Fundamentals of Hazard Management PDF

Topic X Evolution of the
Occupational
1 Safety and
Health
Movement
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the two main phases in the evolution of the occupational
safety and health movement;
2. Discuss the factors which contributed to the development of
occupational safety and health;
3. Examine the history behind the development of occupational safety
and health management in Malaysia; and
4. Assess the current developments in the field of occupational safety
and health management.
X INTRODUCTION
Occupational safety and health management is a function in the field of human
resource management. Besides looking after the welfare of their employees, it is
also important for companies to create a safe and comfortable workplace for
them. In the last two decades, the field of occupational safety and health
management has experienced rapid development due to several factors,
2 X TOPIC 1 EVOLUTION OF THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH MOVEMENT
such as the emergence of sophisticated technologies and work processes (which

could bring new risks), legislative amendments which emphasised more on
enforcement, increasing costs of production due to accidents, and the like.
To help you gain a better understanding of the various aspects of workplace

safety and health management, this topic will give you an overview of the
development of the occupational safety and health movement from its
beginnings in the Babylonian era to the present day. This topic will also discuss
other influences and factors that contributed to the growth of this field.
1.1 HISTORY OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND

HEALTH MANAGEMENT
It is important to first study the history of the development of occupational safety
and health management in order to understand how this field came to existence
and became a very significant part of our working lives today. The history of its
development can be divided into two main parts, namely:
(a) The evolution of the occupational safety and health movement in general;
and
(b) The development of the occupational safety and health movement in

Malaysia.
The evolution of occupational safety and health management can be divided into
two phases, i.e. before the Industrial Revolution and after the Industrial
Revolution. The Industrial Revolution started in some Western countries at the
end of the 18th century and early 19th century. It marked the rise of machinery to
replace manual labour; a phenomenon that not only affected the way people
worked, but changed the workplace entirely.
After the Industrial Revolution era (i.e. from the early 19th century), the field of
occupational safety and health management developed rapidly until today.
TOPIC 1 EVOLUTION OF THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH MOVEMENT W 3
(a) Occupational Safety and Health Management Before the Industrial

Revolution
The beginnings of occupational safety and health management can be
traced back to the era of the Babylonian Empire, i.e. around 2000 BC during
the reign of Hammurabi. Hammurabi, the king, ruled his country based on
a code he created. The Hammurabi Code encompassed all of the laws of the
land at that time. Figure 1.1 illustrates the Babylonian era.
Figure 1.1: The era of Babylon
The code was engraved on a 2.4-metre high black stone monument

(Figure 1.2) that was erected in a public place for all to see. It contained
clauses on safety and health laws, as well as those dealing with injuries and
monetary damages assessed against those who injured others. For example,
if a man caused the loss of someone elseÊs eye, his own eye should be
caused to be lost. If a person caused damage to the properties of others, he
must pay compensation for the damage caused.
Figure 1.2: The Hammurabi Code was engraved on a black stone monument
The heaviest penalty or punishment prescribed in the code for those

proven guilty was the death penalty. The existence of the Hammurabi Code
indirectly made the community of that time realise how important it was
that they should look after not only the safety of their own families, but also
the safety of others a concept known as self-regulation.
The movement continued to evolve in later Egyptian civilisations. Well

known for their temples and pyramids, the Egyptian kings or pharaohs
used slaves as labour for the construction of those mammoth structures.
Large bricks and rocks were manually transported and laid in place under
hot weather, thereby exposing the slave labourers to harsh work conditions
that eventually led to various health problems. Figure 1.3 illustrates a
pyramid that was built using thousands of labourers at that time.
Figure 1.3: The construction of the Giza Pyramid involved thousands of slaves who
were exposed to harsh work conditions
King Rameses II (1200 BC), one of the great pharaohs, provided health and
medical services to his workers to ensure that they remained fit to complete
the construction of many temples, including the Ramesseum Temple.
Similarly, during the Roman era, the Roman rulers were fairly concerned
about the safety and health of their living environments. They built
sewerage and irrigation systems as well as well-ventilated houses in order
to provide better living and work conditions.
The period between the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth
century AD and the beginning of the Renaissance in the 15th century AD
was known historically as the Middle Ages. It was a period of great changes
in culture, politics, science, society, agriculture and economics. Urbanisation
the rise of towns and cities in Northern and Western Europe raised
awareness of workplace safety and health management further.
In 1567, Philippus Aureolus (also known as Paracelsus) wrote a treatise on

pulmonary diseases of miners, titled On the MinersÊ Sickness and Other
Diseases of Miners.
Around the same time, Georgius Agricola published his treatise titled De Re
Metallica, emphasising the need for ventilation in mines.
The 18th century saw the contribution of Bernardino Ramazzini, who wrote
Discourse on the Diseases of Workers, drawing parallels between diseases
suffered by workers and their occupations. His discussion focused on
diseases related to the handling of harmful materials and unnatural bodily
movements.
Table 1.1: Writers and their Writings onWorkplace Safety and Health Management
Writer Writing
Philippus Aureolus On the MinersÊ Sickness and Other Diseases of Miners
Georgius Agricola De Re Metallica
Bernardino Ramazzini Discourse on the Diseases of Workers
(b) Occupational Safety and Health Management During and After the
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution introduced changes to work operations and
workplace conditions. Steam power and machines brought new methods
for converting raw materials into finished products, and along came new
organisation and specialisation of work (division of labour).
These changes indirectly increased accident risks at the workplace.

Furthermore, the relationship at the workplace back then could be
described as a master-worker relationship. Workers were considered as
„slaves‰ who must obey the commands of their employers or masters.
Liabilities due to accidents were borne by the workers themselves. That
meant in the event of any accident, the worker would have to shoulder the
blame while the employer did not have to bear any liability.
The development of occupational safety and health management after the

Industrial Revolution began in England and later spread to the United
States of America (USA). Most factories at that time exploited unskilled
children and women to reduce production costs. The involvement of
children (Figure 1.4) and women inadvertently increased the risks of
workplace accidents.
Figure 1.4: Child labour in the manufacturing sector
The existence of trade or labour unions probably began in the 18th century,
when Europe was transforming from an agriculture-based economy to an
industrialised, craft-based economy. Some of the changes brought on by the
transformation, such as new methods of production that required unskilled
and cheaply available labour, enabled employers to exploit workers
extensively. The unions, most of them considered illegal initially, were then
formed to protect the interests of the workers and to wield political power
so that the workers were not unjustly exploited.
Due to the pressure from the workers and the public, the English
government gazetted the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act in 1802.
The Act reflected the governmentÊs official involvement in dealing with
issues related to safety and health at the workplace.
Table 1.2 summarises the significant milestones in the development of

occupational safety and health management in the USA. The development
in the USA had a great influence on similar development in other countries,
as the USA was the economic superpower at that time.
Table 1.2: Summary of the History of the Development of Occupational Safety and
Health Management
Year Milestone
1867 Factory inspection introduced in Massachusetts.
1868 Patent awarded for first barrier safeguard.
1877 Law on safeguards for hazardous machines passed in Massachusetts;
EmployersÊ Liability Act passed.
1892 First recorded safety programme was established.
1900 Studies on efficiency in manufacturing carried out by Fredrick Taylor.
1908 The compensation law was introduced in the USA.
1913 The first National Council for Industrial Safety was established.
1915 The name of the National Council for Industrial Safety was changed to
the National Safety Council.
1916 The concept of negligent manufacture was established.
1970 Occupational Safety and Health Act passed in the USA.
1977 Federal Mine Safety Act passed.
1990 Amended Clean Air Act of 1970 passed.
1996 The Total Safety Management concept was introduced.
2000 Companies in the USA began to pursue ISO 14000 certification for
environmental safety management.
2003 Violence at the workplace received the attention of occupational safety
and health experts in the West.
Labour unions also played an important role in the development of

occupational safety and health management. Beginning with the Industrial
Revolution, labour unions in the USA fought for safer work conditions and
reasonable compensations for work-related injuries. Among the major
contributions were their efforts in opposing anti-labour laws and securing a
safe and healthy environment at the workplace.
The abolishment of this rule indirectly protected the interest of workers who
were involved in accidents and lessened their burden.
1.2 MAJOR TRAGEDIES WHICH CONTRIBUTED

TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
MANAGEMENT
There were three major tragedies that had a great impact on the development of
occupational safety and health management worldwide. These were:
(a) The silica poisoning at HawkÊs Nest Tunnel, in Virginia, USA;
(b) The Bhopal gas leak, in India; and
(c) The asbestos menace.
1.2.1 The Hawk’s Nest Tragedy

This tragedy took place in 1934 when a group of workers, mostly black, were
assigned to dig a tunnel known as the HawkÊs Nest Tunnel, under the Gauley
Mountain in West Virginia, USA. The tunnel was to divert a nearby river so that a
hydroelectric station could be built. Almost 2,000 workers, most of whom did not
wear any form of protective gear, died from silicosis, a disease that affected the
proper functioning of the human lungs. The disease was caused by overexposure
to silica particles that filled the air as a result of rock drilling activities during the
construction of the tunnel.
Generally, a person struck with silicosis would only show symptoms of the
disease after 20 to 30 years. However, in the case of the HawkÊs Nest Tunnel
project, the stricken workers showed the symptoms rapidly. News of the deaths
began to receive public attention. Family members of the deceased became
suspicious and began to investigate the cause of the deaths. Investigations carried
out by the government revealed that those deaths were not accidental; the
employer had neglected the safety and health of the workers, and that led to the
tragic deaths of the unfortunate tunnel workers.
Following the incident, the US Department of Labour made it compulsory for

each state to have a provision on silicosis-related compensation. In addition,
employers are required to provide a safe and healthy workplace for their
employees through administrative control, engineering control and the provision
of personal protection equipment.
ACTIVITY 1.1
To know more about the HawkÊs Nest Tunnel tragedy, visit the
following websites: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawks_Nest_
Tunnel_Disaster and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUL6nnJO-
6Q. Then, discuss the impact of the tragedy on industrial safety with
your coursemates or on myVLE.
1.2.2 The Bhopal Tragedy
Figure 1.5: Demonstrators commemorating

the Bhopal tragedy on its 19th anniversary
Source:
http://www.princeton.edu/~paid/bhopal/
images/bhopal_press2.jpg
This tragedy occurred in 1984 in the northern region of Bhopal, India. Some
40 tonnes of methyl isocyanate (MIC) and other dangerous gases including
hydrogen cyanide were accidentally released into the air from a Union Carbide
chemical plant, killing 3,000 people who were living around the area. This
tragedy occurred because the safety devices installed at the plant failed to operate
and prevent the gas leaks. Besides that, the failure of the employer, i.e. Union
Carbide, to adhere to regulations laid down by the authorities contributed to the
tragedy.
In 1989, the High Court of India ordered the company to pay US$470 million in
compensation to the families of the victims. Following this tragedy, the
government of India and other countries tightened the laws related to workplace
safety.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Do you want to know more about the Bhopal tragedy? You may visit
the following website: http://www.bhopal.com/
The Bhopal Information Centre is a website dedicated to listing various

past discussions on the Bhopal tragedy, from the historical as well the
legal points of view.
1.2.3 The Asbestos Menace

In 1964, Dr Irving J. Selikoff, a co-discoverer of a
cure for tuberculosis, presented his findings on the
effects of asbestos on human beings. The result of
his research showed that asbestos could cause
lung cancer and other respiratory diseases.
Between 1967 and 1986, he continued his research

on the death of 17,800 workers who were exposed
to asbestos. His research confirmed that not only
Figure 1.6: Dr Irving did asbestos cause lung cancer, but it also caused
J. Selikoff cancer to the gastrointestinal tract, larynx, kidneys,
pancreas and gallbladder. Consequently, in the
1980s, the usage of asbestos was banned in the US.
ACTIVITY 1.3
To further understand the asbestos menace and its effects on oneÊs life,
you may visit the following website: http://www.epa.gov/asbestos
You will find an interesting article titled Medical Aspects of Asbestos

and Tobacco by Dr Irving J. Selikoff on the website.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
In your opinion, do miners face a greater risk of contracting cancer?
1.3 ROLE OF SPECIFIC HEALTH PROBLEMS IN

THE DEVELOPMENT OF OCCUPATIONAL
SAFETY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT
Several work-related diseases had great impact on the development of modern
occupational safety and health management. In the 1800s, coalminers in Britain
were found to suffer from a form of lung cancer known as „black spit‰ due to
exposure to dust and the absence of good ventilation systems in the mines.
It was in 1875 that this disease was contained after good ventilation systems were
installed in the coalmines and work hours were reduced. In the early 1940s, the
name of this disease was changed to coalworkersÊ pneumoconiosis (CWP) by a
group of British scientists.
The British government designated CWP a separate and compensable disease in

1943. Besides CWP, silicosis, caused by inhaling silica dust, was also feared by
miners around the world. The worst tragedy involving silicosis occurred during
the drilling of HawkÊs Nest Tunnel, which was discussed earlier in Subtopic 1.2.1.
Mercury poisoning was also another occupational disease. The first mercury
poisoning was discovered in a fishing village in Minamata, Japan, in the 1930s.
The poisoning was caused by the irresponsible act of a chemical factory located
near the village. The factory was discharging methyl mercury as a waste product
into the sea. The toxic waste contaminated the aquatic ecosystem, affecting
particularly the fish, which was the main source of food for the locals. The
contamination eventually resulted in the deaths of many inhabitants as well as
deformities in babies due to their parentsÊ exposure to the toxic waste.
Mercury poisoning was also discovered in the hat-making industry in the US in

the 1940s. The use of mercury nitrate in hat making caused the workers involved
to show symptoms similar to those demonstrated by victims of mercury
poisoning in Minamata. One research managed to prove the ill effects of mercury
nitrate on human beings. The research proposed that mercury nitrate be replaced
by hydrogen peroxide to eliminate the danger of mercury poisoning.
1.4 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

MANAGEMENT MOVEMENT IN
MALAYSIA
The development of occupational safety and health management in Malaysia has
been much influenced by developments outside the country. To a large extent,
the changes in this area were the result of MalaysiaÊs shift from an agriculture-
based economy to a manufacturing-based economy, which had increased the rate
of workplace accidents due to hazardous conditions and work processes.
Prior to 1994, Malaysia had various Acts and regulations governing workplace
safety according to types of occupation and hazard. These Acts were enforced by
government agencies. Table 1.3 shows the list of Acts and regulations enacted by
the Government to ensure the safety and health of workers at the workplace.
Table 1.3: Summary of Occupational Safety and Health Acts

and Regulations Prior to 1994
Act and Regulation Enforcement Agency

Factories and Machinery Act 1967 Department of Occupational Safety and Health,
Ministry of Human Resources
Environmental Quality Act 1974 and Department of Environment, Ministry of
regulations enacted thereunder Natural Resources and Environment
Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 Atomic Energy Licensing Board, Ministry of
and regulations enacted thereunder Science, Technology and Innovation
Petroleum (Safety Measures) Act Department of Occupational Safety and Health,
1984 Ministry of Human Resources
Electricity Supply Act 1990 Department of Electricity and Gas Supply,
Ministry of Energy, Communication and
Multimedia
Based on Table 1.3, we can see that each Act has its own jurisdictions that are in
accordance with a specific type of hazard and occupation. However, the various
Acts and regulations overlapped in their area of jurisdiction, which in turn
caused difficulties in the implementation processes, particularly in enforcement.
To prevent such confusion, the Department of Occupational Safety and Health,
under the Ministry of Human Resources, enacted the Occupational Safety and
Health Act (Act 514) on 24 February 1994. Figure 1.7 explains the rationale behind
this Act.
Figure 1.7: Occupational Safety and Health Act (Act 514)
In order to ensure that this Act is properly enforced, the Government has
established the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to
provide training courses on occupational safety and health practices. In addition,
some public and private institutions of higher learning are entrusted to offer
courses on occupational safety and health.
ACTIVITY 1.4
You may visit the following websites to get more information on the
legal aspect of occupational safety and health management in our
country:
http://www.niosh.com.my
http://www.dosh.gov.my
http://www.jas.sains.my
http://www.doe.gov.my
1.5 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

MOVEMENT TODAY
The international community today sees occupational safety and health
management as an important field that must be managed efficiently to ensure a
safe and healthy workplace. This field does not focus merely on the safety, health
and welfare of workers, but also takes into account the safety and health of the
public and the work environment.
Therefore, all parties, particularly employers and various government

departments, must play their role to ensure effective implementation of
occupational safety and health management. Failure of employers, employees
and the authorities to ensure the safety and health of the workplace can result in
accidents. Accidents will lead to losses in terms of time, human resources and
finance, not to mention the negative impact such incidents will have on the
affected organisations. Such losses can also affect the productivity of workers and
the quality of products and services.
Adopting new technologies such as computers and robots at work has in some
ways facilitated the production process, saved time and ensured product quality.
However, these new production methods still pose dangers to workers, as they
require new skills and training to operate the machinery and need to be
constantly mindful of safety rules on the production floor. Without close human
monitoring, the new technologies and machinery will potentially be accident
risks. This, in a way, is a new challenge in the field of occupational safety and
health management. The traditional approach to reducing accident risks through
enforcement and engineering (i.e. reducing risk exposure by using machinery to
take over dangerous jobs) is no longer effective without the participation of
workers. Today, occupational safety and health management focuses on
inculcating safe and healthy work methods at the workplace by involving
workers and encouraging them to change their attitude at the workplace.
This development has brought about changes in the demand for occupational
safety and health management experts in the labour market. Nowadays,
companies are more willing to hire experts from among engineers, doctors and
occupational safety and health management officers to help reduce accident risks
at the workplace. Companies are now prepared to invest heavily in developing
safety and health programmes in order to ensure that the workplace is safe,
healthy and comfortable.
A good safety and health management practice will not only reduce the risk of
potential accidents, but also bring profit to the company in the long run. In
addition, providing a safe and healthy work environment is seen as a competitive
tool to win over good employees. Today, this field is seen as a total quality
management approach through the implementation of OSH 1800 and ISO 14000
standards in an effort to create a safe and healthy work environment.
x Occupational safety and health management has been practised since the
Babylonian era. The Hammurabi Code, written by a Babylonian king,
featured the first set of rules in this field.
x Work safety and health gained rapid recognition during the Industrial
Revolution in Europe when machines and steam power were introduced.
x The unscrupulous exploitation of child and women labour at that time had
also caused an increase in workplace accidents.
x Developments in Europe had an impact on other countries including

Malaysia.
x In Malaysia, the development in this field can be seen through the enactment
of specific Acts to overcome workplace accidents such as the Factories and
Machinery Act 1967, the Environmental Quality Act 1974 and the
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994.
x Today, the provision of a safe and healthy workplace has become part of the
business strategy of most companies.
x Through effective occupational safety and health management, not only can
employers reduce costs due to accidents, but they will also be able to increase
the satisfaction of their employees, enhance their organisationsÊ image in the
eyes of their clients and the public, and contribute to the community.
Hammurabi Code Industrial Revolution

Health management Occupational safety
Health movement
Essay Questions
1. Explain briefly how the Hammurabi Code influenced the development of

occupational safety and health management worldwide.
2. Explain briefly the Doctrine of Contributory Negligence.
3. State the main effect of coal on human health.
4. Explain briefly why the usage of asbestos is banned.
5. In brief, explain how workersÊ health issues and problems contributed to the
development of occupational safety and health management.
True (T) or False (F) Statements
1. The Hammurabi Code is a code dealing with work-related injuries and

negligence.
2. In 1974, the Occupational Safety and Health Act was passed in the US.
3. The provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 are used in all
employment sectors.
4. „Black spit‰ is a type of disease caused by exposure to silica dust.
5. Dr Irving J. Selikoff was an author who explained the parallels between the
diseases suffered by workers and their occupations.
6. The National Institute of Safety and Health (NIOSH) plays an important role
in enforcing safety and health at the workplace.
Topic X Theories of
Accident
2 Causation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
30" Gzcokpg the seven theories of accident causation;
2. Evaluate the factors for each of the seven theories; and
3. Justify the best accident causation theory to predict and prevent
accidents at the workplace.
X INTRODUCTION
When an accident occurs at the workplace, employers tend to claim that it is due
to the negligence of workers. But is the negligence of workers the only cause of
workplace accidents? What are the effects of workplace accidents?
Accidents do not only cause damage to properties, but can also lead to serious
injuries and even deaths. Therefore, in order to prevent accidents, we must
identify their causes.
Years ago, several theories of accident causation were been established to explain
why accidents occur. Models based on these theories were then used to predict
and prevent accidents from occurring. This topic will discuss several theories that
can be used by managers to predict and prevent workplace accidents.
TOPIC 2 THEORIES OF ACCIDENT CAUSATION W 19
2.1 DOMINO THEORY

The Domino Theory was introduced by Herbert W. Heinrich (Figure 2.1) after
studying the reports of 75,000 industrial accidents. From the study, he concluded
that 88 percent of industrial accidents were caused by unsafe acts committed by
fellow workers, 10 percent were caused by unsafe conditions, and only 2 percent
were unavoidable.
Examples of unsafe acts committed by fellow

workers included being negligent and not
observing safety procedures.
Examples of unsafe working conditions were

working in high-rise buildings without proper
safety gear and equipment, and the use of faulty
or improperly insulated electrical appliances.
On the other hand, unavoidable accidents
included floods, storms and accidents caused by
Figure 2.1: Herbert W. Heinrich other individuals.
Figure 2.2: Using unsuitable footwear is one of the causes of accidents
2.1.1 Heinrich’s Industrial Safety Principles

Heinrich outlined 10 axioms known as the Axioms of Industrial Safety which
must be adhered to by managers when managing occupational safety and health
aspects at the workplace. Table 2.1 lists these axioms.
20 X TOPIC 2 THEORIES OF ACCIDENT CAUSATION
Table 2.1: HeinrichÊs Axioms of Industrial Safety
No. Axiom
1. The occurrence of an injury invariably results from a completed sequence of
factors, the last one of these being the accident itself.
2. The accident in turn is invariably caused or permitted directly by the unsafe act
of a person and/or a mechanical or physical hazard.
3. Most industrial accidents are caused by unsafe acts committed by humans.
4. An unsafe act or condition will not necessarily cause an accident or injury.
5. The excuse given for committing an unsafe act can be an indicator or lesson to do
the right act.
6. The seriousness of an accident cannot be planned or anticipated but what is for
sure is that the accident can be avoided.
7. The best accident prevention techniques are analogous to the best quality and
productivity techniques.
8. The management should assume responsibility for safety due to its high position
in the organisational hierarchy and because it is in the best position to get results.
9. The supervisor is the key person in the prevention of industrial accidents.
10. In addition to the direct costs of an accident (e.g. compensation, liability claims,
medical costs and hospital expenses), there are hidden and indirect costs.
2.1.2 Heinrich’s Accident Factors

Are you familiar with the domino game? If you are, you will be able to easily
understand the domino concept presented by Heinrich.
Figure 2.3: HeinrichÊs Domino Theory model
According to Heinrich, there are five factors in the sequence of events leading up
to an accident.
Heinrich proposed a „five-factor accident sequence‰ in his theory. The sequence

of accident factors are summarised in Table 2.2:
Table 2.2: HeinrichÊs „Five-factor Accident Sequence‰
No. Factor Explanation

1. Family Genetics and Social The negative character traits that may lead people to
Environment behave in an unsafe manner may be inherited
(genetics) or acquired as a result of the social
environment.
2. Fault of Person Negative character traits, whether inherited or
acquired, are the reasons why people behave in an
unsafe manner and why hazardous conditions exist
(e.g. smoking in an area which contains flammable
materials).
3. Unsafe Acts/Mechanical Unsafe acts committed by a person and mechanical
and Physical Hazards or physical hazards are the direct causes of accidents
(e.g. negligence).
4. Accidents Typically, accidents lead to injuries and will have a
negative effect on the performance and image of
organisations.
5. Injury Accident injuries may range from minor cuts and
scratches to serious ones such as loss of a limb
and other disabilities. Injuries such as lacerations
and fractures have a negative effect on workersÊ
performance.
HeinrichÊs theory has two central points:
(a) Injuries are caused by the actions of preceding factors; and
(b) Removal of the central factor negates the actions of preceding factors and in
doing so, prevents accidents and injuries.
However, the weakness of this theory is that not all accident factors are inherited.
Accidents may occur due to negligence and mechanical failure.
ACTIVITY 2.1
According to Heinrich, genetics and the social environment factor are

the main causes of accidents. What is your view on this?
2.2 HUMAN FACTOR THEORY
SELF-CHECK 2.1
What is the Human Factor Theory? What are the human factors that
lead to workplace accidents?
These factors are explained in detail in the following.

2.2.1 Overload
Overload amounts to an imbalance between a personÊs capacity at any given time
and the load being carried by the person in a given state. Refer to Figure 2.4 to
see how work stress can be a human factor in workplace accidents. The figure
illustrates how a worker who is experiencing chronic work stress has a greater
chance of suffering from illnesses such as mental stress which, in turn, may cause
an undesirable incident to occur.
Figure 2.4: Chronic work stress
A personÊs capacity is the combination of qualities such as his natural ability,

training, state of mind, stress and physical condition.
The load that a person is carrying consists of tasks for which he is responsible,
and other added burdens resulting from factors such as:
(a) Environmental factors (noise, distractions and so on);
(b) Internal factors (personal problems, emotional stress and worry); and
(c) Situational factors (level of risk, unclear instructions and so on).
The state in which a person is acting is the product of his motivational and
arousal levels.
2.2.2 Inappropriate Response/Unsuitable Response

How a person responds in a given situation can cause or prevent an accident. If a
person detected a hazardous condition but did nothing to rectify it, he has
responded inappropriately. For example, workers at a construction site must
wear hard hats and observe all other safety measures laid down by the
management. Not following these rules constitutes an inappropriate response.
Refer to Figure 2.5 to see how workers are equipped with safety attire.
Figure 2.5: Safety attire
If a person removed a safeguard from a machine in an effort to increase output,

he has responded inappropriately. Again, if a person disregarded an established
safety procedure, he has responded inappropriately. Such responses can lead to
accidents. In addition to inappropriate responses, an unsuitable workplace or
work environment can contribute to accidents.
The unsuitability of a personÊs workplace with regard to the physical size of the
facilities available as well as the force, reach, feel, and similar factors can lead to
accidents and injuries.
2.2.3 Inappropriate Activities

Human error can be the result of inappropriate activities. An example is the
undertaking of a task that a person is not familiar with. Another example is
misjudging the degree of risk involved in a given task. Such inappropriate
activities can lead to accidents and injuries.
For a better understanding of the Human Factor Theory, please refer to Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Causes of human errors

Source: Geotsh, D. L. (2005)
2.3 ACCIDENT/INCIDENT THEORY

The Accident/Incident Theory is an extension of the Human Factor Theory. It
was developed by Dan Petersen and is sometimes referred to as PetersenÊs
Accident/Incident Theory. Petersen introduced such new elements as ergonomic
traps, the decision to err, and systems failure.
To help you understand better, please refer to the model in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: PetersenÊs accident/incident model

Based on this model, overload, ergonomic traps, and a decision to err may lead to
human error. The decision to err may be conscious and based on logic, or it may
be unconscious.
Various pressures such as tight deadlines, peer pressure and budget factors can
lead to unsafe behaviours. Another factor that can influence such a decision is the
„it wonÊt happen to me‰ attitude.
The systems failure component is an important contribution of PetersenÊs theory.

