University of South Africa

College of Education
STRATEGIES IN THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY
IN HIGHER EDUCATION PREPARATORY
SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF ETHIOPIA

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

In the subject CURRICULUM STUDIES

By: MOHAMMED A. H.

AYALEW HASSEN

Id-4588-986-4

Tele. 251-09 11 70 67 77

P. O.Box-1145
e-mail ayalewhassen@yahoo.com

Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia

SUPERVISOR: PROF. M.T. GUMBO

 Student Number: 4588-986-4

DECLARATION

I, under signed, declare that STRATEGIES IN THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN

HIGHER EDUCATION PREPARATORY SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF ETHIOPIA is
my own work and it has not been presented for any other degree and all the sources that I have
used or quoted have been indicated and duly acknowledged by means of references

________________________________ _______________________

A.H MOHAMMED Date

i
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. M.T.
Gumbo, for his constructive comments and guidance, which have dramatically shaped this work.
It was his positivity and encouragement to complete this task. I would like to thank also my
financial sponsor, Wollo University, without which I couldn’t have afforded the fee to upgrade
my educational status.

My thanks also go to South Wollo Education Bureau officers and sampled schools’ directors
who supported me by giving letters of consent to get an access and gather pertinent information
for the study.

I am grateful to teachers, departmental heads, librarians and learners of the sampled schools;
Memihir Akalewold, Haik, Borena, Kelala, Woreilu and Mekidela who volunteered to provide
me with their noble ideas and perspectives, which immensely contributed to the success of this
study.

I owe my sincere indebtedness to Dessie College of teachers’ education in general, and Mr

Wubshet Shiferaw in particular, for his intensive technical and material support as well as
provision of internet access.

My thanks also go to my friends, Mr. Lakew Kebede, Mr. Ali Adem, Mr. Muhammed Omer, Mr.
Arega Bazezew and Ms Kulit Hassen for helping me by editing the script and providing the
moral and material support.

Last, but most notably heartfelt gratitude goes to My wife Serkaalem Belete, my lovely
daughters, Hilina Ayalew and Roza Wasie, and my sons Enkutsehay Ayalew, Bisrat Ayalew and
Tesfa’alem Ayalew, for their refreshment and moral support while I was tired and their patience
when I was absent for a long time in their lives due to my engagement with this extensive work.
AYALEW HASSEN MOHAMMED MARCH 2015

ii
Title Page

STRATEGIES IN THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN

HIGHER EDUCATION PREPARATORY SECONDARY
SCHOOLS OF ETHIOPIA

By: Mohammed Ayalew Hassen

Degree: Doctor of Education

Student Number: 4588-986-4

Subject: Curriculum Studies

University: University of South Africa

Supervisor: Prof. M.T Gumbo

March/2015

iii
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ETA: Ethiopian Teachers Association.

MOE: Ministry of Education

NICED: Northern Ireland Council for Education

ESDP: Education Sector Development Program.

UNICEF: United Nation Children’s Fund

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

EUEE: Ethiopian University Entrance Examination

iv
ABSTRACT

Education systems are currently undergoing transformational changes throughout the world and one
of these changes is a shift from a philosophy of positivist paradigm to constructivist paradigm of
teaching. Accordingly, constructivists claim children actively construct their knowledge rather than
absorb information spoken to them by teachers. Therefore, the constructivist teaching of Geography
places emphasis on the fact that learners should think more, understand and responsible for their own
learning. This study thus focused on the practice of constructivist methods in the teaching of
Geography at preparatory secondary schools of Ethiopia.

Geography is colourful and an outdoor oriented subject in which learners could get good opportunities
to construct their knowledge through various in-and-out of school activities. Thus, constructivist
methods are useful for Geography learners to develop their intellectual capacity for life-long learning
and for generic skills such as critical thinking, information processing, problem solving, decision-
making, etc. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the merits and reasons for
teacher dominance in the pedagogy of Geography and to suggest learner-centered teaching strategies
in the context of constructivist principles on learners’ learning activities to liberate them from passive
learning pedagogy.

The study was confined to six Higher Education Preparatory Secondary Schools out of 20 preparatory
schools of the South Wollo Administrative Zone of Amhara state of Ethiopia. It employed mixed-
method approaches (qual-quant) and descriptive survey design. The target population for this study
was 1053 Social Science learners and 12 Geography departmental heads and teachers. Among 1053
learners 199 learners were sampled through random sampling technique. But all Geography teachers
and departmental heads were taken as the main participants through purposive sampling techniques.
Semi-structured interviews, observation, documents and questionnaire were the main data collection
instruments for the study. Data that were collected through interviews, observation and open-ended
questionnaire were analysed inductively using narrations and descriptions through words, phrases and
statements, whereas the data collected from documents were organised in the form of tables and
analysed via percentage and mean. However, data that were collected through close-ended
questionnaires were edited, coded, classified, tabulated and organised in the form of tables havebeen
analysed through frequency, percentage and mean via SPSS software. Based on the analysed data,
findings were depicted.

