratings were provided using a five-point Likert scale, where 1= Least
Achievement and 5= Highest Achievement.

Means were calculated for the three main stakeholder categories who responded –
contractors, PMP and the general public. Table 11 presents the mean ratings and
related ranks in order of importance.

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Table 11 Ghanaian Government Project Failure (Mean ranking and related Ranks)

Factors in order of Contractor PMP General Public Overall Overall

importance Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank
Contribution to where the 2.782 1 2.988 1 2.528 3 2.743 1
project is being implemented
National development 2.590 3 2.963 2 2.576 1 2.698 2
Stakeholder satisfaction 2.564 4 2.914 3 2.547 2 2.664 3
Deliverables 2.564 4 2.753 4 2.368 4 2.543 4
Cost 2.731 2 2.432 6 2.293 5 2.464 5
Time 2.500 6 2.457 5 2.283 6 2.400 6

The overall ranking showed that the highest achievement of Ghanaian government
projects is in the aspect of contribution to where the project is being implemented. This
is followed by national development, stakeholder satisfaction, and deliverables, cost and
time respectively. This indicates that, in terms of the six criteria used to measure
Ghanaian government project failure, achieving projected time is the worst; this is
followed closely by cost or budgeted cost, then deliverables, national development and
then contribution to knowledge. Figure 24 provides a diagram illustrating the degree of
failure using various failure criteria.

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Figure 24 Line graph for Ghanaian government project failure

From Figure 24, it is clear that meeting projected time is the criterion where government
projects perform worst – representing a mean average of 2.40. This is followed by cost
– representing a mean average of 2.46. The next is deliverables, with a mean average
of 2.54. The fourth is stakeholder satisfaction, with a mean average of 2.66. The fifth is
national development with a mean average of 2.69; and, lastly, contribution to the sector
in which the project is implemented.

This indicates that the worst performance is in the traditional project baseline, otherwise
known as the iron triangle. This is followed by the stakeholders’ satisfaction – which is
after the deliverables or the product phase. The national development and sector
contribution come last respectively.

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5.3.4 Causes of Ghanaian Government Project Failure

To address the second objective of this research, thus, causes of Ghanaian government
project failure and their relative importance, mean ratings and related ranks are used.

5.3.4.1 Ranking the causes of project failure

This sub-section presents the ranking provided by respondents on the causes of
Ghanaian government project failure. The respondents provided the rankings for each
of the 32 possible causes of Ghanaian government project failure outlined in the
questionnaire using a five-point Likert Scale, where 1= strongly disagree and 5=
strongly agree.

Means were calculated for the three main stakeholder categories who responded –
contractors, PMP and the general public. Table 12 presents the mean ratings and
related ranks in order of importance.

Table 12 Causes of Ghanaian Government Project Failure (Mean ranking and related
ranks)

Factors in order of General

importance Contractor PMP Public Overall Overall
Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank
Monitoring 3.628 6 3.741 1 3.868 1 3.7585 1
Corruption 3.705 3 3.630 3 3.849 2 3.7396 2
Political interference 3.808 1 3.654 2 3.670 6 3.7057 3
Change in government 3.731 2 3.605 4 3.755 3 3.7019 4
Bureaucracy 3.628 6 3.531 11 3.623 7 3.5962 5
Fluctuation of prices 3.603 9 3.506 13 3.604 8 3.5736 6
Lack of continuity 3.615 8 3.593 6 3.519 12 3.5698 7
Planning 3.577 10 3.580 7 3.500 15 3.548 8
Delays in payment 3.526 15 3.568 9 3.547 10 3.5472 9
Release of funds 3.551 12 3.605 4 3.500 15 3.546 10
Change in project leadership 3.462 20 3.407 16 3.708 4 3.5434 11

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Management practices 3.705 3 3.395 17 3.509 13 3.533 12

Procurement processes 3.423 24 3.444 14 3.679 5 3.5321 13
Project funding 3.487 18 3.580 7 3.509 13 3.5245 14
Commitment to project 3.359 27 3.543 10 3.557 9 3.4943 15
Selection of project managers 3.346 28 3.531 11 3.547 10 3.483 16
Project team formation 3.500 16 3.370 18 3.453 17 3.4415 17
Project management 3.436 23 3.432 15 3.396 19 3.4189 18
techniques
Feasibility studies 3.449 22 3.259 25 3.434 18 3.3849 19
Communication 3.641 5 3.062 31 3.387 20 3.3623 20
Supervision 3.577 10 3.284 22 3.264 25 3.361 21
Scope change 3.539 14 3.321 19 3.255 26 3.3585 22
Capacity 3.500 16 3.296 21 3.293 23 3.3547 23
Task definition 3.462 20 3.272 23 3.340 21 3.354 24
Definition of specification 3.551 12 3.259 25 3.245 27 3.3396 25
Requirement 3.423 24 3.185 27 3.311 22 3.3057 26
Regulations 3.474 19 3.161 29 3.283 24 3.3019 27
Culture and belief systems 3.410 26 3.309 20 3.198 29 3.2943 28
User involvement 3.141 32 3.272 23 3.245 27 3.2226 29
Labour 3.282 30 3.173 28 3.094 31 3.1736 30
Pressure groups (media, 3.333 29 2.803 32 3.104 30 3.0792 31
NGOs, political activities, etc.)
Natural disaster 3.256 31 3.136 30 2.830 32 3.0491 32

The contractors ranked political interference as the most influential cause of Ghanaian
government project failure; this is followed by change in government, corruption,
management practices and communication respectively.

PMP ranked poor monitoring as the most influential cause of Ghanaian government
project failure; this is followed by political interference, corruption, change in
government and delays in respectively.

The general public also ranked poor monitoring as the biggest cause of Ghanaian
government project failure; this is followed by corruption, change in government, change
in project leadership and poor procurement processes respectively.

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This indicates that PMP and the general public rank monitoring as the most influential
cause of Ghanaian government project failure, followed by corruption and change in
government. However, the contractors ranked their top three as political interference,
change in government and corruption. Therefore, contractors ranked government-
related issues as more influential compared to PMP and the general public, who both
ranked government and management-related issues as the most influential factors.

The top 10overall rankings for the causes in order of importance (influence) are as
follows: Monitoring, Corruption, Political interference, Change in government,
Bureaucracy, Lack of continuity, Fluctuation of prices, Planning, Delays in payments
and Release of funds.

Figure 25 Top 10 causes of Ghanaian government project failure

Figure 25 indicates that, overall, contractors, PMP and the general public perceive
monitoring as the most influential cause of Ghanaian government project failure as the
mean average is 3.75. This is followed closely by corruption, with a mean average of
3.73. The third most influential cause, using mean respondent mean, is political
interference with an average mean of 3.70. Change in government comes fourth,

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representing a mean average of 3.70; next is bureaucracy, representing 3.59.

Fluctuation of prices comes sixth with 3.57; followed by lack of continuity -3.56; planning
-3.54; delays in payments -3.54; and release of funds -3.54 respectively.

From the mean average, it is clear that leadership- and government-related causes are
dominant in the first top 10 causes of Ghanaian government project failure. Moreover,
external forces such as media, pressure groups and belief systems come at the bottom
of the list, whilst management and administrative practices and resources are found in
the middle. These groupings are presented in the next sub-section.

5.3.4.2 Groupings of Causes Rankings

The 32 factors identified as possible causes of Ghanaian government project failure
were classified into four groups, namely, leadership, management and administration
practices, resources and external forces. These groupings are based on the themes
arrived at the interview analysis. The average of each of the individual causes within a
group and related rank was calculated and is presented in Table 13.

Table 13 Mean Ranking and Ranks of Causes of Group of Factors

Factors General
Contractor PMP Public Overall Overall
Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank
LEADERSHIP
Change in project leadership 3.462 3.407 3.708 3.543
Commitment to project 3.359 3.543 3.557 3.494
Requirement 3.423 3.185 3.311 3.306
Definition of specification 3.551 3.259 3.245 3.340
Scope change 3.539 3.321 3.255 3.359
Feasibility studies 3.449 3.259 3.434 3.385
Release of funds 3.526 3.568 3.547 3.547
Lack of continuity 3.615 3.593 3.519 3.570

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Political interference 3.808 3.654 3.670 3.706

Change in government 3.731 3.605 3.755 3.702
Average Score 3.546 1 3.440 1 3.500 1 3.495 1
MANAGEMENT AND
ADMINISTRATION
PRACTICES

Planning 3.577 3.580 3.500 3.548

Monitoring 3.628 3.741 3.868 3.759
Selection of project 3.346 3.531 3.547 3.483
managers
Project team formation 3.500 3.370 3.453 3.442
Task definition 3.462 3.272 3.340 3.354
User involvement 3.141 3.272 3.245 3.223
Project management 3.436 3.432 3.396 3.419
techniques
Procurement processes 3.423 3.444 3.679 3.532
Communication 3.641 3.062 3.387 3.362
Management practices 3.705 3.395 3.509 3.533
Supervision 3.577 3.284 3.264 3.361
Bureaucracy 3.628 3.531 3.623 3.596
Corruption 3.705 3.630 3.849 3.740
Regulations 3.474 3.161 3.283 3.302
Delays in payment 3.551 3.605 3.500 3.546
Average Score 3.520 2 3.421 2 3.496 2 3.480 2
RESOURCES
Project funding 3.487 3.580 3.509 3.525
Labour 3.282 3.173 3.094 3.174
Capacity 3.500 3.296 3.293 3.355
Average Score 3.423 3 3.350 3 3.299 3 3.351 3
EXTERNAL FORCES
Pressure groups (media, 3.333 2.803 3.104 3.079
NGOs, political activities,
etc.)
Natural disaster 3.256 3.136 2.830 3.049
Culture and belief systems 3.410 3.309 3.198 3.294
Fluctuation of prices 3.603 3.506 3.604 3.574

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Average Score 3.401 4 3.188 4 3.184 4 3.249 4

In the group ranking analysis, contractors, PMP and the general public unanimously
agreed that leadership is the biggest cause of Ghanaian government project failure; this
is followed by management and administration practices, resources and external forces
respectively. This is presented in the bar chart below in Figure 26.

Figure 26 Group rankings of causes of Ghanaian government project failure

From the graph above, it is clear that leadership is number one, averaging a mean of
3.49. This is followed by management and administrative practices – representing 3.48.
There is a steep slope to the next one, which is resources, meaning the average mean
comes down drastically, representing 3.35. The external forces come last –
representing 3.24. This indicates that leadership, and management and administrative
practices are more important (influential) than resources in Ghanaian government
project failure. However, external forces are not very influential in comparative terms.

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5.3.4.3 Spearman Rank Correlation Analysis

It is important to establish that the ranks provided by the contractors, PMP and the
general public were not due to chance or some form of bias but represent the true
causes of Ghanaian government project failure.

To do so, a Spearman rank correlation coefficient was used to determine the degree of
agreement between the ranks provided by the three main stakeholders. The test is a
non-parametric test, which means the distribution does not necessarily need to be
normal before distribution can be applied. Table 14 presents the results of the pairwise
rank correlation coefficients for causes of project failure.

Table 14 Rank Correlations between Contractors, PMP and General Public for causes
of project failure

Contractor PMP General Public

** **
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .539 .546
Contractor Sig. (2-tailed) . .001 .001
N 32 32 32
** **
Correlation Coefficient .539 1.000 .818
Spearman's rho PMP Sig. (2-tailed) .001 . .000
N 32 32 32
** **
Correlation Coefficient .546 .818 1.000
General Public Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .000 .
N 32 32 32
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Significant positive correlation coefficients of 0.539, 0.546 and 0.818 were obtained for
contractors and PMP, contractors and general public, and PMP and general public
respectively. All three coefficients are strong and positive, which shows a high degree of
agreement between the rankings of the three stakeholders.

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5.3.4.4 Kruskal-Wallis H test of difference (Causes)

It is important to establish if the extent of agreement/disagreement across the three
stakeholder categories is statistically significant. To do so, the Kruskal-Wallis H non-
parametric test of difference between independent samples was used. The hypothesis
to be tested is:

Null Hypothesis = H 0 = there is a high degree of agreement among the study’s

participants on the most important factors that causes of Ghanaian government
projects failure

Alternate Hypothesis= H1 = there is a low degree of agreement among the

study’s participants on the most important factors that causes of Ghanaian
government projects failure

The results of the Kruskal-Wallis H test and associated significance level are shown in
Figure 27 below. The test revealed that there is no significance difference in the
rankings provided by the three stakeholder categories (p>0.05) for the causes of
Ghanaian government project failure. This means there is a high degree of agreement
among all three stakeholders on these causes. In other words, the rankings across the
three stakeholder categories are the same; hence, the null hypothesis is retained
(accepted).

Figure 27 Kruskal-Wallis H test of difference in rankings for causes of project failure

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5.4.5 Effects of Ghanaian Government Project Failure on Key Stakeholders

5.4.5.1 Ranking the effects of project failure

This sub-section presents the rankings provided by respondents on the effects of
Ghanaian government project failure. The respondents provided the rankings for each
of the 26 possible effects outlined in the questionnaire using a five-point Likert Scale,
where 1= strongly disagree and 5= strongly agree.

Means were calculated for the three main stakeholder categories who responded –
contractors, PMP and the general public. Table 15 presents the mean ranking and
related ranks in order of importance.

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Table 15 Effects of Ghanaian Government Project Failure (Mean rankings and related
Ranks)

Factors in order of importance General

Contractor PMP Public Overall Overall
Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank
It slows down economic growth 3.821 6 3.914 1 3.887 1 3.876 1
Loss of revenue by state 3.885 3 3.778 3 3.764 5 3.804 2
Unemployment 3.962 2 3.605 11 3.783 3 3.781 3
Bad image for government 3.846 4 3.704 8 3.726 7 3.755 4
Collapse of local businesses 3.705 12 3.765 4 3.783 3 3.754 5
Cost escalation 4.000 1 3.753 5 3.547 16 3.743 6
Government sector
underdevelopment 3.846 4 3.728 6 3.623 10 3.721 7
Loss of foreign AID/Grants 3.744 11 3.728 6 3.698 8 3.720 8
Discourages investment 3.539 18 3.803 2 3.755 6 3.706 9
Stricter donor regulations 3.808 7 3.642 10 3.585 11 3.668 10
Loss of election 3.539 18 3.605 11 3.793 2 3.660 11
Financial institutions lose
confidence in the state 3.769 9 3.568 15 3.585 11 3.634 12
Loss of revenue by the citizens 3.641 14 3.519 18 3.698 8 3.626 13
Lack of capacity 3.692 13 3.556 16 3.585 11 3.608 14
Sub-standard infrastructure 3.641 14 3.605 11 3.538 17 3.589 15
It slow down citizens’ human
empowerment 3.782 8 3.593 14 3.425 21 3.581 16
Loss of worker hours 3.628 16 3.704 8 3.453 18 3.580 17
Pollution 3.756 10 3.469 20 3.415 22 3.532 18
Armed robbery and theft 3.500 23 3.469 20 3.566 14 3.517 19
Relocation of services 3.487 24 3.482 19 3.443 19 3.468 20
Denial of citizens' basic rights 3.513 21 3.420 22 3.434 20 3.453 21
Loss of properties 3.513 21 3.420 22 3.359 23 3.423 22
Emotional stress on citizens 3.564 17 3.531 17 3.226 25 3.419 23
Accidents and Deaths 3.333 26 3.222 25 3.566 14 3.393 24
Imprisonment 3.474 25 3.284 24 3.283 24 3.340 25
Abandonment of homes 3.539 18 3.161 26 3.170 26 3.276 26

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The contractors ranked cost escalation as the biggest effect of Ghanaian government
project failure; this is followed by unemployment, loss of revenue by the state,
government sector underdevelopment and bad image for the government respectively.