First, it shows the potential for a causal relationship between management
decisions or management behaviour, and safety. Second, it establishes the
managementÊs role in accident prevention as well as the broader concepts of
safety and health in the workplace.
Systems failure is normally caused by several acts or approaches which do not

fulfil the requirements of occupational safety and health such as the following:
(a) The management does not establish a comprehensive safety policy;
(b) Responsibility and authority with regard to safety are not clearly defined;
(c) Safety procedures such as measurement, inspection, correction and

investigation are ignored or given insufficient attention;
(d) Employees do not receive proper orientation; and
(e) Employees are not given sufficient safety training.
2.4 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL THEORY

Traditionally, safety theories and programmes have focused on accidents and the
resulting injuries. However, the current trend is towards a broader perspective
that encompasses the issue of industrial hygiene. Industrial hygiene concerns
environmental factors that, if not addressed properly, can lead to sickness,
disease and other forms of health impairment. This trend has, in turn, led to the
development of an epidemiological theory of accident causation. Do you know
what the Epidemiological Theory is?
Figure 2.8 illustrates the epidemiological theory of accident causation. The key
components are predisposition characteristics and situational characteristics.
These characteristics, taken together, can either result in or prevent conditions
that may lead to an accident.
Figure 2.8: The Epidemiological Theory model

For example, an employee who is particularly susceptible to peer pressure

(predisposition characteristic) is pressured by his co-workers (situational
characteristic) to speed up his operation. Any decision that might lead to
carelessness will increase the probability of a workplace accident.
2.5 SYSTEMS THEORY

Are systems components interrelated? Can these elements, combined as a unified
whole, cause accidents?
The systems model is a model developed by R. J. Firenzie. A system is a group of

regularly interacting and interrelated components that together form a unified
whole. This definition is the basis for the systems theory of accident causation.
This theory views a situation in which an accident may occur as a system
comprising the components shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: The Systems Theory components

The likelihood of an accident occurring is determined by how these components

interact in performing a task. For example, a numerically controlled five-axis
machining centre in a shop is usually operated by an experienced employee.
When she goes on a two-week vacation, her temporary replacement may be
someone less experienced. This situation may lead to accidents.
This change in one component of the system (person/host) increases the

probability of an accident. Such a simple example is easily understood. However,
not all changes in patterns of interaction are this simple. Some are so subtle that
their analysis may require a team of people, each with a different type of
expertise, to scrutinise the situation and learn where the problems lie.
The primary components of the systems model are the person/machine/

environment, information, decisions, risks, and the task to be performed. Each of
the components has a bearing on the probability that an accident will occur. This
model is shown in Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10: The Systems Theory model

As this model shows, even as a person interacts with a machine within an

environment, three activities take place between the system and the task to be
performed. Every time a task is performed, there is the risk that an accident may
occur. Sometimes, the risks are great; at other times, they are small. This is where
information collection and decision making come in.
Based on the information that has been collected by observing and mentally
noting the current circumstances, the person weighs the risks and decides
whether to perform the task under existing circumstances.
For example, a machine operator is trying to fulfil a rush order that is behind
schedule. An important safety device in his machine has malfunctioned,
hampering normal operations. Simply taking it off will interrupt work for only
five minutes, but doing so will increase the probability of an accident, as there is
now less safeguarding.
On the other hand, replacing the faulty safety device can take up to an hour.
Should the operator remove the safety guard and proceed with the task or take
the time to replace it? The operator and his supervisor may assess the situation
(collect information), weigh the risks, and make a decision to proceed. If their
information was right and their assessment of the risks accurate, the task would
probably be accomplished without an accident.
However, the environment in which the machine operator is working is

unusually hectic, and the pressure to complete an order that is already behind
schedule is intense.
These factors are stressors that can cloud the judgement of those collecting
information, weighing risks, and making the decision. When stressors are
introduced between points 1 and 3 in Figure 2.10, the likelihood of an accident
increases.
For this reason, Firenzie recommended that five factors be considered before
beginning the process of collecting information, weighing risks and making a
decision.
These factors are:

(a) Job requirements;
(b) The workersÊ abilities and limitations;
(c) The gain if the task is successfully accomplished;
(d) The loss if the task is attempted but fails; and
(e) The loss if the task is not attempted.
These factors can help a person achieve the proper perspective before collecting
information, weighing risks and making a decision. It is particularly important to
consider these factors when stressors such as noise, time constraints and pressure
from a supervisor may tend to cloud oneÊs judgement.
2.6 BEHAVIOURAL THEORY

The behavioural theory of accident causation and prevention, often referred to as
behaviour-based safety was introduced by E. Scott Geller (2001) (Figure 2.11).
Behaviour-based safety is the application of behavioural theories from the field of
psychology to the field of occupational safety.
Figure 2.11: E. Scott Geller
The following is the definition of the Behavioural Theory.
According to Geller, there are seven basic principles of the Behavioural Theory.
These principles are explained in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Seven Basic Principles of the Behavioural Theory
No. Seven Basic Principles of the Behavioural Theory

1. Intervention that is focused on employee behaviour;
2. Identification of external factors that will help understand and improve
employee behaviour (from the perspective of safety in the workplace);
3. Direct behaviour with activators or events antecedent to the desired behaviour,
and motivation of the employee to behave as desired with incentives and
rewards that will follow the desired behaviour;
4. Focus on the positive consequences that will result from the desired behaviour
as a way to motivate employees;
5. Application of the scientific method to improve attempts at behavioural
interventions;
6. Use of theory to integrate information rather than to limit possibilities; and
7. Planned interventions with the feelings and attitudes of the individual
employee in mind.
For example, workers are shown a video on positive and negative attitudes
towards wearing safety hard hats (refer to Figure 2.12). If a worker did not wear
the safety hat, he has made a mistake and may get injured due to falling objects.
The consequences of the behaviour is C, while wearing the hat or failure to wear
the hat is B, and the video shown is A (i.e. the antecedents to the behaviour).
Figure 2.12: All construction workers must wear safety hats
There is often a degree of difference between any theory of accident causation

and reality. The various models presented with their corresponding theories in
this topic attempt to explain why accidents occur. For some accidents, a given
model may be very accurate. For others, it may be less so. Often, the cause of an
accident cannot be adequately explained by just one model or theory.
Thus, according to the combination theory, the actual cause may combine parts
of several different models. Safety personnel should use these theories as
appropriate both for accident prevention and accident investigation. However,
they should avoid the tendency to try to apply one model to all accidents.
2.7 BIRD’S TRIANGLE

Frank Bird, an expert on accident loss control, showed the relationship between
major, minor and no-injury accidents. His study is shown in Figure 2.13. He
found that all near miss accidents must be investigated and analysed
immediately. The necessary actions must be taken as near miss accidents which
occurred yesterday could become a serious accident tomorrow (Stranks, 2003).
In fact, according to Bird, near miss accidents tend to lead employers to be

careless and be overconfident because there are no injuries or damage to
properties. As a result, employers will tend to ignore such near misses. Such an
attitude will lead to the next level, i.e. damage to properties, minor injuries, and
if still unchecked, then to the next level which involves serious or permanent
injuries as shown by the 600:30:10:1 formula in Figure 2.13.
Figure 2.13: BirdÊs triangle

Source: Stranks (2003)
x Based on the discussion earlier, there are several theories which can be used
to explain the causes of, or factors leading to, accidents. Among these factors
are:
(a) Human error factor;
(b) Unsafe workplace;
(c) Ergonomic factor; and
(d) Systems failure.
x In brief, workplace accidents occur due to a combination of several factors

that interact with one another and not merely due to a single factor.
x Managers must be able to identify factors leading to accidents in order to

prevent or reduce them.
Accident causation Domino Theory

Accident/Incident Theory Epidemiological Theory
Axioms of Industrial Safety Human Factor Theory
Behavioural Theory Systems Theory
BirdÊs triangle
Essay Questions
1. Give three examples of occupations that may cause overload to workers.
2. By referring to the Epidemiological Theory, explain how the work stress

factor can increase the risk of workplace accidents.
3. Based on the Accident/Incident Theory, systems failure is one of the causes

of workplace accidents. Explain this in brief.
4. You are a production manager at a factory which produces palm oil-based

products. One day, one of your workers suffered injuries to his wrist after it
was trapped in a machine. Based on the investigations carried out, you
discovered that among the causes of the accident were the machineÊs failure
to operate properly, workers who were not serious, and negligence.
With the help of a figure, explain how these factors caused the accident and
injury based on HeinrichÊs Domino Theory.
1. Herbert Heinrich used the domino concept in his theory to identify accident
causation.
2. E. S. Geller introduced the concept of ABCO in his theory.
3. Systems failure is a major factor in the Human Factor Theory.
4. Low motivation may cause workers to feel that they are experiencing an
overload.
5. Ergonomic traps are the main cause in the Accident/Incident Theory.

Topic X Accidents
3 and their
Effects on
Organisations
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Differentiate between direct costs and indirect costs of workplace
accidents;
2. Examine the main causes of workplace accidents;
3. Analyse the types of workplace accidents which cause injuries and
deaths;
4. Calculate the total average cost for each accident case given; and
5. Summarise the effects of accidents on organisations.
X INTRODUCTION
Workers falling off the roofs of buildings or being electrocuted are examples of
workplace accidents. Most workplace accidents are caused by similar factors and
these incidents can actually be prevented. Have you ever wondered about the
losses incurred by employers, employees and governments when workplace
accidents occur?
This topic will discuss workplace accidents including accident costs, causes,
types and effects on a given industry. This will help you to understand the role
that must be played by managers and workers to ensure safety and health at the
workplace.
TOPIC 3 ACCIDENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON ORGANISATIONS W 37
3.1 COST OF ACCIDENTS

There are two types of costs related to workplace accidents, namely, direct costs
(insured costs) and indirect costs (uninsured costs).
Accident costs can also be divided into six categories as summarised in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Typical Breakdown of Accident Costs
Category Percentage
Wage Losses 25
Medical Expenses 16
Insurance Administration 19
Property Damage 18
Fire Losses 7
Other Costs 15
In general, direct costs of workplace accidents involve only about one fifth of the
total accident costs. The remaining are indirect costs such as productivity loss,
lowered output quality of goods, and low morale among workers.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Assuming that you are a manager and you are required to list the costs
which have to be taken into consideration and controlled so that your
company will not incur losses in the event of an accident. Using your
logic and knowledge, provide your suggestions and discuss them with
your coursemates.
38 X TOPIC 3 ACCIDENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON ORGANISATIONS
ACTIVITY 3.2
Please visit:
http://www.ccohs.ca/hscanada/contributions/accident_cost_iceberg.
pdf to learn more about the Accident Cost Iceberg and then list the costs
of property damage.
3.2 ACCIDENT CAUSES
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Most workplace accidents are caused by workers. However, the

environment may also be a cause of accidents. State three
environmental factors that you know may cause workplace accidents.
Workplace accidents are not to be taken lightly. Accidents may cause companiesÊ
operations to halt; even worse, they may cause death or damage the
environment. There are several causes of accidents and injuries such as:
(a) Work environment factor;
(b) Equipment factor; and
(c) Worker factor.
3.2.1 Work Environment Factor

How would you feel if you had to work in an untidy, noisy and disorganised
environment such as the one shown in Figure 3.1? Would you be able to give
your full commitment to your work?
Figure 3.1: An unhealthy work environment
The environmental factor includes the problem of disorderly placement of

equipment and tools, which might hinder human movement around the
workplace, hence increasing the likelihood of an accident.
Insufficient lighting and poor ventilation may cause visual impairment and
breathing problems, respectively, in the long run. In addition, unhygienic and
untidy surroundings will reduce oneÊs ability to perform his duties efficiently
due to environmental discomfort.
The use of hazardous substances without adequate protection and proper

handling, whether they are used as raw materials or intermediate products, not
only will harm the workers, but also cause pollution to the entire vicinity,
including the public.
Besides that, how the handling of hazardous work processes is identified,

managed and controlled may also be a factor leading to workplace accidents,
particularly in the manufacturing industry where a wide range of chemical
substances are used. Figure 3.2 illustrates air pollution at the workplace. Such
pollution will no doubt cause health problems to workers, which will in turn
cause production downtime and other losses.
Figure 3.2: Air pollution from factories

3.2.2 Equipment Factor

In the manufacturing sector today, sophisticated equipment such as robots and
automated machines are used to produce goods. These machines are cost-
effective and efficient. However, they may potentially become a cause of
accidents, as they still require human assistance to ensure that they operate
properly. Human error in this case may introduce new risks, despite all the
necessary precautions taken to ensure smooth operation. On the other hand,
obsolete machines and machines subjected to continuous use (Figure 3.3) may
also lead to breakdown caused by overuse, resulting in accidents.
Figure 3.3: Continuous usage of machines increases the risks of accidents
Operating machines and equipment in an unsafe and inappropriate manner will

only lead to accidents. Sometimes, the machines themselves are left in an unsafe
condition when they are not fitted with adequate safety devices, such as a proper
guard, thereby increasing the potential for accidents to occur.
3.2.3 Worker Factor

Each work system involves three elements, namely, human, machine and
environment. The human (or worker) element is the most important element, as
without it, work cannot be completed. It is therefore not surprising, that the main
cause of accidents is the worker factor. Table 3.2 explains how the human factor
may cause workplace accidents.
Table 3.2: Workplace Accidents Caused by the Human Factor
No. Cause Explanation

1. Worker Negligence Workers are the closest people to the task being
performed. They know the work process, the
substances used and the accident risks associated with
the task performed. Accidents often occur when a
worker is negligent during the course of his work, such
as not using safety boots while working at a
construction site where foot injuries caused by falling
objects are highly probable.
2. Insufficient Training The failure of the employer to provide training and
and Work information on how the work is to be performed may
Information lead to accidents. For example, workers who are not
trained in electrical wiring may cause electric shock to
himself or his co-workers during the wiring process.
3. Age and Current When a worker is recruited, there are several things
Health Conditions which must be taken into consideration, among which
are his age and health. Failure of the employer to detect
an existing disease suffered by the worker (such as
heart disease and hypertension) may contribute to
accidents. For example, if a worker has a heart problem
and continues to work in a strenuous environment, then
he is prone to getting a heart attack compared to a
healthy person.
4. Failure to Follow Workers sometimes, whether intentionally or not, fail to
EmployerÊs Rules follow rules and instructions from their supervisor/
and Instructions employer. For example, a worker might forget to wear
safety boots and hard hats in a factory, and face the
risk of stepping on a sharp object or being hit by a
falling object. His failure to observe safety rules and
procedures may cause harm to himself and his co-
workers.
3.3 DEATHS AND INJURIES CAUSED BY

WORKPLACE ACCIDENTS
Statistically in Malaysia, workplace accidents have been decreased from year to
year, based on numbers broken down according to the various economic sectors.
However, unfortunate incidents still occur due to several factors.
Table 3.3 shows a few types of accidents that typically lead to injuries and even
deaths.
Table 3.3: Types of Accidents Leading to Injuries and Deaths
No. Type of Accident Explanation

1. Over exertion The result of employees working beyond their physical
limits.
2. Impact Accidents Workers being struck by, or striking against, an object. For
example, a worker being struck by a machine.
3. Poisoning Poisoning is caused by chemical substances, whether
gases, liquids or solids. Hazardous chemical substances
are harmful to humans if they enter the human body
through inhalation, injection or skin absorption.
4. Falls Examples include a worker falling from the roof of a
building; falling into a drain; stumbling and falling due to
a defect in the walking surface.
5. Fire Injuries and deaths caused by fire, toxic fumes, falls,
impact from a falling object due to fire at the place of
work.
6. Motor Vehicle Motor vehicle accidents are the main causes of injuries
Accidents and deaths at the workplace. It may be a work risk if the
person works as a driver or it can occur to workers on
their way to or from their place of work.
7. Suffocation Suffocation can be work-related or non-work related.
Suffocation can occur in the water (drowning) and also on
land due to a lack of oxygen.
8. Firearms Injuries and deaths caused by firearms such as armed
robbery; negligence while using firearms; and violence.
Based on Table 3.4, the manufacturing sector recorded the highest number of
accidents and death cases. Hence, companies must take preventive measures to
reduce accident risks in their organisations.
Table 3.4: Industrial Accidents from 2001 to September 2003
2001 2002 September 2003

Industry
Reported Deaths Reported Deaths Reported Deaths
Agriculture,
Fishery and 12,424 75 9,456 69 6,501 52
Forestry
Mining and
573 7 545 12 389 8
Quarry
Manufacturing 35,642 243 33,523 214 23,319 164
Electric, Gas,
Water and 442 13 516 14 448 11
Cleaning services
Construction 4,593 89 5,015 88 4,134 72
Trade 13,774 192 13,685 134 8,826 102
Transport 4,382 91 4,439 90 3,218 62
Financial
andInsurance 602 6 567 9 388 7
Institutions
Services 5,950 106 5,924 87 3,952 65
Civil Services 7,487 136 8,140 141 4,334 92
TOTAL 85,869 958 81810 858 55,509 635
Source: Industrial Accident Reports from 1999 to 2003, SOCSO
3.4 ACCIDENT COST ESTIMATION

Prevention is better than cure. This saying has never been more true than in the
field of occupational safety and health management. Employers are responsible
for implementing a workplace accident control and prevention programme that
consists of training courses, seminars and purchase of safety equipment for
workers so that they can carry out their work safely without risking their health
or lives.
However, some employers think that such programmes are expensive, or that
they can do without them. If you were an occupational safety and health officer,
you would be responsible for proving that this view is wrong: take a look at the
cost estimation method developed by Professor Rollin H. Simonds.
In order to arrive at the actual cost of an accident, Simonds recommends that

costs associated with a workplace accident be divided into insured and
uninsured costs. Determining the insured costs of accidents is a simple matter of
examining accounting records. The next step involves calculating the uninsured
costs by using the classification proposed in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Professor SimondsÊ Classes of Accidents
Accident Class Explanation

Class 1 Lost work days, permanent partial disabilities, and temporary total
disabilities.
Class 2 Treatment by a physician outside the companyÊs facility.
Class 3 Locally provided first aid, property damage of less than USD$100
(RM340) or the loss of fewer than eight hours of work time.
Class 4 Injuries that are so minor they do not require the attention of a
physician result in property damage of US$100 (RM340) or more, or
cause eight or more work hours to be lost.
In order to determine the average cost of workplace accidents, Simonds

recommends that each organisation keep records of the cost of accidents during a
specified period not covered by insurance, based on the classes stated in Table 3.5.
For example, the costs of Class 1 accidents may be recorded for a period of six
months. Find the average cost per accident by dividing the total sum with the
number of accidents in the specified period. Table 3.6 will help you to
understand the estimation of indirect accident costs for Class 1.
Table 3.6: Accident Cost Estimation
The Number of Class 1 Accidents from January to June 2004

Cost ($) Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Cost 1 200.00 500.00 97.00 453.00
Cost 2 150.00 200.00 25.00 58.00
Cost 3 150.00 375.00 97.00
Cost 4 1,500.00 2,530.00
Cost 5
Cost 6 - 83.00 15.00
TOTAL 500.00 2,575.00 205.00 3,153.00
Average Cost per Accident = Total cost of accident/number of accidents
= $ (500+2,575+205+3,153)/4 = $ 1,608.25
3.5 EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTS ON

ORGANISATIONS
Organisations nowadays take a serious view of workplace accidents. This is
because workplace accidents have negative implications on the organisations,
which in turn reduce their competitiveness in the market. Among these
implications are:
(a) Operational Costs

As explained earlier in this topic, accident costs include the medical costs of
workers injured in the accident, costs of insurance premiums which must
be borne by the organisations, costs of accident investigation, costs due to
absence of workers affected by the accidents, costs of productivity loss, and
the costs of training workers replacing the workers incapacitated by the
accident. When the accident rate increases, accident prevention programmes
must be implemented and these programmes may add substantial amounts
to the overall costs.
All these costs can be avoided if only accidents can be prevented, and this
can be achieved by inculcating a safe work culture. That means education,
training and adhering to safety procedures. Ultimately, the management is
responsible for creating a safe and healthy work environment.
(b) Legal Costs

When an accident occurs at the workplace, enforcement agencies such
as the Occupational Safety and Health Department, the Department of
Environment and the Fire and Rescue Department will conduct an
investigation into why the accident happened and what could be done to
prevent a recurrence. If any existing law has been violated, the organisation
involved will be sued. The penalty imposed might be in the form of
summonses, an order to close the premises, or worse still, an order to cease
operations altogether.
According to the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, both parties
involved the employer and the employee are jointly responsible for
ensuring that safe work methods are being practised. It is very important
for both parties to understand and fulfil their responsibilities stated in the
Act in order to reduce the adverse effects of workplace accidents.
(c) Motivating Workers

Implementing occupational safety and health aspects at the workplace
can be a motivating factor to workers. Workers who work in a safe and
conducive environment will feel happy and be motivated to perform their
tasks more effectively and efficiently. Such an environment will also
encourage workers to be more committed.
(d) Boosting Organisational Image

When the rate of workplace accidents is low, workers will feel safe. This in
turn will boost the image of the organisation among the public and attract
more job seekers. A good corporate image will be a major „selling point‰ to
win over potential employees, thereby cutting down on the tedious process
of recruitment and worker selection. Moreover, a reputable organisation
will be able to hire more appropriate and more qualified candidates who
may come forward on their own to apply for jobs.
In addition, the surrounding community will respect and support the

efforts of the organisation to improve its work safety and health standards.
In the long run, goods produced or services rendered by the organisation
will be of high standards, whether in the local or international market.
x Workplace accidents can never be totally eliminated.
x The efforts of occupational safety and health practitioners are merely to

reduce the number of workplace accidents.
x Apart from that, these efforts are also aimed at reducing the number of fatal
accidents and incidents that can bring both temporary and permanent
disabilities to victims.
x Workplace accidents invariably lead to financial and human losses.
x The indirect costs due to accidents are higher than their direct costs.
x To prevent such losses, accident prevention programmes must be

implemented by organisations so as to fulfil their occupational safety and
health responsibilities.
Accident causes Indirect cost

Accident cost estimation Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994
Direct cost Work environment factor
Equipment factor Worker factor
Essay Questions
1. State two causes of workplace accidents due to the equipment/machinery

factor.
2. Explain briefly how occupational and safety management programmes and

practices can have positive effects on the motivation of workers at the
workplace.
3. Explain briefly how the worker factor poses an accident risk at the workplace.
4. MariMai is a company that processes raw rubber. Throughout August until

December 2003, there were five accident cases involving indirect costs
totalling RM13,582 which must be borne by the company. What was the
average cost borne by the company for each accident that occurred?
1. There are two types of accident costs, i.e. direct costs and indirect costs.
2. The worker factor is one of the causes of accidents at the workplace.
3. Damage of property is considered a direct cost.
4. Indirect costs are costs that can be controlled and predetermined easily.
Topic X Workplace
Stress
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
30 Define workplace stress;
2. Explain the benefits of eustress and distress;
3. Examine the two types of workplace stress and their effects on
workers; and
4. Develop strategies to reduce workplace stress.
X INTRODUCTION
Work stress, whether due to information overload, work pressure or other
causes, is an unhealthy factor that lessens a workerÊs productivity. Therefore,
managers must deal with it wisely.
According to a research, almost 35 percent of workers said that their work caused
emotional and health problems, while another 45 percent concluded that work
stress affected their personal lives (Nelson & Quick, 2005).
Hence, it is important to understand the factors that lead to workplace stress and
its effects on workersÊ productivity and quality of life.
50 X TOPIC 4 WORKPLACE STRESS
4.1 DEFINITION OF WORKPLACE STRESS

Workplace stress has been defined as an undesirable human reaction to social,
occupational, or environmental stimuli such as work overload, unstable work,
insufficient information, excessive demands and the like, which cause stress
known as distress.
There is also a positive type of stress that encourages workers to be more

aggressive so as to increase their productivity. This positive pressure is known as
eustress. Eustress is experienced moderately and is capable of motivating people
to achieve their goals and succeed in completing their task. Figure 4.1 illustrates
the stress curve describing eustress and distress.
Figure 4.1: Yerkes-DodsonÊs curve

Source: Adapted from Nelson & Quick (2005)
TOPIC 4 WORKPLACE STRESS W 51
Figure 4.1 shows that workplace stress may improve the performance of workers
up to a certain point the optimum level. After the optimum level, more stress
will have a negative effect on the performance of workers. A low level of arousal
will also cause workers to experience distress. Therefore, workers must be
motivated so that they can achieve the optimum level of arousal or stimulation in
order to improve their performance.
Table 4.1 illustrates the benefits of eustress and the effects of distress. The
positive effects of eustress can be seen in terms of performance as it motivates
workers to work harder, enhances their physical strength and health through
better blood circulation due to an effective cardiovascular system, and enables
them to fully focus on the task being performed. Figure 4.2 shows a worker
experiencing stress at work.
Table 4.1: The Benefits of Eustress and the Effects of Distress
Benefits of Eustress
Performance Health
x Increased motivation x Cardiovascular effectiveness
x Increased physical strength x Focused during emergency situations
Effects of Distress
Individual Organisation
x Psychological effects x WorkersÊ participation
x Diseases x Decline in performance
x Behavioural effects x Increasing compensation claims
Source: Nelson & Quick (2005)
Figure 4.2: Workplace stress may make it difficult for a person to focus
The effects of distress can be perceived in two forms, i.e. on individuals and on
organisations as a whole. The burden of excessive arousal on individuals can
have the following three negative effects:
(a) Psychological effects such as depression, fatigue and the like;
(b) Diseases such as heart disease, stroke and so on; and
(c) Behavioural effects such as violence, abuse of power and the like.
As for organisations, distress will result in additional costs due to absenteeism,

high turnover rate, decline in workersÊ performance, decline in quality and
productivity, increasing compensation claims due to accidents and work-related
stress.
The clinical definition of stress is the total response of a human organ to a

situation that threatens or stimulates the worker. Thus, the definition of stress is
the unconscious response of a person to a situation he sees as a challenge or a
threat to the quality of his life.
Due to the fact that workers always experience stress that increases their mental
and health risks, this topic will focus on distress.
4.2 SOURCES OF WORKPLACE STRESS

Basically, there are two types of workplace stress, namely, work-related and non-
work related stress. Sources of work-related stress include the following:
(a) Physical working conditions;
(b) Role ambiguity and workload;
(c) Interpersonal problems;
(d) Organisational pressure on the physical conditions; and
(e) Emotional feelings towards others.
Examples of non-work related sources of stress are personal lifestyle and family
problems. Figure 4.3 illustrates the causes and consequences of stress.
Figure 4.3: Causes and consequences of stress

Source: McShane & Von Glinow (2004)
4.2.1 Work Stress

As shown in Figure 4.3, causes of work stress involve:
(a) Physical working conditions;
(b) Workload and the various roles played by a person;
(c) Interpersonal problems; and
(d) Organisational pressure.
The conditions illustrated in Figure 4.3 are explained below.
(a) Physical Working Conditions

Poor lighting, loud noises and the presence of various hazards at the
workplace may prevent a person from performing his work comfortably.
For example, a work environment that is too hot or too cold will adversely
affect a personÊs physical condition, possibly causing problems such as
dehydration due to excessive heat. A computer-based work environment
can also cause stress.
(b) Role and Workload

The role played by a worker and the workload he must handle may cause
stress. Table 4.2 illustrates the role of the task and workload.
Table 4.2: The Role of Task and Workload
No. Task and Workload Explanation

1. Workload and task Excessive workload, task complexity and the various
complexity demands imposed on the worker can cause stress. A
job perceived as being too complex may cause feelings
of inadequacy and result in emotional stress.
Repetitive work may lack complexity but it will cause
the worker to feel bored and dissatisfied with the job
as it is no longer challenging. This situation causes
boredom-related stress.
2. Control over work Lack of control over job assignment can also be a
source of workplace stress. Workers might feel less
stressed if they participate in determining the work
routine, including scheduling and selection of tasks.
Studies have shown that workers who have more
control over their work experience have less work
stress compared to those who lack control over their
work.
3. Role conflict Role conflict occurs when a person has to play two
different roles. For example, a role played at the
workplace will have an effect on the role to be played
at home and vice versa. When there is a role overload
at the workplace, the role at home will be affected,
hence creating stress for the person and vice versa.
Workers also face intra-role conflicts when they receive
instructions from various parties at the workplace.
4. Role ambiguity Role ambiguity occurs when a person feels that the
instructions given are not clear. Due to ambiguous
instructions, workers will not know how to perform
the task given and will feel stressed upon approaching
the deadline for the completion of the task.
(c) Interpersonal Problems

The sources of interpersonal problems may involve bad supervision, office
politics, conflict among workers or with supervisors, sexual harassment,
style of leadership and the like.
For example, organisations that are not sensitive towards sexual

harassment will cause the employees involved to experience stress, which
might lead to their resignations. Similarly, the performance of those
working under supervisors who are too autocratic can be adversely
affected.
(d) Organisational Stress

There are many forms of stress caused by organisations such as employee
retrenchment, job security, organisation restructuring and the like.
For example, employees who feel that their jobs are insecure will be
worried. The existence of other job opportunities which provide better
perks and professional training will reduce stress related to job security.
4.2.2 Non-work Related Stress

Non-work related stress is caused by family and personal lifestyle factors. People
also face stress due to non-work related factors.
For example, the feeling of responsibility for the welfare and safety of the family
can be a source of stress at the workplace. This feeling of responsibility will make
the employees feel that their options to take risks are limited. These employees
tend to feel that they are „trapped in the job‰. Long working hours tend to make
them feel uneasy and stressed as they feel that they have neglected their family
responsibilities.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Discuss the sources of stress which exist in an organisation and suggest

an ideal way of overcoming them.
4.3 HUMAN REACTION TO WORKPLACE

STRESS
Human reactions to workplace stress can be identified through the following
aspects:
(a) Physiological effects such as heart disease, ulcer, high blood pressure,
headaches, sleep disorders and the like;
(b) Psychological effects such as lack of concentration, difficulty in making

decisions, feelings of anxiety, enmity and guilt; and
(c) Behavioural effects such as behaviours which might cause accidents,

jitteriness, absenteeism, high turnover rate and low productivity.
Continual or persistent stress has been linked to many physiological problems.