The findings of the study revealed that Geography is a unique discipline and its syllabus was prepared
in line with the country’s education policy which encourages constructivist approaches of teaching.
However, majority of teachers frequently practice traditional teaching methods. Moreover, the study
also identified that lack of teachers’ professional training about the practice of a variety of learner-
centered methods and continuous assessment techniques, lack of experience about learner-centered
teaching methods both on the part of teachers and learners, low interest and commitment on the part
of teachers, teachers’ failure to utilise teaching materials, placing of less competent learners in the
Social Science stream, learners’ low interest to learn and incapability to learn through learner-
centered methods, learners’ low engagement in the teaching activities, learners’ disturbance, shortage
of time, absence of plasma TV transmission and shortage of resources such as school facilities,
instructional media, reference books, Geography room, department room, pedagogical center, lounge
and scarcity of budget were considerable hindrances on the implementation of Geography syllabus
through the constructivist approaches of teaching methods. Based on the findings of the study,
recommendations were made to the concerned bodies to alleviate the hindrances and to encourage the
practice of constructivist teaching methods and making the learners free from teachers’ dependency.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page

Declaration……………………………………………………………………………………….i
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………………ii
Title Page……………………………………………………………………………………….iii
Acronyms and Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………..iv
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY……………...1

1.1Introduction……………………………………………………………………….. ...............1
1.2.Background of the Study………………………………………………………… ......…….3

1.3 Statement of the problem…………………………………………………………………….10

1.4.Research Questions…………………………………………………………….. ………….11

1.5.Aim and Objective of the Study……………………………………………………………..12

1.6.Significant of the Study……………………………………………………………………...13

1.7. Motivation of the Study………………………………………………………… . ………..13

1.8.Scope of the Study…………………………………………………………………………...15

1.9. Limitation of the Study………………………………………………………….…………..15

1.10 Operational Definitions of Key Terms …………………………………………………….16

1.11.Research Design and Methodology………………………………………………………..16

1.12.Organization of the Study..…….…………………………………………………………...16

i
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL GROUNDING FOR THE STUDY……………………….18

2.1. Introduction…………………………………….………………………………………… 18

2.2. Philosophical Approaches to Learning………………………………………................... 18

2.2.1. Constructivism……………………………………………………………………………19

2.3. Theories of Constructivism learning…………………...................................................... 20

2.3.1. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory……………………………………………………..20

2.3.2. Freire’s Theory of Pedagogy of the Oppressed…………………………………………...27

2.3.3. Race’s Ripples Model of Learning………………………………………………………...28

2.3.4. Vygotsky’s Social Learning Theory……………………………………………………….30

2.3.5. Gagne’s Conditions Learning Theory……………………………………………………..32

2.3.6. Papert’s Theory of Constructivism………………………………………………………..33

2.3.7. Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory……………………………………………………..34

2.3.8. Novak’s Theory of Human Mind………………………………………………………….35

2.3.9. Murray’s Achievement Theory…………………………………………………………….36

2.3.10. Piaget’s Cognitive Adaptation Theory……………………………………………………36

2.3.11. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Information Processing Theory………………………………….38

2.4 Application of Constructivists’ Theories in Geography Education…………………………...38

2.5 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………..40

CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………41

3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..41

3.2 Approaches of Teaching………………………………………………………………………42

3.2.1Teacher-centered Approach ……………………………………………………….……….42

3.2.2 Learner-centered Teaching Approaches ………………………………………….……….43

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3.2.2.1 Principles of Learner-centered Teaching …………………………………….. ………..44

3.2.2.2 Learner-centered Curriculum Structures ………………………………………………..46

3.3 Methods of Teaching .……………………………………………………………………..48

3.3.1 Active-learning Methods ……………………………………………………….………..49

3.3.1.1The Concept of Active-learning…………………………………………………………49

3.3.1.2 Why Active-learning ……………………………………………………………………52

3.3.2 Active-learning Methods in Teaching Geography………………………………………...53

3.3.2.1 Types of Active-learning Methods in Teaching Geography……………………………54

3.3.2.1.1 Fieldwork Method in Geography Teaching ..............................................…………. 54

3.3.2.1.2 Types of Field-work Activity.......................................................................................56