PMP ranked slowdown of economic growth as the biggest effect of Ghanaian

government project failure; this is followed by discouraging investment, loss of revenue
by state, collapse of local businesses and cost escalation respectively.

The general public also ranked slowdown of economic growth as the biggest effect of
Ghanaian government project failure; this is followed by loss of election, collapse of
local business, unemployment and loss of revenue by state respectively.

The top ten overall rankings for the effects in the order of importance are as follows: It
slows down economic growth, Loss of revenue by state, Unemployment, Bad image for
the government, Collapse of local businesses, Cost escalation, Government sector
underdevelopment, Loss foreign AID/Grants, Discourages investment and Stricter donor
regulations.

Figure 28 Top 10 Effects of Ghanaian government project failure on key stakeholders

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5.4.5.2 Groupings of the Effects

The 26 factors identified as possible effects of Ghanaian government project failure
were classified into four groups – namely, economic, social, political and psychological.
The average of each of the individual causes within a group and related rank was
calculated and is presented in Table 16.

Table 16 Mean Rankings and Ranks of Effects of Group of Factors

Factors General
Contractor PMP Public Overall Overall
Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank
ECONOMIC
Loss of revenue by state 3.885 3.778 3.764 3.804
Government sector 3.846 3.728 3.623 3.721
underdevelopment
Collapse of local businesses 3.705 3.765 3.783 3.754
It slows down economic growth 3.821 3.914 3.887 3.876
Loss of foreign AID/Grants 3.744 3.728 3.698 3.720
Financial institutions lose 3.769 3.568 3.585 3.634
confidence in the state
Unemployment 3.962 3.605 3.783 3.781
Loss of revenue by the citizens 3.641 3.519 3.698 3.626
Cost escalation 4.000 3.753 3.547 3.743
Loss of worker hours 3.628 3.704 3.453 3.580
Discourages investment 3.539 3.803 3.755 3.706
Loss of properties 3.513 3.420 3.359 3.423
Average Score 3.754 1 3.690 1 3.661 2 3.697 2
SOCIAL
It slow down citizens' human 3.782 3.593 3.425 3.581
empowerment
Stricter donor regulations 3.808 3.642 3.585 3.668
Lack of capacity 3.692 3.556 3.585 3.608
Sub-standard infrastructure 3.641 3.605 3.538 3.589

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Relocation of services 3.487 3.482 3.443 3.468

Accidents and Deaths 3.333 3.222 3.566 3.393
Denial of citizens' basic rights 3.513 3.420 3.434 3.453
Armed robbery and theft 3.500 3.469 3.566 3.517
Abandonment of homes 3.539 3.161 3.170 3.276
Pollution 3.756 3.469 3.415 3.532
Average Score 3.605 3 3.462 3 3.473 3 3.508 3
POLITICAL
Loss of election 3.539 3.605 3.793 3.660
Bad image for government 3.846 3.704 3.726 3.755
Average Score 3.692 2 3.654 2 3.759 1 3.708 1
PSYCHOLOGICAL
Emotional stress on citizens 3.564 3.531 3.226 3.419
Imprisonment 3.474 3.284 3.283 3.340
Average Score 3.519 4 3.407 4 3.255 4 3.379 4

In the group ranking analysis, contractors and PMP unanimously agreed that economic
effect is the biggest effect of Ghanaian government project failure; this is followed by
political, social and psychological effects respectively. The general public was, however,
of the opinion that political effect is the biggest effect, followed by economic, social and
psychological effects respectively.

5.4.5.3 Spearman Rank Correlation Analysis

It is important to establish that the ranks provided by the contractors, PMP and the
general public were not due to chance or some form of bias but represent the true
effects of Ghanaian government project failure.

To do so, a Spearman rank correlation coefficient was used to determine the degree of
agreement between the ranks provided by the three main stakeholders. Table 17
presents the results of the pairwise rank correlation coefficients for effects of project
failure.

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Table 17 Rank Correlations between Contractors, PMP and General Public for effects of
project failure
Contractor PMP General Public
** *
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .677 .461
Contractor Sig. (2-tailed) . .000 .018
N 26 26 26
** **
Correlation Coefficient .677 1.000 .714
Spearman's rho PMP Sig. (2-tailed) .000 . .000
N 26 26 26
* **
Correlation Coefficient .461 .714 1.000
General Public Sig. (2-tailed) .018 .000 .
N 26 26 26
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Significant positive correlation coefficients of 0.677, 0.461 and 0.714 were obtained for
contractors and PMP, contractors and general public, and PMP and general public
respectively. All three coefficients are strong and positive, which shows a high degree of
agreement between the rankings of the three stakeholders.

5.4.5.4 Kruskal-Wallis H test of difference (Effects)

It is important to establish if the extent of agreement/disagreement across the three
stakeholder categories is statistically significant. To do so the Kruskal-Wallis H non-
parametric test of difference between independent samples was used. The hypothesis
to test is:

Null Hypothesis = H 0 = there is a high degree of agreement among the study’s

participants on the most important effects of Ghanaian government projects

failure

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Alternate Hypothesis= H1 = there is a low degree of agreement among the

study’s participants on the most important effects of Ghanaian government
projects failure

The results of the Kruskal-Wallis H test and associated significance level are shown in
Figure 29. The test revealed that there is no significant difference in the rankings
provided by the three stakeholder categories (p>0.05) for the effects of Ghanaian
government project failure. This means there is a high degree of agreement among all
three stakeholders on these effects. In other words, the rankings across the three
stakeholder categories are the same; hence, the null hypothesis is retained (accepted).

Figure 29: Kruskal-Wallis H test of difference in rankings for effects of project failure

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5.4.6 The Key Stakeholders Most Affected by Ghanaian Government Project

Failure

5.4.6.1 Ranking the effects of project failure on key stakeholders

This section presents the rankings provided by respondents on the effects of Ghanaian
government project failure on key stakeholders. To address the last objective of this
study, thus, the most affected key stakeholders of Ghanaian government project failure,
the respondents provided rankings on the effect on each of the seven stakeholders
outlined in the questionnaire using a seven-point Likert scale, where 1= Least Affected
and 7= Most Affected.

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Means were calculated for the three main stakeholder categories who responded –
contractors, PMP and the general public. Table 18 presents the mean ratings and
related ranks in order of importance.

Table 18 Effects of Ghanaian government Project Failure on Stakeholders (Mean

Rankings and related Ranks)

General
Factors in order of Contractor PMP Public Overall Overall
importance Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank
Citizens/general public 4.282 1 4.432 1 4.415 1 4.381 1
Government 3.500 3 3.630 2 4.123 2 3.789 2
Contractors 4.039 2 3.506 6 3.670 3 3.728 3
Local business 3.474 4 3.630 2 3.283 6 3.445 4
Financial institutions 3.244 5 3.580 5 3.387 4 3.404 5
Consultants 3.180 6 3.605 4 3.377 5 3.389 6
Donor agencies 3.064 7 3.222 7 2.783 7 3.000 7

In the individual rankings, all three sets of participants unanimously ranked the general
public as number one out of the key stakeholders who are affected the most when
Ghanaian government projects fail. However, the government was ranked second by
the PMP and the general public but was ranked third by the contractors. It is also clear
that all categories of participants ranked donor agencies as the least affected key
stakeholder when Ghanaian government projects fail. Contractors were ranked second,
sixth and third respectively. Moreover, local businesses were ranked fourth, second and
sixth respectively. Further, the financial institutions were ranked fifth by PMP and
contractors and fourth by the general public. Consultants were ranked sixth, fourth and
fifth respectively.

The overall ranking showed that the most affected stakeholder in Ghanaian government
project failure is the citizens/general public. This is followed by government, contractors,
local businesses, financial institutions, consultants, and donor agencies respectively.

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Figure 30 Ranking of the Severity of the effects of Ghanaian project failure on key
stakeholders
It is clear from the figure above that citizens are the group of key stakeholders who are
affected the most when Ghanaian government projects fail – representing a mean
average of 4.38. This is followed by the government – representing a mean average of
3.78. This is followed closely by the contractors, with an average mean of 3.72. Local
businesses come fourth, with an average mean of 3.44. Financial institutions come fifth,
with an average mean of 3.40. This is followed by consultants, with an average mean of
3.39. The last is donor agencies, with an average mean of 3.00.

5.5 SUMMARY
In summary, this chapter has presented the study’s results, based on responses from
participants’ data collection instruments, and has outlined the statistical analysis of the
data. Results of the statistical analysis have also been presented. The next chapter

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discusses these findings in details by linking the findings to prior literature reviewed in
chapter two to make meanings to the study’s findings.

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CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSIONS

6.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the results of the study by linking them to the literature reviewed
in Chapter two. The purpose is to assess the study’s results and prior literature on the
subject under study. This will help to make contributions to the academic field, and will
also help come out with valid contributions, conclusions and recommendations for policy
makers of Ghanaian government projects, with the possibility of being applicable in
other developing countries.

The aim of the study was to find out from contractors, project management practitioners
and the general public their perception about the extent of failure, and causes and
effects of Ghanaian government project failure. The findings indicated that these
projects fail on all the failure criteria; however, the extent of failure differed from criterion
to criterion. Secondly, the study identified 32 factors that cause Ghana government
projects to fail; however, the study’s participants agreed that the factors are of varying
importance (influence). The first 10most influential factors are: monitoring, corruption,
political interference, change in government, bureaucracy, fluctuation of prices, lack of
continuity, planning, delays in payment, and release of funds. The study further found
that factors such as monitoring and leadership relate to cultural and political factors
rather than management ones as espoused in previous literature.

In relation to the effects, the study identified 26 effects of Ghanaian government project
failure; however, these effects have different levels of importance. The first 10effects
are: it slows down economic growth, loss of revenue by state, unemployment, cost
escalation, bad image for government, collapse of local businesses, government sector
underdevelopment, loss of foreign aid/grants, discourages investment, and stricter
donor regulations. These findings are unique, as previous studies have concentrated on
effects in relation to project completion; whilst this research’s effects relate to key

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stakeholders associated with Ghanaian government projects. Further, the study

revealed that these effects are inter-related. Moreover, the most affected stakeholders
in order of importance are: citizens/general public, government, contractors, local
businesses, financial institutions, consultants, and donor agencies. The next sections
discuss these findings in detail.

The rest of the chapter is organised as follows: 6.1 discusses the demographic
information of the respondents – this will include age, gender, occupation, sector, and
number of years at work. Section 6.2 discusses Ghanaian government project failure,
whilst 6.3 discusses causes of Ghanaian government project failure. Sections 6.3 and
6.4 discuss effects of Ghanaian government project failure and the degree of severity
on the various key stakeholders associated with such projects, respectively. The final
section summarises the chapter by highlighting the salient points discussed within it.

6.1 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

This section discusses the demographic characteristics of the participants. The purpose
is to paint a picture about the level of knowledge that participants have about the
subject under investigation. This will show the quality of the data, hence, improve
reliability and validity of the data collected.

6.1.1 Gender
The majority of the respondents were males, 166 (62.6%), and the rest were females.
Male respondents dominated the total number of respondents mainly because of the
number of contractors and project management practitioners, professions traditionally
dominated by males (Goudreau, 2010; Doldor et al., 2012; Hilpern, 2014; Hashimoto et
al., 2015). In Ghana, there are more men in professional jobs than women (Ghana
Statistical Services (GSS), 2010; Ghana Population Census, 2010). Hofstede’s (1983)
masculinity relates to gender roles are clearly evidence – thus, men are supposed to be
assertive, thorough and focused on material success, whilst women are supposed to be

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modest, tender, and concerned with quality of life. This is what pertains in Ghana,
where women are supposed to be the most caring, tender and more concerned with
family life than material things (Awumbila & Ardayfio-Schandorf, 2008; Wong, 2006,
2014). This accounts for male dominance in the contractor and project management
practitioner professions.

6.1.2 Age Group

It was found that the majority of the respondents were in the 31 to40 age bracket,
followed by 20 and 30, as indicated in the profiles of both the interviewees and
questionnaire respondents shown table 9 and Figure 16 respectively. This finding
suggests that most of the respondents are in the working age group, and therefore the
implication is that they were in a position to provide reliable data. It was further found
that the highest percentage of respondents who were over 40 years was in the
contractors group. Indeed, this finding is not misleading. Contractors are often people
who are well established in society. In other words, wealthy and well-placed people in
society, as their job require huge capital outlay and a good reputation.

6.1.3 Regional Differences

It was found that the majority of the respondents were from the Greater Accra Region.
This is followed by Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Northern, Upper East, Western, Central,
Volta, Upper West and Eastern respectively, as evident in Figure 17 in Chapter 5.
Similarly, in each stakeholder category, the majority of the respondents were from the
Greater Accra and Ashanti regions, the two most populous regions in Ghana (Ghana
Statistical Service (GSS), 2010). Not only are these two regions the most populous,
they are also the two regions with the highest level of commercial activities. The Greater
Accra region is the national capital and the seat of the government, whilst Ashanti are
more central in the country, with most of the commercial activities revolving around
them (GSS, 2010). This result suggests that the results are not skewed, they reflect the
population sizes by the various regions (see GSS, 2010).Thus, from the membership

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lists used for the study population, Greater Accra and Ashanti regions had the largest
number of members. Therefore, the suggestion is that the regional representation is not
skewed.

6.1.4 Education
The study found that the highest academic qualification of the majority of the
respondents was either a Diploma or a Bachelor’s degree, with only a few people with
doctorates or High School education or other form of education. Project management is
purpose-driven and people with Diplomas and Bachelor’s degrees are readily available
in organisations to perform such tasks (Amponsah, 2010). The results indicate that it
takes at least some level of academic education to manage projects.

Moreover, there are fewer professionals in the country with doctorates; this is echoed by
the Ministry of Education which has claimed that statistics show that the lecturer to
student ratio in the country is widening due to lack of qualified lecturers – of which a
doctorate is the minimum requirement (Opoku-Agyemang, 2015). Diploma or Bachelor’s
degree is now the average minimum qualification that most organisations look for in the
Ghanaian market. The PM field requires a certain level of sophistication and this
requires some level of academic qualifications (Amponsah, 2010). In Ghana, people
with a doctorate tend to be more in the academic or political field than in industry
(Amponsah, 2010).

6.1.5 Position at work

It was revealed that the majority of the respondents were senior managers followed by
junior managers, as indicated in Figure 19. This shows that, in Ghana, project
management practitioners and contractors are often at the top of the management
ladder. This is a clear reflection of the sample population. Bar the general public, the
other two categories of participants (PMP and contractors) often occupied higher
management levels.