Initially, the effects may be psychosomatic, but with continued stress, the
symptoms show up as actual organ dysfunction. The most common forms of
stress-related diseases are gastrointestinal problems, particularly gastric or
duodenal ulcers. The human response to workplace stress can be compared to a
rubber band being stretched. As stress continues to be applied, the rubber band
stretches until a limit is reached when the rubber band breaks. For humans,
various physical and psychological changes are observed with repetitive
stimulation of stress. Until the limit is reached, the harmful effects can be
reversed. With an increase in intensity or duration of the stress beyond the
individual's limit, the effects on the human become pathological.
Figure 4.4 illustrates the three stages of the human stress response.
Figure 4.4: The three stages of the human stress response

The alarm reaction occurs when the stress of a threat is sensed. The stage of
alarm is characterised by pallor, sweating, and an increased heart rate. This stage
is usually short. It prepares the body for whatever action is necessary.
When the stress is maintained, the stage of resistance initiates a greater physical
response. The alarm symptoms dissipate, and the body begins to adapt to the
stress. The capacity for adaptation during this stage is limited.
Eventually, with sustained stress, the stage of exhaustion is reached. This stage is
demonstrated by the body's failure to adapt to the continued stress. Psychosomatic
diseases such as gastric ulcers, colitis, rashes, and autoimmune disorders may
appear during this stage. The tendency to develop a specific stress-related
disease may be partially predetermined by heredity, personal habits such as
smoking, and personality.
Figure 4.5: Human response towards stress

Source: McShane & Van Glinow (2004)
ACTIVITY 4.1
Please visit: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/does/99-101/ for more

information on stress at work.
4.4 SHIFT WORK AND STRESS

Sometimes, employees are required to work on shifts when the majority of
others are resting. Shift work has traditionally been required by the medical
community, the transportation industry, utilities, security, and, increasingly, by
retail sales. In some cases, shift work requires rotating between two and three
different starting times, which may vary by eight hours or more. However,
today, there are organisations which practise three-day (or four-day) shifts, i.e.
each shift (of, say, three 12-hour cycles) lasts for three days with mandatory rest
of four days afterwards, or vice versa. For such a situation, the total number of
working hours is 8 hours a day and workers may work overtime up to a
maximum of 12 hours a day.
Basic physiological functions are scheduled by the biological clock called the
circadian rhythm. Most people grow up on the day shift, going to school during
the day and sleeping at night. After a life of being on the day shift, the body
perceives a change in work shift as being stressful. If the person takes a job
starting at midnight, his body will still expect to be sleeping at night and active
during the day.
Many physical and psychological functions are affected by the circadian rhythm.
Blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, and urine production are
measurably lower or slower at night. These same functions are normally higher
or faster during the day (active time). Behavioural patterns also follow the
circadian slower-at-night and active-in-day pattern.
Not working the normal day-shift hours results in an increase in workplace

stress, with rotating shifts being the most stressful. From a safety viewpoint, shift
workers are subjected to more workplace stress in terms of weariness, irritability,
depression, and a lack of interest in work. Shift work increases workplace stress
and may cause a worker to become less safe.
4.5 WORKPLACE STRESS MANAGEMENT

Stress can be managed both by organisations and individuals. Figure 4.6 shows
several strategies for organisations and individuals to manage workplace stress.
Figure 4.6: Strategies to overcome workplace stress

Source: McShane & Von Glinow (2004)
The following are some strategies for reducing workplace stress:

(a) Eliminate the factors creating the stress;
(b) Social support from employers, co-workers and family members;
(c) Withdraw from the source of stress;
(d) Change perception about the situation causing the stress; and
(e) Control the effects of stress.
Factors which create stress can be eliminated in the following manner:

(a) Redesign tasks so that workers can improve their performance;
(b) Workers and employers agree on the objective to be achieved;
(c) Consult workers before a task is given; and
(d) Establish social relationships which support workers such as creating a
family-friendly environment like childcare facilities at the workplace,
flexible working hours and the like.
For example, a former task did not require workers to make any decision.
However, after redesigning the task, workers are encouraged to be involved in
the decision-making process. This will reduce workersÊ stress as they are able to
complete their task without having to wait for their managers to decide for them.
Support from employers, co-workers and family members includes emotional

support for workers who face problems. Withdrawing workers from the factor
causing the stress, be it temporarily or permanently, includes assigning suitable
tasks to them and transferring them to less stressful departments. Changing
perceptions about a situation which causes stress can be done by setting
individual goals, strengthening oneself, enhancing effectiveness and so on.
Controlling the effects of stress can be done by leading a healthy lifestyle,

controlling physiological effects by means of treatment, and taking a break after
work.
Most sources of stress can be changed, eliminated or reduced. However, workers

must be aware of and understand their reactions to stress. In Figure 4.7, several
tips on reducing workplace stress are listed.
Figure 4.7: Tips which can be practised to reduce workplace stress
A moderate amount of mental stress may assist in accomplishing a task but

extreme mental stress can create social and health problems.
x Workplace stress is an epidemic that affects the workplace in the current era
of high technology.
x Managers must prevent stress from affecting their workers as it is not only
very costly to rectify later, but is capable of reducing productivity that leads
to a decline in worker performance.
x Implementing an effective strategy will prevent organisations from incurring

losses and enable workers to enjoy a healthy and harmonious quality of life.
Furthermore, it will enhance the productivity of the workers and
organisations.
Behavioural effects Psychological effects

Circadian rhythm Role conflict
Distress Role ambiguity
Eustress Workplace stress
Essay Questions
1. Explain the Yerkes-DodsonÊs curve.
2. State the basic physiological function scheduled by the biological clock.
3. State two strategies to manage workplace stress.
4. Explain three effects of distress experienced by workers and organisations,

respectively.
5. Explain three causes of workplace stress.

1. The degree of stress among workers of similar conditions is the same.
2. The feeling of responsibility for the safety of the public is also a source of
stress.
3. Continual stress is often linked to many physiological problems.
4. Changing perceptions about the condition that creates stress is a strategy to

reduce workplace stress.
5. Blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature and urine production are
measurably lower or slower at night.
Topic X Ergonomic
5 Hazards
LEARNING OUTCOMES
30" Fghkpg ergonomics;
2. Explain ergonomics from a legal perspective;
3. Discuss the important variables that can influence physical stress;
4. Examine the general and specific indicators of ergonomic problems;
and
5. Design strategies to overcome ergonomic problems.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic discusses the physical conditions of the workplace such as the
workstation, work equipment and posture during work. Advanced and
sophisticated equipment used at the workplace often pose risks to their users and
expose them to bodily injuries in the long run.
Basically, these injuries show their effects only after some time. In fact, people
might not be aware that they are actually suffering from injuries due to
ergonomic problems.
64 X TOPIC 5 ERGONOMIC HAZARDS
5.1 ERGONOMICS DEFINED

What is meant by ergonomics and how important is it to workers? The ergonomic
principles involve everything from work systems to sports, health and safety.
Various industries are now using ergonomics increasingly in order to enhance
human productivity, quality of work environment, and occupational safety and
health.
Studies have shown that people working at ergonomic workstations or using

ergonomic equipment are less likely to experience fatigue, discomfort or stress.
The word „ergonomics‰ is derived from the Greek language. „Ergon‰ is Greek
for work; and „nomos‰ means laws.
In other words, ergonomics involves „using a special design to make tasks

more compatible with humans and not to force humans to be more
compatible with tasks‰.
As such, ergonomics deals with various aspects ranging from physical stress
on the muscles, nerves, bones, tendons, and ligaments to environmental
factors which affect hearing, vision, comfort and health.
Ergonomics is also defined as the „systematic application of knowledge about the

physiological, physical, and social attributes of human beings in the design and
use of all things which affect a personÊs working conditions: equipment and
machinery, the work environment and layout, the job itself, training and the
organisation of work‰.
In other words, ergonomics seeks to adjust tasks to the worker through

equipment design and work procedures.
5.2 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS AND

ERGONOMICS APPLICATION
The Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 is an Act based on the self-
regulation concept. In essence, the concept means that employers who create
risks for their workers must ensure the safety and health of their workers at the
workplace.
TOPIC 5 ERGONOMIC HAZARDS W 65
One of the objectives of this Act is to create working conditions that meet the
physiological and psychological needs of the workers. Thus, employers are
responsible for establishing a safe work system which does not pose any health
risks to the workers (Section 15 (2)(a), Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994).
Refer to Table 5.1 for a list of Acts that oversee the application of ergonomics.
Table 5.1: List of Acts which Oversee the Application of Ergonomics
Act Brief Explanation

Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 This Act lists the responsibilities of
employers to reduce ergonomic problems.
The Factories and Machinery Act 1967 This Act contains specific provisions
(Rule 29, Factories and Machinery relating to sufficient lighting for workers.
Regulations (Safety, Health and Welfare)
1970)
Regulation 30 of the Factories and This regulation contains provisions
Machinery Rules (Safety, Health and pertaining to suitable seating facilities for
Welfare) 1970 workers.
The application of ergonomics at the workplace takes into consideration four

main elements. These elements are shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Four main elements in the workplace ergonomic application

5.3 FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH PHYSICAL

STRESS
The eight variables that can influence the amount of physical stress experienced
on the job are listed in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: The eight variables that can influence the amount of physical stress
Try to understand the eight variables that can affect a personÊs work efficiency.
(a) Sitting versus Standing

Generally speaking, sitting is less stressful than standing. Standing for
extended periods, particularly in one place, can produce unsafe levels of
stress on the back, legs and feet as shown in Figure 5.3. Although less
stressful than standing, sitting can be stressful too, unless appropriate
precautions are taken.
Figure 5.3: Avoid standing for a long period because it creates stress on the back, legs and feet
These precautions include proper posture, a supportive backrest, and

frequent standing/stretching movements.
(b) Stationary versus Mobile

Stationary jobs are those done primarily at one workstation. Of course, even
these jobs involve movement at the primary workstation and occasional
movement to other areas. Mobile jobs, on the other hand, require continual
movement from one station to another.
The potential for physical stress increases with stationary jobs when
workers fail to take such precautions as periodically standing, stretching or
moving. The potential for physical stress increases with mobile jobs when
workers carry materials as they move from station to station. Figure 5.4
illustrates a production operator who normally does stationary jobs.
Figure 5.4: Example of a stationary job: a production operator
(c) Large versus Small Demand for Strength/Power

Regardless of whether the stress results from lifting a few heavy objects or
repeated lifting of lighter objects, jobs that demand larger amounts of
strength/power are generally more stressful than those requiring less.
In classifying jobs by these two criteria, it is important to understand that

repeatedly moving small amounts of weight over a period of time can have
a cumulative effect equal to the amount of stress generated by moving a few
heavy weights. Figure 5.5 illustrates a construction worker whose job has a
large demand for strength/power.
Figure 5.5: A construction worker requires more strength/power on the job
(d) Good versus Bad Horizontal Work Area

A good horizontal work area is one that is designed and positioned so that
it does not require the worker to bend forward or twist the body from side
to side. Horizontal work areas that require these movements are bad. Bad
horizontal work surfaces increase the likelihood of physical stress.
(e) Good versus Bad Vertical Work Area

Good vertical work areas are designed and positioned so that workers are
not required to lift their hands above their shoulders or bend down in order
to perform any task. Vertical work areas that require these movements are
bad. Bad vertical work areas increase the likelihood of physical stress.
(f) Non-repetitive versus Repetitive Motion

Repetitive motion jobs involve short-cycle motion that is repeated
continually. Non-repetitive jobs involve a variety of tasks that are not, or
only infrequently, repeated. Repetition can lead to monotony and boredom.
When this happens, the potential for physical stress increases.
(g) Low versus High Surface Contact

Surface stress can result from contact with hard surfaces such as tools,
machines and equipment. High surface contact jobs tend to be more
stressful in the physical sense than low surface contact jobs.
(h) Presence versus Absence of Environmental Factors

Generally, the more environmental factors a worker has to contend with on
the job, the more stressful will the job be. For example, personal protective
equipment, although conducive to reducing environmental hazards, can
increase the amount of physical stress associated with the job.
Figures 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8 illustrate the proper and improper sitting postures when
doing work.
Figure 5.6: Improper sitting posture
Figure 5.7: Proper sitting posture
Figure 5.8: The proper sitting posture when taking a rest

ACTIVITY 5.1
To enhance your understanding of work postures, explain briefly the

influence of the three variables as shown in Figures 5.7 and 5.8 on the
productivity of workers.
5.4 COMMON INDICATORS OF ERGONOMIC

PROBLEMS
There are seven indicators that can be considered as signals showing that an
ergonomic problem exists in an organisation. The seven common indicators are
listed in Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9: Common indicators of ergonomic problems

The seven common indicators of ergonomic problems are explained in the

following.
(a) Apparent Trends in Accidents and Injuries

By examining accident reports, record-keeping documents, first-aid logs,
insurance forms, and other available records of illnesses or injuries, safety
and health professionals can identify trends if they exist. A pattern or a
high incidence rate of a specific type of injury typically indicates that an
ergonomic problem exists.
For example, a production operator who always lifts heavy boxes to the
store needs frequent medical treatment for his back. In the end, the operator
may be referred to a chiropractor who may confirm that he is suffering from
a serious back injury. This is an example of an injury trend based on the
medical records of the operator.
(b) Incidence of Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs)

Factors associated with CTDs include a high level of repetitive work,
greater-than-normal levels of hand force, awkward posture, high levels of
vibration, high levels of mechanical stress, extreme temperatures, and
repeated hand-grasping or pinch-gripping. By observing the workplace and
people at work, employers can determine the amount of exposure that
employees have to these factors and the potential for ergonomics-related
problems.
For example, a worker who uses a concrete/asphalt breaker frequently is

exposed to white finger syndrome due to high vibrations.
(c) Absenteeism and High Turnover Rates

High absentee rates and high turnover rates can be indicators of ergonomic
problems. People who are uncomfortable on the job to the point of physical
stress are more likely to miss work or leave for less stressful conditions.
Take, for instance, a production operator whose work involves continuous

standing. Standing for extended periods, particularly in one place, can
produce unsafe levels of stress on the back, legs and foot soles. Such
conditions might cause the operator to take medical leave or stay away from
work due to physical stress.
(d) Employee Complaints

A high incidence of employee complaints about physical stress or poor
workplace design can indicate the presence of ergonomic problems.
For example, a typist might complain that her chair is too high, causing
physical stress to her legs and back. She might complain persistently to her
supervisor about her uncomfortable chair, but no action is taken to rectify
the situation.
(e) Employee-generated Changes

Employees tend to adapt the workplace to their needs. The presence of
many workplace adaptations, particularly those intended to decrease
physical stress, can indicate the presence of ergonomic problems.
For example, workers may place additional padding on their chairs, modify
protective equipment, install additional lights, and others. Such employee-
generated changes may be evidence of ergonomic problems.
(f) Poor Quality

Poor quality, although not necessarily caused by ergonomic problems, may
be the result of ergonomics. Poor quality is at least an indicator. Certainly,
poor quality implies there is a need for closer inspection.
(g) Manual Material Handling

The incidence of musculoskeletal injuries is typically higher in situations
that involve a lot of manual material handling. Musculoskeletal injuries
increase significantly when the job involves one or more of the following:
(i) Lifting large objects;
(ii) Lifting bulky objects;
(iii) Lifting objects from the floor; and
(iv) Lifting frequently.
Lifting heavy objects inappropriately and not receiving proper training can lead
to musculoskeletal injuries which might result in the worker not being able to
perform his task properly. When such conditions exist, the company has
ergonomic problems.
5.5 IDENTIFYING SPECIFIC ERGONOMIC

PROBLEMS
Common indicators sometimes are not strong enough proof that ergonomic
problems exist in organisations. Thus, employers must try to identify specific
ergonomic problems through task analysis. Problems that can be pinpointed by a
task analysis are as follows:
(a) Hazardous movements;
(b) Frequent manual lifting;
(c) Excessive wasted motion or energy;
(d) Poor operation flow;
(e) Unnatural or uncomfortable posture;
(f) High psychological stress;
(g) High fatigue;
(h) Quality control problems; and
(i) Automated equipment.
After identifying the tasks that need to be analysed in detail, employers may
carry out the task analysis shown in Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.10: The six techniques of task analysis

(a) General Observation

General observation of a worker or workers performing the task(s) in
question can be an effective task analysis technique. The effectiveness is
usually enhanced if the workers are not aware that they are being observed.
When observing employees at work, be especially attentive to tasks
requiring manual material handling and repetitive movements.
(b) Questionnaires and Interviews

Questionnaires and interviews can be used for identifying ergonomic
problems. Questionnaires are easier to distribute, tabulate and analyse, but
interviews generally provide more in-depth information.
(c) Videotaping and Photography

Videotaping technology has simplified the process of task analysis
considerably. Videotaping records the work being observed as it is done, is
silent so it is not intrusive, and such capabilities as freeze and playback
enhance the observerÊs analysis capabilities significantly.
(d) Drawing or Sketching

Making a neat sketch of a workstation or a drawing showing workflow can
help identify problems. Before using a drawing or sketch as part of task
analysis, make sure it is accurate. Ask an employee who is familiar with the
area or process to check the drawing.
(e) Measuring the Work Environment

Measurements can help identify specific ergonomic problems. They can be
carried out to identify the following:
(i) How far must a worker carry the material manually?
(ii) How high does a worker have to lift an object?
(iii) How much does an object weigh?
(iv) How often is a given motion repeated?
Answers to these questions can enhance the effectiveness of the analysis

process.
(f) Understanding the Ergonomics of Aging

When identifying specific ergonomic problems in the workplace, do not
overlook the special challenges presented by older workers. A good
ergonomics programme adapts the job to the person. For example, if many
members of its workforce are 45 years of age or older, an organisation must
be prepared to adapt workstations to their older employees whose physical
needs are different from those of their younger counterparts.
The following rules must be taken into consideration when adapting the job to
the worker:
(a) Nerve conduction velocity, hand-grip strength, muscle mass, range of
motion and flexibility, all begin to diminish upon reaching the age of 45;
(b) Weight and mass tend to increase starting from the age of the early fifties;
(c) Height begins to slowly diminish from the age of 30;
(d) Lower back pain is more common in people 45 years of age and older; and
(e) Visual acuity at close range diminishes with age.
These rules mean that employers cannot take a „one-size-fits-all‰ approach to

ergonomics. Adaptations for older workers must be individualised and should
take aging factors into account.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Visit http://www.allscan.ca/ergo/pseating.htm for information about

proper seating and sitting properly.
5.6 HAZARD PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Typically, when a problem becomes serious, only then will we try to find
solutions. In dealing with ergonomic problems, it is more cost-effective for
employers to take proactive actions to prevent ergonomic stress. Engineering
solutions, where feasible, are the preferred method for ergonomic hazard
prevention and control. The focus of an ergonomics programme is to make the
job fit the person not to make the person fit the job. This is accomplished by
redesigning the workstation, work methods, or tools to reduce the demands of
the job, which include high force, repetitive motion, and awkward postures.
Table 5.2 presents three examples of engineering controls that have proven to be
effective and achievable.
Table 5.2: Examples of Engineering Controls
No. Example Explanation

1. Workstation Design Workstations should be designed to accommodate the
persons who actually use them; it is not sufficient
to design for the average or typical worker.
Workstations should be easily adjustable and should
be either designed or selected to fit a specific task, so
that they are comfortable for the workers who use
them.
The work space should be large enough to allow for
the full range of required movements, especially
where knives, saws, hooks, and similar tools are used.
2. Design of Work Traditional work method analysis considers static
Methods postures and repetition rates. This should be
supplemented by addressing the force levels and the
hand, arm and leg postures involved. The tasks
should be altered to reduce these and the other
stresses associated with cumulative trauma disorders
(CTDs).
The results of such analyses should be shared with the
healthcare providers to assist in compiling and
updating the lists of light-duty and high-risk jobs.
3. Tool Design and Tools should be selected and designed to minimise
Handles the risks of upper extremity CTDs and back injuries.
Examples of criteria for selecting tools include the
following:
(a) Designing tools to be used by either hand, or
providing tools for both left- and right-handed
workers.
(b) Selecting pneumatic and power tools that exhibit
minimal vibration and maintaining them in
accordance with the manufacturerÊs specifications.
(c) Using handles and grips that distribute the
pressure over the fleshy part of the palm, so that
the tool does not dig into the palm.
Apart from engineering controls, the following steps can be used to prevent and
control ergonomic problems.
(a) Periodic Health Surveillance

Periodic health checks every two to three years should be conducted on
all workers who are assigned to positions involving exposure of a particular
body part to ergonomic stress. The purpose of this periodic surveillance is
to monitor any change in the health of workers, particularly those assigned
to positions involving exposure to ergonomic stress.
(b) Ergonomics Programme

An effective ergonomics programme must include continuous training and
education. The purpose of training and education is to ensure that
employees are sufficiently informed about the ergonomic hazards to which
they may be exposed and thus able to participate actively in their own
protection. Training and education allow managers, supervisors and
employees to understand the hazards associated with a job or process, their
prevention and control, and their medical consequences.
The team involved in the ergonomics training programme consists of:

(i) Health care providers.
(ii) Supervisors.
(iii) Site management officers.
The education programme must expose workers to:

(i) Types of CTDs and preventive measures;
(ii) Causes of CTDs;
(iii) Early signs and symptoms of CTDs; and
(iv) Treatments for CTDs.
Such information must be given when the team responsible for the
ergonomics programme visits work sites, and when workers conduct
medical checkups. For new workers, the information and training must be
given during the orientation programme.
Through such education and training programmes, CTDs can be detected at

an early stage, hence reducing their effects.
(c) Early Report of CTD Symptoms

Employees should be encouraged to report early signs and symptoms of
CTDs to the in-plant health facility. This allows for timely and appropriate
evaluation and treatment by employers.
ACTIVITY 5.3
For information on ergonomic controls, visit

http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/ergonomics/solutions.html
5.7 STRATEGIES TO SOLVE ERGONOMIC

PROBLEMS
At the beginning of this topic, the eight variables that can influence the amount of
physical stress were presented. Figure 5.11 shows eight types of work which may
increase physical stress.
Figure 5.11: Types of work which may increase physical stress

Now, let us take a look at strategies which can be used to solve or reduce
ergonomic problems related to the above types of work.
(a) Seated Repetitive Work with Light Parts

This type of work can produce more physical stress than one may suspect.
Back, neck, shoulder and lower leg pain are commonly associated with this
type of work. The fixed work position and repetitive motion can contribute
to ergonomic problems. To solve these problems, it may be necessary to
modify both the job and the workstation. Improvement strategies are shown
in Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12: Strategies for seated repetitive work with light parts
(b) Seated Work with Larger Parts

This type of work, which involves interacting with objects that may be too
large to manipulate manually, is associated with assembly and welding
jobs. Problems associated with this type of work are typically related to
posture, illumination, reach and lifting. Ergonomic strategies for improving
work conditions are presented in Figure 5.13.
Figure 5.13: Strategies for seated work with larger parts

(c) Seated Control Work

This type of work involves sitting in one location and using wheels, levers,
knobs, handles and buttons to control a process, system or piece of
equipment. The physical stress associated with this type of work is typically
the result of excessive vibration or bending and twisting to achieve better
visibility. Ergonomic strategies for improving work conditions are listed in
Figure 5.14.
Figure 5.14: Strategies for seated control work
(d) Standing Work

This category includes most jobs that are performed while standing. Such
jobs do not involve a great deal of repetitive motion but do involve
handling medium to heavy materials. An example is a machine operatorÊs
job (lathe, mill, drill, punch, saw, and so on).
Physical stress associated with this type of work includes leg, arm, and back
strains. Occasionally, side strains occur when bending and twisting are
necessary. Ergonomic strategies for improving work conditions are listed in
Figure 5.15.
Figure 5.15: Strategies for standing work
(e) Standing for Heavy Lifting and Carrying

This type of work involves heavy lifting and moving materials while
standing. Lifting and moving may be a relatively small part of the job but
are required somewhat regularly. The physical stress most commonly
associated with this type of work is back and muscle strains resulting from
improper lifting. Falls can also be a problem. Ergonomic strategies for
improving work conditions are listed in Figure 5.16.
Figure 5.16: Strategies for standing for heavy lifting and carrying
(f) Work with Hands above the Chest

This type of work can be done in either a standing or sitting position. It may
or may not involve material handling. Physical stress associated with this
type of work includes neck, upper body and heart strain. Of these, the
potentially most dangerous is heart strain.
Prolonged work with the arms above the shoulder level requires the heart
to work harder to pump blood to the elevated areas. Ergonomic strategies
for improving work conditions are listed in Figure 5.17.
Figure 5.17: Strategies for work with hands above the chest
(g) Work with Hand Tools

All of the types of work presented in this section may involve the use of
hand tools to some extent. However, because hand tools introduce a variety
of potential hazards that are indigenous to their use, they are best examined
as a separate work type. Physical stress associated most commonly with the
use of hand tools includes carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) and muscle strains
of the lower arm, hand and wrist. Ergonomic strategies for improving the
work conditions focus primarily on improving hand positions during the
use of tools, enhancing the workerÊs grip on tools, and minimising the
amount of twisting involved. Figure 5.18 presents some of these strategies.
Figure 5.18: Strategies for work with hands tools
(h) Work with Video Display Terminals (VDTs)

The video display terminal is now the most widely used piece of office
equipment. In Figure 5.19, there are some strategies that can be used to
reduce the hazards associated with VDTs.
Figure 5.19: Strategies for work with VDTs

Figure 5.20 illustrates the proper way of sitting in front of a computer.
Figure 5.20: The proper way of sitting in front of a computer
ACTIVITY 5.4
Briefly explain a strategy that can be used to overcome ergonomic

problems related to two work postures of your choice.
x Ergonomics is important to ensure the quality of life of workers, prevent

productivity from declining and enhance work performance.
x It takes some time for workers who are exposed to illnesses due to
inappropriate workstations, work processes and work equipment to realise
that they have actually fallen ill.
x Employers must take proactive measures and implement ergonomics

programmes to educate workers on ways to overcome ergonomic risks, and
provide suitable workstations, equipment and processes.
Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs) Stationary

Ergonomics Surface contact
Horizontal work area Tool design
Mobile Vertical work area
Posture Workstation design
Physical stress Work methods
Repetitive
Essay Questions
1. Explain briefly the meaning of ergonomics.
2. Explain briefly three common indicators of ergonomic problems in

organisations.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which among the following is NOT an indicator of an ergonomic problem?

A. High rate of absenteeism
B. Low turnover rate
C. Complaints from workers
D. Apparent trends in accidents and injuries
2. Musculoskeletal injuries increase when workers are involved in the following

activities EXCEPT:
A. Lifting big objects
B. Lifting heavy objects
C. Frequent lifting
D. Lifting object from tables
3. The process of identifying specific ergonomic problems is as follows EXCEPT:

A. Observation
B. Interview
C. Adapting the worker to the job
D. Measuring the work environment
4. The following activities are engineering controls to prevent ergonomic

problems EXCEPT:
A. Workstation design
B. Selection of hand tools
C. Health surveillance
D. Work process design
5. Strategies to overcome ergonomic problems for seated repetitive work are the
following EXCEPT:
A. Adjust workstation height
B. Repetitive task
C. Rotation of work
D. Space for the legs
1. The ergonomics principles involve the work system, sports, health and safety.
2. Workers must adjust themselves to the workstation and work process.
3. Standing posture is found not to cause ergonomic stress to workers.
4. A good flat workstation requires workers to bend a lot.