3.3.2.1.2.1. Observational Fieldwork. .........................................................................................57

3.3.2.1.2.2 Field Teaching. .........................................................................................................58

3.3.2.1.2.3 Field Research……………………………………………………………………..58

3.3.2.1.2.4 Advantages of Field-work………………………………………………………….59

3.3.2.1.2.5 Enquiry-based Learning…………………………………………………………….59

3.3.2.1.2.6 Discussion Method………………………………………………………………….61

3.3.2.1.4 Project Method ...........................................................................................................62

3.3.2.1.5 Questioning Method ..................................................................................................63

3.3.2.1.6 Activity Method ......................................................................................................... 64

3.3.2.1.7 Simulation Method ......................................................................................................65

.3.3.2.1.8 Role-play Method ....... 67

3.3.2.1.9 Mapwork in the Teaching of Geography .....................................................................68

3.4 Ongoing Professional Development of Teachers…………………………………………...69

3.5 Teacher Competence and School Efficiency………………………………………………..73

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3.5.1 Diversity of Resources and Facilities……………………………………………………..73

3.5.2 Instructional Media………………………………………………………………………..74

3.5.3 Availability of Instructional Media………………………………………………………..75

3.5.4 Instructional Media in Geography Teaching………………………………………………..77

3.5.5 Types of Instructional media to be used in Geography teaching…………………………..78

3.6 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………78

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY…………………………..79

4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..79

4.2 Idependent and Dependent variables………………………………………………………..79

4.3 Research Design…………………………………………………………………………….80

4.3.1 Data Collection Methods and Strategies…………………………………………………..83

4.3.2Population, Samples and Sampling Techniques……………………………………………85

4.3.3 Data Collection Instruments……………………………………………………………...87

4.3.3.1 Interview ………………………………………………………………………………88

4.3.3.2 Observation……………………………………………………………………………..88

4.3.3.3 Document Analysis ……………………………………………………………………89

4.3.3.4 Questionnaire ……………………………………………………………………………90

4.4 Data Collecting Procedures ………………………………………………………………….90

4.5 Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………….91

4.6 Reliability and Validity …………………………………………………………………….92

4.7 Ethicaal protocol…………………………………………………………………………….92

4.8 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….93

iv
CHAPTER 5: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS……………….95

5.Itroduction……………………………………………………………………………………...95

5.2 Analysis of Interview Data…………………………………………………............................96

5.2.1 Charactorstics of participants……………………………………………………………….96

5.2.2 Analysis of Teachers’ and Department heads’ Responses to Interview Questions ……….97

5.2..2.1 Teachers’ Responses to Interview Questions……………………………………………97

5.2.2.1.1 Teachers’ Experience in their School Regarding the Teaching –Learning Process of
Geography………………………………………………………………………………………….97

5.2..2.1.2 The Unique Nature of Geography Regarding Teaching- learning Strategies…………..98

5.2..2.1.3 Teaching Strategies Designed in Geography Syllabus. ………………………………100

5.2.2.1.4 Teaching Methods Teachers Frequently Practiced in the Teaching of Geography……101

5.2.2.1.5 The Value of Learner-centered Methods in the Teaching of Geography……………..103

5.2.2.1.6 Teachers’ Readiness to Practice Learner-centered Methods of Teaching……………105

5.2.2.1.7 Teacher’s Role in the Implementation of Geography Syllabus………………………108

5.2.2.1.8 Problems Teachers Encounter in the Practice of Learner-centered Methods of

Geography Teaching……………………………………………………………………………109

5.2.2.1.9 Availability of Resources in the School Relevant to Geography Contents…………..111

5.2.2.1.10 Learners’ Activities in the process of Teaching and Learning……………………...113

5.2.2.1.11 Types of Teaching Methods Frequently practiced by Teachers…………………….114

5.2.2.1.12 Dominance Assessment Techniques Teachers Practice to Assess Learners’ Academic

Achievement…………………………………………………………………………………...116

v
5.2.2.1.13 Teachers’ Opinion about the Negative Impacts of Traditional Methods of Teaching
on Learners’ Academic Achievement…………………………………………………………117

5.2.2.1.14 Teachers’ Opinion about the Challenging Factors to Practice Learner-centered

Methods of Teaching in Preparatory school Geography Education…………………………..119

5.2.2.1.15 Problems Teachers Encounter while they implement the Preparatory School
Geography Syllabus…………………………………………………………………………...121