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It was further found that PMP had the highest percentage of corporate managers. In
Ghana and many other countries, PMP are often at the top level of management, as
compared to contractors and members of the general public.

6.1.6 Year of experience in current position

The study revealed that the majority of participants had between one and five years of
experience, followed by six to 10years. This indicates that the participants have a lot of
experience in their current role. However, there were only three respondents in the 31 to
35 years of experience category. This is not surprising, as most Ghanaians rarely work
for longer. Per the national laws on the pension and education system, many people
work for fewer than 35 years (SSNIT, 2015). The educational system in Ghana is such
that degree and Higher National Diploma (HND) students start their education at the
age of 21, although this has changed to 19 in recent years (Ghanaweb, 2015).
However, per the participants’ age groups, as indicated above, the old degree-going
age is applicable as people affected by the change to 19 are not in employment yet.

Again, the PMP had the highest number respondents with over 20 years of experience,
followed by contractors. This suggests that contractors are often old and rich people in
society; moreover, this is due to the fact that the respondents with the highest level of
educational degrees such as doctorates were PMP. This finding suggests that, in
Ghana, education and work experience are normally linked, especially for people with
doctorate degrees.

6.1.7 Years of experience at work in general

With regard to overall work experience, the pattern is the same as for current
experience. The only significant difference is that those with over 20 years of
experience were contractors, followed by PMP. However, this is normal as contractors
are often older people with a great deal of experience.

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6.1.8 Sector
It was observed that the majority of the respondents were from both the public sector
and the private sector, with few NGOs, as shown in Figure 22. The interviews revealed
that, in Ghana, project management is often managed by both the government sector
and the private sector. Thus, it does not matter whether it is a government project or
not, both public and private sectors are involved. The contractors and project
management companies often manage both government and private sector projects.
Rarely do the NGOs manage projects directly in the country.

It was further found that the majority of the contractors and project management
practitioners were from the private sector, whereas the majority of the general public
respondents were from the public sector. As earlier indicated, project management,
especially in the construction sector, is dominated by private companies and they
execute both government and private sector projects. The interviews revealed that
those in the public sector are mainly project leaders or those working at the municipal
and district assemblies, of which most are not practitioners but politicians.

6.1.9 Industry
It was found that the majority of the respondents were in the service industry, followed
by construction. It was further found that the majority of the contractors and PMP were
involved in the construction business, whilst the majority of respondents from the
general public were in the service industry. The Ghanaian professional sector has been
dominated by the service industry, even though the majority of the workforce is in the
agricultural sector.

This finding therefore supports earlier studies conducted by Eichengreen (1994),

Eichengreen (1996) and Eichengreen and Vazquez (1999) which indicated that projects
and project management are very crucial in every developing country as records
indicate that developed economies all over the world have had a major infrastructural
development, which means massive projects, at any point in time in their developmental
history. Similarly, Pinto (2013, pg.643) found that “project-based work has become a

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critical component of global industrial activity”. This further confirms earlier research,
such as that by Alic (2008), which concluded that, during the developmental era of USA
after World War II, the US government had to invest in massive projects in order to
accomplish its developmental agenda. Ghana is a developing country and as such
construction projects are eminent and dominant (see Ghana Budget, 2012, 2015).

6.2 GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE

This section seeks to find out the extent of project failure in Ghanaian government
projects using different project success/failure criteria: time, cost and deliverables;
contribution to the sector in which the project is implemented; stakeholder satisfaction;
and national development. Thus, the extent of project failure in Ghanaian government
projects is found using an adapted square root framework proposed by Atkinson (1999).

In relation to the above criteria, all respondents agreed that Ghanaian government
projects fail; however, the extent of failure differs from criterion to criterion. Moreover, in
the statistical analysis, the overall rankings, as shown in Table 11 in Chapter 5 showed
that the worst criterion is meeting the set time, which is followed by cost, deliverables,
stakeholder satisfaction, national development and sector contribution respectively. The
next sub-section discusses in detail the extent of failure in these failure criteria.

1. Time
All the respondents were in agreement that Ghanaian government projects do not meet
their projected timescales and that they have witnessed a lot of time overlap. Thus,
rarely do Ghanaian government projects achieve their anticipated time duration. Some
rated time duration failure at 90% whilst others rated it at 50%. This suggests that there
is no consensus on the extent of failure in terms of not meeting the stipulated time
duration. In the statistical analysis, time was ranked as the number one criterion in
causes of Ghanaian government project failure.

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This finding is in agreement with earlier researchers such as Sambasivan and Soon
(2007), Sweis et al. (2008), Kaliba et al. (2009), Ahsan and Gunawan (2010), Kaliba et
al. (2009) and Liu et al. (2011), which have concluded that schedule deviation is
common in project management in developing countries. However, these previous
studies were conducted in specific industries and/or specific projects (cases), whilst this
study looks at government projects in general.

2. Cost
In relation to cost, all respondents agreed that there is deviation in most government
projects and the deviation is mostly cost escalation. As with time, most of the
respondents were reluctant to rate cost in terms of percentage; however, they perceived
that Ghanaian government projects hardly ever meet this success/failure criterion.
Nonetheless’ then it must be ‘at only 35% failure’. If that’s not what you mean, then
‘Some respondents rated it at 35% failure. This was ranked number five 5, as shown in
Table 11 – thus, it is the second worst performing criterion in Ghanaian government
project failure.

This finding supports a prior study conducted by Cheng (2014) into construction
projects, which asserted that cost overrun is a common problem in the industry. Further,
Kaliba et al. (2009), Ahsan and Gunawan (2010), and Aziz (2013) have all found cost
deviation in projects in developing countries. Similarly, Pinto (2014) has asserted that
cost deviation in project management has become a norm in organisations. Based on
these prior studies’ findings, it can be said that this finding is not surprising. The
difference between prior studies and this research is that they were conducted only in a
specific industry whilst this study is looking at government projects in general, and
therefore this finding can be applied to different industries within the government sector.
Moreover, cost escalation can be viewed from a government perspective from the
findings of this research. In other words, this research finding provides a unique
dimension to the project management literature – thus, from a government projects
perspective.

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3. Deliverables
It was found that some Ghanaian government projects do not meet deliverables or
requirements. This problem was ranked fourth. The study revealed that shoddy work is
often produced in some circumstances, especially in projects that are directly awarded
by Ghanaian government officials. Thus, the quantity and quality of the deliverables are
sometimes compromised due to corruption or failure to follow the right procedure. It was
found that, due to lack of supervision by government consultants and regulatory bodies
such as quality control officers, hence, contractors end up using the wrong products
when carrying out projects. The study revealed that this is often found in the
construction sector, where the performing organisations have to take samples of their
materials for testing, but they often fail to do so. Further, the study found that
consultants are unable to supervise and monitor project standardisation and this result
in substandard work.

4. Stakeholder satisfaction
In relation to stakeholder satisfaction or benefits to the stakeholder, all respondents
perceived that Ghanaian government projects partly meet stakeholders’ satisfaction and
partly do not; and this was ranked third by the questionnaire participants. The
consensus was that some of the projects benefited the stakeholders whilst others did
not. Further, the study revealed that the satisfaction level ranges from 30-70%. The
interviewees cited implementing projects at the wrong places or where they are not
needed. They further perceived that sometimes the deliverables are sub-standard, and
therefore they are unable to be used and so people become dissatisfied with the
products of such projects. In addition, lack of community involvement was cited as a
factor, as a result of projects being ‘dumped’ on them; that is, there is a lack of feasibility
studies by political leaders or government officials, as analysed in the previous chapter.

This finding confirms Ahonen and Savolianen’s (2010) study, which concluded that, in
one project, some stakeholders might be satisfied whilst others might not – depending

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on who is measuring satisfaction and the criteria being used to measure the project’s
performance. Even though Ahonen and Savolianen’s research studied ID projects, there
is some degree of similarity with this study, as both are related to government projects;
Ahonen and Savolianen (2010) concentrated on specific government projects whilst this
study focuses on government projects in general. Further, both studies are in
developing countries. Similarly, Lyytinen and Hirschheim (1988), Agarwal and Rathod
(2006), Procaccino and Verner (2006), Ika (2009) and Carvalho (2014) have all
concluded that different stakeholders might have different opinions on the success
and/or failure of a project. Therefore, this finding is not surprising, as prior studies have
proven that stakeholders often do not agree on their level of satisfaction.

5. National development
Most of the respondents did not talk much about this topic. This was because, once
they had contributed to the discussion of the respective sectors, as discussed in sub-
section 6.2.6; they had automatically contributed to national development. For example,
some interviewees argued that, once the projects have been completed, then they have
contributed to the development of the country. It was found that about 70% of Ghanaian
government projects contribute to national development, leaving 30% as non-
contributory – this is due to the irrelevance of such projects. Further, it was revealed
that the reason for this irrelevance is directly linked to politics. As analysed in Chapter 5,
most politicians make campaign promises and then they have to fulfil such promises,
even if the projects to which they relate are not needed for national development.

6. Sector contribution
In terms of sector contribution, the response was relatively positive. This was ranked
first by respondents. The respondents agreed that Ghanaian government projects often
contribute to the sector in which they are implemented. It was found that this is the case
because that is the main reason why they are implemented. The only negative issue
was that, sometimes, the projects are not needed or they are not implemented where

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they are needed, and therefore the expected contributions to that sector are not
realised. In addition, if a project is abandoned, then it will fail to contribute to the sector.

6.3 CAUSES OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT

FAILURE

The study found that there are 32 possible causes of Ghanaian government project
failure, as indicated in Table 12, in chapter 5. These are: monitoring, corruption, political
interference, change in government, bureaucracy, fluctuation of prices, lack of
continuity, planning, delays in payment, release of funds, change in project leadership,
management practices, procurement processes, project funding, commitment to project,
selection of project managers, project team formation, project management techniques,
feasibility studies, communication, supervision, scope change, capacity, task definition,
definition of specification, requirement, regulations, culture and belief systems, user
involvement, labour, pressure groups (media, NGOs, political activities, etc.), and
natural disaster.

Nevertheless, the study’s participants (Contractors, PMP and General Public) agreed
that their degree of importance (influence) differs. Even though the interview analysis
clearly showed that some of these causes were mentioned more times than others, as
indicated in the interview analysis in the previous chapter, it was not possible to
establish which ones were more important. In order to do this, the causes were ranked,
as indicated in Table 12 in the previous chapter. Despite differences in the rankings
given the three categories of participants, a hypothetical testing of the degree of
agreement in their ranking indicated that there is a high degree of agreement among
them.

In all, the respondents agreed that the top 10 most influential factors that cause
Ghanaian government projects to fail, in descending order, are: lack of monitoring,
corruption, political interference, change in government, bureaucracy, lack of continuity,

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fluctuation of prices, inadequate planning, delays in payment, and slow release of funds.
These factors are discussed in detail in the next sub-sections, in descending order.

1. Monitoring
It was revealed that, in Ghana, public workers and executioners of public projects are
not as committed to the work as their private counterparts, and they therefore fail to
monitor government projects accordingly. Many reasons were cited for this lack of
monitoring; for instance, as indicated in the interview analysis in the previous chapter, it
was revealed that there are unauthorised middlemen who liaise with the government
officials and contractors. This leads to payment of 10% of the contract sum to the
officials and the middlemen, and therefore, consultants; who are government officials
are unable to monitor the contractors accordingly. Further, the findings indicated that
monitoring was directly linked to political leadership rather than to the technocrats who
execute the projects. The interviewees perceived that the lack of monitoring was not
only as a result of corruption but also due to a lack of ‘political will’ (political leadership)
to monitor projects; this is because projects are being executed by party patrons who
are sometimes not qualified contractors. This finding can be directly linked to the
definition of corruption by Transparency International (TI) (2008) and the World Bank
(2013): the abuse of public office for private gain.

However, for monitoring to be the number one most influential factor might be surprising
to many researchers, although this should not be the case as this study focuses only on
the government sector. There is also a cultural dimension to the reasons why public
sector projects suffer from monitoring in the country. This attitude was inherited from the
colonial period, where the public sector was perceived to be the white person’s work
(white masters) and, because it was the white person’s work, it could be carried out
haphazardly (Amponsah, 2010). This also confirms a common statement in Ghana
which is interpreted as “we hold government’s work, we don’t carry it on our head”,
which literally means do not give your 100 per cent to the government’s work, after all, it
not your property (Amponsah, 2010). This perception has been in existence since the

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colonial period, where the public sector was perceived as ‘belonging’ to white people,
and therefore there is a belief that there is no need to be committed to such work
(Amponsah, 2010).

The cultural dimension of this finding is supported by earlier studies which concluded
that management is perpetually affected by socio-cultural settings (Hofstede, 1983;
Hogberg & Adamsson, 1983); hence, Ghanaian government project management is no
exception. Earlier studies in project management also confirm this finding (Heeks, 2002;
Saad et al., 2002; Muriithi & Crawford, 2003; Alsakini et al., 2004; Maube et al., 2008;
Amid et al., 2012). Nonetheless, these prior studies’ cultural findings have been
discussed in the light of project management models, practices and frameworks, whilst
this study’s cultural focus takes a different dimension: attitude towards government work
in the country as a result of colonial rule.

2. Corruption
The study revealed that the high level of paperwork and the bureaucratic procedures in
Ghana’s procurement process means that there is the potential for contractors to
engage in corrupt practices to get their contracts through. Thus, there are a lot of
bureaucratic processes that performing organisations and/or contractors need to go
through before, during and after project implementation, and therefore, in most cases,
they have to ‘pay their way through’. Further, the use of unofficial middlemen, as
indicated in the previous chapter, shows that paying of unauthorised money or payment
in kind amounts to corruption. The finding further revealed that an unofficial payment of
10% of project funds to government officials has become an acceptable norm in the
awarding of Ghanaian government projects. Many interviewees suggested that winning
a Ghanaian government project contract bid on merits is rare, especially in relation to
locally funded projects.

In addition, the ranking showed that corruption is the second overall most influential
factor for Ghanaian government project failure, as shown in Table 12 in the previous
chapter. It was ranked as 3, 2, and 2 by contractors, project management and general

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public respectively. In fact, corruption has become a hot topic in Ghana in recent years
(OccupyGhana, 2014; Imani, 2015; Bawumia, 2015; Addo, 2015); therefore, this
research result confirms the public opinion about it. This is also congruent with the
Transparency International and other media reports about the corruption index in Ghana
(TI, 2008; Ghanaian Chronicle, 2012).

The previous literature on corruption in the country has pre-dominantly been reports,
lectures and media reports (TI, 2008; Ghanaian Chronicle, 2012, OccupyGhana, 2014;
Imani, 2015; Bawumia, 2015; Addo, 2015), and therefore this finding adds an academic
dimension to the literature.