Essay Questions
1. Explain briefly three strategies which can be used to reduce ergonomic stress
when lifting and removing a heavy object.
2. Explain briefly four prevention and control strategies for ergonomic

problems.
Topic X
Industrial
Hygiene
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the main categories of environmental stressors;
2. Explain the entry points for toxic agents to enter the human body;
3. Relate the issue of AIDS to the cost and revenue of organisations;
4. Analyse four major steps to develop a prevention and control
programme; and
5. Create AIDS programmes to overcome the AIDS problem at the
workplace.
X INTRODUCTION
Industrial hygiene in the safety and health profession is concerned with
predicting, recognising, assessing, controlling, and preventing environmental
stressors in the workplace that can cause sickness or serious discomfort to
workers. The common stressors that result in illness and discomfort include
gases, fumes, vapours, dusts, mists, noise and radiation.
This topic will discuss issues related to industrial hygiene at the workplace such
as hazard recognition, and hazard prevention and control, in order to reduce
accident risks at the workplace.
90 X TOPIC 6 INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
6.1 HAZARDS AT THE WORKPLACE

Industrial hygiene is a discipline which studies the relationship between
environmental stressors in the workplace that affect the safety and health of
workers. These environmental stressors can be divided into four broad
categories, as listed below:
(a) Chemical hazards;
(b) Physical hazards;
(c) Biological hazards; and
(d) Ergonomic hazards.
Table 6.1 explains briefly the four categories of hazards.
Table 6.1: The Four Categories of Hazards
No. Category Explanation

1. Chemical Chemical compounds in solid, liquid or gaseous forms, such as
Hazards mists, vapours, sprays, powders, gases, dusts and fumes.
2. Physical Physical hazards include noise, vibrations, extremes of temperature
Hazards and excessive radiation (electromagnetic or ionising).
3. Biological Threats from living organisms such as moulds, fungi, bacteria and
Hazards insects.
4. Ergonomic These are related to the design and condition of the workplace (see
Hazards Topic 5).
This topic will focus primarily on the first category, i.e. hazards caused by
chemical substances. In our daily lives, we use a wide range of chemical
substances some of which are highly beneficial while others may have negative
effects if used improperly. In some cases, abuse of chemical compounds or any
mishandling may lead to workplace accidents.
The issue of AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) will also be

discussed in this topic, as it is a type of disease caused by biological hazards that
may create unsafe work conditions if left unchecked.
TOPIC 6 INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE W 91
6.2 DEFINITION OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

The discipline that studies whether a chemical compound is toxic or non-toxic to
humans is known as toxicology. A person can be exposed to toxic substances in
two possible scenarios: at work, or outside work hours.
The toxicity of a chemical substance, once it enters the human body, will depend
on the following five factors:
(a) Chemical properties of the substance;
(b) Amount of the dose;
(c) Level of exposure to the substance;
(d) Route of entry into the human body; and
(e) Level of body resistance such as the immune system and detoxification
ability of the human body.
In Malaysia, the Government enacted the Occupational Safety and Health

Regulations (Classification, Packaging and Labelling of Hazardous Chemicals),
1997 under the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, to control and prevent
chemical hazards at the workplace. The regulation specifies, among others, that
suppliers of chemical substances are responsible for:
(a) Classifying such substances according to a standard method of

classification;
(b) Packing and storing them in a proper manner;
(c) Labelling the chemical substances supplied;
(d) Providing clearly visible and readable information on the packing of such
substances; and
(e) Placing of hazard symbols and signs as well as risk and safety phrases to
warn people of their possible threats.
6.2.1 Entry Points of Toxic Agents

Before learning about how to protect against chemical hazards, we must first
learn how toxic agents can enter the human body. There are four routes of entry
for toxic agents:
(a) Inhalation;
(b) Skin absorption;
(c) Injection; and
(d) Ingestion.
Table 6.2 gives some explanation on the four routes of entry for toxic agents.
Table 6.2: The Four Routes of Entry for Toxic Agents to Enter the Human Body
Route of Entry Explanation

Inhalation Safety and health professionals are most concerned with this route of
entry. Airborne toxic substances such as gases, vapours, dust, smoke,
fumes, aerosols, and mists can be inhaled and pass through the nose,
throat, bronchial tubes, and lungs to enter the bloodstream. The
amount of a toxic substance that can be inhaled depends on the
concentration of the substance, duration of exposure, and breathing
volume.
Absorption The second most common route of entry in an industrial setting is
absorption, or passage through the skin and into the bloodstream. The
human skin is a protective barrier against many hazards. However, certain
toxic agents can penetrate the barrier and enter the bloodstream directly.
Of course, unprotected cuts, sores, and abrasions facilitate the process of
penetration, but even healthy skin will absorb certain chemicals. Skin
absorption depends on four main factors: molecular size of the chemical
compound, degree of ionisation, aqueous (water) solubility, and lipid (fat)
solubility.
Injection Injection involves the introduction of a substance into the body by way of a
needle and syringe, compressed air, high-pressure hydraulic leaks, or any
other capable medium. However, this is not a common route of entry for a
toxic substance at the workplace. Injection may be one method to
experiment the effects of new compounds on animals, e.g. in medical
research. However, due to human negligence, accidental injection to
humans might occur, although the possibility is remote.
Ingestion Ingestion, which is entry through the mouth (i.e. swallowing), is not a
major concern in an industrial setting. An ingested substance moves
through the stomach into the intestines and from there, into the
bloodstream. Toxic agents sometimes enter the body by ingesting foods
that are already polluted or contaminated with such substances.
Airborne contaminants can also rest on food or the hands and, as a
result, be ingested during a meal or snack. The possibility of ingesting
toxic agents makes it critical to confine eating and drinking to sanitary
areas away from the work site and to make sure that workers practise
good personal hygiene such as washing their hands thoroughly before
eating or drinking.
As the toxic substance moves through the gastrointestinal tract, its
toxicity may be diluted. In addition, depending on the amount and
toxicity of the substance, the liver may be able to convert it to a non-
toxic substance through a process called detoxification. At least, the
liver can help decrease its level of toxicity and the substance may be
removed by the kidneys in the form of urine.
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. In your view, which part of your body is the fastest in absorbing

toxic substances?
2. Draw a picture to help you understand the entry points for toxic
agents to enter the human body.
6.3 EFFECTS OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES ON

HEALTH
The effects of toxic substances vary widely, as do the substances themselves.
However, all of the various effects and exposure times can be categorised as
shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Types of Effects from Toxic Substances
Category Explanation
Acute Effects Acute effects involve a sudden dose of a highly concentrated
substance. These exposures result in an immediate health problem
ranging from irritation to death.
Chronic Effects Chronic effects involve limited continual exposure over time.
Consequently, the associated health problems develop slowly. Most
victims will suffer tissue damage or serious injuries.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Visit http://www.emedice.com/emerg.htm for information on the

effects of exposure to toxic substances categorised as chronic and acute.
6.4 PREVENTION AND CONTROL

There are four prevention and control strategies which can be taken to develop a
programme for workplace industrial hygiene. These are shown in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4: Prevention and Control Strategies to Develop a Prevention

and Control Programme for Workplace Industrial Hygiene
No. Type of Control Explanation

1. Engineering The category of engineering controls includes such
Controls strategies as replacing a toxic material with one that is less
hazardous, redesigning a process to make it less stressful
and reducing to reduce exposure to hazardous materials or
conditions.
Other engineering controls include isolating a hazardous
process to reduce the number of people exposed to it and
introducing moisture to reduce airborne dust.
2. Ventilation Exhaust ventilation involves trapping and removing
contaminants from the air. This type of ventilation is
typically used with such processes as abrasive blasting,
grinding, polishing, buffing, spray painting and finishing.
Dilution ventilation involves simultaneously removing and
adding air to dilute contaminants to acceptable levels.
3. Personal When the work environment cannot be made safe by any
Protection from other method, personal protective equipment (PPE) is used
Hazards as a last resort. Typical equipment includes safety goggles,
face shields, gloves, boots, earmuffs, earplugs, full-body
clothing, barrier creams, and respirators.
4. Administrative Administrative controls involve limiting the exposure of
Controls employees to hazardous conditions using such strategies as
rotating schedules, enforced breaks, work shifts, and other
schedule-oriented strategies.
Apart from the strategies given in Table 6.4, additional strategies to reduce toxic
hazards are:
(a) Practising good housekeeping, including workplace cleanliness.
(b) Using special control methods for specific hazards.
(c) Setting up medical programmes to detect intake of toxic materials.
(d) Providing training and education for workers.
Hazard prevention and control programmes will only succeed if the workers
participate in these programmes and observe all procedures and regulations set
by their employers. One of the best ways to protect employees from workplace
hazards is to teach them to protect themselves and carry out their task in a safe
manner in order to reduce the risks of accidents.
6.5 OCCUPATIONAL ISSUES: AIDS AT THE

WORKPLACE
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is a condition caused by the
virus known as HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). HIV is a virus that
attacks the human immune system, specifically the white blood cells which
guard the body against infection. The white blood cells include a lymphocyte, in
particular, the CD-4 cell. When the immune system is infected by HIV, its ability
to defend the human body against infections becomes weak, so much so that
even normal diseases that are not dangerous to a healthy person can be life-
threatening to an AIDS patient.
HIV is found in bodily fluids of an infected person, such as seminal and vaginal
fluids, and blood. It is transmitted through direct blood contact including blood
transfusion, blood products, and HIV-infected organ transplants. HIV can only
spread once it has entered into the bloodstream of humans. HIV can be transmitted
to others through certain ways regardless of race, sex, religion or sexual
orientation. However, HIV may remain in the body of an infected person without
showing clear signs of AIDS, which is the full-blown disease caused by HIV.
A person may be infected by HIV through the following ways:
(a) Having sexual intercourse with an HIV-infected person without wearing a

condom, through blood transfusion or infected blood materials.
(b) From a pregnant mother infected by HIV to her baby.

(c) Through sharp objects such as syringe needles, medical equipment and
tattoo needles.
(d) Receiving piercing services at public places by sharing the same needle.
AIDS at the workplace is a serious issue. It will result in a decline of work

productivity. AIDS has a great impact on workers especially those who are
considered the main source of income for their dependants. Furthermore, AIDS
affects the financial position of a company and indirectly threatens the countryÊs
economy.
Those working in environments that are exposed to infected blood, such as

hospital workers attending to AIDS patients, face the risk of contracting AIDS.
When a personÊs skin or mucous membranes get in contact with the blood or
bodily fluids of an HIV-infected patient, he or she can be infected with the
disease.
Apart from that, needles and sharp objects such as needle syringes, tattoo needles
and shaving razors which have been infected by the blood of an HIV worker may
cause another worker to contract the disease at the workplace unknowingly.
In other words, AIDS at the workplace is a serious issue which must not be
neglected. The relevant authorities must make an effort and collaborate to solve
this problem by taking the necessary actions. Understandably, AIDS is a terrible
disease that brings much social stigma. AIDS patients are unfairly shunned by
the public or even despised, in the belief that they contracted the disease through
immoral ways. Such discrimination should never be encouraged. In addition, we
must show our love and compassion to AIDS patients so that they can live their
lives with dignity and a sense of well-being.
6.5.1 The Relationship Between AIDS and Cost

AIDS, which causes workers to suffer and die (as there is no cure), is a threat to
employers because it will increase costs and reduce revenues.
EmployersÊ revenues will decrease due to absenteeism of workers who are

suffering from AIDS; or workers taking time off to attend the funeral of
colleagues who died of AIDS; or the time spent to train and develop workers.
The company may bring in new workers to replace those who have left or
deceased, but these newcomers are less experienced and thus will not be able to
reach the same level of productivity as before.
However, the relationship between HIV/AIDS, cost and revenue is not given due
attention by employers nowadays. In the long run, these organisations will
experience a decline in profits for not taking proactive actions to anticipate and
avoid the effects of HIV/AIDS.
Figure 6.1 illustrates the negative effects of AIDS on organisations.
Figure 6.1: The negative effects of AIDS at the workplace

Source: AIDSCAP/Family Health International, AIDS in Kenya: Socioeconomic Impact
and Policy Implications (1996)
Employment sectors that are more likely to encounter AIDS-related problems are
those requiring workers to travel away from home for long periods to conduct
business affairs. Some of these include the transportation, mining and fishery
sectors.
Business sectors which are seasonal, such as agriculture and tourism, are also
affected by the disease. Other sectors such as health care, engineering and bio
medics depend heavily on highly skilled professionals whose job responsibilities
may affect many others working under them. Thus, if these experts fall victims to
AIDS, it is possible that entire operations within the organisation may be
crippled if no contingencies have been planned.
6.5.2 Measures Taken by Employers to Overcome

AIDS Problems among Workers
The key element in solving the AIDS problems at the workplace is the employer.
He must play the crucial role to protect his workplace by implementing several
programmes or measures.
Preventive programmes, medical services and social support are among the chief
efforts that must be implemented. Examples of HIV/AIDS programmes at the
workplace are the following:
x HIV/AIDS motivation programmes
x Prevention and training activities
x Communication programmes between healthy workers and HIV-Positive
workers
x Medical assistance and social support programmes
(a) HIV/AIDS Motivation Programmes

Employers must motivate their staff and workers in order to boost their
morale and productivity, and not be excessively affected emotionally by the
presence of HIV threats.
Discrimination must not occur. Employers must not dismiss their HIV-
positive workers or neglect their welfare and well-being.
Employers must also create awareness among their healthy workers so that
they will not isolate other workers who are suffering from HIV/AIDS. They
must also be aware of the ways in which HIV is transmitted, and be
enlightened that the disease is not communicable so long as they do not
come into contact with bodily fluids from infected persons.
(b) Prevention and Training Activities

Employers must make suitable arrangements in the workplace for HIV-
positive workers so that they will not feel humiliated or isolated.
Supervision and training for HIV-positive workers must be carried out
continually in order to prevent unnecessary problems such as interpersonal
conflict, lowered performance and so on.
Training programmes are highly important and must be implemented

continually in order to increase the productivity of workers, and protect not
only the interest of the organisation but also the workers.
(c) Communication Programmes between Healthy Workers and HIV-Positive

Workers
Employers must eliminate the negative perception among healthy workers
towards HIV-positive staff members, change their attitudes and allay their
unfounded fears.
A campaign to do so must be given high priority, with a clear focus on its

target and strategy. Its approach should neither leave workers confused
about AIDS nor sew more fear among the workforce. AIDS education must
be inculcated among all members of the organisation so that collaboration
carries on as before, and operations continue smoothly. Communication is
key in raising awareness about this disease.
If the campaign is effective, good relations between healthy workers and

HIV-positive workers will be established at the workplace, hence
motivating HIV-positive workers and making them feel that they are not
being isolated.
Those who suffer from HIV/AIDS must be appreciated so that they will not
feel stressed at the workplace. Cooperating with them might help them in
their struggle to fight HIV/AIDS at the workplace and in the society.
(d) Medical Assistance and Social Support Programmes

Medical assistance can help lessen the burden carried by HIV-positive
workers. Social support is also another very important aspect, as it ensures
the smooth flow of work and allows HIV/AIDS workers to work
comfortably. Figure 6.2 shows a patient receiving medical attention at a
hospital.
Figure 6.2: A patient receiving medical attention at a hospital

Employers must take great care of their workers by providing counselling

services, not discriminating against them, and giving them hope to continue
living and working normally.
They must always try to motivate them in all ways, lift their spirits and
increase the morale of both patients as well as non-patients. Ensure there is
good communication between normal workers and HIV-positive workers,
and that they treat one another as normal human beings.
Furthermore, managers must take the initiative to draw up flexible work

schedules to ease their workersÊ tasks. They must also be granted medical
leave as necessary to seek medical attention. Other initiatives include
creating wide task structures, assistance programmes that provide
counselling services, and educational seminars on HIV/AIDS awareness.
No cure has been found yet for AIDS. The best step forward is to prevent it.
Employers must pay more attention to their workers so that they are not
unduly exposed to the disease, particularly those working in the medical
sector where they face a higher risk of contracting HIV.
Employers must provide AIDS patients with new opportunities and hope
by recruiting them. Meanwhile normal workers must be educated and
informed that they will not be infected with HIV simply by working
together with these patients as this disease is not transmitted through
casual contact.
Employers must also take precautionary steps at the workplace to protect

normal workers. They must provide special facilities for HIV-positive
workers to enable them to receive treatment at appointed times, and
provide financial assistance for those in need. Normal workers must respect
the feelings of HIV-positive workers and accept them as human beings
regardless of their condition.
In conclusion, HIV-positive workers must be given a second chance to live

their lives while the community must accept them and give them the
strength they need to be a part of the community.
x Economic progress has given rise to higher demands for goods and services.
x Manufacturing, among other sectors, has therefore seen much development

in the range of products made, the methods to produce them, and new,
related services.
x Nevertheless, this development has created new hazards and increased

accident risks.
x The greater risk has in turn increased the need for hygiene experts.
x However, accidents can never be prevented if employers do not develop

prevention and control programmes, and receive the cooperation of their
employees to ensure success.
Absorption Ingestion
Biological hazard Injection
Chemical hazard Inhalation
Ergonomic hazard Physical hazard
Industrial hygiene Toxic substances
Essay Questions
1. Give one example of an occupation that involves vibration hazards.
2. Explain briefly how training can reduce workersÊ exposure to toxic

substances at the workplace.
3. List the factors that might influence the toxic effects of a substance on human
beings.
4. Explain the basic strategies to prevent and control toxic hazards at the
workplace.
5. State the strategies which can be implemented by employers to overcome the

problem of AIDS at the workplace.
1. Toxic substances have a negative effect on health if they enter the human
body.
2. Chronic effects involve the consumption of a fatal dose of a highly

concentrated toxic substance.
3. Most chemical and toxic substances used in the manufacturing sector are
highly flammable.
4. HIV/AIDS is a health problem which has an effect on the field of

occupational safety and health.
5. Each workplace needs an industrial hygiene specialist.
6. Engineering controls involve the use of personal protective equipment.
7. Medical doctors have a high risk of being infected with HIV.

Topic X Mechanical
Hazards
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the common injuries resulting from mechanical hazards;
2. Explain the main requirements for safeguards; and
3. Apply the precautions to mechanical hazards.
X INTRODUCTION
As the term suggests, mechanical hazards are associated with power-driven
machines, whether automated or manually operated. Concerns about mechanical
hazards date back to the Industrial Revolution and the earliest days of
mechanisation.
Machines whether driven by steam, hydraulic or electric power introduced

new hazards into the workplace. In spite of advances in safeguarding
technologies and techniques, mechanical hazards are still major concerns today.
In addition, the advent of automated machines has also brought fresh concerns
about workplace safety.
7.1 COMMON MECHANICAL INJURIES

In an industrial setting, people operate machines that are designed to drill, cut,
shear, punch, chip, staple, stitch, abrade, shape, stamp, and slit materials such
as metals, composites, plastics and elastomers. These processes are purely
mechanical; they cause material to be deformed or broken into smaller pieces. If
104 X TOPIC 7 MECHANICAL HAZARDS
appropriate safeguards are not in place or if the operators themselves fail to

follow safety precautions, they may be hurt by these machines. Common
mechanical injuries are illustrated in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: Common mechanical injuries
7.1.1 Wound and Tearing

A cut occurs when our skin suddenly comes into contact with a sharp edge.
Tearing implies further opening of a cut through strong forces. The human
bodyÊs skin consists of the epidermis, which is the tough outer covering; the
dermis, which is the thick part beneath the epidermis; the capillaries, which are
the tiny blood vessels that branch off from small arteries and veins, in the dermis;
the veins which are the blood vessels that collect blood from the capillaries and
return it to the heart; and the arteries, which are the larger vessels that carry
blood from the heart to the capillaries in the skin. Deeper down below the skin
are the muscle tissues which wrap around the bones. How serious is a cut or tear
depends on how much damage is done to the skin, veins, arteries, muscles, and
even bones.
7.1.2 Shearing
To understand what shearing means, imagine using a paper cutter. Power-driven
shears for cutting paper, metal, plastic, elastomers, and composite materials are
dangerous because of their extreme cutting properties. However, they are widely
used in manufacturing for cutting various materials to different sizes.
TOPIC 7 MECHANICAL HAZARDS W 105
You must have heard of, or read news reports about, how such machines often
amputated fingers and hands of careless workers. Such tragedies typically
occurred when the operators reached under the shearing blade to make an
adjustment or placed materials there and accidentally activated the blade before
fully removing their hands.
7.1.3 Crushing
Injuries from crushing can be particularly debilitating, painful and difficult to
heal. They occur when a part of the body is caught between two hard surfaces
that progressively move together, thereby crushing anything between them.
Crushing hazards can be divided into two categories: squeeze-point types and
run-in points. Explanation on these two categories is presented in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Types of Crushing Hazards
Squeeze-point Squeeze-point hazards exist where two hard surfaces, at least one of
Hazards which must be in motion, close in together to crush any object that may
be between them.
Run-in point Run-in point hazards exist where two objects, at least one of which is
Hazards rotating, come progressively closer together. Any gap between them
need not become completely closed. It needs only to be smaller than the
width of the object or body part to be lodged in it. Meshing gears and
belt pulleys are examples of run-in point hazards.
7.1.4 Fracture
Machines used to deform raw materials such as wood and steel in factories can
easily break human bones. A break in the bone is known as a fracture. Fractures
are classified as:
(a) Simple;
(b) Compound;
(c) Complete; and
(d) Incomplete.
To help you understand these types of fractures, refer to Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Types of Fractures
Type of Fracture Injury

Simple Fracture A break in a bone that does not pierce the skin.
Compound Fracture A break that has broken through the surrounding tissue and
skin.
Complete Fracture Divides the affected bone into two or more separate pieces.
Incomplete Fracture Leaves the affected bone in one piece but cracked.
Other types of fractures include transverse fracture, oblique fracture and

comminute fracture. A transverse fracture is a break at right angles to the axis of
the bone, while an oblique fracture is diagonal. Comminute fracture, on the other
hand, occurs when the bone is broken into a number of small pieces at the point
of fracture.
7.1.5 Straining and Spraining

There are numerous situations in an industrial setting when straining of muscles
or spraining of ligaments is possible. A strain results when muscles are
overstretched or torn. A sprain is the result of torn ligaments in a joint. Strains
and sprains can cause swelling and intense pain.
7.1.6 Puncturing
Punching machines that have sharp tools can puncture a body part if safety
precautions are not observed or if appropriate safeguards are not in place.
Puncturing results when an object penetrates straight into the body and pulls
straight out, creating a wound in the shape of the piercing object. The greatest
risk with puncture wounds is causing damage to internal organs.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Why are mechanical accidents considered serious?

7.2 SAFEGUARDS
Modern machinery has various mechanisms that can rotate, reciprocate, or do
both. You can find many types of tools, bits, chucks, blades, spokes, screws,
gears, shafts, belts, and a huge variety of other equipment for manufacturing
products. Certainly, safeguards have to be devised to protect workers from
coming into contact with such mechanisms while at the same time allowing work
to progress at a productive rate. The National Safety Council in the US has
established the following requirements for safeguards (Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.2: Requirements for safeguards
(a) Prevent Contact

Safeguards would prevent human contact with any potentially harmful
machine part. The prevention extends to machine operators and any other
person who may need to do so, e.g. the technician or service engineer.
(b) Secure and Durable

Safeguards should be firmly attached so that they are secure. This means
that workers cannot render them ineffective by tampering with or disabling
them. This is critical because removing safeguards in an attempt to speed
up production is a common practice. This should not be encouraged at the
expense of work safety. Safeguards must also be durable enough to
withstand the rigours of the workplace. Worn-out safeguards will become
less effective over time in protecting workers properly.
(c) Protect against Falling Objects

Objects falling onto moving machine mechanisms increase the risk of
accidents, property damage and injury. Objects that fall on a moving part
can be quickly hurled out, creating a dangerous projectile. Therefore,
safeguards must do more than just prevent human contact. They must also
shield the moving parts of machines from falling objects.
(d) Create No New Hazard

Safeguards should overcome the hazards in question without creating new
ones. For example, a safeguard with a sharp edge, unfinished surface, or
protruding bolts introduces new hazards while protecting against the old.
(e) Create No Interference

Safeguards can interfere with the progress of work if they are not properly
designed. Such safeguards are likely to be disregarded or disabled by
workers who find such safeguards a nuisance rather than a safety feature.
(f) Allow Safe Maintenance

Safeguards should be designed to allow frequently performed maintenance
tasks (e.g., lubrication) to be accomplished without removing them.
(g) Construction of Safeguards

Design and construction of safeguards are highly specialised activities
requiring a strong working knowledge of machines, production techniques
and safety. However, it is critical that all of the factors explained in this
section be considered and accommodated during the design process.
7.2.1 Point-of-Operation Guards

Safeguards are most effective when used at the point of operation, which is
where hazards to humans exist. Point-of-operation hazards are those caused by
the shearing, cutting, or bending motions of a machine. Pinch-point hazards
result from guiding material into a machine or transferring motion (e.g., from
gears, pressure rollers, or chains and sprockets). Single-purpose safeguards,
because they guard against only one hazard, typically are permanently fixed and
non-adjustable. Multiple-purpose safeguards, which guard against more than
one hazard, typically are adjustable.
There are three types of point-of-operation guards: fixed, interlocked and

adjustable as shown in Table 7.3. Each has its own advantages and limitations.
Table 7.3: The Three Types of Point-of-Operation Guards
No. Type of Guard Explanation

1. Fixed guards Fixed guards provide a permanent barrier between workers
and the point of operation. They offer the following
advantages: They are suitable for many specific
applications, can be constructed in-plant, require little
maintenance and are suitable for high-production,
repetitive operations. Limitations include the following:
They sometimes limit visibility, are often limited to specific
operations, and sometimes inhibit normal cleaning and
maintenance.
2. Interlocked guards Interlocked guards shut down the machine when the guard
is not securely in place or is disengaged. The main
advantage of this type of guard is that it allows safe access
to the machine for removing jams or conducting routine
maintenance without the need for taking off the guard.
There are also limitations. Interlocked guards require
careful adjustment and maintenance and, in some cases,
can be easily disengaged.
3. Adjustable guards Adjustable guards provide a barrier against a variety of
different hazards associated with different production
operations. They have the advantage of flexibility.
However, they do not provide as dependable a barrier as
other guards do, and they require frequent maintenance
and careful adjustment.
7.2.2 Point-of-Operation Devices

A number of different point-of-operation devices can be used to protect workers.
The six most widely used are explained in Table 7.4.
(a) Photoelectric devices;
(b) Radio-frequency devices;
(c) Electromechanical devices;
(d) Pullback devices;
(e) Restraint devices; and
(f) Two-hand controls.
Table 7.4: The Six Point-of-Operation Devices
No. Point-of- Explanation

Operation Device
1. Photoelectric Photoelectric devices are optical devices that shut down the
devices machine whenever the light beam is broken. These devices
allow operators relatively free movement. They have
limitations, including the following: They do not protect
against mechanical failure, they require frequent calibration,
and they can be used only with machines that can be
stopped.
2. Radio-frequency Radio-frequency devices are capacitance devices that brake
devices or quickly slow down the machine if the capacitance field is
interrupted by a workerÊs body or another object. These
devices have the same limitations as photoelectric devices.
3. Electromechanical Electromechanical devices are contact bars that allow only a
devices specified amount of movement between the worker and the
machine. If the worker moves the contact bar beyond a
specified point, the machine will not work. These devices
have the limitation of requiring frequent maintenance and
careful adjustment.
4. Pullback devices Pullback devices pull the operatorÊs hands out of the danger
zone when the machine starts to operate. These devices
eliminate the need for auxiliary barriers. However, they also
have limitations. They limit operator movement, must be
adjusted for each individual operator, and require close
supervision to ensure proper use.
5. Restraint devices Restraint devices hold the operator back from the danger
zone. They work well, with little risk of mechanical failure.
However, they do limit the operatorÊs movement, must be
adjusted for each individual operator, and require close
supervision to ensure proper use.
6. Two-hand Two-hand controls require the operator to use both hands
controls concurrently to activate the machine (e.g., a paper cutter or
metal-shearing machine). This ensures that his hands cannot
stray into the danger zone. Although these controls do an
excellent job of protecting the operator, they do not protect
onlookers or passers-by. In addition, some two-hand controls
can be tampered with and made operable using only one
hand to save time.
7.2.3 Feeding and Ejection System

Feeding and ejection systems can be effective safeguards if properly designed
and used. There are four types of feeding and ejection systems available for use
with modern industrial machines, as summarised in Table 7.5.
(a) Automatic feed systems;
(b) Semi-automatic feed systems;
(c) Automatic ejection systems; and
(d) Semi-automatic ejection systems.
Table 7.5: The Four Types of Feeding and Ejection Systems
No. Feeding and Ejection Explanation

System
1. Automatic Feed Automatic feed systems feed stock to the machine from
Systems rolls. Automatic feeds eliminate the need for operators
to enter the danger zone. Such systems are limited in
the types and variations of stock that they can feed.
They also typically require an auxiliary barrier guard
and frequent maintenance.
2. Semi-automatic Feed Semi-automatic feed systems use a variety of
Systems approaches for feeding stock to the machine. Prominent
among these are chutes, movable dies, dial feeds,
plungers, and sliding bolsters. They have the same
advantages and limitations as automatic feed systems.
3. Automatic Ejection Automatic ejection systems eject the work
Systems pneumatically or mechanically. The advantage of either
approach is that operators do not have to reach into the
danger zone to retrieve work pieces. However, these
systems are restricted to use with relatively small stock.
Potential hazards include blown chips or debris and
noise. Automatic ejectors can be noisy.
4. Semi-automatic Semi-automatic ejection systems eject the work using
Ejection Systems mechanisms that are activated by the operator.
Consequently, the operator does not have to reach into
the danger zone to retrieve work pieces. These systems
do require auxiliary barriers and can be used with a
limited variety of stock.
7.2.4 Lockout/Tagout Systems

One of the most effective systems to control hazardous energy today is the tagout
system. This method is created to protect people from accidental activation of a
machine when it is supposed to be shut. This is very important because OSHAÊs
statistics show that six percent of workplace deaths are caused by accidental or
inadvertent activation of a machine while it is being serviced or repaired.
In the lockout system, a lockout device such as a padlock is placed on an energy-

isolating device to prevent the accidental or inadvertent energising of a machine
until the padlock is unlocked. The padlock will normally bear the name,
department and phone extension of the person in-charge.
The tagout system is similar to the lockout system except that a tag is used
instead of a padlock. The tag must only be used when the lockout system cannot
be implemented. Sometimes, a tag and a padlock are used together.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Differentiate between the lockout and tagout systems.
7.3 MECHANICAL HAZARD PREVENTION

The types of safeguards explained in this topic are critical. In addition to these
specific safeguards, there are a number of general precautions that apply across
the board where machines are used. Some of the more important general
precautions are as follows:
(a) All operators should be trained on the safe operation and maintenance of
their machines.
(b) All machine operators should be trained in the emergency procedures to

take when accidents occur.
(c) All employees should know how to activate emergency shutdown controls.
This means knowing where the controls are and how to activate them.
(d) Inspection, maintenance, adjustment, repair and calibration of safeguards

should be carried out regularly.
(e) Supervisors should ensure that safeguards are properly in place when
machines are in use. Employees who disable or remove safeguards should
be disciplined appropriately.
(f) Operator teams (two or more operators) of the same system should be
trained on coordination techniques and proper use of devices that prevent
premature activation by a team member.
(g) Operators should be trained and supervised to ensure that they dress
properly for the job. Long hair, loose clothing, neckties, rings, watches,
necklaces, chains and earrings can become caught in equipment and, in
turn, pull the employee into the hazard zone.
(h) Shortcuts that violate safety principles and practices should be avoided.
Deadline pressures should never be the reason for unsafe work practices.
(i) Other employees who work around machines but do not operate them
should be made aware of the emergency procedures to take when an
accident occurs.
x Mechanical safety is important and must be addressed consistently with the

development of technology worldwide.
x The management must conduct a safety risk analysis on all mechanical

equipment installed at their facilities.
x From this analysis, a safety procedure to handle each machine must be

developed and made known to all workers.
x This will enable workers to understand how to use the machines safely,
hence, reducing the number of mechanical-related accidents.
x Workers must also be exposed to periodical mechanical safety training to

ensure that they are able to use mechanical equipment at their workplace
safely and correctly.
Crushing Point-of-operation guards