3. Political Interference
Political interference was ranked by contractors, project management practitioners and
general public as 1, 2 and 3 respectively, as shown in Table 12 in Chapter five. The
study found that almost everything in the public sector is now political – particularly in
relation to partisan politics. Further, it revealed that this is a major problem in the
country and that securing of Ghanaian government projects on merit is rare, especially if
the project is a relatively small and/or local level one. Participants perceived that
political leaders involved in project designation believe that awarding a contract to
contractors without being sure of the party to which they belong, implies that they are
virtually strengthening the opposition party. This perception is premised on the
assumption that these contractors finance their political party and as such, by giving
them such contracts, the profits earned would be used to fund their respective parties,
and therefore it is politically wise to give contracts to party patrons. It was further found
that there is an assumption that contracts are given to contractors as a ‘reward’ for their
hard work in helping the party to come to power. Ghanaian government projects are
initiated and executed by the government, even though they may be funded by other
donor agencies (Ghana Budget, 2012, 2015; Bawumia, 2015); however, it was revealed
that politicians do not allow the technocrats to execute such projects. In fact, the
findings indicated that the leaders of Ghanaian government projects and most of the so-

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called technocrats executing such projects are political appointees. In Ghana, the
constitution allows the president to appoint over a quarter of public sector workers,
including all local government heads and directors (Ghana Constitution, 1992).

The study found that sometimes companies are specifically set up by political parties
and their allies to execute specific government projects. Accordingly, the project
executors might not necessarily possess the requisite technical experience and/or
knowledge to carry out such projects, and therefore they are unable to execute them to
the right standards. This suggests that, once the projects are awarded based on political
patronage, political interference becomes eminent.

This result confirms the Annual Auditor General reports (AGR, 2014, 2015) that
sometimes some of the companies have stopped trading, and therefore it is very difficult
to track them down to retrieve the monies that the country might have lost through fraud
or the inability to execute the paid-for projects. Thus, some of the companies cease to
exist after executing government projects. The reports, together with the Public Account
Committee (PAC), have stressed that some of these companies are highly political and
therefore it is extremely difficult for the government to have the ‘political will to retrieve
the monies or prosecute the culprits (PAC, 2015). The reluctance of the government to
make public the World Cup 2014 commission’s report supports this claim on how
political the country has become (Dzamefe, 2014).

This result further confirms speculations in the country that projects are awarded on
political party patronage. In fact, it has become a norm in media programmes that the
incumbent party in government always defends every government project even if it is a
total failure, as Heeks (2002, 2005, 2006) put it, while the opposition do otherwise (e.g.
Asempa FM, 2015; Oman FM, 2015). Further, approval for major government projects
in the country has always had a political dimension (e.g. NHIS, 2003; Kwame Nkrumah
Interchange, 2014). Opposition parties have always opposed such projects, whilst the
incumbent government supports them, and therefore parliamentarians are not acting
independently in the implementation process of Ghanaian government projects. This
provides a unique contribution to the subject area, as previous literature relates to

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industry reports and therefore there is no academic literature, and therefore this study
provides a contribution in the Ghanaian context.

4. Change in Government
The result indicated that a change in government in Ghana leads to halting and/or
abandoning projects. In the interviews, all of the interviewees agreed with this, and it
was stated to be because such projects will not be credited to the party that assumes
power. It was revealed that governments over the years have been more interested in
winning the next general election rather than serving the interests of the nation, and
therefore each government intends to support its ‘own’ projects. As a result, participants
perceived that this accounted for why a lot of commissioning and ‘cutting of sod’ for
government projects takes place in election years.

In addition, the study found that citizens in the country judge the government’s
performance based on its ability to successfully complete projects. This has compelled
successive governments over the years to embark on their ‘own’ projects after coming
into power. Moreover, it was found that projects are often halted because politicians
want to terminate the existing contracts and re-award them to party members as soon
as they come into power. This is often a difficult process, as it involves a lot of legal
procedures. The interview findings suggest that sometimes the contractor whose
contract is being terminated feels cheated because s/he does not ‘belong’ to the party in
power. The aggrieved person often sues the government, and the court outcomes have
resulted in what is popularly known as ‘gargantuan’ (huge) government debt payments
(Bawumia, 2014).

This is a unique finding to the project management literature, as previous literature has
not been devoted to the subject. Again, this finding provides a country-specific context
for the finding. In addition, there is currently no academic literature to support it.

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5. Bureaucracy
As indicated in the previous chapter, under interview analysis, the study revealed that
Ghanaian government project procurement processes and activities follow a lot of
bureaucratic processes. A lot of stages are required before contracts can be awarded.
Interviewees perceived that bureaucracy accounts for almost all project delays and
partly for most corrupt practices. They were of the view that the bureaucratic process of
getting projects executed was meant to bring about fair and corrupt-free procedures;
however, in reality, this has tended to be the opposite. To backup this opinion, all the
participants revealed that bureaucratic procedures in government project
implementation ‘forces the hand’ of contractors to pay bribes or use unofficial
middlemen to seek what they want. In their view, Ghanaian government projects go
through a lot of steps and stages, even before their actual commencement; and, during
the execution stages, each stage also has to go through a lot of inspections, and
officials need to sign documents, which are normally hardcopies. In some situations; the
absence of an official means that the project in question has to come to a halt.
Nevertheless, the respondents attributed this to politics – politics in the sense that if a
project was awarded by the previous government, the current government officials
would want to stifle it, so they would use delays and non-completion as an excuse to re-
award it to their party members.

Furthermore, it was revealed that, even in this day and age, parliament still requires
hardcopies of project documents rather than electronic ones. This often leads to
corruption as contractors try to get their paperwork through as quickly as possible. In an
attempt to do so, they are compelled to pay bribes and are engaged in other corrupt
practices. Nevertheless, respondents did not state why the Ghanaian government still
uses hardcopies of project documentation instead of electronic ones. In addition, the
study revealed that consultants who have to certify projects would have to go through a
lot of processes to do so, and this leads to delays in the completion of projects, hence,
cost escalation.

This finding supports the earlier work of Killick (2008) about the Ghanaian political-
economic system. Killick (2008) argues that the Ghanaian institutional system is full of

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institutional bottlenecks. Similarly, Amoako and Lyon (2014) concluded in their research
on Small and Medium Entrepreneur (SMEs) in Ghana that an institutional bottleneck
hinders small- and medium-scale enterprises’ exporting activities. Even though these
prior studies have espoused bureaucracy as a major problem in the country, it has not
been discussed in the context of project management, and therefore this is a unique
finding which contributes to the project management literature within the local context.

6. Lack of Continuity
Closely related to change in government is lack of continuity. The study revealed that
most government projects are halted halfway through their completion due to funding,
price fluctuation, change in government, or the project no longer being needed. It was
found that sometimes change in project leadership leads to project abandonment. Thus,
because Ghanaian government project leadership is often based on political
appointments, as discussed above under political interference, any change in
leadership as a result of a change in government implies that it is difficult to maintain the
continuity of a project.

Although prior studies have discussed this leadership issue, it was leadership in relation
to management, but this study looks at leadership in relation to political leadership. For
example, Hwang and Ng (2013) have asserted in their study that project leadership is
crucial in the successful implementation of project management, but they discussed this
in relation to management leadership.

7. Fluctuation of Prices
The study revealed that most of the products used in the execution of Ghanaian
government projects are imported from other countries, which implies that, if the dollar
to cedi exchange rates increases, the prices of materials will also increase. This implies
that economic success that will lead to stabilisation of the local currency is crucial to the
implementation of any Ghanaian government projects. However, more often, the cedi is

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not stable due to the economic uncertainty in the country, as revealed in Chapter one
(World Bank, 2015).

Nonetheless, the Ghanaian economy has not been stable over the years and this
affects the prices of products. In 2011, the economy was growing at a rate of 13%
(Economic Watch, 2011, World Bank, 2012) but this had reduced to 3.8% in the 2015
budget (Ghana budget, 2015). In fact, in 2014 alone, the exchange rate, and thus the
Ghana cedi to dollar, was raised from $1 to $2.8 – 3.8 (Bank of Ghana, 2015). It was
the most depreciated currency in the world (Bawomia, 2015). This finding suggests that
price fluctuation is a major problem that causes Ghanaian government projects to fail. It
also suggests that estimating project spending in the country is very difficult.

The study conducted by Fugar and Agyakwah‐Baah (2010) supports this finding; it
ranked fluctuation of prices as the eighth most important factor. However, Fugar and
Agyakwah‐Baah’s research was conducted within just the construction industry in
Ghana, whilst this study is within the public sector as a whole.

8. Planning
It was found that planning of Ghanaian government projects is poor. As revealed by
earlier researchers (Odeh & Battaineh, 2002; Assaf & AL-Hejji, 2006), Ghanaian
government projects are not well planned, and this eventually leads to project failure. As
indicated in section 5.3.1, the interviewees perceived that there is poor planning on the
part of government-appointed leaders who co-ordinate government projects. They
specifically traced poor planning to all parts or stages of the project life cycle. However,
some perceived that, in some cases, the technical competence to plan properly is there
but there is no money to effect such planning, due to inadequate planning on the part of
the leadership (political/government officials). The major factor linked to poor planning is
allocation of funds to various government projects – that is, the government starts to
implement projects without properly planning how the country is going to distribute
funds among them.

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This agrees with the research on Nigeria’s construction project failure (Odeyinka &
Yusif, 1997), which indicated that ineffective planning accounts for most project failure.
Similarly, this finding agrees with a study conducted in 2011 on the Iranian construction
industry (Pourrastam & Ismail, 2011), which found that planning is a major reason for
Iranian construction project failure. This finding also confirms a study conducted by
Pinto (2013) which specifically traces the root cause of project failure to the poor initial
planning phases of such projects.

However, this poor planning is not in relation to the executors (technocrats) of projects
or the performing organisations, as espoused by Odeyinka and Yusif (1997), Odeh and
Battaineh (2002), Assaf and AL-Hejji (2006), Pourrastam and Ismail (2011) and Pinto
(2013); it relates to poor planning on behalf of the government. Thus, the government
and/or government officials often fail to plan projects accordingly. This is because most
of the projects are politically motivated, and therefore proper planning of how the project
is going to be executed from start till finish is not carried out before project
commencement. In fact, all interviewees perceived that Ghanaian government projects
are not well planned in advance due to the political nature of the projects and the fact
that most of the leaders and executors of such projects are political appointments rather
than being made on the basis of having technical know-how. In this case, people with
relatively low skills knowledge about projects are given the job of planning the projects.
The study further revealed that sometime these leaders barely have the slightest
knowledge about project management and, in particular, planning – sometimes, they
are in an entirely different sector and/or industry altogether.

Prior studies were conducted within specific industries (Odeyinka & Yusif, 1997;
Pourrastam & Ismail, 2011; Pinto, 2013), whilst this study centres on government
projects in general. In addition, these prior studies were conducted using technocrats as
the only participants but this study also has solicited the views of the general public as
well. This provides a different dimension to the project management literature.

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9. Delays in Payment
Payment delays have to do with the local level – that is, between the government
agencies and the contractors who execute the projects. It was revealed that delays in
the distribution of the funds and how they are distributed among the various projects’
contractors is a big problem in Ghana, as this can take several weeks, months and
sometimes years. This, according to the participants, is due to many bureaucratic
procedures that have to be followed. Paperwork and the layers of personnel who have
to sign before the funds are paid are cumbersome. In some cases, there is no money
for contractors due to the starting of too many projects at a time.

This finding is similar to the studies of Frimpong et al. (2003) and Fugar and Agyakwah‐
Baah (2010) – although theirs are more important than this study. Delays in payment
being part of the first 10 factors is not surprising as prior studies have identified a similar
problem in the country, as indicated in Frimpong et al. (2003) and Fugar and Agyakwah‐
Baah (2010). Nevertheless, being ninth in the ranking is somewhat surprising as these
previous studies have ranked delays in payment among the first five factors. The
discrepancy could be linked to the differences in the sectors where the studies were
carried out. Earlier studies have conducted research into a specific industry – all in the
construction industry – whilst this study is looking at the government sector in general.
Further, this suggests that other factors are more important than delays in payments in
causing failure in Ghanaian government projects.

Moreover, even though prior studies such as Frimpong et al. (2003) and Fugar and
Agyakwah‐Baah (2010) have identified delays in payment as one of the most important
factors for causing projects to fail in Ghana, their studies were conducted in one
industry, construction, whilst this study is conducted within the government sector.
Moreover, their studies did not identify the reasons behind these delays. This study has
found that one of the fundamental reasons for such delays is starting more projects than
the country can actually fund. This adds a unique dimension to the literature.

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10. Release of Funds

The tenth one, which is release of funds, relates to funds that come directly from the
funding agency and/or donor countries. The study found that, in most cases, donor
agencies and partner countries is reluctant to release the money to the Ghanaian
government or the various government agencies responsible for the implementation of a
project. Like Sambasian and Soon’s (2007) research, this study identified that getting
funds released from donor partners and agencies is very difficult. It was revealed that, in
Ghana and many other developing countries, donor agencies expect the government to
meet certain conditions before funds are released, hence, delays are caused, and
inflation and price fluctuations set in, which push up the costs.

Another revelation was that the problem of donors and foreign countries’ unwillingness
to release funds was due to three issues – counterpart funding, commitment fees, and
failure of previous projects. Counterpart funding means that the government would have
to contribute part of the funding money and, until this money is available, these
agencies will not release their part of the funding money. Commitment fee, on the other
hand, is money that the government needs to commit to a project before the donor
agencies release their part. This is to commit the government to the project. The
fundamental cause of this is that the Ghanaian government is unable to provide its part
of the funds for the project because it often starts more projects than the country can
actually fund. Lastly, donor agencies are sometimes unwilling to release money for a
project because earlier projects might have failed or the on-going projects are not
achieving their agreed-on targets, and therefore they may not release the rest of the
funds until the project has reached its expected target.

Over-reliance on funding (which is a resource) is in agreement with Pfeffer and

Salackcik’s (1978) Resource Dependency Theory, as cited in Hillman et al. (2009),
which argues that external resources provided to an organisation affects the
organisation’s behaviour and, as such, the activities of the organisation are influenced
by external environmental forces. In addition, this finding is supported by prior studies

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that concluded that resources are crucial for project implementation and as such without
any resources or without adequate resources; projects are bound to fail (Krigsman,
2006; Perkins, 2006; Ruuska & Teigland, 2009). This finding is also in agreement with
research conducted by Fabian and Amir (2011), which concluded that the Chad-
Cameroon Pipeline project was abandoned due to the World Bank’s withdrawal of the
project’s funding.

In developing countries such as Ghana, over-reliance on external sources of resources

(especially funding) for developmental projects is very high (see Fabian & Amir, 2011;
World Bank, 2012, Ghana Budget, 2015). The implication is that the need for
governments and government agencies and/or performing organisations to develop
skills necessary to win support from external donors is crucial for project management.
Nevertheless, being tenth in the ranking is somewhat surprising as reports have shown
that most of the Ghanaian government projects depend on foreign funding. The
difference could be, perhaps, the context in which the studies were conducted. Prior
studies were conducted within specific projects (cases) (Krigsman, 2006; Ruuska &
Teigland, 2009; Fabian & Amir, 2011), whilst this study is more generic within the
government sector projects.

6.3.2 Group Rankings

In addition to the individual factor rankings, the 32 factors identified as possible causes
of Ghanaian government project failure were classified into four groups, namely:
leadership, management and administration practices, resources, and external forces.
These themes were arrived at through the interview analysis, as indicated in Chapter
five, Table 13.

The index of each of the four groups was calculated as the average mean of the
individual causes within the group. In the group ranking analysis, contractors, PMP and
the general public unanimously agreed that poor leadership is the biggest cause of
Ghanaian government project failure; this is followed by management and

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administration practices, resources, and external forces respectively; as shown in Table

13 in Chapter five. The next sub-sections discuss these groups.

1. Leadership
The findings indicate that leadership is more important (influential) than management
and administrative practices, resources, and external forces in Ghanaian government
project failure. This is also in line with the individual rankings as the first 10 of them
included three of the leadership factors. In the main, as indicated in the previous
chapter under both interview and questionnaire data analysis, 10 out of the 32 factors
was classified under leadership. Specifically, the following were classified under
leadership: change in project leadership, commitment to project, requirement, definition
of specification, scope change, feasibility studies, release of funds, lack of continuity,
political interference and change in government.

The study revealed that change in project leadership in the form of government
appointees as a result of a change in government or in the top hierarchy of the local
government leads to project delays and sometimes project cancellation (total
abandonment). Interestingly, interviewees were of the view that, in most cases, the
project leadership is not totally committed to certain projects, especially projects from
which they will not gain any money directly. Project requirements and definition of a
project in the form of the product (deliverables) are often changed halfway through a
project, and this sometimes causes project failure. Further, scope change was cited by
interviewees as a major factor that causes Ghanaian government project failure. They
are of the view that sometimes the scope of a project changes before, during and after
its implementation. Interviewees were also of the view that politicians often fail to
conduct appropriate feasibility studies into the need for projects within a local area.
Release of funds, lack of continuity, political interference and change in government
were all part of the leadership factor, and these have been discussed in detail in the
preceding sub-sections.

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These individual findings are not surprising as most project management research that
has studied causes of project failure has identified most of them (see. Assaf & AL-Hejji,
2006; Kaliba et al., 2009; Ahonen & Savolianen, 2010; Liu et al., 2011; Pourrastam &
Ismail, 2011; Pinto, 2013; Zhang, 2013). Moreover, this finding is echoed in the work of
Hwang and Ng (2013), which argued that a competent project manager is vital to project
success, and therefore having a good project leader is vital to a project’s performance.
However, these leadership problems are in relation to political and/or government
official leadership rather than technocrats who executes the actual projects as
contractors or project management practitioners, as espoused by Hwang and Ng (2013)
in their study.

2. Management and administrative practices

Management and administrative practices came second. This area is concerned with
the executors of Ghanaian government projects. They are directly involved in the
implementation process and therefore their input can determine the project’s
performance. The study revealed a number of management and administrative issues
that cause Ghanaian government projects to fail and they are: planning, monitoring,
selection of project managers, project team formation, task definition, user involvement,
project management techniques, procurement processes, communication, management
practices, supervision, bureaucracy, corruption, regulations, and delays in payment.

These findings are not surprising, in that prior literature has identified them (see
Thamhain, 2004; Close, 2006; Raymond & Bergeron, 2008; Weijermars, 2009; Wong et
al., 2009; Ahonen & Savolianen, 2010; Wi & Jung, 2010; Pourrastam & Ismail, 2011;
Pinto, 2013). Nonetheless, most of these failure factors were linked directly to political
leadership. For instance, interviewees traced planning, bureaucracy, corruption, and
delays in payments to issues with political leadership.

In Ghana, project management knowledge is poor (Moderator’s Report, 2007), and

therefore this result supports many concerns raised by various stakeholders of

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Ghanaian government project implementation. For instance, this result is supported by

the assertions made by the Ghana Institute of Public Administration (GIMPA) moderator
(Moderator’s Report, 2007), who asserted that project management knowledge in the
country is very low, even among tertiary institutional lecturers.

Similarly, the World Bank Report in 2007 indicated that the Ghana National Insurance
Scheme (NHIS) was suffering from administrative lapses because of lack of knowledge
on the part of the administrators (World Bank Press Release, 2007). In fact, project
management as a discipline was not known as an academic field in Ghana until recent
years, and therefore project management professionals were drawn from other
disciplines, which perhaps account for why management and administrative practice
causes are dominant in causing Ghanaian government projects to fail. Until 2006,
Ghana had no single tertiary institution offering project management as a course of
study. The maiden one started in the Ghana Institute of Public Administration (GIMPA),
a private institution which introduced an undergraduate degree in Operations and
Project Management (Moderator’s Report, 2007).

The implication of this finding is that management and administrative practices in

relation to project management are poor and therefore, within the country in general,
practitioners lack the requisite knowledge to carry out project management. Therefore,
given that the study is conducted within the public sector and most of the project
managers are political appointees who may not be project managers in reality, as
indicated in Chapter five and the preceding sections of this chapter, then this will
definitely affect project management performance. This finding also provides a different
dimension to the project management literature in the area of management and
administrative practices by espousing management and administrative practices beyond
executors (management) to political management and administrators. In other words,
this study has gone beyond the management perspective to add a political leadership
perspective.

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3. Resources
The third one is resources – the study revealed that Ghana relies heavily on resources
from other donor agencies and countries and this means that it is virtually impossible for
the country to execute projects using only tax-payers’ money. This result is echoed in
various media and government reports on the level of borrowing in the area of projects
(GNA, 2012; Daily Guide, 2012; Bawumia, 2015). Nonetheless, although in Ghana a lot
of projects are fighting for the same resources, this was not the most important group
because, if there are resources and the leadership and management lack the requisite
skills and political will to execute the projects, then the projects will not be successful.

This confirms the assertions of Perkins (2006), who attributes the root cause of project
failure to ‘knowledge’: either project managers do not have the requisite knowledge, or
they do have it but fail to apply it appropriately. In this sense, no matter the availability of
other material resources, the leadership and management skills and knowledge are
more important for successful project execution.

Pfeffer and Salackcik’s (1978) Resource Dependency Theory is evidenced here. The
Resource Dependency Theory (RDT) holds the view that external resources in an
organisation affects the behaviour that organisation and as such its activities are
influenced by external environmental forces (Hillman et al., 2009); and, in this case, the
Ghanaian government could be equated to an organisation. In addition, this finding is
supported by prior studies that concluded that resources are crucial for project
implementation and as such without resources or with inadequate ones; projects are
bound to fail (Krigsman, 2006; Perkins, 2006; Ruuska & Teigland, 2009). The
implication is that the Ghanaian government needs to manage local resources as well
as devise strategies to liaise with donor agencies in order to amass enough resources
to carry out projects; otherwise, the government projects are bound to fail.

4. External forces
The project managers, general public and contractors all agreed that external forces
such as religious beliefs, culture, natural disasters and related issues also influence

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Ghanaian government project failure. However, this was not highly ranked among the
categories of study participants. For example, bad weather conditions are natural
events which cannot be controlled by the parties involved in the execution of projects.
The finding suggests that these are not very important as compared to other categories;
nevertheless, it needs to be considered.

In Ghana, the effect of inclement weather on projects may not be significant but it needs
to be taken into account (Fugar & Agyakwah‐Baah, 2010). Ghana has two main
weather patterns – dry season and wet season (World Factbook, 2015, Ghanaweb,
2015). In the dry season, an unfavourable site condition as a result of heat is a major
factor that causes delays (Fugar & Agyakwah‐Baah, 2010). During the rainy season,
construction work may be disrupted, especially outdoor activities (Fugar & Agyakwah‐
Baah, 2010). During the rainy season, temperatures range from 21°C to 32°C and the
humidity is relatively high (World Factbook, 2015, Ghanaweb, 2015). The rest of the
year is hot and dry with temperatures reaching 38°C. The high temperatures and high
humidity, ranging from 25 to 80%, definitely affect the efficiency of project workers,
especially in construction and outdoor projects, as a result of the dullness of their
senses, poor coordination and discomfort due to body heat. This supports prior studies
in the construction sector in Ghana by Frimpong et al. (2003) and Fugar and Agyakwah‐
Baah (2010).

Cultural and/or belief system was also perceived as being able to cause project failure
in the country, especially failure in the form of delay and its subsequent effects.
However, the interviewees did not view this as a major problem as compared to other
causes such as funding, political interference, corruption, etc., as sacrifices are often
made to appease the gods. Although previous literature has identified culture as a factor
that causes projects to fail in developing countries (Heeks, 2002; Saad et al., 2002;
Muriithi & Crawford, 2003; Alsakini et al., 2004; Maube et al., 2008; Amid et al., 2012),
all these works have discussed culture in relation to management practices, models and
frameworks. However, this study has identified a different angle to the debate by
espousing culture in them of belief system rather than management.

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Natural disasters were not felt to be a major problem in relation to Ghanaian

government project implementation. As analysed in the previous chapter, the study’s
participants perceived that, although natural disasters are bound to happen and project
executors cannot do anything about them, they rarely occur, hence, they have a lower
negative impact on project implementation.

6.4 EFFECTS OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT

FAILURE ON KEY STAKEHOLDERS
The study found that there are numerous possible effects of Ghanaian government
project failure. In all, 26 effects were identified, and they are: it slows down economic
growth, loss of revenue by state, unemployment, bad image for government, collapse of
local businesses, cost escalation, government sector underdevelopment, loss of foreign
aid/grants, discourages investment, stricter donor regulations, loss of election, financial
institutions lose confidence in the state, loss of revenue by the citizens, lack of capacity,
sub-standard infrastructure, it slow down citizens' human empowerment, loss of worker
hours, pollution, armed robbery and theft, relocation of services, denial of citizens' basic
rights, loss of properties, emotional stress on citizens, accidents and deaths,
imprisonment, and abandonment of homes. However, from the interviewees’ point of
view and based on the analysis, it is clear that, whilst some of the effects are associated
with specific projects and/or industries, some cut across all government projects. In
addition, the study revealed that some of these effects are direct whilst others are
indirect. Furthermore, some of the effects are inter-related – thus, they are related and
cannot be separated from one another. This is fully discussed under the effects in this
sub-section by highlighting these links.

Nonetheless, the study’s participants (Contractors, PMP and General Public) agreed
that the degree of importance (influence) of the effects differs. In order to identify the
most important effects, all the possible effects were ranked as shown in Table 15 in

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Chapter five. Accordingly, the contractors ranked cost escalation as the biggest effect of
Ghanaian government project failure; this is followed by unemployment, loss of revenue
by the state, government sector underdevelopment and bad image for the government
respectively. PMP ranked slowdown of economic growth as the biggest effect of
Ghanaian government project failure; this is followed by discouraging investment, loss
of revenue by state, collapse of local businesses and cost escalation respectively. The
general public also ranked slowdown of economic growth as the biggest effect of
Ghanaian government project failure; this is followed by loss of election, collapse of
local business, unemployment and loss of revenue by state respectively. Even though
the three categories of participants ranked them differently, a hypothesis testing of the
degree of agreement in their ranking indicated that there is a high degree of agreement
among them.

The top 10overall rankings for the effects in the order of importance are as follows: it
slows down economic growth, loss of revenue by state, unemployment, cost escalation,
bad image for government, collapse of local businesses, government sector
underdevelopment, loss foreign aids/grants, discourages investment and stricter donor
regulations.

1. It slows down economic growth

It was found that the number one effect of Ghanaian government project failure is the
slowdown of economic growth. When projects fail, economic development is retarded in
the country. It was observed that the ultimate aim of Ghanaian government projects is to
improve the socio-economic standards of the general public, and so failure implies that
these two main developmental goals are affected. Ghana is a typical example of a
developing country and as such infrastructural development is paramount to economic
growth and stability, as indicated in Chapter one; hence, failure slows down economic
growth and this has subsequent effects on the economic well-being of Ghana’s citizens.
Accordingly, this gives the government a bad image, hence, affecting the party in
power’s chances of winning the next general election.

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This finding is not surprising as earlier researchers have argued that projects are
intended to create goods and/or services in the form of ‘physical or soft’ products for the
enhancement of citizens’ livelihoods (Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010, Ngacho & Das, 2014;
Yang, 2014). In the case of Development Projects, Ngacho and Das (2014) specifically
argue that they are able to create both economic wealth and social services in such
countries, as well as having negative impacts, and these are mainly on the general
populace. The suggestion is that the purpose of the projects and their effects as a result
of failure are directly linked. Thus, if the purpose of government projects is to enhance
the life of the general populace in the form of economic wealth, then failure implies that
this economic development would be slowed down, hence, affecting the economic well-
being of the citizens.

2. Loss of revenue by state

As indicated in Chapter five, if Ghanaian government projects fail, this results in the
state losing huge sums of tax-payers’ money and/or donors’ money. Money is lost
through abandonment of projects and delays in them. Accordingly, this has direct
effects on the general public and indirect effects on the government. The study’s
participants perceived strongly that, if the state loses this money, it affects the well-
being of its citizens as monies that are supposed to be used elsewhere have to be
channelled back into such projects in order to complete them. Ultimately, it is the
general public who will bear the last negative effects. This finding suggests that, even
though the direct effects of Ghanaian government projects failure are in the form of loss
of money, the indirect effects are the suffering of the ordinary citizens and the fact that
the government will have to look elsewhere for money to make up the losses, hence
affecting its financial capabilities.

3. Unemployment
The study found that Ghanaian government project failure has huge effects on the
employment situation in the country. For instance, the interviewees argued that

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Ghanaian government projects create both direct and indirect jobs. Specifically,
interviewees were of the view that, in most cases, entrepreneurs specifically create jobs
in ‘project areas’ to meet demand for certain products which it is assumed will arise due
to the project implementation. In this case, if such projects fail, the entrepreneur loses
out and the employees are sacked. It was also found that, if projects are delayed as a
result of delays in payments, some workers, especially labourers, are laid off until the
money is paid. If the project is subsequently abandoned, they will not be called back.
The country already has high unemployment problems – to the extent that there is an
Unemployed Graduates Association of Ghana (UGAG) (Modern Ghana, 2015). Thus,
failure of government projects compounds the phenomenon. As a result, the study
found that this sometimes leads to social vices such as armed robbery and theft, as the
unemployed want to use unlawful means to ‘earn’ a living. As indicated in the previous
chapter, these situations sometimes have negative psychological effects on citizens.

4. Cost escalation
According to the findings, interviewees perceived that cost escalation comes in different
ways. The study found that one major way is increment of project cost as a result of
payment delays. It was further found that failed projects’ contracts are often re-written
and given to another contractor. This means that the whole bidding for and awarding of
the project will start afresh, and this leads to increments in the original prices for the
whole project. In addition, cost escalation can occur on the part of the contractor, due to
price fluctuation as a consequence of an unstable currency.

The Ghana cedi has depreciated against the US dollar in excess of 100% in less than
two years and this affects the cost of Ghanaian government projects (Bawumia, 2015).
This was echoed in the ‘True State of the Nation Address’ organised by the minority
leader in parliament on 9th March, 2015 (Ghanaweb, 2015; GNA, 2015; Asempa FM,
2015). This has direct and indirect effects on the government, the general public,
contractors and other project management practitioners, as they have to adjust to these
cost fluctuations. Respondents perceived that sometimes the local communities have to
bear some of these costs – thus, projects are partly funded by local communities.