Fracturing Puncturing
Feeding and ejection system Shearing
Lockout/tagout system Spraining
Mechanical injuries Straining
Point-of-operation devices Tearing
Essay Questions
1. List three requirements for safeguards.
2. List three types of point-of-operation guards.
3. Give a brief explanation on three frequently used point-of-operation devices.
4. State briefly how the feeding and ejection systems can be effective
safeguards.
1. Sprains occur due to a tear of joint ligaments.
2. Safeguards are created to protect workers from coming into contact with
potentially harmful machine parts.
3. Pinch-point hazards result from guiding material into a machine or

transferring motion.
4. Semi-automatic ejection systems require the operator to reach into the danger
zone to retrieve work pieces.
5. The outer layer of the human body is the dermis.
6. The lockout/tagout systems are created to protect the accidental activation of

a machine which is supposed to be shut down.
Topic X Falling
Hazards
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Analyse the causes of fall hazards at the workplace;
2. Explain the types of falls at the workplace;
3. Discuss protective equipment which can be used at the workplace; and
4. Evaluate the programmes for the prevention of workplace falls.
X INTRODUCTION
Imagine walking in the middle of a city. Look around you. Can you see many
high-rise buildings? Have you ever imagined how dreadful it would be if you fell
from the top of such a building? Can you imagine the fear felt by construction
workers who build these tall buildings?
According to the statistics of the US Labour Department, accidental falls at the

workplace cause the highest number of fatalities in the construction sector. Every
year, about 150 to 200 workers may sacrifice their lives, while more than 100,000
may be injured, due to falls at construction sites.
This topic presents information that is required by safety and health experts to
overcome fall accidents at the workplace. It will also discuss the techniques that
can be used to reduce such accidents.
116 X TOPIC 8 FALLING HAZARDS
8.1 CAUSES OF FALLS
ACTIVITY 8.1
Is pulling the chair away from a person about to sit, and letting him fall,
considered a fall hazard? Why? Discuss.
TodayÊs workplace has many hazards. Most of these hazards may be caused by
the workplace itself or by the various types of complex equipment installed at the
workplace. It is important to identify the causes of falls as these hazards may
cause injuries, leading to temporary or permanent disability. There have also
been cases of neck injuries that led to fatalities. Figure 8.1 illustrates the four
primary causes of falls at the workplace.
Figure 8.1: The four primary causes of falls at the workplace
8.1.1 A Foreign Object on the Walking Surface

Paths are specially designated walkways for workers to walk from one place to
another. However, there are workers who like to take „short cuts‰ to save time.
These short cuts some crossing through areas not meant for walking may
have obtrusive objects laid out that might cause such hurried workers to trip and
fall. Moreover, these workers who resort to short cuts normally do not pay close
attention to what they walk on or whether they should avoid such obstacles.
TOPIC 8 FALLING HAZARDS W 117
Nevertheless, designated walking paths, although usually cleared of obstacles,

are not completely free of hazards. The workplace must be neat and well-
organised while its walking paths must not have foreign objects lying around or
stacked alongside. Among the foreign objects often found on walking surfaces
are wires, pipes, stones, sticks, trash such as fruit skins, and so on.
The safety and health officer is responsible for ensuring that the designated paths
do not contain foreign objects that may represent a hazard to workers. If a
foreign object is placed on the walking surface, it must be clearly marked and
labelled so that workers who use the path can notice it. Figure 8.2 illustrates an
untidy and unorganised workplace which may cause accidents to workers
working in that area.
Figure 8.2: Untidy and unorganised workplaces may cause

accidents to workers working in that area
8.1.2 A Design Flaw in the Walking Surface

Walking surfaces must also be free of defects. Sometimes, renovation works may
require paths to be dug up. However, the holes left behind after renovation are
often not properly covered. If the scale of renovation is massive, the affected area
must be marked and sealed off so that people would not use it. Such surfaces
under repair increase the risk of a worker slipping or stumbling, and sustaining a
fall eventually.
In open areas where there are trees and plants, walkways and pavements may
become uneven over time, as a result of roots overgrowing from nearby trees.
Such conditions are hazardous to users of these paths, particularly when they are
in a hurry. Although these accidents occur outside the working area, they are still
within the organisation and it is the organisationÊs responsibility to tend to such
problems. Figure 8.3 illustrates a defect on a walking surface which may cause
accidents to those using it.
Figure 8.3: A walking surface which is not taken care of properly,

may cause accidents to those using it
8.1.3 Slippery Surfaces

Soap solutions, chemical cleaning solvents and lubricants are commonly found in
workplaces. These materials can bring about a hazardous situation if not used
properly. For example, when the floor is being washed using cleaning solvents/
chemical materials, the cleaner should put up a sign warning others of wet or
slippery floor conditions. The warning sign must be clear and comprehensible.
Not putting up such warning signs can cause accidents.
Lubricants are used regularly to repair and maintain machines. However, left on
the floor, lubricants are hazardous, since they make the floor extremely slippery.
Any walking surface stained with lubricants must be cleaned up as soon as
repair works are completed. Failing to clean such surfaces may cause workers to
fall. The negligence of a worker can cause the suffering of another. Figure 8.4
illustrates a workplace being cleaned by a cleaner.
Figure 8.4: Cleaning a workplace without putting up a warning sign may cause workers
to fall
8.1.4 Individual's Impaired Physical Condition

Age, gender and medical history affect the physical condition of a person. Old
workers require walking surfaces with better grip (such as carpets). They also
move at a slower pace than young workers. Apart from that, older workers have
weaker bones, thus any workplace accidents may cause their bones to fracture
easily, unlike their younger counterparts.
If an organisation has more older workers, it should provide walking surfaces

with better grip or shoes with high grip designs. Figure 8.5 illustrates a good
walking surface provided for workers.
Figure 8.5: Good walking surfaces reduce the risk of accidents

8.2 KINDS OF FALLS

There are four categories of falls, each occurring under different conditions and
with different effects. These categories are as shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Types of Falls
No. Type of Fall Explanation

1. Trip and fall Trip and fall accidents occur when workers encounter an
unseen foreign object in their path. For example, electrical
cables are often in the way and might cause an employee's
foot to strike them, causing him to trip and fall.
When an uneven walking surface, e.g. where one part is
higher than the other, is painted in the same or similar
colours, workers might not notice that the surface is
uneven. Thus, different colours must be used to
distinguish between the different heights.
2. Stumble and fall Floors covered with sticky chemical substances may cause
workers to stumble and fall. Such accidents may cause
back and leg injuries. Spilled syrup and beverages can also
cause similar accidents.
3. Step and fall Step and fall accidents occur when a person's foot
encounters an unexpected hole. Such an accident can
cause back and leg injuries.
Drain covers can also cause workers to step and fall if the
gaps on the metal cover are too big.
This can also happen when there are too many steps on a
staircase; the worker might think he has reached the
bottom of the stairs when, in reality, there is one more step
to go.
4. Slip and fall Slip and fall accidents occur when the worker's centre of
gravity is suddenly thrown out of balance. This can occur
when there is an oily spot causing a foot to shoot out from
under the worker.
Apart from oil, fruit skins may also cause workers to slip
and fall.
Wet walking surfaces, particularly if there is excessive
detergent, can cause workers to slip. This is the most
common type of fall at the workplace.
8.3 PROTECTION FROM FALLING OBJECTS

There are several personal protective equipment (PPE) which may be used to
minimise fall accidents at the workplace. Employers must assess accident risks
and equip workers with PPE to reduce fall accidents.
8.3.1 Head Protection

It is estimated that around 120,000 workers suffer from head injuries every year
(Goetsch 2005). The highest accident rates in the Malaysian industrial sector
involve falling objects. In fact, some of these accidents occurred in spite of the fact
that many victims were wearing their hard hats. This is due to the fact that these
hard hats were not worn properly.
The hard hats were originally introduced in 1919 for head protection. These hats
are made of thermoplastic polyethylene material. They are designed to protect
the head against impact and reduce injuries to the neck and spine. Figure 8.6
illustrates a safety hat widely used by construction workers.
Figure 8.6: The safety helmet which must be used by construction workers at work
8.3.2 Eye and Face Protection

It is estimated that 80,000 workers suffer injuries to the eyes and face every year
(Goetsch 2005). It is the employerÊs responsibility to provide safety equipment,
first aid facilities and training to the workers in order to cut down on such cases.
There are two types of PPE that protect the eyes and face, i.e. safety
glasses/goggles and face shields. These two equipment protect the eyes and face
from flying particles. Figure 8.7 illustrates an example of safety equipment which
protects the eyes and face of the worker.
Besides providing PPE, employers must also train workers on conditions which
require the use of PPE, suitable eye and face shields, correct way of using the PPE
and the limitations of PPE.
Figure 8.7: Safety equipment which shields the eyes and face must be used when doing
work using this kind of equipment
8.3.3 Foot Protection

It is estimated that about 100,000 workers suffer foot and toe injuries every year
(Goetsch 2005). Foot and toe injuries are caused by:
(a) Falls or impact from sharp or heavy objects;
(b) Compression when rolled over by or pressed between heavy objects;
(c) Punctures through the sole of the foot;
(d) Electrical shocks or burns due to high temperatures;
(e) Slips;
(f) Hot liquid or metal splashed into shoes or boots; and
(g) Temperature extremes.
The best safety boots provide all the following types of protection:
(a) Steel toe cover for impact protection;
(b) Rubber or vinyl for chemical protection;
(c) Puncture-resistant soles for protection against sharp objects;
(d) Slip-resistant soles for protection against slippery surfaces; and
(e) Electricity-resistant material for protection from electric shock.
Figure 8.8 illustrates a pair of safety boots which should be used by workers at
work.
Figure 8.8: A pair of safety boots which workers, particularly construction workers,
should use
8.4 LIFTING HAZARDS

Each year, there are approximately 46,000 cases of back injuries in the workplace
(Goetsch 2005). Back injuries are typically caused by improper lifting, reaching,
sitting and other ergonomic factors. Therefore, employers must ensure that their
workers learn the proper way of lifting heavy objects, so that they do not sustain
any back injury.
Secondly, employers must also identify where assistance may be needed for tasks
exceeding an individualÊs capacity. They must also emphasise the proper way of
lifting heavy objects, such as emphasising the use of legs and not the back when
lifting a heavy object. Workers must also be encouraged to adopt the pushing
method to move heavy objects instead of pulling.
The following are strategies which can be adopted to reduce back injuries:
(a) Display poster illustrations;
(b) Pre-employment screening;
(c) Regular safety inspections;
(d) Education and training; and
(e) Use of external services (consultants).
Figure 8.9: Proper posture and lifting technique must be used when lifting heavy objects
in order to prevent back injuries
8.5 FALL PREVENTION PROGRAMME

To ensure the safety of the workplace and to minimise workplace accidents,
employers must play an important role in coming up with a fall prevention
programme. There are six steps that can be taken to prevent fall hazards. These
are shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Fall Hazard Prevention Strategies
No. Strategy Explanation

1. Do Not Be in a Workers should work systematically without rushing to
Hurry catch up on time. Workers must also be aware of their
surroundings and identify any falling hazards and report
them to the safety and health officer so that further action
can be taken.
2. Do Not Take Short cuts have a higher risk of hazards because they often
Short Cuts contain foreign objects and are not specified for pedestrians.
They might be paths for forklifts and this may endanger
workers. If an accident occurs in such places and there are
no passers-by, help cannot be provided instantly. Help can
only be given when someone discovers the victim.
3. Cleaning Spills Spills have to be cleaned up immediately because failing to
do so may create an unsafe situation. If the spill requires
complex cleaning techniques, then the place of spillage
must be isolated and a warning sign must be put up.
4. Lighting Good lighting can increase visibility which in turn helps
workers identify hazards that exist. Workers can then
protect themselves or avoid unsafe conditions.
5. Scheduled Scheduled inspections at the workplace must be conducted
Inspection to identify and rectify unsafe conditions. Such inspections
can be done in teams in order to identify all hazards that
exist at the workplace. Meanwhile, workers who discover a
hazard must report it to their supervisors or safety and
health officer so that further action can be taken.
6. Warning Signs Warning signs must be stationed at places which have
been identified as having high risk of fall accidents. Phrases
such as „Wet Floor‰, „Slippery Floor‰ or „Use High-traction
Footwear‰ can be used to warn workers during work. The
phrases must be clear and legible from afar and in striking
colours such as red, yellow and orange. Workers can also be
given prior notice about renovations carried out so that they
will be more prepared and cautious.
ACTIVITY 8.2
You can visit http://www.eri-safety.com/documents/9701fs.htm for

information on high-impact fall prevention.
x Each workplace must be analysed for the possibility of workers being

exposed to falling hazards.
x The analysis must be conducted for all tasks carried out by workers of the
organisation.
x At this level, all hazards which have been identified must be listed and their
risks assessed.
x Apart from that, the organisation must also stress on prevention

programmes.
x There are two main causes of falling accidents at the workplace: (a) direct
cause due to failure to use PPE appropriately and the ineffective use of
working platforms; (b) basic cause which includes lack of supervision on high
risk tasks, lack of safety procedures which suit the tasks performed, lack of
assessment for providing suitable operations, and lack of safety training for
workers involving heights.
x Therefore, employers must provide safety work procedures according to the

task carried out; conduct job hazard analysis and assessments to provide the
appropriate operations; provide occupational safety and health training,
particularly for tasks involving heights; and conduct optimum supervision
during high risk tasks.
Design flaw Short cuts

Fall hazards Slip
Foreign objects Slippery surfaces
Impaired physical condition Stumble
Protective equipment Trip
Essay Questions
1. List the causes of falls at the workplace.
2. List the kinds of falls at the workplace.
3. Explain briefly three falling hazard prevention programmes at the workplace.
4. State briefly with examples two main causes of falls at the workplace.
1. According to the US Department of Labour, falling accidents comprise the

second highest rate of fatalities in the construction sector.
2. Neck injuries can cause deaths.
3. It is good to use short cuts as it is safe and saves time.
4. Old workers require walking surfaces with less traction so that they would
not slip and fall.
5. Falls at the workplace occur when a person loses his balance.
6. Safety hats are made of thermoplastic polyethylene.
7. Pre-employment screening is not a strategy to reduce back injuries.

Topic X Heat and
9 Temperature
Hazards
LEARNING OUTCOMES
30 Explain the basic concepts related to thermal energy;
2. Examine the effects of heat and temperature hazards at the workplace;
and
3. Assess the preventive measures of heat and temperature hazards.
X INTRODUCTION
Part of providing a safe and healthy workplace is appropriately controlling the
temperature, humidity, and air distribution in work areas. A work environment
in which the temperature is not properly controlled can be uncomfortable.
Extremes of either heat or cold can cause more than just discomfort · they can
be dangerous.
Understanding the basic concepts of thermal energy is very important in

preventing hazards of extreme temperatures. Not knowing or neglecting the
preventive measures will result in negative effects such as heat stress and cold
stress. Therefore, let us educate ourselves on how to prevent problems caused by
heat and temperature hazards.
TOPIC 9 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE HAZARDS W 129
9.1 THERMAL COMFORT

Thermal comfort in the workplace is the result of a number of different factors.
Temperature, humidity, air distribution and acclimatisation are all determinants
of comfort. To understand fully the hazards posed by temperature extremes,
firstly we have to familiarise ourselves with several basic concepts related to
thermal energy. Refer to Figure 9.1 to know what these concepts are.
Figure 9.1: The five basic concepts of thermal energy
Now, refer to Table 9.1 to learn more about these concepts.
Table 9.1: The Basic Concepts Related to Thermal Energy
Convection Convection is the transfer of heat from one location to another by

way of a moving medium (a gas or a liquid). Convection ovens use
this principle to transfer heat from an electrode or heating element
by air or gases flowing through the ovens.
Radiant Heat Radiant heat is the result of electromagnetic non-ionising energy
that is transmitted through space without the movement of matter
within that space.
Environmental Environmental heat is produced by external sources. Try to think of
Heat some sources of environmental heat. Gas or electric heating systems
produce environmental heat, as do sources of electricity and a
number of industrial processes.
Metabolic Heat Metabolic heat is produced within the human body as a result of
complex processes that break down food into energy. All humans
produce metabolic heat. This is why a room that is comfortable
when occupied by just a few people may become uncomfortable
when it is crowded. Unless the thermostat is lowered (i.e. to chill the
room more) to compensate for the temperature rise, the metabolic
heat of a crowd will cause the temperature to rise to an
uncomfortable level.
130 X TOPIC 9 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE HAZARDS
Conduction Conduction is the transfer of heat between two bodies that are
touching or from one location to another within the same body. For
example, if an employee touches a metal component that has just
been welded, it will feel hot; heat is conducted from the welded end
to where the hand touches. Of course, when the hand touches the
hotter end, the result of this heat transfer is a burn.
9.2 BODY’S RESPONSE TO HEAT
SELF-CHECK 9.1
What would happen to your body if your sweat did not evaporate
properly?
Now, let us learn about our bodyÊs response to heat. The human body can
maintain a balance between the metabolic heat it produces and the
environmental heat to which it is exposed. Sweat evaporation is how the body
tries to maintain the body temperature. As sweat evaporates, it cools the skin,
which in turn brings down the body temperature. This balance is achieved as
follows:
The outcome of this equation is: no additional heat gained, and this is the usual
state when we feel comfortable about the temperature around us. Unless the
radiant heat, conduction and metabolic heat exceed the heat lost through the
process of sweat evaporation, the body will not experience stress or hazards.
When the heat received from any source exceeds the degree of heat lost through
sweat evaporation, heat stress will occur.
9.3 BODY’S RESPONSE TO COLD
SELF-CHECK 9.2
In your opinion, how can exposure to cold be fatal?
Figure 9.2: Excessive exposure to cold can lead to hypothermia
Why is excessive exposure to cold considered dangerous for the human body?
One of the effects of extreme cold is hypothermia, a condition where oneÊs body
temperature drops to very low levels, weakening the muscles and adversely
affecting brain functions. Left unchecked, hypothermia can lead to death.
Therefore, it is the goal of safety and health professionals to protect employees
from cold stress.
Cold stress occurs when the body temperature falls below 36qC (96.8qF), which is
the normal human temperature.
Safety and health personnel must prevent cold injuries to body extremities,
especially the hands, feet and head. A fatal exposure to cold typically results
from failure to remove the employee from a cold air environment or immersion
in cold water.
Furthermore, excessive exposure to cold stress, even when not fatal, can result in
impaired judgement, reduced alertness, and poor decision-making. All of these
factors increase the likelihood of workplace accidents and injuries. Wind (air)
plays an important role in cold stress. Whether employees are exposed to cold air
or are immersed in cold water, wind can amplify the negative effects of cold
stress. As such, care should be taken to keep cold victims well wrapped up in
blankets or other thermal sheets.
9.4 BODY’S RESPONSE TO HEAT STRESS
SELF-CHECK 9.3
In your opinion, are alcohol consumption and obesity closely related to

heat stress? Explain.
Figure 9.3: Excessive heat may result in negative body reactions
Heat stress is of major concern among safety and health professionals as it might
pose a hazard or even lead to death if the body is exposed to extreme heat.
Heat stress may show several symptoms, depending on the level of stress. The
most common symptom is heat stroke, heat fatigue, heat cramps, heat rash,
transient heat fatigue, and chronic heat fatigue.
These types of heat stress may cause some negative body reactions such as heat
rash, inadequate venous blood flow back to the heart, insufficient blood flow to
vital organs, cramps, thirst and fatigue.
(a) Heat Stroke

Heat stroke is a type of heat stress caused by a sudden increase in body
temperature. Heat stroke is very dangerous and must be treated
immediately as it could be fatal. Symptoms of heat stroke are as follows:
(i) Hot, dry, red and spotted skin;
(ii) Fainting; and
(iii) Confusion and fits or seizures.
Figure 9.4: Heat stroke may make a person feel confused

Source: http://search.msn.com/images/results.aspx?q=heat+stroke&FORM=QBIR
Heat stroke victims will also record a rectal temperature of 104.5qF or more.
If left unchecked, the body temperature will increase further. There are
several factors that make people more prone to heat stroke among which
are:
(i) Obesity;
(ii) Bad physical conditions;
(iii) Alcohol consumption;
(iv) Cardiovascular diseases; and
(v) Excessive exposure to heat.
When heat stroke occurs, the bodyÊs ability to produce sweat decreases and
temperature begins to elevate abnormally. Such a condition can be fatal if
not treated immediately.
If a person becomes a victim of heat stroke, immediate action must be taken

to reduce his body temperature. Do not wait for help to arrive. Immerse the
victim in cool (not cold) water in order to reduce his body temperature. If
that is not possible, his body should be covered with a piece of thin wet
cloth; then, fan him to quickly bring down his body temperature. Keep the
cloth wet until normal body temperature returns.
(b) Heat Exhaustion

Heat exhaustion is a form of heat stress which occurs due to lack of water
and salt in the body. The observable symptoms of heat exhaustion are as
follows:
(i) Fatigue
(ii) Nausea and/or vomiting
(iii) Headache
(iv) Light-headedness
(v) Clammy, moist skin
(vi) Pale or flushed complexion
(vii) Fainting when trying to stand
(viii) Rapid pulse
(ix) Oral temperature may be less than normal temperature while rectal
temperature is higher than normal (99.5F to101.3F).
Figure 9.5: Heat exhaustion may cause headache

Source: http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/images/
40170000/jpg/_40170259_tired203.jpg
Heat exhaustion may occur when a person works very hard in a hot
environment for a long period and fails to replace the water and salt lost
through sweat. The condition might worsen if the temperature of the
workplace is not adjusted gradually.
When heat exhaustion occurs, the body will experience dehydration.

Dehydration reduces the total volume of blood which will further reduce
blood flow. Since there is not enough blood circulating within the system,
the body tries to maintain blood volume to the muscles by constricting
blood vessels, resulting in the symptom mentioned earlier.
Victims of dehydration must be transferred to a cooler place (not cold) and

left to rest. Water must be consumed slowly at a constant rate until the
urine shows that the water level in the body has returned to normal.
Heat fatigue preventive measures practised at the workplace must also be

practised during sports events. Gradually adjusting to the temperature for
at least one week is important for workers who work in hot environments.
(c) Heat Cramp

Heat cramp is a type of heat stress which occurs when the body loses too
much salt and potassium. The symptoms are muscle cramps in the arms,
legs and abdomen. Heat cramp is caused by the loss of salt and potassium
due to excessive sweating. Drinking water without salt replacement may
also cause heat cramps.
With too much water and not enough salt, electrolyte imbalance takes
place. Excess water will then enter the muscles and cause cramps. When
heat cramp occurs, the proper treatment is to replace salt and potassium
orally. In other words, heat cramp victims may drink commercially
available drinks that contain salt, potassium, electrolytes and other
necessary elements to restore the bodyÊs electrolyte balance.
Heat cramps can be prevented by gradually adapting the workers to the

work environment for about one week. Water loss from the body must be
replaced with fluids containing the proper amount of salt, potassium and
electrolytes.
(d) Heat Rash

Heat rash is a type of heat stress which shows up as tiny spots on different
parts of the body, causing an irritating itch and prickling sensation. Heat
rash is caused by blockage and inflammation of sweat ducts during times of
exposure to heat and high humidity. These blocked sweat ducts cause
sweat to escape into adjacent tissues, thus producing the itching and
prickling sensations associated with the condition.
Figure 9.6: A symptom of heat rash is tiny spots appearing on the body causing an irritating
itch
Source: http://search.msn.com/images/results.aspx?FORM=IRIR&q=heat%20rash
Heat rash can be treated easily by transferring the victim to a cooler place
which is less humid, cleaning the affected body part, and changing into
damp clothes. Specific lotions can also be applied in treating heat rash.
(e) Transient Heat Fatigue and Chronic Heat Fatigue

Transient heat fatigue is a type of heat stress which causes discomfort and
mental or psychological strain arising from prolonged heat exposure.
Workers unaccustomed to the heat are particularly susceptible and can
suffer transient heat fatigue. The degree and rate of transient heat fatigue
depend on the physical condition.
Workers who are physically well conditioned and have adjusted to the
work environment are less likely to suffer heat fatigue compared to those
who are not. Thus, the prevention of transient heat fatigue involves having
a good physique and heat acclimatisation.
Chronic heat fatigue is similar to transient heat fatigue, except that the
recovery period is longer. Workers suffering from chronic heat fatigue may
be transferred to a work area which does not require them to work in a hot
environment. Prolonged chronic heat fatigue may cause physiological and
psychological stress. The psychological stress may show the symptoms of
substance abuse and unacceptable psychological behaviour.
9.5 COLD STRESS PREVENTION

Taking the following steps can prevent cold stress.
When air temperature reaches 32qC or 25.6qF (for example, in a cold room), no
part of the human skin should be exposed. At air temperatures of 2qC (35.6qF),
employees who are immersed in water or whose clothing gets wet should be
treated for hypothermia immediately. Figure 9.8 illustrates how a hypothermia
patient must be treated.
Figure 9.7: Hypothermia wrap

Source: http://www.princeton.edu/~oa/safety/hypocold.shtml
When work is to be performed in an environment with an air temperature of 4qC

(39.2qF) or less, full-body protective clothing is advisable. Table 9.2 shows several
strategies that can be used to minimise cold stress.
Table 9.2: Strategies to Decrease the Hazards of Cold Stress
Strategies to Minimise Cold Stress

(a) When working in a scenario where wind chill is a factor, reduce the effect of the
wind by erecting a windscreen; or wear suitable clothing to keep warm.
(b) When working in a surrounding where clothing may get wet, apply one or more of
the following strategies: wear an outer layer that is water repellent, but not
impermeable; or wear outer garments that are ventilated to prevent internal wetting
from sweat.
(c) If adequate clothing appropriate for the conditions in question is not available, the
work should be modified or suspended until conditions change or until the right
clothing is available.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Why must a safety and health professional be familiar with the
strategies of preventing heat and cold hazards? Discuss the steps that
must be taken in dealing with heat stress.
x The concept of a more conducive workplace must be implemented and

practised effectively.
x Doing so will increase the productivity and morale of employees.
x In practice, providing a workplace with fewer hazards of temperature

extremes can reduce problems related to occupational safety and health.
x One cannot deny the negative effects of extreme heat on workers. Extreme
heat can be a major cause of workplace accidents.
Air distribution Heat rash

Chronic heat fatigue Heat stroke
Cold stress Humidity
Conduction Hypothermia
Convection Metabolic heat
Environmental heat Radiant heat
Heat Temperature
Heat cramp Thermal comfort
Heat exhaustion Transient heat fatigue
Essay Question
1. What is the body temperature that will cause cold stress?
2. Explain five basic concepts related to thermal energy.
3. State the strategies to reduce cold stress.
1. Sweat evaporation is how the body maintains temperature balance.
2. Drinking water with high content of salt may also cause heat cramps.
3. Cold stress can be experienced when the body temperature drops below 36qC
(below 96.8qF).
4. Exposure to cold stress can result in impaired judgement, reduced alertness,

and poor decision-making.
5. Chronic heat fatigue is not related to psychological stress.

Topic X Pressure
10 Hazards
LEARNING OUTCOMES
30 Explain the importance of pressure hazards;
2. Examine two sources of hazards related to pressure;
3. Evaluate three ways of detecting a leak in a pressured vessel; and
4. Formulate strategies to prevent pressure hazards at the workplace.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic discusses workplace hazards involving pressure from equipment used
at the workplace such as boilers, pressure vessels, high temperature water tanks
and the like. A workplace that requires high-temperature water to carry out its
operations is exposed to pressure hazards. Handling high-temperature
equipment involves effective preventive measures to ensure that workers are not
involved in accidents due to pressure hazards.
Our surrounding environment also contains pressure hazards. Those who love
extreme sports such as mountain climbing or scuba diving must be cautious
because they might be exposed to pressure hazards when they ascend to high
altitudes or dive in the sea. Those who love these outdoor activities must make
sure that they are well equipped, and know what to do to prevent such hazards,
failing which they might face the risk of suffering from altitude sickness or
decompression sickness or even much more serious injuries if these activities
involve greater altitudes or water depths.
140 X TOPIC 10 PRESSURE HAZARDS
10.1 DEFINITION OF PRESSURE HAZARDS
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Do you know what a pressure hazard is? In your opinion, what are the
causes of pressure hazards?
For example, opening the cap of the radiator of a car when the engine is still hot
will cause hot water to gush out strongly due to the high pressure in the radiator.
The person who opens the water radiator under such a condition will face a
pressure hazard hot water will cause injuries to the face, hands and parts of his
body.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
A hazard is an act, behaviour or condition with the potential of causing

injury to people and damage to property. Based on your experience,
give three examples of your actions which may cause pressure hazards.
10.2 THE PRESSURE LAW

When we talk about air pressure, we are referring to the pressure exerted by the
earthÊs atmosphere. The average air pressure at sea level is 100kN per square
metre, or about the weight of 10 tonnes exerting on a square of one metre.
Approximately 21 percent of the atmosphere is oxygen; the rest is mostly
nitrogen. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of several other gases such as
helium, argon, neon, krypton and xenon.
TOPIC 10 PRESSURE HAZARDS W 141
Atmospheric pressure is usually measured using a barometer. As the altitude

above sea level increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. For example, the
atmosphere pressure at 18,000 feet (5,486m) above sea level is only half of that at
sea level. At 27,480 feet (8,376m), the pressure drops to about a third of that at sea
level.
Boyle's law states that, at a given temperature, the product of a given pressure
and volume is constant, as illustrated by the formula below.
P1V1 = P2V2, when T is constant whereby

P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature
A simple example for BoyleÊs law is our breathing motion. Air moves in and out
of the lungs because of a pressure gradient or difference. When atmospheric
pressure is greater than the pressure within the lungs, air flows from the outside
into the lungs. This is called inspiration, or breathing in, and occurs when we
expand our chest cavity (volume increased but pressure decreased). When
pressure in the lungs is greater than the atmospheric pressure, air moves
outward from the lungs. Expiration occurs when air leaves the lungs (when we
relax our chest muscles and diaphragm), increasing pressure within the lungs.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
To enhance your understanding of the human breathing system,

explain briefly what happens during the breathing process.
10.3 SOURCES OF PRESSURE HAZARDS
SELF-CHECK 10.4
Are pressure hazards caused by humans only? Explain your views.
Let us now focus on the various sources of pressure hazards. Refer to Figure 10.1
for the two sources of these hazards.
Figure 10.1: Two sources of pressure hazards
Pressure hazards which occur naturally can result from air being trapped or
expanded within body cavities. For example, when the sinuses leading to the
nasal cavity are blocked, air cannot pass through easily from the sinuses to the
nose. The air trapped in the sinuses can lead to problems if it expands. The same
complication can occur with air trapped inside the Eustachian tube to the middle
ear which helps balance air pressure on either side of the eardrum. Expansion of
the air in blocked sinus passages or the middle ear occurs when ascending
quickly (e.g. in an aeroplane) or moving too quickly to the surface while diving.
This can cause pain and, if not relieved, lead to diseases.
Humans create the second source of pressure hazards. These may be caused by
work processes, tools or equipment such as boilers, pressure vessels, extremely
hot water, and others.
10.4 SICKNESS DUE TO PRESSURE
ACTIVITY 10.1
In your opinion, how are pressure hazards dangerous to our health?