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Cost escalation has been researched in project management literature but not in the
context of effects of projects on stakeholders. Thus, previous literature has discussed
effects of project failure on the project’s completion. For instance, Sambasivan and
Soon (2007) identified cost overrun as an effect of project failure in the Malaysian
construction industry. Similarly, studies by Manavazhia and Adhikarib (2002) and
Pourrostam and Ismail (2011) on material and equipment procurement delays in
highway projects in Nepal and effects of delays in Iranian construction projects
respectively identified cost overrun as one of the effects of such project failure.
Nonetheless, this research takes a different dimension by looking at it from effects on
the key stakeholders associated with Ghanaian government projects – this effect has
knock-on effects on both the general public of Ghana and the government.

5. Bad image for government

As indicated in under the data analysis in Chapter five, interview participants
vehemently perceived that Ghanaian government project failure leads to a bad image
for the government. The implication is that the government is in charge of the projects
and therefore failure means that the government is not performing well.

Respondents perceived that, in Ghana, the illiteracy rate is very high and thus most
people do not understand who is supposed to execute government projects. They have
no knowledge of who the project manager is, and what a technocrat is; thus, all they
know is that the project ‘belongs’ to the government and as such any failure is caused
by the government. It was further found that the general public have this perception
because politicians involve themselves in project execution and make ‘big’ campaign
promises about projects they have no influence in bringing to the local area. Therefore,
the citizens feel betrayed by the sitting government and the nation as a whole and so
speak against the government, hence making the government unpopular. Accordingly,
this leads to a bad image for the government, hence leading to it losing the next general
election.

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This is supported by earlier assertions by Goodman and Love (1980) that government
policies are often translated into programmes and projects. This suggests that
government project failure implies that the government is failing. This is a unique finding
for both project management literature and literature about the Ghanaian context, as
prior literature has not mentioned it.

6. Collapse of local businesses

Directly related to unemployment is collapse of local business. The study revealed that
local businesses operating alongside projects collapse as soon as the projects fail.
Some of these businesses have been operating before the commencement of the
projects, whilst others are created alongside them.

Further, some projects are given to local businesses to boost their capacity, and
therefore any form of failure often leads to their collapse. The respondents perceived
that, at times, these local businesses borrow money from financial institutions to boost
their chances of executing such projects and, as such, failure leads to their businesses
going bankrupt in some extreme cases. Some of these business people end up in court
and in prison.

This finding is in agreement with earlier research conducted by Adams (2008), which
concluded that business people in developing economies sometimes end up bankrupt
as a result of project failure.

7. Government sector underdevelopment

The study found that Ghanaian government project failure leads to underdevelopment
of the public sector. The respondents are of the view that, if government projects fail,
the sector in which the projects are implemented is not important, as the failure will
retard public sector development overall. Thus, the public sector development becomes
retarded as the public sector project is a panacea to a country’s development, as
espoused by Eichengreen (1994), Eichengreen (1996), and Eichengreen and Vazquez

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(1999). Their studies suggest that public sector projects are inevitable in national
development.

This finding is not surprising as the phenomenon under study pertains to the
government or public sector projects. This is in agreement with Goodman and Love’s
(1980) assertion that government policies are often translated into programmes and
projects, and therefore public projects are key in the development of every economy.
Similarly, this result confirms Eichengreen (1994), Eichengreen (1996), and
Eichengreen and Vazquez’s (1999) work, which argued that public projects are
inevitable in the development of any economy. Further, this finding is in agreement with
earlier research by Pinto (2013), which found that project-based work has become a
critical component of global industrial activity, and therefore failure of Ghanaian
government projects implies that the sector’s development will suffer, hence, the entire
country’s development will suffer. Thus, public sector development through projects is a
panacea to the developmental needs of the citizens of Ghana.

8. Loss of foreign aid/grants

It was revealed that sometimes foreign donors are unwilling to release funds or continue
to fund Ghanaian government projects due to project failure. Participants were of the
view that the Ghanaian government often lost foreign aid if it had experienced project
failure in the past. Further, most of the projects are executed in phases, and the
progress of the first phase determines the release of the subsequence phase’s funds,
so, if the earlier phase fails, donors are unwilling to release the remainder of the funds.

This finding is similar to an earlier statement made by the Daily Graphic (2007) and the
study of Amponsah (2013), which concluded that donor agencies are reluctant to
provide aid for infrastructure projects due to previous disappointing project outcomes.
They argue that this has resulted in donor apathy towards projects in the country (World
Bank report, 2007; Amponsah, 2013). Similarly, Fabian and Amir (2011) found that the
Chad-Cameroon Pipeline project was abandoned due to the World Bank’s withdrawal of
funding.

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9. Discourages investment
The research found that Ghanaian government project failure leads to the
discouragement of investment – both local and foreign investment. This is because
most of these investments depend on these projects – hence, failure means investment
has to stop. For example, it was revealed that a large number of companies depend on
electricity to function, so, if government projects are focusing on electrification of certain
areas and there is a fluctuating power supply, this means that these investors will not
move to these areas.

Further, projects such are construction of roads, which are solely constructed by the
government or in partnership with the government, are crucial to development in rural
areas and therefore, if these projects fail, investors have no option than to pull out.
Accordingly, the implication is that it is the ordinary citizens who lose out as this
withdrawal of investment affects their livelihoods both direct and indirectly. Directly, it
increases unemployment, and indirectly, it creates social vices in such communities.
Further, this affects the Gross Domestic Product and growth rate, and this has an
adverse effect on the government as well as on the citizens.

10. Stricter donor regulations

The findings revealed that Ghanaian government project failure leads to stricter donor
regulations. For example, before it releases funds, the government would have to pay
what is called ‘counterpart funding’ and ‘commitment fees’. Counterpart funding means
that the Ghanaian government would have to pay part of the full cost of the project;
however, it would want to see to it that such funds were available before it released its
own. The commitment fee, on the other hand, is a fee that the Ghanaian government
needs to commit to the projects before donors release their part of the funding.

In addition, it was found that, due to project failure in the country, donor partners
monitor Ghanaian government projects closely to see to it that their funds are being
used for their intended purposes. Further, due to this persistent project failure on the

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part of the government, they do not release the funds in full – they release as and when
they inspect the progress of the projects and are satisfied with it. In most circumstances,
they appoint their own representative, who will be on-site to monitor the project, as
indicated in Chapter five. Media reports and discussions in the country have highlighted
this issue. For instance, the “Dwaso Nsem” programme discussed on Adom FM on 5th
of June 2015 disclosed that the World Diabetes Association had to withhold further
funding of its programme on diabetes as a result of project failure (Adom FM, 2015).
However, it is clear that this finding provides a local-specific context to the discussion,
as the above were only media reports and discussions, and therefore it represents an
academic contribution to the literature on the subject.

6.4.1 Grouping of the Effects

The 26 factors identified as possible effects of Ghanaian government project failure
were classified into four groups – namely, economic, social, political and psychological.
These four themes were arrived at from the interview analysis with the use of thematic
and content analysis with the help of NVivo 10 software, as discussed in the method
chapter.

In the group ranking analysis, contractors and PMP unanimously agreed that economic
effect is the biggest effect of Ghanaian government project failure; this is followed by
political, social and psychological effects respectively. The general public was, however,
of the opinion that political effect is the biggest effect of Ghanaian government project
failure, followed by economic, social and psychological effects respectively.

This result reflects the perceptions that different categories of stakeholder group hold.
The differences in perception by PMP and contractors versus the general public are not
surprising. The general public ranking of political effects as the number one effect is a
total reflection of how the general public have voted for political parties and
governments in the past (Bawumia, 2015). The general public vote based on two main
issues in Ghana – ethnic and religious, and project implementation. Interviewees
perceived that most Ghanaians are illiterate and do not understand economic issues

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such as interest rates, inflation, budget deficits, government borrowing, or GDP, and
therefore the only way they judge the performance of the government is on its ability to
implement projects. The next sub-sections discuss these four groupings in detail. These
groupings are arranged in descending order.

1. Economic
Economic factors were unanimously rated as the number one effect by contractors and
PMP and number two by the general public; and they were number one overall. In fact,
seven of the first 10 individual effects were economic effects. The reason for the general
public not ranking economic factors as number one but two is perhaps due to how they
judge political parties and government on the basis of successful project
implementation, as indicated in preceding sections. When projects fail, economic
activities are affected and this has direct effects on the key stakeholders associated with
such projects. These effects are: loss of revenue by state, government sector
underdevelopment, collapse of local businesses, it slows down economic growth, loss
of foreign aid/grants, financial institutions lose confidence in the state, unemployment,
loss of revenue by the citizens, cost escalation, loss of worker hours, discourages
investment, and loss of properties.

Like development projects, the ultimate aim of Ghanaian government projects is to

improve the socio-economic standards of the general public (Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010;
Ngacho & Das, 2014; Yang, 2014), and so failure implies that these two main
developmental goals are affected. Ghana is a typical example of a developing country
and as such infrastructural development is paramount to economic growth and stability;
hence, failure implies that it will affect the whole country and its populace economically.

2. Social
Social effects were ranked overall as number two. It was found that Ghanaian
government project failure contributes to a number of social effects such as: it slows
down citizens' human empowerment, stricter donor regulations, lack of capacity, sub-

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standard infrastructure, relocation of services, accidents and deaths, denial of citizens'

basic rights, armed robbery and theft, abandonment of homes, and pollution. It was
found that, like many developing countries’ projects, Ghanaian government projects are
meant to provide infrastructure and other social amenities such as water and
healthcare, and therefore failure implies that the citizens are denied such amenities. It
emerged that these effects are sometimes in the form of teenage pregnancy or children
dropping-out of school; hence, creating a long-chain of social vices. For example, if an
education facility such as the building of classroom blocks fails, prospective students
are denied their basic right to education provision, as enshrined in the constitution,
which leads to young people being on the streets and creating problems. Some may
become pregnant (teenage pregnancy), and give birth to children who have no proper
care and education; these new children may turn to social vices in the community and a
continuous downwards spiral emerges. Moreover, it also emerged that these social
effects are intertwined and/or one leads to another and therefore it becomes cyclical in
nature.

It was found that most people in the country cannot afford many social amenities and
therefore rely on the government for such provisions, and so failure of such facilities has
a direct impact on the citizens as a whole. Earlier studies have concluded that projects
such as developmental projects are meant to provide goods and services to enhance
the life of the citizens of the implementing countries (Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010; Ngacho
& Das, 2014; Yang, 2014); therefore, this finding confirms these studies. Although the
effects part has not been fully discussed, a deduction can be made from these prior
studies and this research. The deduction is that, if these projects are meant to help the
general populace to improve their social life, then failure will definitely affect them
socially.

3. Political
As discussed in a previous section (causes), Ghanaian government projects are highly
‘political’, and therefore the political implication of project failure is huge, according to
the interviewees. Accordingly, the study revealed two main effects – bad image for the

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government and losing of general elections. The study also revealed that, apart from
tribal and religious reasons, the other main reason for a government losing an election
in the country is project performance, especially in the rural areas where most of the
residents are illiterate. It was further revealed that most of the populace do not
understand issues such as economic growth rate, GDP, inflation, fiscal and monetary
policies and other economic indicators – all that they are interested in is seeing projects
in their communities, and therefore, if government projects fail, it dents the image of the
party which is in power. This can lead to that party losing the next general election.

4. Psychological
The study found out that the psychological effects of Ghanaian government project
failure is huge; however, people rarely discuss this. Moreover, these psychological
effects are often not direct; for example, if a project fails, one of the direct effects is that
people lose their business and, if they lose their business, it affects their psyche.
Sometimes, they lose hope in life. Further, if they go bankrupt, it has a negative
psychological impact on them for the rest of their life. It was revealed that, in some
instances, people are imprisoned because they default on the bank loans they have
secured to embark on projects. This finding provides a unique dimension to project
management literature, as previous literature has not discussed these effects. It also
provides a country-specific context to the literature.

6.5 THE MOST AFFECTED KEY STAKEHOLDERS OF

GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE
Although prior literature had not specifically looked at the stakeholders who are affected
the most, it had indicated that government projects are purposely implemented to create
wealth for the general populace, and therefore the finding is not surprising. The logic is
that, if government projects are executed purposely to improve the well-being of the
citizenry, as espoused by Ahsan and Gunawan (2010), Ngacho and Das (2014), and

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Yang (2014), then any failure will have effects on the citizens. This section discusses
the most affected key stakeholders of Ghanaian government project failure. This is
presented in order of the most affected to the least affected.

The results indicate that the most affected stakeholders of Ghanaian government
project failure are the citizens/general public, as shown in Table 18. This is followed by
government, contractors, local businesses, financial institutions, consultants, and donor
agencies respectively.

This result is not surprising as the ultimate purpose of government projects is to improve
the life of the citizens in the form of ‘physical and soft’ benefits, as Ahsan and Gunawan
(2010) put it. This finding also confirms Ngacho and Das’s (2014) argument that, in the
case of Development Projects, the purpose is to create both economic wealth and
social services in implementation countries; and therefore the project failure have
negative impact on the general populace. Even though Ngacho and Das’s (2014) study
was restricted to development projects, their finding can be likened to Ghanaian
government projects to some extent, in that some Ghanaian government projects are
development projects. In fact, this finding is in line with Yang (2014), who equates
stakeholders to the community or the public – even though, Yang’s study was in urban
development projects. Yang (2014) further asserts that failure of such projects has both
direct and indirect effects on the general populace – however, Yang did not find these
specific direct and indirect effects. Therefore, like these studies, when Ghanaian
government projects (of which both development and urban projects are part) fail, this
would have negative effects on the general populace in particular.

The government came second; again, this finding is not surprising. As stated by the
research objective, the projects under study are government projects, whether at local
or central government level, as defined in the literature review chapter. This implies that
the project ’belongs’ to the government and, as such, whatever the project outcome; it
will have a significant impact on the government. This result could also be attributed to
the nature of politics in Ghana. As indicated by most interviewees, projects can
influence general election results for both the government and the opposition parties.
That is, projects influence how voters vote. This result also attests to the Institute Of

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Economic Affairs, Ghana (IEA) debate organised in 2012 prior to the 2012 general
elections, which showed that electoral success could be attributed to project success
(Ghanaweb, 2012).

Contractors came third – contractors are the direct implementers of Ghanaian

government projects and as such any failure will affect them. It came out that
sometimes contractors lose their capital through Ghanaian government project failure.
When contractors are unable to pay for materials bought on credit for projects, they are
sometimes arrested for default of payment. This not only results in them losing money,
but they are sometime imprisoned for default of payments of loans and credit facilities. It
was found that, in Ghana, financial institutions are able to arrest their clients for default
of payment and if they are unable to pay or agree on a better payment plan, they are
kept behind bars until their families are able to pay for them.

Fourthly, local businesses – it was found that local communities, including their
businesses, are also key stakeholders who could be affected by Ghanaian government
projects. These local businesses are not the same as contractors; they are the
businesses around the project sites. They are mainly small- and medium-size business
which operates within the project’s environs. It was revealed that, when projects are
being implemented, a lot of people set up new businesses or move their businesses to
such places, so that when the project starts, they can meet demands arising from it. If it
is a big project like the building of dams and roads, some even buy and/or build
properties, so that they can rent them out to the workers or ‘to people who will want to
live in the area after the project has been completed. Thus, if such projects fail to
materialise, then such businesses collapse.