Discuss with your coursemates.
Pressure hazards that occur naturally can affect our health. Some sicknesses
related to air pressure problems are shown in Figure 10.2.
Figure 10.2: Atmosphere pressure related sickness
(a) Hypoxia
Hypoxia is a condition that results from lack of oxygen. It is a type of
altitude sickness. This condition occurs when oxygen available in the
atmosphere becomes rarefied, especially at high altitudes. Some of its
effects on humans at different altitudes are as follows:
(i) 10,000 feet above sea level the person will experience shortness of
breath and fatigue.
(ii) 14,000 to 15,000 feet above sea level the person will experience
euphoria along with a decrease in reasoning power, judgement and
memory.
(iii) 20,000 to 25,000 above sea level the person will lose consciousness
after approximately five minutes at this altitude.
(iv) 30,000 above sea level the person will lose consciousness after
approximately one minute or less.
(v) More than 38,000 feet above sea level the person may fall into a
coma within 30 seconds and possibly die.
(b) Decompression Sickness

Decompression sickness can result from the following activities:
(i) A rapid ascent from the depth of around 132 feet to 66 feet
underwater.
(ii) A rapid rise from sea level to at least 18,000 feet.
Figure 10.3: Decompression sickness is common among divers
There are several factors which influence the onset of decompression

sickness:
(i) History previous decompression sickness.
(ii) Age being over 30 increases the chances of an attack.
(iii) Physical fitness people in good physical condition have a reduced

chance of the sickness.
(iv) Exercise during exposure to decompression increases the likelihood

and brings on an earlier onset of symptoms.
(v) Low temperature increases the probability of the sickness. Speed of

decompression also influences the sickness.
(vi) A rapid rate of decompression increases the possibility and severity of

symptoms.
(vii) Length of exposure the longer the exposure, the greater the chances
of decompression sickness.
ACTIVITY 10.2
ACTIVITY 10.2
For more information on decompression sickness and its treatment,
visit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_sickness.
(c) Hyperoxia
Breathing too much oxygen leads to a condition called hyperoxia. For
example, failure to set the scuba diving equipment properly may cause
cramps due to breathing too much oxygen during the dive. Normal air will
become toxic at depths of 300 metres or more. Thus, deep-sea divers are
particularly careful about the air mixture they breathe while diving.
Increase in oxygen intake will also cause the person to feel dizzy, panic,
have blurred vision and nausea. Continuous exposure will cause confusion,
cramp and even death.
(d) Bends
Bends is a condition that affects divers who surface too quickly. Under the
sea, water pressure will cause air to dissolve into the blood. During
surfacing, the lessened pressure causes the dissolved air to turn into
bubbles that can bring severe pain, forcing the sufferer to „bend‰ in pain. In
serious cases, bends can kill.
(e) Dysbarism
This is the opposite of bends. In dysbarism, the formation of gas bubbles in
the bloodstream is due to rapid ambient pressure reduction. The major
causes of dysbarism are:
(i) The release of gas from the blood, and
(ii) The attempted expansion of trapped gas in the body.
(f) Trapped Gas Effect

Changes in overall pressure can induce trapped gas effects. According to
Boyle's law, with a decrease in pressure, trapped gases will increase in
volume. Trapped gases in the body include air pockets in the ears, sinuses
and chest. Jet travel causes the most commonly occurring instance of
trapped gas effects. Takeoff and landing may cause relatively sudden shifts
in pressure, which may lead to discomfort and pain. With very rapid ascent
or descent, injury can develop. Lung rupture can be caused by a swift
return to the surface from diving or decompression during high-altitude
flight.
(g) Evolved Gas Effect

Evolved gas effects are associated with the absorption of nitrogen into body
tissues. When breathed, nitrogen can be absorbed into all body tissues in
concentrations proportional to the partial pressure of nitrogen in the air.
When a person is ascending in altitude, on the ground, in flight, or under
water, nitrogen must be exhaled at a rate equal to or exceeding the
absorption rate to avoid evolved gas effects.
(h) Nitrogen Narcosis

Nitrogen narcosis results from a higher-than-normal level of nitrogen
pressure (atmospheric composition: 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen). When
breathed under pressure, nitrogen causes a reduction of cerebral and neural
activity. Breathing nitrogen at great depths underwater can cause a feeling
of euphoria and loss of reality. At depths greater than 100 feet (30 m),
nitrogen narcosis can occur even when breathing normal air. The effects
may become pathogenic at depths greater than 200 feet (60 m).
SELF-CHECK 10.5
Explain how nitrogen narcosis can be prevented.

10.5 PRESSURE HAZARDS

Equipment and apparatus used every day at the workplace may be a source of
danger. Some of the sources of dangers are illustrated in Figure 10.4.
Figure 10.4: Sources of pressure hazards
(a) Pressurised vessels steam boilers, storage tanks, transport tanks and
others.
(b) Unfired pressure vessels vessels that can create heat internally by various
means rather than by external fire.
(c) Leaks from safety valves in vessels.
(d) Dynamic pressure rapid gas release from a cylinder, or water from a hose.
(e) Water hammer air chambers and accumulators.
(f) Negative pressure flow of air across the roof, filling hot or cold water into
a bottle or container.
The failure of pressurised equipment to function properly may cause serious

injuries, kill nearby workers, and cause damage to properties at the workplace.
Examples of pressurised equipment are as follows:
(a) Steam boilers and steam heating systems;
(b) Pressurised processes and piping;
(c) Air compression system (permanent and mobile);
(d) Pressure container, autoclave, retort;
(e) Cooling and heat exchange plants;
(f) Valves and steam filters;
(g) Piping and hoses; and
(h) Pressure gauges.
ACTIVITY 10.3
For more information on „Pressure Systems Safety and You‰, please

visit:
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg261.pdf
10.6 HAZARDS FROM BOILERS
SELF-CHECK 10.6
Have you ever seen a boiler? Do you know what it is for? How can a
boiler be hazardous and what are the preventive measures?
After seeing some examples of pressurised equipment, the following part will
focus only on hazards caused by equipment used in industries, such as boilers,
high temperature water, high pressure systems and unfired pressure vessels.
Now, let us find out what a boiler is.
Refer to Table 10.1 for the preventive measures against potential hazards
associated with boilers.
Table 10.1: Preventive Measures against Potential Hazards Associated with Boilers
Preventive Measures against Potential Hazards Associated with Boilers

Daily check: Check the water to make sure that it is at the proper level.
Weekly check: At least once every week, test the low-water automatic shutdown
control and record the results of the test on a tag that is clearly visible.
Monthly check: At least once every month, test the safety valve and record the results
of the test on a tag that is clearly visible.
Yearly check: The low-level automatic shutdown control mechanism should either be
replaced or completely overhauled and rebuilt.
ACTIVITY 10.4
Yearly inspection of steam boilers is better than daily inspection. Do

you agree with this statement? Discuss.
10.7 HIGH-TEMPERATURE WATER (HTW)

HAZARDS
SELF-CHECK 10.7
High-temperature water hazards can be fatal. Can you state the causes
of high-temperature water hazards?
High-temperature water (HTW) is water that has been heated to a very high
temperature but not high enough to produce steam.
It occurs when the energy released is lower than the energy required to produce
steam. In some cases, HTW can be used as an economical substitute for steam
such as for industrial heating systems. It can also be used as a hot water supply
in industries.
Although the energy released is lower compared to the energy produced by

steam, there are hazards associated with HTW. Human contact with HTW can
result in extremely serious burns and even death. The two most prominent
sources of hazards associated with HTW are shown in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2: The Two Most Prominent Sources of Hazards Associated with HTW
No. Two Most Prominent Sources of Hazards Associated with HTW

1. Operator Error
Operator error can result in burns. Proper training and careful supervision are the
best guards against operator error.
2. Improper Design and Installation
The design of HTW systems is a highly specialised process that should be
undertaken only by experienced engineers. Mechanical forces such as water
hammer, thermal expansion, thermal shock, and faulty materials are often the
cause of system failure. Therefore, it is important to take note of the following
when designing an HTW system. The best designs should be simple and operator-
friendly. Furthermore, maintenance works must be carried out regularly to
prevent system failure.
10.8 HAZARDS OF UNFIRED PRESSURE

VESSELS
Not all pressure vessels are fired. Unfired pressure vessels include compressed
air tanks, steam-jacketed kettles, digesters, and vulcanisers, as well as others that
can create heat internally by various means rather than by external fire. The
various means of creating internal heat include chemical action within the vessel,
and application of some heating medium such as electricity, steam, hot oil, and
so on to the contents of the vessel. Refer to Table 10.3 to find out about the
potential hazards associated with unfired pressure vessels.
Table 10.3: The Potential Hazards Associated with Unfired Pressure Vessels
No. Potential Hazards Associated with Unfired Pressure Vessels

1. Hazardous interaction between the material of the vessel and the materials that
will be processed in it;
2. Inability of the filled vessel to carry the weight of its contents and the
corresponding internal pressure;
3. Inability of the vessel to withstand the pressure introduced into it and the
pressure caused by chemical reactions that occur during processing; and
4. Inability of the vessel to withstand any vacuum that may be created accidentally
or intentionally.
For each type of hazard, there would be measures to prevent it and the most
effective preventive measures for overcoming the potential hazards above are
shown in Table 10.4.
Table 10.4: Preventive Measures for Overcoming the

Potential Hazards Associated with Unfired Pressure Vessels
No. Preventive Measures for Overcoming the Potential Hazards Associated with
Unfired Pressure Vessels
1. Proper Design
Specifications for the design of unfired pressure vessels include: working
pressure range, working temperature range, types of materials to be processed,
welding or joining measures, and radiography. Designs that meet the
specifications set forth for unfired pressure vessels will overcome most
predictable hazards.
2. Precautions
Beyond proper design, precautions taken such as continual inspection, proper
housekeeping, periodic testing, visual observation for detecting cracks, and the
use of appropriate safety devices will overcome most predictable hazards.
ACTIVITY 10.5
For information on pressure hazards, please visit:

http://www.technology.ewu.edu/tech462/462_02/ch11.html
10.9 HAZARDS OF HIGH-PRESSURE SYSTEMS

The hazards most commonly associated with high-pressure systems are leaks,
pulsation, vibration, release of high-pressure gases, and whiplash from broken
high-pressure pipe, tubing, or hose.
To ensure that high-pressure systems function properly at the workplace,

strategies for reducing these hazards must be implemented. These strategies are
listed in Table 10.5.
Table 10.5: Strategies for Reducing High-pressure Systems Hazards
No. Strategies for Reducing High-pressure Systems Hazards

1. Decreasing the potential for leaks by limiting the number of joints in the system;
2. Limiting vibration through the use of vibration dampening;

3. Putting a boarder around the high pressure system;
4. Using pressure gauges; and
5. Using remote control for monitoring.
10.10 CRACKING HAZARDS IN PRESSURE

VESSELS
One of the most serious hazards in pressure vessels is the potential for cracking.
It can lead to either a complete rupture or to leaks. The consequences of a
complete rupture include the following:
Blast effects due to the sudden expansion of the contents of the vessel; and
possible injuries and damage from fragmentation.
Pressure vessels are used in many different applications to contain many

different types of substances ranging from water to extremely toxic chemicals.
Leakage or rupture may occur at the joints.
10.11 SIGN OF PRESSURE HAZARDS

Confirming the point of pressurised gas leakage can be difficult. The cracking of
a pressure vessel will lead to pressure hazards. A sign of pressure hazard due to
cracking is leakage. There are several methods of detecting pressure hazards.
Refer to Table 10.6 to learn how a leak can be detected.
Table 10.6: Methods of Detecting a Leakage
No. Methods of Detecting a Leakage

1. Sounds can be used to signal a pressurised gas leak;
2. Workers suffering from poisoning due to leakage of vessel;
3. Vessel explodes and burns;
4. Rust appearing on parts of the vessel;
5. Odour coming from the vessel; and
6. Corrosion in the vessel leading to cracking.
As for pressure vessels containing gas, the potential causes of leak are:
(a) Contamination: Dirt on gas valves;
(b) Overpressurisation: This can overstress the gas vessel;
(c) Excessive temperatures: Causing materials to crack because of excessive

cold. The temperature must be monitored to indicate the possibility of gas
release; and
(d) Operator errors: Supervisors must monitor the operators and the operators
must receive proper training on the proper way of closing valves and filling
the vessels appropriately to prevent overfilling of vessels.
Figure 10.5 illustrates the diagrams of a pressure vessel.
Figure 10.5: The a front and top views of a pressure vessel

Figure 10.6 shows some photographs of pressure vessels.
Figure 10.6: Pressure vessels
SELF-CHECK 10.8
Cracking and leakages are interrelated and can cause serious hazards.
In your opinion, what are the recommended strategies to reduce the
potential of a leak?
ACTIVITY 10.6
To see more diagrams of pressure vessels, you can visit:

http://www.arl.psu.edu/facilities/hi_pressure.html
10.12 DETECTING PRESSURE HAZARDS
SELF-CHECK 10.9
What is a way of detecting a leakage?
To overcome the problem of leakage or incorrect pressure level, it is necessary to

examine pressure vessels periodically. There are two methods of testing to detect
pressure leaks and incorrect pressure levels in pressure vessels and they are as
follows:
(a) Destructive Testing

Destructive testing methods destroy the material being checked. There are two types
of testing, i.e. proof pressure test, and stress and strain test. Firstly, the proof pressure
test is conducted on the pressure vessel to test the strength of the vessel. Then, the
stress and strain test is carried out to discover the changes after the pressure is
released.
(b) Non-destructive Testing

Non-destructive testing methods do not harm the material being tested. There are
five non-destructive methods for testing, i.e.
(i) Visual examination, which involves taking a thorough look at the vessel to
detect signs of corrosion or erosion on the cleaned surface of the vessel;
(ii) Liquid penetration test, which involves placing a specifically formulated liquid
penetrant over an area and letting it seep in. The crack can be detected when
some of the penetrant remain entrapped in the area;
(iii) Magnetic particle test, which uses ferromagnetism to test the surface of the
vessel;
(iv) Gamma and x-ray radiography; and
(v) Ultrasonic test, which is used to detect cracks and leaks.
10.13 STRATEGIES TO REDUCE PRESSURE

HAZARDS
Reducing pressure hazards usually requires maintenance and inspections to be
carried out on pressure vessels. Several strategies as shown in Table 10.7 can be
applied to reduce pressure hazards at the workplace.
Table: 10.7: Strategies to Reduce Pressure Hazards at the Workplace
No. Strategies to Reduce Pressure Hazards at the Workplace

1. Install safety valves and inspect them periodically to ensure that they are
capable of withstanding working pressures;
2. Store pressure vessels at the proper temperature and place them far from
sources of heat including the sun, sources of ignition and cold temperature;
3. Do not expose closed containers to heat because gas compression may occur.
Eg: aerosol cans must never be thrown near sources of heat as they might
explode due to gas compression;
4. Clean the pressure vessel periodically;
5. Pressure systems must only be operated under the conditions for which they
were designed as advised by the manufacturer;
6. Relieve all pressure from the system before performing any work;
7. Label pressure system components to indicate inspection status;
8. Exercise good housekeeping to ensure that the pressure system is in good
condition;
9. Examine labels before using pressurised systems to ensure correct matching of
gases and uses; and
10. Train and test personnel dealing with pressurised vessels. Only tested
personnel should be permitted to operate pressurised vessels. Personnel
working on pressure systems should wear personal protection equipment such
as face shields.
SELF-CHECK 10.10
Imagine that there are many empty aerosol cans at your workplace. In
your opinion, what must be done with these cans to reduce pressure
hazards?
10.14 LEGAL REQUIREMENT
SELF-CHECK 10.11
In your opinion, does our country have laws to reduce pressure hazards
at the workplace? What is the role of these laws?
Malaysia has a law on steam boilers and unfired pressurised vessels. The law
referred to is the Factories and Machinery (Steam Boiler and Unfired Pressure
Vessel) Regulations 1970. This regulation came into force on 1 February 1970 and
applies to all organisations using steam boilers and unfired pressurised vessels
with the purpose of creating a safe and healthy work environment. This
regulation also applies to designers, makers and manufacturers of such
equipment. Imported steam boilers and unfired pressurised vessels are not
exempted from this law as their owners are required to notify the Director
General of Occupational Safety and Health Department, in order to obtain their
certificates of fitness.
This regulation is divided into four sections. These are shown in Table 10.8.
Table 10.8: The Four Sections of the Factories and Machinery Regulations
Section Explanation
1. General regulations on fitness certificate application.
2. Steam boilers and the necessary components of the steam boiler for safe
operation.
3. Unfired pressure vessel and the necessary components for safe operation.
4. Various provisions such as piping, hydrostatic tests, maintenance and
repair, safe work environment, fees, compliance and penalties for non-
compliance.
x Operating steam boilers and pressure vessels requires skilful operators who
have sound knowledge of such equipment.
x Errors committed by operators are often the cause of pressure hazards

besides insufficient periodical inspections.
x Employers, employees, designers, manufacturers and suppliers must adhere

to the Factories and Machinery (Steam Boiler and Unfired Pressure Vessel)
Regulations 1970 in order to create a safe work environment.
Atmosphere High-temperature Water (HTW)

Barometer Hyperoxia
Bends Hypoxia
Boilers Inspiration
BoyleÊs law Nitrogen narcosis
Decompression Pressure hazard
Dysbarism Pressure vessel
Expiration
Essay Questions
1. Explain briefly the meaning of pressure hazards.
2. Explain briefly three types of pressure-related illnesses.
3. Explain briefly three methods of detecting leaks on pressure vessels.
4. Cracks on pressure vessels pose a danger to workers. State briefly three

effects of the cracking of pressure vessels.
5. Explain briefly four strategies to reduce hazards.

1. The atmosphere contains 21% of oxygen and 79% nitrogen.
2. Atmosphere pressure can be measured using a spherometer.
3. There are three sources of pressure hazards.
4. Hyperoxia occurs when there is too much oxygen in the atmosphere.
5. Leaks from safety valves represent pressure hazards.

Topic X Electrical
11 Hazards
LEARNING OUTCOMES
30 Describe electrical hazards at the workplace;
2. Identify the sources of electrical hazards at the workplace;
3. Explain three methods to detect electrical hazards;
4. Develop the methods to reduce electrical hazards; and
5. Apply the preventive techniques in emergencies.
X INTRODUCTION
In todayÊs modern life, electricity is one of the most utilised energies. Electricity
has many benefits but may also create hazards. Ignoring the possible dangers of
electricity can cause workplace accidents. The neurological system in the human
body is very sensitive to electric shocks even if the current is at a very low level.
Most electrical hazards can be controlled easily and economically if safety
procedures and control are introduced at the initial designing stage. Most
electrical hazard accidents occur due to the behaviour of workers who refuse to
follow safety procedures.
TOPIC 11 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS W 163
11.1 DEFINITION OF ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
SELF-CHECK 11.1
What is electric current? What happens when electric current passes

through a conductor? Is metal a weak conductor? Give your views.
Electricity is the flow of negatively charged particles called electrons through an

electrically conductive material. Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom, which is
located approximately in the atomÊs centre. The negative charge of the electrons
is neutralised by particles called protons, which are held together by neutrons.
Neutrons act as temporary energy repositories for the interactions between
positively charged protons and the negatively charged electrons.
Electrical current passing through a circuit is like fluid running through a pipe.
When electricity passes through a conductor, resistance will cause heat. This
resistance is measured in ohms. Pure conductors such as copper, metal and alloy
offer low resistance, while weak conductors such as plastic, rubber, fabric and
paper offer high resistance and are used as insulators.
The resistance level of conductors depends on the dimension and material of the
conductor. Conductors are substances that have many free electrons at room
temperature and can allow electrons to flow through when there is a difference
in electric charge. Insulators do not have a large number of free electrons at room
temperature and as such, do not conduct electricity. Substances that are neither
conductors nor insulators can be called semiconductors. Semiconductors offer
medium resistance to electrical current.
Electrical current passing through a cable or wire is measured in amperes or

amps (A). Electrical shocks are normally measured in miliamperes (mA). OhmÊs
law states that the current (I) passing through a conductor between two points is
proportional to the potential difference (i.e. voltage, V) across the two points, and
inversely proportional to the resistance (R). OhmÊs law is summarised as follows:
V = volts,
V = IR where I = current flow in amperes,
R = resistance to current flow in ohms.
164 X TOPIC 11 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Power is measured in watts which can be determined by OhmÊs law:
W = VI
or where W = power in watts
W = I2 R
SELF-CHECK 11.2
Electric current flows very rapidly, at about 186,000 miles per second. If
you took two seconds to turn on the light, how far has the electric
current travelled?
11.2 SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Figure 11.1: Be careful when handling electricity in order to avoid accidents
We cannot avoid using electricity in our daily life. Because electricity is widely
and extensively used, we tend to forget the dangers posed by this source of
energy. We often read about accidents involving electrical hazards. Short circuits
are one of many potential electrical hazards that cause electrical shock and fire.
To know more about the sources of electrical hazard, refer to Table 11.1.
Table: 11.1: Sources of Electrical Hazards
No. Source of Electrical Hazards

1. Contact with a bare wire carrying current
2. Improper wiring
3. Working with electrical equipment in a damp surrounding
4. Static electricity discharge
5. Using metal ladders
6. Power source not switched off
7. Lightning strikes
8. Arcs and sparks
9. Combustive and explosive materials
10. Insulation failure
11. Equipment failure
Now, let us look at these sources of electrical hazards in detail.
(a) Contact with a Bare Wire Carrying Current

A person can get electrical shock if he comes into contact with a bare wire
carrying current, such as when walking on a surface with electrical current
due to an exposed, high-voltage wire cut by a storm.
(b) Improper Wiring

Improper wiring of equipment or buildings may cause danger. One
common mistake is to „jump‰ the ground wire to the neutral wire. In this
case, the ground wire is actually connected to the neutral wire. Equipment
usually operates in a fixed way, but the hazard occurs when low voltages
are generated on exposed parts of the equipment, such as the housing. If
the neutral circuit becomes corroded or loose, the voltage on the ground
wire may increase to a dangerous level. Sometimes, a socket may have too
many plugs or extensions attached to it. Remember that connecting too
many electrical devices to a single socket is dangerous.
Figure 11.2: Proper wiring can prevent electrical hazards
Improper wiring (or miswiring) can cause other hazards. For example, the
proper way to wire an electrical device is to ensure that the three different
wires live, neutral and ground are connected correctly to ensure that
electricity flows properly. When the ground wire is connected improperly,
the situation is referred to as open ground. Usually, the equipment with
such miswiring may still operate normally. If a short circuit occurs in an
equipment without proper grounding, anyone touching that equipment
may be severely shocked.
Temporary wiring installations sometimes remain in place for years and

can cause a short circuit, resulting in accidents. Therefore, temporary wires
should be substituted for fixed wiring. These steps must be taken to protect
lives and property from the dangers of electricity.
(c) Working with Electrical Equipment in a Damp Surrounding

The rate of discharge of electrical charges increases with lower humidity.
Electrostatic sparks are often greater during cold, dry winter days. Adding
humidity to the air is not commonly used to combat static discharge. In fact,
higher humidity may result in an uncomfortable work environment and
adversely affect equipment.
(d) Static Electricity Discharge

Electrostatic hazards may cause minor shocks. Sources of electrostatic
discharge include the following:
(i) Briskly rubbing a nonconductive material over a stationary surface.

One common example of this is scuffing shoes across a wool or nylon
carpet. Multilayered clothing may also cause static sparks.
(ii) Moving large sheets of plastic may discharge sparks.

(iii) The explosion of organic and metallic dusts, which has occurred from
static build-up in farm grain silos and mine shafts.
SELF-CHECK 11.3
List the areas at your workplace which you think are potential
electrostatic hazard areas.
(e) Using Metal Ladders

Using ladders made of metal such as aluminium and steel while working
with electrical equipment can provide a direct line from the power source
to the ground, again causing a shock.
Figure 11.3: A good conductor such as a metal ladder offers low resistance
Source: http://www.fplsafetyworld.com/hurt/travel_through.html
(f) Power Source Not Switched Off

A common mistake that leads to hazards is not ensuring that the power has
been switched off before carrying out maintenance works. Electric current
can still flow from the power point to the equipment and cause electric
shock.
(g) Lightning Strikes

Lightning strikes are static charges from clouds following the path of least
resistance to the earth, but at very high voltage and current. If this path to
the earth involves humans, serious disability may result, including
electrocution (i.e. death due to electric shock). Lightning may also damage
aeroplanes from intra-cloud and cloud-to-cloud flashes. Electrical
equipment and building structures are commonly subject to lightning
hazards. Lightning tends to strike the tallest object since they offer the
shortest distance from the clouds. A tree is a common natural path for
lightning.
Figure 11.4: Lightning is capable of producing high electric energy

Source: http://www.fplsafetyworld.com/travels/conductors.html
(h) Arcs and Sparks Hazards

With close proximity of conductors or contact of conductors to complete a
circuit, an electric arc can „jump‰ the gap between the conductors and
ignite combustible gases or dusts. When the electric arc is a discharge of
static electricity, it may be called a spark. A spark or arc may involve
relatively little or a great deal of power and is usually discharged into a
small space.
(i) Combustible and Explosive Materials

High currents through contaminated liquids may cause the contaminants to
expand rapidly and explode. This situation is particularly dangerous with
contaminated oil-filled circuit breakers or transformers. A poor match
between current and capacitors can cause an explosion. In each of these
cases, the conductor is not capable of carrying a current of such high
magnitude. Overheating from high currents can also lead to short circuits,
which in turn may generate fires or explosions.
(j) Insulation Failure

Degradation of insulation can result in a bare wire which may cause shock
to anyone coming in contact with it. Most insulation failures are caused by
environmental factors. These factors include the following:
(i) Direct sunlight or other sources of ultraviolet light, which can induce
gradual breakdown of plastic insulation material.
(ii) Repeated exposure to elevated temperatures, which can produce slow

but progressive degradation of insulation material.
(iii) Abrasive surfaces, which can result in erosion of the material strength
of the insulation.
(iv) Substance incompatibility with the atmosphere around the insulation

and the insulation material, which can induce chemical reactions.
Such reactions may include oxidation or dehydration of the insulation
and eventual breakdown.
(v) Animals such as rodents or insects chewing the insulation material,

leading to exposure of the wires within.
(k) Equipment Failure

The following are some of the more common types of equipment failure:
(i) Wet insulation can become a conductor and cause an electrical shock.
(ii) Portable tool defects can result in the deviceÊs housing carrying an
electric current.
(iii) Broken power lines carry high current and voltage and can cause
severe disabling shocks.
(iv) When equipment is not properly grounded or insulated, an

unshielded worker may receive a bad electrical shock.
Therefore, all electrical appliances that we buy for our homes or workplace must
comply with safety standards. There are various organisations which have
developed codes and standards on electrical appliance safety. These codes and
standards must be taken into consideration when choosing an electrical
appliance to ensure its safety. Among these codes and standards are:
ACTIVITY 11.1
For more information on electrical appliance standards, you may visit:

(a) http://www.nfpa.org
(b) http://www.sirim.my
11.3 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
SELF-CHECK 11.4
What must you do if you experience an electrical shock?
The severity of injury with electrical shock depends on how strong the electrical
current is, and how long the current has been flowing through the human body.
There are also other factors which influence the severity of injury such as the
body part involved and the frequency of exposure to the hazard.
Figure 11.5: Electrical shock may cause muscle contraction, weakness, unconsciousness,
severe burns, rapid heartbeat, paralysis of respiratory muscles and death
Source: http://www.fplsafetyworld.com/hurt/path_to_ground.html
The effects of electrical shock differ based on the person, the position of the
victim during the incident and other factors. Electrical shock can be the result of
either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) entering the human body.
As a result of electrical shock, the victim will not be able to control his muscles.
Prolonged contact with electric current will have more serious effects compared
to shorter contact period. High levels of alternating current (AC) will make the
heart beat rapidly and will subsequently render the heart ineffective at pumping
blood to vital organs in the body. The victim will experience unconsciousness,
weak lungs and diaphragm. Contact to electrical current exceeding 100mA may
cause ventricular fibrillation of the heart and death.
Electrical shock can cause the human heart and lungs to not function normally. If
a person experiences electrical shock, the victim must be moved from the place of
accident and given mouth-to-mouth or cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
The quicker the CPR is done, the better the chances of the victimÊs survival.
Figure 11.6 illustrates CPR being administered on a victim.
Figure 11.6: Administration of CPR
Apart from that, the victimÊs skin may burn due to electric arcs of high voltage. If
the victim experiences electrical shock while being at a high altitude, the victim
may fall unconscious, resulting in him falling down. This is even more dangerous
compared to the other electrical hazards just discussed.
11.4 DETECTION OF ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

There are many test equipment that can be used to verify electrical safety. A
circuit tester is an inexpensive piece of equipment with two wire leads capped by
probes and connected to a small bulb. Most circuit testers are capable of verifying
voltages ranging from 110 V to 220 V. This simple tester can ensure that power
has been turned off before electrical maintenance begins. The tester may also be
used to determine whether housings and other equipment parts are carrying
„live‰ current. If the bulb lights up, it means that there is current in the
equipment.
Figure 11.7: A circuit tester
A receptacle wiring tester is a device with two standard plug probes for insertion
into an ordinary 110 V outlet and a probe for the ground. Indicator lights show
an improperly wired receptacle (outlet). This tester will only reveal an incorrectly
wired outlet and correction steps must be taken to prevent electrical hazards.
Figure 11.8 shows a receptacle wiring tester.
Figure 11.8: A receptacle wiring tester
A continuity tester may be used to determine whether a conductor is properly

grounded or has a break in the circuit. Continuity is checked on circuits that are
disconnected from a power source. Continuity testers often have an alligator clip on
one end of a wire which is connected to the equipment being tested, and a bulb and
probe on the other end of the same wire. The unlit bulb of a continuity tester
indicates that the equipment is improperly grounded or there is a break in the
circuit. Figure 11.9 shows a continuity tester.
Figure 11.9: A continuity tester
ACTIVITY 11.2
For more information on test equipment that can be used to verify

electrical equipment safety, you may visit:
1. http://www.mytoolstore.com
2. http://www.professionalequipment.com
11.5 WAYS TO REDUCE ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

There are several methods which can be used to reduce electrical hazards such as
those listed in Table 11.2.
Table 11.2: Methods to Reduce Electrical Hazards
No. Methods to Reduce Electrical Hazards

1. Electrical system grounding
2. Bonding
3. Electrostatic neutralisers
4. Humidification
5. Fuses
6. Double insulation
7. Interlocks
8. Lightning hazard control
Now, let us take a look at these methods in detail.

(a) Electrical System Grounding

Grounding of electrical equipment is the primary method of reducing
electrical hazards. The purpose of grounding is to safeguard people from
electrical shocks, reduce the probability of a fire, and protect equipment
from damage. Grounding ensures a path to the earth for the flow of excess
current.
Electrical system grounding is achieved when one conductor of the circuit

is connected to the earth. Power surges and voltage changes are attenuated
and usually eliminated with proper system grounding.
(b) Bonding
Bonding is used to connect two pieces of equipment by a conductor.
Bonding can reduce potential differences between the equipment and thus
reduce the possibility of sparking.
(c) Humidification
As discussed earlier in this topic, humidification can be used as a
mechanism for reducing electrical static. Raising the humidity above 65
percent reduces charge accumulation. Antistatic materials have also been
used effectively to reduce electrical static hazards.
(d) Electrostatic Neutralisers

Electrostatic neutralisers ionise the air surrounding a charged surface to
provide a conductive path for the flow of charges. Radioactive neutralisers
include a radioactive element that emits positive particles to neutralise
collected negative electrical charges.
(e) Fuses
Fuses can also be used to prevent electrical hazards when there is a sudden
surge of electric current in a circuit. Fuses which are installed in electrical
appliances consist of a metal strip or wire that melts if a current above a
specific value is conducted through the metal. Melting the metal causes the
circuit to open at the fuse, thereby stopping the flow of current.
(f) Double Insulation

Double insulation is another means of increasing electrical equipment
safety. Most double-insulated tools have plastic nonconductive housings.
(g) Interlocks
Interlocks automatically break the circuit when an unsafe situation is
detected. Interlocks are usually used around high-voltage areas to keep
personnel from entering the area. Warning devices to alert personnel about
detected hazards may include warning labels and audible signals.
(h) Lightning Hazard Control

There are several methods to reduce lightning hazards, among which are
the following:
(i) Use lightning rods.
(ii) Avoid standing on high places or near tall objects.
(iii) Do not work near flammable materials during thunderstorms.
(iv) Make sure all electrical appliances are grounded properly.
(v) Wear safety or rubber boots when working outdoors and exposed to
lightning.
(vi) Do not use the telephone during an electrical storm.
(vii) Avoid using electrical appliances during an electrical storm.
(viii) Do not stand near open doors and windows during electrical storms.
11.6 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS SAFETY AND

PREVENTION PROGRAMME
There are 12 steps that can be taken to develop an electrical hazard safety and
prevention programme at your workplace such as the following:
(a) Provide all workers with adequate training in the identification and control
of the hazards associated with electrical energy in their workplace.
(b) Provide additional specialised electrical safety training to those working

with or around exposed components of electric circuits. This training
should include, but not be limited to, training in basic electrical theory,
proper safe work procedures, hazard awareness and identification, proper
use of personal protective equipment (PPE), proper lockout/tagout
procedures, first aid including CPR, and proper rescue procedures.
Employers may also provide periodic training as necessary.
(c) Develop and implement procedures to control hazardous electrical energy

that include lockout and tagout procedures. Ensure that workers follow
these procedures.
(d) Provide testing or detection equipment for those who work directly with
electrical energy so as to ensure their safety during the performance of their
assigned tasks.
(e) Ensure compliance with the National Electrical Code and the National
Electrical Safety Code.
(f) Conduct safety meetings regularly.
(g) Conduct scheduled and unscheduled safety inspections at work sites.
(h) Actively encourage all workers to participate in workplace safety.
(i) In a construction setting, conduct a job site survey before starting any work
to identify all electrical hazards, implement appropriate control measures,
and provide training to employees on how to identify electrical hazards.
(j) Ensure that proper personal protective equipment is available and worn by
workers where required.
(k) Conduct job hazard analyses of all tasks that may expose workers to the
hazards associated with electrical energy and implement control measures
that will adequately insulate and isolate workers from electrical energy.
(l) Identify potential electrical hazards and appropriate safety interventions

during the planning phase of construction or maintenance projects. This
planning should address the project from start to finish to ensure that
workers have the safest possible work environment.
x Electricity has many benefits but may also create hazards.
x Sources of electrical hazards include: contact with a bare wire carrying

current, improper wiring, working with electrical equipment in a damp
surrounding, static electricity discharge, using metal ladders, power source
not switched off, lighting strikes, arcs and sparks, combustive and explosive
materials, insulation failure, and equipment failure.
x Electrical hazards can be detected using a circuit tester, a receptacle wiring

tester or a continuity tester.
x Methods to reduce electrical hazards are: electrical system grounding,

bonding, electrostatic neutralisers, humidification, fuses, double insulation,
interlocks and lighting hazard control.
Fire detection system Fuel

Fire extinguisher Ignition
Fire triangle Oxygen
Flammability Spontaneous combustion
Essay Questions
1. Explain the complete steps of conducting mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or

cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) when trying to save someoneÊs who has
suffered electric shock.
2. Explain the meaning of the following terms:

(a) Lightning.
(b) Open ground.
3. Explain four strategies to develop an electrical hazard safety and prevention

programme at the workplace.
1. Electrical system grounding is a technique to reduce resistance of the

insulator.
2. Electrical shock in a wet environment is far more dangerous than a dry

environment.
3. Most industrial and domestic use of electricity is supplied by direct current

(DC).
4. A television antenna does not require electrical system grounding.
5. Raising the humidity level of the room above 65 percent helps to prevent
electrostatic shocks.
6. The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons with negative

charges.
Topic X Fire
Hazards
12
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the concept of fire hazards;
2. Explain the three elements of the Fire Triangle;
3. Analyse the sources of ignition which can lead to fire hazards;
4. Differentiate between the four types of fire detectors; and
5. Develop three methods and techniques of reducing fire hazards.
X INTRODUCTION
According to the fire statistics issued by the Fire and Rescue Department in
Malaysia, most fire cases occur due to causes such as human failure, absence of
proper fire prevention systems, usage of flammable materials, and intentional
burning. Fire often occurs at places such as processing plants and confined
spaces in factory buildings, residential houses, external equipment and
warehouses.
Fire not only causes loss of property, injuries and death, but also loss of time and
employment. Fire hazards can actually be prevented. This topic will discuss how
fire hazards occur and methods to control and prevent them.
180 X TOPIC 12 FIRE HAZARDS
12.1 DEFINITION OF FIRE HAZARDS
SELF-CHECK 12.1
Have you ever witnessed a burning house or car? Imagine how a fire
can occur. Will fire occur without a source of ignition such as an electric
current or a lit cigarette butt? Do you know that oxygen is an important
element to start a fire and keep it going?
Figure 12.1: The definition of fire hazards
Most fire cases occur as a result of human negligence in handling fuel and heat.
Fire, or combustion, is a chemical reaction between oxygen and a combustible
fuel. Combustion is the process where fire converts fuel and oxygen into energy,
usually in the form of heat. By-products of combustion include light and smoke.
For the reaction to start, a source of ignition, such as a spark or open flame, or a
sufficiently high temperature is needed. Given a sufficiently high temperature,
almost every substance will burn. The ignition temperature or combustion point
is the temperature at which a given fuel can burst into flames. Figure 12.2
illustrates the reaction.
Figure 12.2: The fire triangle

TOPIC 12 FIRE HAZARDS W 181
Based on the Fire Triangle, the three elements, i.e. fuel, oxygen and source of
ignition, must be present to start a fire. Without any of the three elements, there
would be no fire; such a condition would thus provide an opportunity to prevent
a fire. Fuel seems to be the easiest element to control in preventing it from
meeting the source of ignition and oxygen, as the sources of ignition are too
many and difficult to avoid. Table 12.1 lists the common sources of ignition at the
workplace.
Table 12.1: Sources of Ignition
Source %
Electrical (motor or engine wiring) 23
SmokersÊ material 18
Friction and shock 10
Extremely hot materials 8
Hot surfaces 7
Burners 7
Spark ignition 5
Self-ignition 4
Hot works (cutting, welding and riveting) 4
Exposure to fire (fire moving to other areas) 3
Explosives 3
Spark ignition from mechanical activities 2
Spillage of hot substances/liquids 2
Chemical reaction 1
Electrostatic discharge 1
Lightning strikes 1
Others 1
Do you know that 18% of fires are caused by smokers?

Figure 12.3: 18 percent of fires are caused by smokers
SELF-CHECK 12.2
Why is electricity considered the main source of fire hazards?
Chemical reactions may cause fire hazards, as shown in Figure 12.4.
Figure 12.4: Chemical reactions are an ignition source which can cause fire
Exothermic reactions in fuels or flammable materials may involve various

materials such as gases, vapours, flammable liquids and solids. Usually,
flammable liquids and solids will first convert into flammable vapours by heat.
The mixture of gases and vapours will then combine with oxygen in the air and
form a flammable mixture. When the flammable material is oxidised, it will
produce heat. If the combustion process results in a sudden increase in heat, it
will cause an explosion.
Figure 12.5: Follow the instructions when at a

petrol station as petrol is a highly flammable liquid
In the process of combustion, materials are broken down into basic elements.
Carbon is found in almost every flammable substance. When a substance burns,
carbon is released and then combined with oxygen that must be present to form
either carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide is produced when
there is more oxygen than the fire needs. It is not toxic, but it can be produced in
such volumes that it seriously reduces the concentration of oxygen in the air
surrounding the fire site. Carbon monoxide a colourless, odourless, deadly gas
is the result of incomplete combustion of a fuel. It is produced when there is
insufficient oxygen to efficiently burn the fuel present. In general, most fires have
insufficient oxygen and therefore produce large quantities of carbon monoxide.
Hydrocarbon gases such as methane and ethane have higher combustion heat
compared to coal or hydrocarbon liquids.
Hydrogen, found in most fuels, combines with oxygen to form water. Hydrogen
also generates higher combustion heat compared to other fuels. The ratio of
hydrogen to carbon is an important factor in any heat content. The higher the
ratio, the higher the heat content of a material is. Therefore, the higher the
hydrogen molecule content is relative to carbon in a fuel, the hotter the fuel
burning will be. Hydrogen is usually found in polymers and plastics. Fumes
produced by the burning of polymers and plastics are toxic and can be deadly.
Heat always flows from a high temperature area to a low temperature area. Fires
generate heat. Excess heat is then transferred to surrounding objects, which may
ignite. Heat transfer is accomplished by three means:
(a) Conduction, which is direct thermal energy transfer that enables heat to be
transferred through solid materials;
(b) Convection, which is heat transfer through the movement of hot gases. The
gases may be the direct products of the fire, the results of chemical
reactions, or additional gases brought to the fire by the movement of air
and heated at the fire surfaces by conduction;
(c) Radiation, which is the electromagnetic wave transfer of heat to a solid.
12.1.1 Spontaneous Combustion

Spontaneous combustion is a chemical oxidisation process in an exothermic
reaction which produces heat. It is a phenomenon which is quite rare. Normally,
when the temperature of a flammable material is below its ignition temperature,
no combustion will occur. But when the material is degraded through the process
of oxidisation, it will produce heat. The temperature will increase abruptly,
causing self-ignition, which leads to combustion. Spontaneous combustion often
occurs to materials containing animal and vegetable oils during processing,
storage and transport. For example, during the storage of flour or nut husks, the
organic compounds will decompose and, as they degrade, they release methane
gas, an excellent fuel. The degradation process produces heat. Once the ignition
temperature is reached, spontaneous combustion will take place, causing fire to
erupt. The situation will be even worse if the materials are stored when they are
still hot.
12.1.2 Flammability Limit

Although the three elements of the Fire Triangle are present, a fire will not
necessarily occur. The combination of the flammable material and air only in the
right proportions will propagate a fire. In other words, if the mixture is too lean
(beyond its lower flammability limit or LFL), it will not catch fire, and if the
mixture is too rich (above its upper flammability limit or UFL), it also will not
burn. Therefore, combustion will only occur when the mixture of flammable
material and air is between the LFL and the UFL. Table 12.2 illustrates the LFL
and the UFL of several chemical substances.
Table 12.2: The Range of Flammability Limit of Selected Fuels
Fuel LFL (% ip/ip) UFL (% ip/ip)

Ammonia 15 28
Acetylene 2.6 100
Benzene 1.4 8.0
Butane 1.8 8.4
Ethane 3.0 12.4
Methane 5.0 15.0
Toluene 1.3 7.0
12.2 CLASSES OF FIRE

There are five classes of fire. To know more, refer to Figure 12.6.
Figure 12.6: The five classes of fire

ACTIVITY 12.1
Apart from the above classification, there are also other techniques that
can be used to determine classes of fire. For more information, visit the
following website:
http://www.nfpa.org
12.3 FIRE DANGER TO HUMANS
SELF-CHECK 12.3
Fire fumes are dangerous, but how damaging can they be? What will
happen if you inhale carbon monoxide? What about nitrogen dioxide?
When a fire occurs, it produces four things: fire, heat, fumes and smoke. Most
people die in fires from suffocating or breathing smoke and toxic fumes, as well
as from exposure to heat and flame. The composition of toxic fumes from the fire
depends on the chemical composition and structure of the burning fuel, oxygen
supply and burning temperature.
Most fuels contain carbon. Thus, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide will be
released in a fire. Carbon dioxide is produced when there is more oxygen than
the fire needs. It can be produced in such volumes that it seriously reduces the
concentration of oxygen in the air surrounding the fire site. Carbon monoxide is
the result of incomplete combustion of a fuel. It is very hazardous as it inhibits
the blood's capacity to carry oxygen and interferes with the exchange of oxygen
in the blood. Even in low concentrations, carbon monoxide can be lethal.
Sometimes, there are other toxic fumes such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulphide, and ammonia in the air, depending
on the elements of the burning fuel. Table 12.3 illustrates the products of
combustion.
Table 12.3: Products of Combustion
Product Fuel Pathology

Acrolein Cellulose, fatty substances, Highly toxic irritant to
woods and paints. eyes and respiratory
system.
Ammonia (NH3) Wool, silk, nylon, Toxic irritant to eyes and
melamine and refrigerants. respiratory system.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) All carbon and organic Not toxic but depletes
compounds. available oxygen.
Carbon monoxide (CO) All carbon and organic Can be deadly.

compounds.
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) Wool, silk, nylon, paper, Quite lethal.
polyurethane, rubber,
leather, plastic and wood.
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) Sulphur-containing Highly toxic gas.
compounds, rubber and
crude oil.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Cellulose nitrate, celluloid, Lung irritant, causing
textiles, and other nitrogen death or damage.
oxides.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Sulphur and sulphur- Toxic irritant.

containing compounds.
ACTIVITY 12.2
Visit http://burnsurvivor.com/burn_types.html for more information

on the effects of fire hazards on humans and how to treat them.
12.4 DETECTION OF FIRE HAZARDS

A protection system can be operated effectively through an early fire detection
system and the implementation of preventive measures. The main purpose of fire
detection is to reduce injuries and damage to properties. Early detection allows
factory operators to follow the prevention and control procedures such as closing
a fuel leakage, activating the fire or toxic protection system, and facilitating the
emergency action plan to save workers.
There are various fire detection systems in the market. Selecting a system
depends on the type of the fire which might occur. Figure 12.7 lists some of these
systems that can be found in the market.
Figure 12.7: Fire detection systems that can be found in the market
There are several important features that must be taken into consideration when
choosing a fire detection system. Table 12.4 shows some of the features.
Table: 12.4: Feature that Must be Taken into Consideration When Choosing a Fire
Detection System
No Feature to Consider
1. Accuracy: Shows an accurate value within an acceptable margin of error.
2. Stability: Long-term stability and accuracy over extended periods at
different temperature and humidity levels.
3. Repeatability: Provides same measurement on different occasions.
4. Sensitivity: Minimum value of detection.
5. Response time: Time elapsed between exposure and full detection.
6. Recovery time: Time required by the detector to show a value after a
sudden decrease or increase in value.
7. Selection of type of gas for detection: Ability to separately measure the
concentration of a specific gas without the interference of other gases.
8. Self-safety: Gas detector in a flammable environment must not be a source
of ignition.
9. Easy to determine measurement, use and maintain: An effective detector is
one that is easy to determine measurement, use and maintain.
10. Reliability: Capable of measuring the mean time between failures (MTBF),
fail-safe and fail-deadly functions.
The type of fire detection system to be used depends on the type of the potential
fire. Other considerations include the physical environment in which the system
is installed and the cost of purchasing such a system. A good way of installing
fire sensors is to consider the distance between them such that they are not too
far apart to quickly detect any fire breakouts. Other considerations include the
physical arrangement of the area, the starting point of fire and the expected wind
movement.
The location of an alarm system will depend on the expected location of the fire,
the location of trained personnel and the nature of the surrounding. Audible
alarms such as horns and bells are very suitable for noisy working areas. For very
noisy workplaces, alarms with lights are often used. Alarms must be placed at
locations where fire might break out and close to areas often visited by personnel
trained in fire control. Figure 12.8 shows an example of an audible alarm, a bell.
Figure 12.8: An audible alarm such as a bell is suitable to be used in fire detection systems
Both the fire detection device and alarm must be combined together to form a
control system which controls the fire detection system and activates the
emergency alarm. Electricity must be supplied to the control system so that the
fire detection system and alarm will function properly. Fire control systems at
workplaces will normally activate the fire protection system and shut off critical
operations at the place of the incident.
Fire detection systems, alarms and fire control systems must be selected based on
manual or automatic response requirements. Alarm systems range from the most
basic type to the sophisticated automatic type which can be connected to the
closest fire station. Effective safety steps can be taken if fire safety officers are
able to identify the location of the fire, the amount of hazardous materials
involved, the situation of the fire and the steps which can be taken before the
arrival of the fire service to the place of incident.
ACTIVITY 12.3
Look around your workplace. Identify where the fire detectors are
placed.
12.5 REDUCING FIRE HAZARDS

The best way to reduce fires is to prevent them. A major cause of industrial fires
is hot, poorly insulated machinery and processes. One means of reducing a fire
hazard is the isolation of the three triangle elements: fuel, oxygen and heat. In the
case of fluids, closing a valve may effectively cut off the fuel supply.
Fires may also be prevented by proper storage of flammable liquids. There are
three ways to store flammable liquids as shown in Table 12.5.
Table 12.5: Three Ways to Store Flammable Liquids
No Ways to Store Flammable Liquids

1. In flame-resistant buildings that are isolated from places where people work.
Proper drainage and ventilation should be provided for such buildings.
2. In tanks below ground level.
3. On the first floor of multi-storey buildings.
Substituting flammable materials with less flammable ones is another effective

technique for fire reduction. For example, concentrated hydrochloric acid used in
processing activities can be substituted with tetrachloride carbon which is less
dangerous and small atom polymers can be substituted with larger polymer
pallet. Apart from that, for dangerous substances that cannot be substituted with
other substances, fire reduction can be achieved by producing them at the
workplace so as to prevent accidents during transportation or storage. Raw
materials used to produce dangerous or highly flammable products should be
non-combustible or hardly flammable so that they will be safer for transport. For
example, chlorine can be produced locally as it is highly toxic, unstable, difficult
to store and transport.
Furthermore, ignition sources around the workplace must also be eliminated or

isolated from fuels. Listed in Table 12.6 are some steps to follow.
Table 12.6: Steps to Eliminate Ignition Sources
No How to Eliminate Ignition Sources

1. Prohibit smoking near any possible fuels.
2. Store fuels away from areas where electrical sparks from equipment, wiring or
lightning may occur.
3. Keep fuels separate from areas where there are open flames. These may include
welding torches, heating elements, or furnaces.
4. Isolate fuels from tools or equipment that may produce mechanical or static sparks.
Other strategies for reducing the risk of fires are as follows:
(a) Clean up spills of flammable liquids as soon as they occur.
(b) Keep work areas free from extra supplies of flammable materials (e.g.,
paper, wood, and so on). Have only what is needed on hand with the
remaining inventory properly stored.
(c) Run electrical cords along walls rather than across aisles or areas with
heavy human traffic. Cords that are walked on can become frayed and
dangerous.
(d) Turn off the power and completely de-energise equipment before
conducting maintenance procedures.
(e) Do not use spark- or friction-prone tools near combustible materials.
(f) Routinely test fire extinguishers.

12.6 CHOOSING FIRE EXTINGUISHING

EQUIPMENT
SELF-CHECK 12.4
As mentioned earlier, fires can be classified into four different types

A, B, C and D. Failing to choose the right fire extinguisher may
endanger lives. Do you know how to choose a fire extinguisher which is
suitable for wood fires? How about burning grease, fire caused by
electric current, or flammable metals such as potassium?
In larger or isolated industrial facilities, the employees themselves may form fire
fighting teams or fire brigades consisting of trained personnel. Nevertheless,
forming a fire brigade is not an easy task and can be quite expensive. Therefore, a
wise and economical step will be to create a fire extinguishing system at the
workplace.
This system can include various fire extinguishing equipment depending on the
type of fire anticipated and the cost involved. Generally, there are four methods
of extinguishing fires, namely:
(a) Cooling.
(b) Reducing fuel by cooling, diluting, smothering and shielding.
(c) Reducing oxygen by using foam.
(d) Breaking the chain of fire reaction by using chemicals.
Table 12.7 illustrates the different types of fire extinguishers which are suitable
for the corresponding types of fire.
Table 12.7: Fire Extinguishers According to Fire Class
Fire Class Type of Fuel Example Extinguishing Agents

A Typical fuel Wood, paper, textile Water, dry chemical
and plastic. and foam
B Flammable liquid Gasoline, oil, grease CO2, dry chemical,
and gas and liquefied foam and halone
petroleum gas.
C Electrical appliances Electrical motors CO2, dry chemical
in operation and halone
D Flammable metals Magnesium, sodium Dry chemical powder
and potassium.
Water-based extinguishers are the most common extinguishers at the workplace.

Not only are they cheap and easily available, but also not toxic and would not
produce toxic substances due to fire. They are also capable of absorbing heat
effectively and extinguishing fire. However, using water-based extinguishers
have some negative effects, among which is the fact that it may react with certain
hazardous materials and produce toxic gases. Furthermore, water cannot be used
to put out fire caused by electric sparks, as it is an electrical conductor and might
endanger the lives of the rescuers. Water-based fire extinguishers include fire
brigade hydrants and hoses, and water sprinklers in buildings. Building
designers are required to provide an effective fire extinguishing system in all
building designs. Fire hydrants and hoses are normally placed in buildings. Such
a system provide hoses with high water pressure to combat fire.
Apart from that, automatic permanent sprinklers installed in buildings can react
quickly when a fire breaks out and prevent it from spreading. This system
consists of sprinkler heads that are classified according to activation
temperatures and times during fire incidents. Water sprinklers must be designed
so that their heads are supplied with water at the same pressure. Therefore, they
require balanced piping by using pipes of the same shape for all sprinkler heads.
There are also portable fire extinguishers which are classified according to the
types of fire they act on. These extinguishers can be seen around homes and
workplaces. These cylinder-shaped extinguishers, which are normally hung on
walls, include extinguishers which contain sodium bicarbonate and calcium
bicarbonate both dry chemical agents. They serve to break the progress of fires.
The bicarbonate chemical agent will release carbon dioxide when heated by the
fire. The released gas will snuff out the fire, while the dry powder covers the
burning liquid and cools it down. Meanwhile, the powder also reduces the
transfer of heat between the liquid and fire. Figure 12.9 illustrates a fire
extinguisher often seen at the workplace.
Figure 12.9: You will often see this type of fire extinguisher around your workplace
Source: http://search.msn.com/images/results.aspx?q=fire+&first=41&count=20&size
=fp&color=both&FORM=PEIR2
Employers and building owners are responsible for choosing suitable fire
extinguishers based on the anticipated type of fire that may occur. The correct
choice is important to ensure that fire can be extinguished if it happens. In
addition, employers and building owners are also responsible for ensuring that
all fire extinguishers are in good working condition, regularly maintained, and
can be used effectively in the event of an emergency. Fire drills must also be
conducted regularly so that the employees or building occupants know how to
use them when needed.
ACTIVITY 12.4
Here is one way to enhance your understanding of the use of fire

extinguishers: list the fire extinguishers installed at your workplace and
indicate where they are located.
12.7 FIRE SAFETY PROGRAMME

As the saying goes, prevention is better than cure. This principle is certainly valid
in fire safety management. At the beginning of this course, we discussed the
basic concepts of prevention applied in design, education and enforcement. The
same concepts apply in a fire safety programme. Section 15 of the Occupational
Safety and Health Act 1994 requires employers to look after the safety, health and
well-being of their employees.
There are four components that must be included in the programme to ensure its
effectiveness: assessment, planning, awareness and prevention, and response.
Figure 12.10 illustrates these four main components.
Figure 12.10: Fire safety programme
To effectively develop, implement, and maintain a comprehensive fire safety

programme, the first step is to establish a cross-functional fire safety committee.
By „cross functional‰, we mean that it should have members from all the
departments or functional units within the organisation. It should also have at
least one high-level manager to facilitate smooth implementation, as well as
represent the managementÊs support.
12.7.1 Assessment
Assessment of the workplace for fire hazards should be an ongoing exercise.
Although the organisationÊs safety and health professionals will have primary
responsibility for this, committee members should also involve the departments
that they represent in ensuring that the programme is effective. Members of the
safety committee should be trained in the fundamentals of fire hazard
assessment by the safety and health professionals. They should then pass this
knowledge on to employees in their departments, units and teams so that they

can participate in the assessment process. This is because they are the only ones
who would truly understand where the risks are, and could help identify all the
potential hazards at their workplace.
12.7.2 Planning
The provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 requires that an
organisationÊs emergency fire safety plan has at least the following components:
(a) Emergency escapes procedures and routes;
(b) Critical shutdown procedures;
(c) Employee headcount procedures;
(d) Rescue and medical procedures;
(e) Procedures for reporting fires and emergencies; and
(f) Important contact personnel for additional information.
Once the plan is in place, it should be reviewed at least annually and updated as
necessary.
12.7.3 Awareness and Prevention

Once the fire safety plan has been drawn up and endorsed by the senior
management, it is time to get all employees familiarised with the plan. They
should receive awareness training so that they understand their roles in carrying
out the emergency plan. To monitor whether the training is effective, the fire
safety committee should evaluate the training programme periodically, using
guidelines such as the following:
(a) Do all employees know their roles in implementing the emergency plan?
(b) How are employees with disabilities provided for?
(c) Do all employees understand the escape plans? Evacuation procedures?
(d) Do all new and temporary employees receive training?
(e) Are all employees informed when the plan is revised?
(f) Is a comprehensive fire drill undertaken at least once each year?
(g) Are all employees familiar with the sound of the alarm system?
(h) Is the alarm system checked periodically?