Next is a financial institution – financial institutions provide financial support to Ghanaian

government projects. It was revealed that, in Ghana and many other developing
countries, financial institutions have to raise certificates of payment and other payment
on behalf of the government and sometime they lend to the government in cash;
therefore, if such projects fail, they have to chase the government for a long time to
obtain their money. This puts a strain on these financial institutions meeting their targets

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(Bawumia, 2015). Most often, it means that they are unable to lend more to individual
customers, who are perceived as being more risky (Bawumia, 2015).

Consultants come next – it was found that consultants provide the technical advice and
monitoring services to executors of Ghanaian government projects and therefore could
influence Ghanaian government project performance; as such, failure will affect them.

Lastly, donor agencies – donor agencies and donor countries are those who provide
funding in the form of cash and in kind. This was ranked last perhaps because failure of
Ghanaian government projects does not have a direct effect on them.

Again, as discussed in the preceding sections, these findings provide an academic and
practical dimension to the literature. From the above discussion, it can be deduced that
literature on these effects is rare and the little available is mainly in the form of reports
and lecture proceedings (see Bawumia, 2015).

6.6 SUMMARY
This chapter has discussed the results from Chapter five by linking them to the literature
reviewed in Chapter two. It has discussed the level of failure in Ghanaian government
projects in relation to various failure criteria. It has further discussed the various factors
that cause Ghanaian government project failure with an emphasis on the most
influential factors. In addition, it has discussed the effects of Ghanaian government
project failure on key stakeholders by highlighting the most important effects and also
the most affected key stakeholders. It has also discussed the degree of agreement
among the categories of participants on the causes and effects of Ghanaian
government project failure identified in the research.

The next chapter summarises the main findings of the research by highlighting the main
contributions of the study and also points out the limitations. It further makes
suggestions for future research in the subject area.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCLUSIONS

7.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the main findings of this study based on the research aims and
objectives. It highlights the main contributions and the limitations of the study. Further, it
makes suggestions for further research in the subject area. The purpose is to shed light
on the main findings of the research, and contribute to both the academic and practical
fields.

The rest of the chapter is presented as follows: section 7.1 presents Ghanaian
government project failure; 7.2 presents causes of Ghanaian government project failure
whilst 7.3 discusses the effects of Ghanaian government projects on key stakeholders.
Section 7.4 looks at the contribution that the study makes to knowledge. Section 7.5
highlights the limitations of the research whilst section 7.6 makes recommendations for
future research. Lastly, section 7.7 summarises the chapter.

7.1 GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE

The first objective of this research was to find out the extent of failure in Ghanaian
government projects using different failure criteria. As a result, an adapted Square Root
Framework proposed by (Atkinson, 1999) (time; cost; deliverables; contribution to sector
where projects are implemented; contribution to national development; and
stakeholders’ satisfaction) was used to investigate this objective. The findings showed
that all the three categories of the study’s participants (contractors, PMP and general
public) agreed that Ghanaian government projects fail on all six criteria; however, the
extent of failure differs from criterion to criterion. They agreed that the worst performing
criterion is meeting the projected time, followed by cost, deliverables, stakeholders’

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satisfaction, contribution to national development and contribution to the sector where

the project is implemented respectively.

This shows that the criteria in which Ghanaian government projects fail most are within
the iron triangle (time, cost and deliverables) (Atkinson, 1999). This is followed by
failures to provide the expected benefits of the project’s product.

Some of the findings are supported by the literature whilst others are not. For instance,
prior literature supports the various failure criteria and the extent of failure within each
criterion (KPMG, 2013), but has not empirically compared these failure criteria within a
study.

7.2 CAUSES OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT

FAILURE
A number of factors have been cited in the literature as the causes of projects failure;
however, whilst some are peculiar to certain industries and geographical locations
(Mukabeta et al., 2008; Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010; Amid et al., 2012), others are generic
to all projects (Ruuska & Teigland, 2009; Ochieg & Price, 2010; Fabian & Amir, 2011;
Pourrastam & Ismail, 2011). As a result, the second objective of this study was to
identify factors that cause Ghanaian government projects in general to fail and their
relative importance.

In the main, the study identified 32 factors that account for Ghanaian government
project failure. These are: monitoring, corruption, political interference, change in
government, bureaucracy, fluctuation of prices, lack of continuity, planning, delays in
payment, release of funds, change in project leadership, management practices,
procurement processes, project funding, commitment to project, selection of project
managers, project team formation, project management techniques, feasibility studies,
communication, supervision, scope change, capacity, task definition, definition of
specification, requirement, regulations, culture and belief systems, user involvement,
labour, pressure groups (media, NGOs, political activities etc.), and natural disaster.

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Some of these findings are in agreement with previous literature, whilst others are new
and/or have different meanings in the local context. For instance, issues such as price
fluctuation, delays in payments, monitoring, resources and commitment are often found
in project management literature but corruption, culture and belief system were not
supported by previous literature. Moreover, although some of these factors are the
same as previous literature, the meanings in the local context are not the same. For
instance, monitoring was perceived from a different angle – whereas previous literature
looked at it from the execution point of view in relation to culture (Amponsah, 2010); in
the case of this research, it goes beyond culture to relate to political and cultural
perspectives. Further, release of project funds was looked at from the perspective of the
donor agencies rather than the clients as indicated in the previous research (Frimpong
et al., 2003; Kaliba et al., 2009; Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010; Fugar & Agyakwah‐Baah,
2010; Aziz, 2013). Issues such as counterpart funding and commitment fees were all
mentioned as part of the reasons for the delays, and these relate directly to donor
agencies and partner countries. Again, capacity meant different things in the local
context – to some interviewees, it means human resources but to others, logistics and
to others, it means both human resources and material resources.

Previous literature had shown that the causes (factors) do not have the same
importance (influence) (Frimpong et al., 2003; Kaliba et al., 2009; Ahsan & Gunawan,
2010; Fugar & Agyakwah‐Baah, 2010; Aziz, 2013). Accordingly, all the factors were
ranked using Mean Average Ranking, Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients, and
Kruskal-Wallis H test. The statistical testing of the degree of agreement among the
three categories of participants indicated that there is a high degree of agreement on
the most important factors (causes) of Ghanaian government project failure. The
findings indicate that contractors, project management practitioners and general public
agreed that the top 10causes of Ghanaian government project failure in descending
order are: (1) monitoring (2) corruption (3) political interference (4) change in
government (5) bureaucracy (6) lack of continuity (7) fluctuation of prices (8) planning
(9) delays in payment and (10) release of funds.

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The position of some of these factors in the rankings was surprising – for example,
monitoring being the number one most influential cause of Ghanaian government
project failure. Prior literature has ranked delays in payment as the most influential
factor (Frimpong et al., 2003; Fugar & Agyakwah‐Baah, 2010); however, the variance in
findings may be due to the sector where the studies were conducted. These prior
studies have been conducted in specific industries whereas this research is conducted
in Ghanaian government projects in general. Moreover, interviewees linked monitoring
to politics, corruption and cultural orientation towards government projects rather than
technocrats as espoused by other authors (Frimpong et al., 2003; Fugar & Agyakwah‐
Baah, 2010).

Again, corruption has not been featured much in prior literature, especially, academic
literature; therefore, this finding makes a contribution to the theory by adding to the
previous literature, which has only been in the form of media, industry and commentary
reports (TI, 2008; Ghanaian Chronicle, 2012, OccupyGhana, 2014; Imani, 2015;
Bawomia, 2015; Addo, 2015). Moreover, although these findings appear surprising as
earlier studies have not identified them as important factors, given that the study is
conducted in the public sector in a typical developing country, they are not surprising, as
these countries have always been among the worst performing countries in corruption-
free public sector league tables (see Transparency International (TI), 2008).

Furthermore, the political interference finding provides a unique contribution to the

academic literature in the Ghanaian context as previous literature on the subject has
been in the form of industry reports and media commentary (see Meet the Press, 2009;
Takyi-Boadu, 2011; Ghanaian Chronicle, 2012). Closely related to political interference
is management and administrative practices. Prior literature has discussed this factor in
relation to the management of the projects (Mochal, 2005; World Bank Report, 2007;
Lever, 2008; Ruuska & Teigland, 2009); however, this study has identified another
dimension to the project management literature by espousing management and
administrative practices linked directly and indirectly to political leadership in project
management. This is a unique contribution to the literature.

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Additionally, the study has espoused bureaucracy as a major factor that contributes to
Ghanaian government project failure – this is country-specific contribution; it can be
applied in many countries with similar systems. Prior studies have espoused this
problem in the Ghanaian institutional system (Killick, 2008; Amoako & Lyon, 2014);
however, it has not been discussed in the context of project management within the
Ghanaian local context.

In addition, the 32 factors identified as causes of Ghanaian government project failure

were classified into four groups – namely, leadership, management and administration
practices, resources, and external forces. These groupings were made based on the
themes that were arrived at during the interview analysis phase. In the group ranking,
contractors, PMP and the general public unanimously agreed that poor leadership is the
most influential cause of Ghanaian government project failure; this is followed by poor
management and administrative practices, low resources, and external forces
respectively. This shows that leadership and project management and administrative
practices are more influential in causing Ghanaian government projects to fail as
compared to resources and external forces. Further, leadership in previous research
related to the management and administrative (executors) perspective (Perkins, 2006;
Hwang & Ng, 2013), whereas leadership in this study mainly pertains to political
leadership and/or government officials’ leadership. Even though external forces came
last, it must be noted that the managers and leaders of Ghanaian government projects
need to pay attention to such forces as they are beyond their control.

7.3 EFFECTS OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT

FAILURE ON KEY STAKEHOLDERS
The third objective of this study was to identify the effects of Ghanaian government
project failure on key stakeholders associated with such projects and their relative
importance. The study identified 26 possible effects of Ghanaian government projects
failure on key stakeholders. These are: it slows down economic growth, loss of revenue
by state, unemployment, bad image for government, collapse of local businesses, cost

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escalation, government sector underdevelopment, loss of foreign aid/grants,

discourages investment, stricter donor regulations, loss of election, financial institutions
lose confidence in the state, loss of revenue by the citizens, lack of capacity, sub-
standard infrastructure, it slow down citizens' human empowerment, loss of worker
hours, pollution, armed robbery and theft, relocation of services, denial of citizens' basic
rights, loss of properties, emotional stress on citizens, accidents and deaths,
imprisonment, and abandonment of homes.

The findings indicate that, whilst some of the effects are associated with specific
projects and/or industry, others cut across all government projects. For example, whilst
teenage pregnancy is linked directly to educational project failure, loss of a general
election by the incumbent party in government is general to all government project
failure.

Furthermore, the study revealed that some of these effects are direct whilst others are
indirect. Thus, the findings show that the effects are interrelated and sequential – one
effect could lead to another effect and in that order. For example, if the direct effect of
government project failure is unemployment, the indirect effects would be social vices
such as armed robbery and theft, and lack of capacity (human resources).

In addition, the study ranked all these effects using the average mean in order to find
out the most important (severe) effects of Ghanaian government project failure on key
stakeholders associated with such projects. The findings indicated that the three
categories of the study’s participants agreed that the top 10effects of Ghanaian
government project failure on key stakeholders are: it slows down economic growth;
loss of revenue by state; unemployment; cost escalation; bad image for government;
collapse of local businesses; government sector underdevelopment; loss foreign
aids/grants, discourages investment; and stricter donor regulations.

In the group rankings, contractors and PMP unanimously agreed that economic effect is
the biggest effect of Ghanaian government project failure; this is followed by political,
social and psychological effects respectively. The general public was, however, of the
opinion that political effect is the biggest effect of such failure, followed by economic,

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social and psychological respectively. Overall, economic effects were ranked number
one, followed by social, political and psychological effects respectively.

Furthermore, the study intended to find out the key stakeholders who are affected the
most by Ghanaian government project failure. The findings showed that the most
affected stakeholders are the general public, followed by the government, contractors,
local businesses, financial institutions, consultants, and donor agencies respectively.

7.4 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings, it is recommended that Ghanaian government makes the
monitoring of its projects a priority with minimal political interference. Thus, projects
should be left with technocrats to manage public projects rather than political patronage.
These should be independent body devoid of party politics. To reduce shoddy works
(projects deliverables); independent laboratories should be allowed to test projects
materials rather than the assemblies; which are part of government. Moreover,
consultants who monitor and certify completion of Ghanaian government projects
should be independent. Again, the part which has to be certified by government should
constitute incumbent party and the opposition members of parliaments (MPs). This will
help reduce partisanship, hence, being more independent.

Moreover, Ghanaian government projects should not be based on party manifesto but
they should be based on national policy directives. In this case, all parties and policy
think tanks should meet to devise national agenda on project implementation, and then
it should be subject to parliamentary approval. This should become national
development projects – so that individual political parties manifestos should be on ‘’how
they can achieve the national agenda’’ rather than coming out with their own manifesto
on projects. This will ensure continuity of projects if there is change of government
and/or projects leaders.

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Further, it is important for the leadership of Ghanaian government projects to institute

projects offices separate from government agencies. This will help reduce political
interference and political patronage.

In addition, stricter laws need to be enacted by parliament to ensure that projects

cannot be halted when there is change of government. These laws need to be enforced
by the law enforcing agencies. Also, the role of national development planning
commission to set out programmes and plan for development devoid of politics should
be strengthened in order to reduce projects being halted with changes in government.

To ensure that funds are paid on time, government needs to ensure that projects funds
are available and released from donor agencies before the commencement of projects.
Similarly, to reduce payment delays, the government should reduce the bureaucratic
processes involved in the procurement of Ghanaian government projects. The use of
hardcopies of projects documents should be replaced with electronic ones; this will help
reduce corruption and delays in accessing projects documents. This can also help easy
access of projects documents by the media and the general public – this will help
monitoring and transparency.

It can also be recommended that apart from national projects, the government should
allow local communities to initiate their own local projects rather than being ’dump’ on
them. Government representatives at the local level should play advisory role. This will
allow local ownership of projects, hence, local participation and patronage of
deliverables of projects.

In relation to the effects, it is recommended that Ghanaian government project

managers should reduce and/or avoid projects failure as failure has huge negative
effects on the key stakeholders, especially the general public. If failure is reduce or
avoided, the negative effects will not emerge. However, if they fail, there should be
mitigation measures such as payment of compensation to local businesses by the
government so that they can continue to stay in business.

Furthermore, parliament needs to enact a law that will prevent financial institutions from
imprisoning of defaulted borrowers. However, there should be an independent

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committee that can investigate to establish if business owners default payments are
genuinely linked to such projects.

7.5 CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE

The research makes a two-fold contribution to knowledge – theory and practice. Firstly,
extant literature in project management and causes of projects failure has focused on
three areas: generic view of project failure (Frimpong et al., 2003; Kaliba et al., 2009;
Ahsan & Gunawan, 2010; Liu et al., 2011; Amid et al., 2012), private sector projects
(Mangione, 2003), and public or government sector – but this group has concentrated
mainly on projects in specific case(s) (Kumar & Best, 2006; Maubeta et al., 2008;
Fabian & Amir, 2011; Patanakul., 2014), which makes these studies industry-specific by
default; hence, they cannot be generalised. This study therefore contributes to project
failure literature by studying government projects in general, which will make the
research cross-industry, and hence it can be generalised.