(i) Are sufficient fire detection devices in place? Are they tested periodically?
(j) Do all employees know the most likely causes of fires at the workplace?
12.7.4 Response
Accidents can happen in even the most heavily protected organisations.
Therefore, it is important that employees understand the emergency plan and be
familiar about how to respond correctly when accidents happen.
People do not always think clearly in an emergency situation. They will,

however, do what they have learned through practice. Thus, one of the fire safety
committeeÊs most important responsibilities is to arrange periodic drills so that
employees will be prepared to respond properly during emergencies.
ACTIVITY 12.5
To help you understand better, draw a simple diagram of the activities
that can be included in a fire safety programme.
x A fire will exist if there is adequate supply of oxygen, fuel, and a source of
ignition.
x Based on the Fire Triangle, the three elements, i.e. fuel, oxygen and source of
ignition must be present to start a fire.
x Fire detection systems that can be found in the market are smoke sensors, gas
detectors, fire detectors and heat detectors.
x Ten important features to be taken into consideration when choosing a fire

detection system are: accuracy; stability; repeatability; sensitivity; response
time; recovery time; selection of type of gas for detection; self-safety; easy to
determine measurement, usability and maintenance; and reliability.
x The four main components that must be included in a fire safety programme
are assessment; planning; awareness and prevention; and response.
Fire detection system Fuel

Fire extinguisher Ignition
Fire triangle Oxygen
Flammability Spontaneous combustion
Essay Questions
1. Where can carbon be found in a combustion process?
2. Explain the difference between carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
3.
Lower Flammability Unit Upper Flammability Unit

Fuel
(LFL) (%ip/ip) (UFL) (%ip/ip)
Ammonia 15 28
Acetylene 2.6 100
Benzene 1.4 8.0
Butane 1.8 8.4
Ethane 3.0 12.4
Methane 5.0 15.0
Toluene 1.3 7.0
Based on the above table, which fuel has a higher risk of causing fire?
4. List three elements found in the Fire Triangle.
5. Explain three techniques of heat transfer.
6. Explain three strategies to prevent and reduce fire hazards at the workplace.
1. Carbon is an element in the Fire Triangle.
2. The products of combustion are in the form of light.
3. Chemical reactions break down chemical compounds into simpler

substances.
4. Exothermic reaction creates light.
5. Carbon monoxide is a lethal, colourless and odourless gas.

Topic X Noise and
Vibration
13 Hazards
LEARNING OUTCOMES
30 Identify the characteristics of sound;
2. Differentiate the level of noise and vibration hazards;
3. Assess the condition of noise hazards; and
4. Create strategies to control noise and vibration hazards.
X INTRODUCTION
Noise hazards are increasingly receiving the attention of safety and health
professionals today. Noise causes two safety and health-related problems. The
first is loss of concentration on the task being performed, thus causing workplace
accidents. The second is hearing loss. Exposure to noises exceeding the permitted
level may cause permanent hearing damage.
13.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND

Before we look at noise pollution, let us discuss first how sound is created. Refer
to Figure 13.1 to understand what is meant by sound.
SELF-CHECK 13.1
How is a sound wave created? Is there any relation between sound and
vibration?
TOPIC 13 NOISE AND VIBRATION HAZARDS W 201
Figure 13.1: The definition of sound
Sound is a change in air pressure. However, it can also be a change in water

pressure or any other pressure-sensitive medium. Music is sound which is nice to
listen to. Noise, on the other hand, is unwanted sound. Consequently, the
difference between noise and sound is in the perception of the person hearing it.
Loud rock music may be considered „sound‰ by a rock fan but „noise‰ by a
person trying to pray.
Sound and vibration are very similar. Sound typically relates to a sensation that
is perceived by the inner ear as hearing. Vibration, on the other hand, may be
inaudible and is perceived through the sense of touch. Sound can occur in any
medium that has both mass and elasticity such as air, water, and so on.
Noise and vibration are often associated with the process of drilling rocks and
concrete. Although technology has helped to design air compressors and drills
which can reduce the workerÊs exposure to noise and vibration, the level of
exposure to noise remains above 90dBA.
The unit of measurement used for discussing the level of sound and,
correspondingly, what noise levels are hazardous is the decibel, or one-tenth of a
bel. One decibel represents the smallest difference in the level of sound that can
be perceived by the human ear. The weakest sound that can be heard by a
healthy human ear in a quiet setting is known as the threshold of hearing
(10dBA). The maximum level of sound that can be perceived without
experiencing pain is known as the threshold of pain (140dBA).
202 X TOPIC 13 NOISE AND VIBRATION HAZARDS
SELF-CHECK 13.2
Excessive noise level which can damage the inner ear is the very
definition of noise pollution. State some sources of noise pollution.
13.2 HAZARD LEVELS AND RISKS

Figure 13.2 shows the effect of being exposed to excessive noise.
Figure 13.2: Exposure to excessive noise for an extended period can damage the inner ear
The fundamental hazard associated with excessive noise is hearing loss.

Exposure to excessive noise levels for an extended period can damage the inner
ear so that the ability to hear high-frequency sound is diminished or lost
altogether. Additional exposure can increase the damage until even lower
frequency sounds cannot be heard.
Although researches on the effects of noise are still incomplete, they show that
excessive noise can cause the heart to beat faster, increasing blood pressure and
limiting blood flow. This additional pressure increases the burden of the heart
and may cause heart diseases.
A number of different factors affect the risk of hearing loss associated with
exposure to excessive noise. The most important of these are listed in Figure 13.3.
Figure 13.3: Factors that can increase the risk of hearing loss
Of these various factors, the most critical are the sound level, frequency,
duration, and distribution of noise. The unprotected human ear is at risk when
exposed to sound levels exceeding 115dBA. Exposure to sound levels below
80dBA is generally considered safe. Prolonged exposure to noise levels higher
than 80dBA should be minimised through the use of appropriate personal
protective devices.
SELF-CHECK 13.3
What other factors are there, apart from those stated above, which bring
the risk of hearing loss?
13.2.1 Standards and Regulations

The primary sources of standards and regulations relating to noise hazards are
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI). OSHA regulations require the
implementation of hearing conservation programmes under certain conditions.
OSHAÊs regulations should be considered as minimum standards. ANSIÊs
standard provides a way to determine the effectiveness of hearing conservation
programmes such as those required by OSHA. The ANSI standard and OSHA
regulations are discussed in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1: ANSI Standards and OSHA Regulations
ANSI Standards OSHA Regulations

In 1991, the American National Standards In 1983, OSHA made the Hearing
Institute (ANSI) published ANSI Conservation Amendment to OSHA 29
Standard S12.131991. Titled „Evaluation C.F.R.1910.95 which requires employers
of Hearing Conservation Programs‰, this to conduct hearing programmes at
standard was designed to help safety and workplaces where the noise level is or
health professionals determine if hearing exceeds an eight hour time-weighted
conservation programmes work as they average of 85dBA.
are intended.
Federal regulations require that Employers are required to apply the

employees be protected from excessive hearing conservation procedures at
noise in the workplace. However, they workplaces where the level of noise
provide no methodology for determining exceeds a time-weighted average of
the effectiveness of hearing conservation 90dBA. They are also required to provide
programmes. The primary reason for the personal protective equipment to workers
development of ANSI S12.131991 was who show signs of hearing loss,
that conservation programmes were not regardless of the noise level at the
actually protecting employees but were workplace. Apart from noise level, OSHA
only recording their steadily declining also takes into account the exposure time.
hearing ability.
The working group that developed the

standard used audiometric database
analysis (ADBA) to identify procedures
for measuring variability in hearing
threshold levels.
13.3 IDENTIFYING AND ASSESSING

HAZARDOUS NOISE CONDITIONS
SELF-CHECK 13.4
How can noise level be measured?

Identifying and assessing hazardous noise conditions in the workplace involve

the activities listed in Figure 13.4.
Figure 13.4: Four methods of identifying and assessing hazardous noise conditions
13.3.1 Noise Surveys

Conducting noise surveys involves measuring noise levels at different locations
in the workplace. The devices that are most widely used to measure noise levels
are sound level meters and dosimeters. A sound level meter produces an
immediate reading that represents the noise level at a specific instance in time.
A dosimeter provides a time-weighted average over a period of time such as one

complete work shift. The dosimeter is the most widely used device because it
measures total exposure, which is what OSHA and ANSI standards specify.
Figure 13.5: A dosimeter is a device used to measure noise levels

Source: http://www.safetyinstrumentati....com/images/NoiseDosimeter.jpg
13.3.2 Audiometric Testing

Audiometric testing measures the hearing threshold of employees. Tests
conducted according to ANSI S12.13 can detect changes in the hearing threshold
of the employee. A negative change represents hearing loss within a given
frequency range.
13.3.3 Record Keeping

All forms should be completed and kept on file to allow for subsequent
comparisons. It is also important to retain records containing a workerÊs
employment history, including all past positions and the work conditions in
those positions.
13.3.4 Follow-up
According to Breisch:
A significant weakness related to audiometric control at the workplace is the

failure of employers to take action at the earliest stage to monitor hearing loss
due to noise.
Hearing loss can occur without producing any evidence of physiological damage.
Therefore, it is important to follow up on even the slightest evidence of a change
in an employeeÊs hearing threshold.
13.4 NOISE CONTROL STRATEGIES

Noise can be reduced by engineering and/or administrative controls applied to
one or more of these components. The most desirable noise controls are those
that reduce noise at the source. The second priority is to reduce noise along its
path. The last resort is noise reduction at the receiver end, using personal
protective devices. The last approach should never be substituted for the other
two approaches.
13.4.1 Engineering Controls

Engineering controls are steps taken to reduce the sound level at the source or
within the hearing zone of the workers. These controls focus primarily on the
noise rather than the employees who are exposed to it. Table 13.2 presents some
examples of engineering controls.
Table 13.2: Examples of Engineering Controls
No. Example of Engineering Controls

1. Replacement or adjustment of worn, loose, or unbalanced parts of machines.
2. Substitution of larger, slower machines for smaller, faster ones.
3. Substitution of hydraulic presses for mechanical presses.
4. Substitution of belt drives for gears.
5. Substitution of compression riveting for impact riveting.
6. Substitution of welding for riveting.
13.4.2 Administrative Controls

There are many operations in which the exposure of employees to noise can be
controlled administratively, that is, production schedules can simply be changed
or jobs can be rotated so that exposure periods are reduced. This includes such
measures as transferring employees from a job location with a high noise level to
a job location with a lower one if this procedure would make the employeeÊs
daily noise exposure acceptable.
13.4.3 Hearing Protection Devices

In addition to engineering and administrative controls, employees should be
required to use appropriate hearing protection devices (HPDs). The following are
some HPDs which are widely used:
(a) Enclosures
(b) Ear plugs
(c) Superaural caps
(d) Earmuffs
SELF-CHECK 13.5
Can a worker be given a hearing protection device without identifying
and assessing first the noise hazard to which he is exposed? Why?
13.5 VIBRATION HAZARDS

Vibration hazards are closely associated with noise hazards because tools that
produce vibration typically also produce excessive levels of noise. The strategies
for protecting employees against the noise associated with vibrating tools are the
same as those presented so far in this topic. This section focuses on other safety
and health hazards associated with vibration.
The types of injuries associated with vibration depend on its source. For example,
workers who operate heavy equipment often experience vibration over the whole
body. This can lead to problems ranging from motion sickness to spinal injury.
However, the most common vibration-related problem is known as hand-arm
vibration syndrome or HAV.
This condition, which is a form of ReynaudÊs Syndrome, has struck an alarming

number of workers who used vibrating power tools all day long as part of their
jobs. For HAV sufferers, the sensations in their hands are more than just minor,
temporary discomfort. They are symptoms of the potentially irreversible damage
their nerves and blood vessels have suffered. As the condition progresses, it takes
less and less exposure to vibration or cold to trigger the symptoms, and the
symptoms themselves become more severe and crippling.
13.6 INJURY PREVENTION STRATEGIES

Modern safety and health professionals must know how to prevent vibration-
related injuries. Prevention is especially important with HAV because the disease
is thought to be irreversible. This does not mean that HAV cannot be treated, but
the treatments developed to date can only reduce the symptoms. They do not
cure the disease. Figure 13.6 illustrates preventive strategies which can be used
by safety and health professionals in any company regardless of its size.
Figure 13.6: Injury prevention strategies
x Hearing loss is a main concern for safety and health practitioners.
x However, hearing loss is not the only detrimental effect of excessive noise.
x Noise can also cause communication, isolation and productivity problems.
x Vibration hazards affect workers who use tools that produce vibration in
their work.
x Vibration can cause damage to the nerves and blood vessels.
x It is the responsibility of employers with the assistance of the safety and

health officers to create and implement a policy which can reduce workersÊ
exposure to noise and vibration hazards.
Audiometric testing Noise

Dosimeter Superaural caps
Hand-arm Vibration Syndrome (HAV) Vibration
Hearing Protection Devices (HPD)
Essay Questions
1. Explain briefly the difference between noise and vibration.
2. State four techniques to identify and assess hazardous noise conditions at the
workplace.
3. Continuous exposure to noise is dangerous for workers. As a safety and

health officer, explain three ways of controlling noise at the workplace.
4. Prevention is better than cure. Explain three strategies to prevent vibration

hazards at the workplace.
1. Sound can be produced by any change in water pressure or any medium

sensitive to pressure.
2. The unit of measurement used when discussing the level of sound is the
megahertz.
3. The maximum level of sound that can be perceived without experiencing

pain is 140dBA.
4. Noise hazards cannot be linked to heart disease.
5. The most common vibration-related problem is known as hand-arm vibration

syndrome.
6. Replacement or adjustment of worn, loose, or unbalanced parts of machines

is a good form of administrative control.
7. The device used to measure noise levels is known as the dosimeter.

Topic X The Legal
14 Aspects of
Occupational
Safety and
Health
LEARNING OUTCOMES
30 Identify the legal aspects in occupational safety and health;
2. Explain the four objectives of Act 514;
3. Analyse the important provisions in Act 514; and
4. Establish a safety and health committee at the workplace.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic discusses the legal aspects of occupational safety and health. The latest
Act on workplace safety and health is the Occupational Safety and Health Act
1994, Act No. 514. Safety and health professionals must adhere to Act 514 in
order to ensure a healthy and safe workplace for workers.
TOPIC 14 THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH W 213
14.1 LEGAL STRUCTURE
SELF-CHECK 14.1
Law and law enforcement are important to maintain a just environment.

The Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (Act 514) was promulgated
by the Malaysian Government to ensure that workers remain protected.
There are three important legal structures in occupational safety and
health. What are these structures? How does Act 514 play its role?
The Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 consists of three important
structures, that is, the Act, regulations and code of practice. Figure 14.1 explains
these structures.
Figure 14.1: The Act, regulations and code of practice are three important
structures of the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994
14.2 PRINCIPLES OF THE OCCUPATIONAL

SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT 1994 (ACT
514)
Act 514 is based on a self-regulation concept which implies that those who create
risks and work with risks are responsible for ensuring safety and health at the
workplace. People who create risks are employers while those who work with
risks are the employees.
214 X TOPIC 14 THE LEGAL ASPECTS OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
14.3 OBJECTIVES OF ACT 514

Act 514 has four main objectives, namely:
14.4 APPLICATION OF THE ACT

This Act shall apply throughout Malaysia to the industries specified in Figure 14.2.
Figure 14.2: The 10 industries specified in Act 514

Although Act 514 applies to all industries in Malaysia, it does not apply to the
two categories shown in Figure 14.3.
Figure 14.3: The two industries which are not subject to Act 514
14.5 IMPORTANT PROVISIONS IN ACT 514

The following are some of the important provisions in Act 514:
(a) The general duties of employers and self-employed persons, occupiers of

place of work, employees, designers, formulators, manufacturers and
suppliers and labour unions.
(b) Medical surveillance.
(c) Safety and health officers.
(d) Safety and health committee.
SELF-CHECK 14.2
By now, you should have known that the party that creates risks is the
employer while the party that faces the risks are the employees. Now try
to explain what employers should do to protect their employees from
hazards. Is the role of the employer limited to implementing a safe work
system? What if the employees find many improper wiring at the
workplace? Can employers dismiss an employee for reporting such
incidents to members of the Occupational Safety and Health Committee?
14.5.1 General Duties

(a) Employers and Self-employed Persons
Every employer and every self-employed person must adhere to Act 514 to
ensure the safety, health and welfare of all employees at work. Their duties
are as follows:
(i) The provision and maintenance of plant and systems of work that are,
as far as is practicable, safe and without risks to health.
(ii) Making arrangements for ensuring safety and absence of risks to

health in connection with the use or operation, handling, storage and
transport of plant and substances.
(iii) Providing information, instruction, training and supervision to

employees.
(iv) Ensuring that the access to and exit from the place of work are safe
and without risks.
(v) The provision and maintenance of a work environment that is safe

and without risks to health.
(vi) To prepare and revise a written statement of the general policy with
respect to the safety and health at work from time to time.
(vii) To ensure that he and other persons not being his employees are safe
and not exposed to risks to their safety or health due to the conduct of
his undertaking by giving the prescribed information on such aspects
of the manner in which he conducts his undertaking as might affect
their safety or health.
(viii) To provide personal protective equipment (PPE) to workers who need

them without any charges for the PPE provided.
(ix) To establish a safety and health committee at the workplace.
(x) To cooperate with the safety and health committee in ensuring the
safety and health of employees.
(xi) Not to discriminate any employee by way of dismissal, causing injury

or demotion if the employee:
Makes a complaint about a matter which he considers is not safe

or is a risk to health.
Is a member of a safety and health committee at the workplace.
Exercises any of his functions as a member of the safety and health

committee at the workplace.
(xii) To report any accident, dangerous incident, occupational poisoning or

sickness to the Department of Occupational Safety and Health.
(xiii) To assist the officer of the Department of Occupational Safety and

Health during inspections.
Figure 14.4: Employers must provide information on workplace safety

Source: http://claybennett.com/images/...hivetoons/workplace_safety.jpg
(b) Workplace Occupiers

To ensure that other persons at the premises are safe and without risks to
health by:
(i) Ensuring that the premises are safe.
(ii) Ensuring that all access to and exit from the premises are safe.
(iii) Ensuring that the plant and all the substances in the premises are safe
and without health risks.
(iv) Employing a competent person to act as a safety and health officer at

the place of work.
(c) Employees
(i) To cooperate with the employers in complying with Act 514.
(ii) To comply with any instructions or measures on occupational safety

and health at the workplace.
(iii) To use the personal protective equipment (PPE) supplied by the

employer to prevent risks to health.
(iv) Not to misuse or interfere with anything provided or done by the employer
in the interests of safety, health and welfare of employees.
(d) Designers, Manufacturers, Formulators and Suppliers

It shall be the duty of the person who designs, manufactures, imports or
supplies any plant for use at work:
(i) To ensure that the plant is so designed and constructed as to be safe

and without risks to health when properly used.
(ii) To carry out testing and examination on the plant.
(iii) To secure information on the plant so that it will be safe and without
risks to health.
(iv) From time to time, carry out any necessary research with a view to the
discovery and the elimination or minimisation of any risk to safety or
health, to which the design or plant may give rise.
(v) To ensure that nothing about the way in which it is erected or

installed makes it unsafe or a risk to health when properly used.
It shall be the duty of a person who formulates, manufactures, imports or

supplies any substance for use at work:
(i) To ensure that the substance is safe and without risks to health when
properly used.
(ii) To carry out testing and examination to ensure the safety of the
substance before it is used.
(iii) To provide relevant information on substances to ensure that they will

be safe and without risks to health when properly used.
(iv) To carry out any necessary research with a view to the discovery and
the elimination or minimisation of any risk to safety or health to
which the substance may give rise.
(e) Trade Unions
No trade union shall take any action on any of its members who, being an
employee at a place of work:
(i) Makes a complaint about a matter which he considers is not safe or is

a risk to health.
(ii) Is a member of a safety and health committee at the workplace.
(iii) Exercises any of his functions as a member of the safety and health
committee at the workplace.
14.5.2 Medical Surveillance

Employers must always ensure that their employees carry out their work in a
safe and healthy manner in order to avoid risks to their health. Therefore,
employers must protect their employees against illnesses due to the nature of the
process or substance used in a process. Persons below the age of 16 years must be
prevented from work which may cause risk of injury. As for employees involved
in occupations of special risk such as those listed in Figure 14.5, they must be
protected by their employers against risks to health. In order to prevent
occupational illnesses and injury, employers must carry out medical surveillance
on employees particularly those who are involved in occupations of special risk.
Figure 14.5: Occupations involving special risk to health
14.5.3 Occupational Safety and Health Officer

All industries classified under the Occupational Safety and Health (Safety and
Health Officer) Regulation 1997 must employ a qualified safety and health officer
in order to ensure compliance with the provisions of Act 514. The types of
industries which are subject to Act 514 are as follows:
(a) Building operation with total contract price exceeding RM20 million;
„Building operation‰ means the construction, structural alteration, repair or
maintenance of a building, including repainting, redecoration and external
cleaning of the structure, the demolition of a building, and the preparation
for and the laying of foundation of an intended building.
(b) Works of engineering construction where total contract price exceeds RM20
million;
Here, it means the construction of any railway line or siding and the
construction, structural alteration or repair including repointing and
repainting or the demolition of any dock, harbour, inland navigation,
tunnel, bridge, viaduct and waterworks.
(c) Ship building employing a peak of more than 100 employees;

„Peak‰ means the time where the maximum possible number of workers
are working at the site.
(d) Gas processing or petrochemical industries employing more than 100

employees;
„Employees‰ includes an independent contractor engaged by an employer
or a self-employed person and any employee of the independent contractor.
(e) Chemical and allied industries employing more than 100 employees;
(f) Boiler and pressure vessel manufacturers employing more than 100
employees;
(g) Metal industries with canning, stamping, blanking, shearing, bending

operations and employing more than 100 employees;
(h) Wood industries with cutting, sawing, planning, moulding, sanding,

peeling and employing more than 100 employees;
(i) Cement manufacturing employing more than 100 employees;
(j) Other manufacturing activities apart from (d) to (i), employing more than
500 employees.
The duty of a safety and health officer pursuant to the Act is as follows:
(a) To advise the employer on the measures to be taken in the interests of the
safety and health of the persons employed in the place of work;
(b) To inspect the place of work;
(c) To investigate any accident, near miss accident, dangerous occurrence,

occupational poisoning or occupational disease which has happened in the
place of work;
(d) To assist the employer or the safety and health committee in organising and
implementing occupational safety and health programme at the place of
work;
(e) To become secretary to the safety and health committee;
(f) To assist the safety and health committee in any inspection of the place of
work;
(g) To collect, analyse and maintain statistics on any accident, dangerous

occurrence, occupational poisoning and occupational disease which have
occurred at the place of work;
(h) To assist any officer in carrying on any matters pertaining to safety and
health of the place of work.
(i) To submit a report on safety and health to the employer every month
whereby the employer shall discuss the report with the safety and health
officer after receiving the said report; and
(j) Other instructions pertaining to workplace safety and health issued from
time to time.
14.5.4 Safety and Health Committee

Act 514 requires the employer to establish a safety and health committee at the
workplace in order to ensure the safety, health and welfare of the employees. The
committee is a formal structure in an organisation where the employer and
employees can discuss and solve workplace safety and health problems.
Figure 14.6 shows the conditions of establishing a safety and health committee.
Figure 14.6: The two conditions for the establishment of the safety and health committee
Membership of the committee, selection of committee members and functions of

the committee are stipulated in the Occupational Safety and Health (Safety and
Health Committee) Regulations 1996. Figure 14.7 explains the membership of the
Safety and Health Committee.
Figure 14.7: Membership of the safety and health committee
Where there are 100 persons or less employed at a place of work, there shall not
be less than two representatives each from the employees and the company
management on the committee; and where there are more than 100 persons
employed at the place of work, there shall not be less than four representatives
each from the employees and the management.
An employer or his authorised manager shall be the chairman of a safety and

health committee. The secretary of the committee shall be the person who is
employed as the safety and health officer at the place of work. Where there is no
person employed as a safety and health officer at the place of work, the chairman
may appoint another person to act as the secretary of the committee or the
members may, by ballot, appoint from amongst themselves the secretary of the
committee.
The functions of the safety and health committee of a place of work are as
follows:
(a) Develop safety and health rules and safe systems of work;
(b) Review the effectiveness of safety and health programmes;
(c) Carry out studies on the trends of accidents, near miss accidents, dangerous
occurrences, occupational poisonings or occupational diseases which occur
at the place of work, and report to the employer any unsafe or unhealthy
condition or practices at the place of work together with recommendations
for corrective actions;
(d) Review the safety and health policies at the place of work and make
recommendations to the employer for any revision of such policies;
(e) Inspect the place of work at least once every three months to ascertain if
there is anything prejudicial to the safety and health of persons employed
therein;
(f) Investigate into any accident which occurs at the place of work;
(g) Investigate and solve any complaint made by any employee against any
action or unsafe condition at the place of work;
(h) Assist the employer in any competition, talks on safety and health or any
other activity related to safety and health;
(i) Take into consideration the following:
x Any reports submitted by a safety and health officer;
x The safety audits submitted by safety and health auditors;
x The reports and factual information provided by occupational safety

and health officers; and
x The reports by other government agencies on matters pertaining to

safety and health at a place of work.
(j) Form a sub-committee to assist the committee in the performance of its

functions.
A safety and health committee shall meet at least once in three months. However,
a meeting shall be called immediately in the event of an accident which results in
loss of life or serious bodily injury to any person. An employer of a place of work
shall provide a suitable place at the place of work for the safety and health
committee to hold its meetings and permit every member of the committee to
attend such meetings during work hours. At the inaugural meeting, the
employer shall make known his safety and health policies, plans and proposals
to establish safe and healthy work conditions at the place of work. Only matters
relating to safety and health at the place of work shall be discussed at any
meeting of a safety and health committee.
x Compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, which is
based on the self-regulation concept, has resulted in a reduction of workplace
accidents and injuries.
x This is due to the fact that employers, employees, workplace occupiers,

suppliers and others have become more committed to their responsibilities
relating to safety and health risks.
Act Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994

Code of practice Personal protective equipment (PPE)
Medical surveillance Regulations
Essay Questions
1. Explain the concept of self regulation on which the Occupational Safety and
Health Act 1994 is based.
2. State four of the duties of the safety and health officer in an organisation.
3. List the composition of the occupational safety and health committee.
4. Explain four of the functions of the occupational safety and health committee
in an organisation.
1. Self-regulation requires the involvement of employers only.
2. The code of practice is one of the main structures of the Occupational Safety
and Health Act.
3. An organisation with 30 employees or less is not required to establish an

occupational safety and health committee unless instructed to do so by the
Director General of Occupational Safety and Health Department.
4. An occupational safety and health officer in an organisation must investigate

any accident that occurs at the place of work.
5. An employer must dismiss any of his employees who makes a complaint

about a matter which he considers is not safe or is a risk to health.

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Topic X Evolution of the

such as the emergence of sophisticated technologies and work processes (which

To help you gain a better understanding of the various aspects of workplace

1.1 HISTORY OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND

(b) The development of the occupational safety and health movement in

(a) Occupational Safety and Health Management Before the Industrial

Figure 1.1: The era of Babylon

The code was engraved on a 2.4-metre high black stone monument

The heaviest penalty or punishment prescribed in the code for those

The movement continued to evolve in later Egyptian civilisations. Well

In 1567, Philippus Aureolus (also known as Paracelsus) wrote a treatise on

These changes indirectly increased accident risks at the workplace.

The development of occupational safety and health management after the

Figure 1.4: Child labour in the manufacturing sector

Table 1.2 summarises the significant milestones in the development of

Labour unions also played an important role in the development of

1.2 MAJOR TRAGEDIES WHICH CONTRIBUTED

1.2.1 The Hawk’s Nest Tragedy

Following the incident, the US Department of Labour made it compulsory for

1.2.2 The Bhopal Tragedy

Figure 1.5: Demonstrators commemorating

The Bhopal Information Centre is a website dedicated to listing various

1.2.3 The Asbestos Menace

Between 1967 and 1986, he continued his research

You will find an interesting article titled Medical Aspects of Asbestos

In your opinion, do miners face a greater risk of contracting cancer?

1.3 ROLE OF SPECIFIC HEALTH PROBLEMS IN

The British government designated CWP a separate and compensable disease in

Mercury poisoning was also discovered in the hat-making industry in the US in

1.4 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

Table 1.3: Summary of Occupational Safety and Health Acts

Act and Regulation Enforcement Agency

Figure 1.7: Occupational Safety and Health Act (Act 514)

1.5 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

Therefore, all parties, particularly employers and various government

x Developments in Europe had an impact on other countries including

Hammurabi Code Industrial Revolution

1. Explain briefly how the Hammurabi Code influenced the development of

2. Explain briefly the Doctrine of Contributory Negligence.

3. State the main effect of coal on human health.

4. Explain briefly why the usage of asbestos is banned.

True (T) or False (F) Statements

1. The Hammurabi Code is a code dealing with work-related injuries and

4. „Black spit‰ is a type of disease caused by exposure to silica dust.

2.1 DOMINO THEORY

Examples of unsafe acts committed by fellow

Examples of unsafe working conditions were

Figure 2.2: Using unsuitable footwear is one of the causes of accidents

2.1.1 Heinrich’s Industrial Safety Principles

Table 2.1: HeinrichÊs Axioms of Industrial Safety

2.1.2 Heinrich’s Accident Factors

Figure 2.3: HeinrichÊs Domino Theory model

Heinrich proposed a „five-factor accident sequence‰ in his theory. The sequence

Table 2.2: HeinrichÊs „Five-factor Accident Sequence‰

No. Factor Explanation

HeinrichÊs theory has two central points:

(a) Injuries are caused by the actions of preceding factors; and

According to Heinrich, genetics and the social environment factor are

2.2 HUMAN FACTOR THEORY