Secondly, this research has used the general public as participants, and they have not
been used before by researchers in prior studies of causes and effects of project failure.
Previous studies have mainly used technocrats such as architects, quantity surveyors,
and engineers, and contractors (e.g. Aibinu & Jagboro, 2002; Frimpong et al. 2003;
Sambasivan & Soon, 2007; Kaliba et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2011; Pourrostam & Ismail,
2011; Patanakul, 2014). This study bridges the literature gap by using the general public
as part of the study’s participants, thereby adding a new and unique lens to the
literature in the field. The use of general public is very vital to this study as they are the
main beneficiaries of government projects and therefore, whatever the performance of
the projects are, would have impact on their lives – directly or indirectly.

Thirdly, extant literature in project management and effects of projects failure focuses
on project completion (Aibinu & Jagboro, 2002; Sambasivan & Soon, 2007; Pourrostam
& Ismail, 2011; Zhang, 2013) without looking at the effects on stakeholders associated
with such projects. This study has bridged this gap in the literature by focusing on

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effects on the stakeholders associated with such projects. In all, 26 effects of project
failure on key stakeholders associated with such projects have been identified.

Fourthly, earlier research has made assertions about effects of project failure on some
specific groups (stakeholders) (Ngacho & Das, 2014; Yang, 2014); they have not looked
at key stakeholders in general. Specifically, Ngacho and Das (2014) and Yang (2014)
have mentioned local communities as those who are impacted by project performances;
however, these were not fully studied, neither did the authors compare the local
community (which can be equated to the general public) to other key stakeholders
associated with such projects. By comparing the most affected key stakeholders of
Ghanaian government project failure; this study has made a unique contribution to
project management literature.

Moreover, this research has also espoused politics, corruption and political leadership
as major factors of project failure. Prior studies have not given much attention to these
areas, although project leadership has looked at them, but not in the direction of political
leadership of projects. Additionally, the research has highlighted factors such as culture
and belief systems. Prior studies have espoused culture as a major factor for project
failure in developing countries; however, these are in relation to management practices,
frameworks and models for project implementation (Heeks, 2002, 2006; Saad et al.,
2002; Muriithi & Crawford, 2003; Alsakini et al., 2004; Maube et al., 2008; Amid et al.,
2012), whilst this study has linked culture in the form of belief systems.

In addition, this study contributes to the project management literature by espousing

bureaucracy as a major factor that contributes to project failure. This is a country-
specific contribution; it can be applied in many countries with similar systems. Even
though these prior studies have espoused bureaucracy as a major problem in the
country (Killick, 2008; Amoako & Lyon, 2014), it has not be discussed in the context of
project management, and therefore this provides a unique finding that contributes to the
project management literature within the local context.

Again, this study contributes to the academic and practical fields of project failure,
causes and effects of project failure in Ghana and developing countries in general. This

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gives country-specific contributions to knowledge that can be used by both academia

and practitioners on how to manage Ghanaian government projects. Specifically, factors
such as political interference in the local context have only been identified in industry
reports and media commentary, and therefore this study provides a unique contribution
to the local context in the academic field.

Furthermore, this research has provided statistical evidence to support claims of project
failure, causes of project failure and effects of projects failure on key stakeholders of
Ghanaian government projects. Practising managers and policy makers of Ghanaian
government projects can use this as a guide during project management in order to
reduce project failure and its subsequent effects on key stakeholders.

In addition, given that most of the findings related to political leadership, it will serve as
guide for project management practitioners to develop the skills necessary to manage
political leaders as well as government officials, in order to reduce and/or avoid project
failure in future. This will help them to manage both the projects and other key
stakeholders associated with them.

Lastly, since this study followed a rigorous and robust research design, this allows for
the research to be replicated in other countries and/or industries, enabling cross-sector
comparative studies to be made.

7.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH

Like any research project, this research has a number of limitations. The data collected
for this study were based on a two-stage approach (sequential sampling technique)
employing semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. Although there was control
over the choice of interviewees, there was no control over the completion of the
questionnaires. Nonetheless, all necessary efforts were made to make sure that the
questionnaire was mailed direct to the right person or it was given to the participant in
person by the researcher. Nevertheless, this may not necessarily guarantee that the
questionnaires were, in actual fact, completed by the intended person, as the
researcher was not present whilst they were completed. This may lead to bias in the

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findings, but this can be deemed minimal and as such does not affect the overall
findings.

Further, this research used simple random selection of the questionnaire participants.
However, to reduce the impact of this limitation, the sample size for the contractors and
PMP was increased from 87 to 300 using Yamane’s sample size calculations formula.
More so, it was economically and practically impossible to sample the whole country:
however, this limitation was reduced by picking 20 respondents from each region, which
is within the quota sampling technique (Saunders et al, 2012). Although this does not
guaranteed bias-free responses, it was performed to improve regional representation
and as such does not affect the overall findings.

In addition, the participants in the three categories were not equal, and therefore this
could affect the mean average of the various statistical calculations made. In order to
reduce the impact of this limitation, a non-parametric test was used, which means that
the samples from each categories of respondents might not necessarily be equal (Field,
2012); however, this does not affect the findings.

7.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

This research has contributed to the project management literature by investigating the
extent of project failure, and causes and effects of project failure in developing countries
by using Ghana as a case study. This has addressed a number of gaps in the literature;
however, from the findings, it is clear that further research needs to be conducted in
future to address issues that were espoused.

First and foremost, the study did not compare the various industries within government
projects as this was not within the scope of this research. Therefore, further research
needs to look at the various industries in the economy in order to compare their
individual performance. This can be done by making a comparative study of project
failure in Ghanaian government sectors. This can help policy makers to know on which

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sectors to focus the most in reducing and/or avoiding Ghanaian government project
failure in the country and other developing countries in general.

Secondly, the findings linked most of the causes to politics, especially party politics, as
a root cause of Ghanaian government project failure, and therefore this needs further
investigation, to find out the link between government project failure and politics. An
empirical studying of the relationship between politics and project failure in Ghanaian
government projects is recommended. This can be carried out through correlation
analysis.

Thirdly, given that corruption was mentioned by all interviewees as a cause of

government project failure, and subsequently ranked as the second most influential
factor, it is surprising that little has been researched about it, hence, the need for further
investigation into the phenomenon. This can be achieved by exploring how corruption
affects Ghanaian government project failure and the cost associated with this.

In addition, this research has established that most of the causes of Ghanaian
government project failure are in the area of leadership; however, this is not
management leadership but political leadership. Nevertheless, little has been
researched on political leadership, and therefore future research can look into this by
researching how political leadership of Ghanaian government projects influences their
performance.

7.8 SUMMARY
This chapter has presented a summary of the entire research by highlighting the main
findings of the research, and the main contributions to both theory and practice. It has
also identified the limitations of the research and the areas which require further
research.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Semi-structured Interview Guide

(A) GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT PERFORMANCE

1. Can you explain to me if Ghanaian government projects achieve the following
targets: time, budget and requirements?
2. How would you evaluate government project performance in terms of its benefits
to the general public?
3. How would you evaluate Ghanaian government projects’ contribution to the
sectors in whichthey are implemented?

(B) CAUSES OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE

4. What are the causes of Ghanaian government project failure?
5. Identify Ghanaian government project management practices that hinder
success.
6. How would you describe the involvement of citizens in the implementation of
government projects?
7. What is the role of media in the implementation of government projects?

(C) EFFECTS OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECTS FAILURE ON

STAKEHOLDERS
8. What are the effects of these failures on the various stakeholders of Ghanaian
government projects?
9. How would you explain the effects of government project failure on national
development?

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(D) LINK BETWEEN CAUSES OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECTS

FAILURE AND THEIR EFFECTS ON STAKEHOLDERS
10. Is there any link between any of the causes and the effects of Ghanaian
government projects? If yes, how?
11. How would you assess the link(s), if any, in terms of their strength (strong,
moderate and minimum)?
12. Can you explain which ones have a direct link and which ones have an indirect
link?
13. Give your overall comment on causes and effects of government project failure.

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APPENDIX B: Questionnaire

Dear Respondents,

I am a PhD student of Liverpool John Moores University (LJMU) - UK. I am carrying out a
research project on: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF PROJECT FAILURE
IN GOVERNMENT PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: GHANA AS A CASE STUDY.

I would be grateful if you could help me by responding to the questionnaire below.

I assure you that information you provide shall be treated confidentially.

By completing this questionnaire, it implies that you consent to participate in this research.

Thanks for your anticipated co-operation.

Yours faithfully,

Isaac Sakyi Damoah

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PART A

DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Date……………………………….

Please tick as appropriate

1. Age: (a) Below 20 (b) 20 - 30 (c) 31 – 40 (d) 41-50 (e) Above 50

2. Sex: Male Female

3. Region where you live. (a)Greater Accra (b) Ashanti (c) Brong-Ahafo (d) Eastern (e)Central
(f) Volta (g) Western (h) Upper- East (i) Upper-West (j) Northern

4. What is your highest educational qualification or nearest equivalent?(a) High school (b) HND (c)
Bachelor (d) Master’s degree (e) Professional qualification (f) PhD (g) Others ………………………

5. What is your level of position at work?

Corporate Senior Junior Supervisory Subordinate Others

management management management (Specify)......................

6.Which of these categories best describe you? (Please tick only 1) (i) Contractor (ii) Project management
practitioner (iii) General public

7. How many years of work experience do you have?

Less than 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 Other years
1-5 years
1 year years years years years years years years ………………….

Current position

General experience

8. What sector do you work in? (1) Public (2) Private (3) NGO (4) Not working (5) Others
(please specify)…………………………………….

9. Which industry does your company operate in? (i) Retail/Wholesale (ii) Manufacturing (iii)
Construction (iv) Service (v) Agriculture (vi) Mining (vii) Others (Please specify)
…………………………………..

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PART B

GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT PERFORMANCE

How do you rate the achievement of Ghanaian government projects goals in relation to the following, with 1 being
the least achievement and 5 the highest achievement?

don't
1 2 3 4 5
know

Cost

Time

Deliverables

Stakeholder satisfaction

Contribution
to the where the project is being
implemented

National development

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PART C

CAUSES OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE

To what extent do you agree that the following factors influence the failure of Ghanaian government
projects? (Please tick (√).

Causes Strongly Disagree Neutral agree Strongly Don’t

disagree agree know
1 Planning
2 Monitoring
3 Change in project
leadership
4 Selection of project
managers
5 Project team formation
6 Task definition
7 User involvement
8 Project management
techniques
9 Commitment to project
10 Requirement
11 Definition of
specification
12 Scope change
13 Procurement processes
14 Feasibility studies
15 Release of funds
16 Project funding
17 Labour
18 Communication
19 Management practices
20 Supervision
21 Bureaucracy
22 Lack of continuity
23 Political interference
24 Corruption
25 Regulations
26 Pressure groups
(media, NGOs, political
activities, etc.)
27 Change in government
28 Natural disaster
29 Culture and belief
systems
30 Fluctuation of prices
31 Capacity
32 Delays in payments

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PART D
EFFECTS OF GHANAIAN GOVERNMENT PROJECT FAILURE ON KEY STAKEHOLDERS
1. To what extent do you agree that the following statements of effects on Ghanaian government project failure
have on the key stakeholders of such projects? (Please tick (√).
Effects Strongly Disagree Neutral agree Strongly Don’t
disagree agree know
1 Loss of revenue by
state
2 Emotional stress on
citizens
3 It slows down citizens’
human
empowerment
4 Government sector
underdevelopment
5 Collapse of local
businesses
6 Loss of election
7 It slows down economic
growth
8 Loss foreign Aids/grants
9 Financial institutions
lose confidence in the
state
10 Unemployment
11 Loss of revenue by the
citizen’s
12 Stricter donor
regulations
13 Cost escalation
14 Lack of capacity
15 Loss of worker hours
16 Sub-standard
infrastructure
17 Discourages investment
18 Relocation of services
19 Accidents & Deaths
20 Denial of citizens’ basic
rights
21 Armed robbery and
theft
22 Abandonment of homes
23 Loss of properties
24 Bad image for
government
25 Pollution
26 Imprisonment

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2. Rank the various stakeholders of government projects in terms of how they are affected by Ghanaian
government project failure from 1 to 7; with 1 being the least affected and 7 the most affected. (Please write only
one figure in against each stakeholder.)

i. Government ( )
ii. Citizens/general public ( )
iii. Contractors ( )
iv. Consultants ( )
v. Financial institutions ( )
vi. Local business ( )
vii. Donor agencies ( )

Thank you
Contact:
18 Piggott Street
Poplar
London
UK
E14 7DN
is.damoah@gmail.com
0044 (0) 745-476-1099

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APPENDIX C: NVivo 10 Data Analysis

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APPENDIX D.CONSENT FORM

LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY

CONSENT FORM
Title of Project: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF PROJECT FAILURE
IN GOVERNMENT PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: GHANA AS A CASE STUDY

Name of Researcher and School/Faculty: Isaac Sakyi Damoah; (LJMU Business School)

1. I confirm that I have read and understand the information provided for the
above study. I have had the opportunity to consider the information, ask
questions and have had these answered satisfactorily.

2. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to

withdraw at any time, without giving a reason and that this will not affect
my legal rights.

3. I understand that any personal information collected during the study will
be anonymised and remain confidential.

4. I agree to take part in the above study.

5. I agree that any information I give can be published

Name of Participant Date Signature

Name of Researcher Date Signature

Name of Person taking consent Date Signature

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APPENDIX E. PARTICIPATION INFORMATION SHEET

LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY

LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY
PARTICIPANT
QUESTINNAIRE
INFORMATION SHEET
PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET

You are invited to participate in a Research Project that is explained below. Thank you for taking
the time to read this information.

“You are being invited to take part in a research study. Before you decide it is important
that you understand why the research is being done and what it involves. Please take
time to read the following information. Ask us if there is anything that is not clear or if
you would like more information. Take time to decide if you want to take part or not.”

Mr Isaac Sakyi Damoah (Liverpool Business School)

Title of Project: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF PROJECT FAILURE
IN GOVERNMENT PROJECTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: GHANA AS A CASE STUDY

1. Purpose of the study

The main purpose of this research is to reduce project failure rate ingovernment
projects in developing countries.

2. Participants
This is a voluntary participation. It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part. If
you do you will be given this information sheet and asked to sign a consent form. You
are still free to withdraw at any time and without giving a reason. A decision to
withdraw will not affect your rights/any future treatment/service you receive.”

3. What will happen to participants

This is a semi-structured interview and will take approximately 30mins. You may not
feel comfortable with some of the questionnaire/questions.

4. Risks / benefits involved

There will not be risk of reviewing personal identity going to be seen by others that will
risk your life or career or any relations. Data is for academic research purpose only.

Isaac Sakyi Damoah

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5. Confidentiality
Data from this research will be treated in the strictest confidence.

6. Contact Details of Researcher

You should return completed forms to me.

Isaac Sakyi Damoah