5.2.2.1.16 Problems Affecting the Quality of Preparatory School Geography Educationr…..121

5.2.3 Analysis of departmental Heads’ response to Interview Questions…………………123

5.2.3.1 Relevance of Preparatory School Geography Syllabus to Ethiopian Education Policy

………………………………………………………………………………………………...123

5.2.3.2 The Unique Nature of Geography Compared with Other Disciplines……………….124

5.2.3.3 Feasibility of Geography Syllabus……………………………………………………125

5.2..3.4 Teachers’ Readiness to Practice Learner-Centered Methods of Teaching…………..126

5.2.3.5 Teachers’ Role in Implementation of Preparatory School Geography Syllabus………128

5.2.3.6 Availability of Relevant Resources to Preparatory School Geography Contents……..129

5.2.3.7 Teaching Methods Frequently Practiced by Geography Teachers……………………130

5.2.3.8 Tools Teachers Frequently use to Measure learners’ Academic Achieveme………..131

5.2.3.9 Learners'’ Activities while the Teaching and Learning Process is Going on…………132

5.2.3.10 Roles of Geography Departmental Heads in the Implementation of Preparatory School

Geography Syllabus………………………………………………………………………133
5.2.3.11 Geography Teachers’ Attitude Towards their Profession …………………………...134

5.2.3.12 Types of Questions Geography Teachers Frequently Ask while they are
Teaching……………………………………………………………………………………….135

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5.2.3.13 Departmental Heads’ Opinion about the Negative Impact of Traditional Methods of
Teaching on Learners’ Academic Achievement……………………………………………136
5.2.3.14 Criterion of Good Quality of Geography Teachers…………………………………137
5.2.3.15 Factors that hinder the Practice of Learner-centered Methods of Teaching in the
Implementation of Preparatory Secondary Schools Geography Syllabus.138
5.2.3.16 Factors Affecting the Quality of Preparatory school Geography Education…………140

5.3 Analysis of Learners’ Responses of Open-ended Questions………………………………141

5.3.1 Teaching Methods that Most Learners Prefer to Learn Geography…………………….141

5.3.2 Factors which Affect Learners’ participation in Geography Teaching Process…………142

5.3.3 Teaching Strategies Suitable for Geography Learning…………………………………...144

5.3.4 Learners’ General Comments and Suggestion about Geography Teaching Strategies…...144

5.3.5 Summary of Analysis of Teachers and Departmental Heads Interview Questions as well
as Learners Open-ended Questionnaires………………………………………………………146

5.3.5.1 Summary of Analysis of Teachers' and Interview Questions…………………………146

5.3.5.2 Summary of Analysis of Department heads' Interview Questions……………………149

5.3.5.3 Summary of Learners' Response on Open-ended Questionnaires…………………….153

5.3.6 Summary of Analysis of Interviews and Open-ended Questionnaires………………….155

5.4 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………159

CHAPTER 6: RESULTS FROM OBSERVATION, DOCUMENTS AND CLOSE-

ENDED QUESTIONNAIRES……………………………………………………………….160

6.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..160

6.2 Observation………………………………………………………………………………..160

6.2.1 Observation of the Classroom…………………………………………………………...160

vii
6.2.1.1 Actual Cassroom .Teaching…………………………………………………………..160

6.2.1.2 Classroom Facilities …………………………………………………………………..163

6.2.1.3 Availability of Physical Resources…………………………………………………….164

6.2.1.4 Summary of the Results of Observed Data Analysis…………………………………..166

6.3. Document Analyses………………………………………………………………………..167

6.3.1 Grade 11 Learners’ Result of School’s Prepared Examination and Grade 12 Learners’
Ethiopian University Entrance Examination (EUEE) result of 2011- 2012 Academic

years…………………………………………………………………………….168

6.3.1.1 School 01 Grade 11 Learners’ School Prepared Examination Resultof 2011-2012

AcademicYears…………………………………………………………………………………168

6.3.1.2 School 01 Grade 12 Learners’ Ethiopian University Enterance Examinationl Result of

2011-2012 Academic Years:……………………………………………………………………169

6.3.1.3 School 02 Grade 11 Learners’ School's Examination Result of 2011-2012 Academic

Years……………………………………………………………………………………………169

6.3.1.4 School 02 Grade 12 Learners’ Ethiopian University Enterance Examination Result of

2011-2012 Academic Years ……………………………………………………………………170

6.3.1.5 School 03 Grade 11 Learners’ School's Prepared Examination Result of 2011- 2012
Academic Years …………………………………………… 171

6.3.1.6 School 03 Grade 12 Learners’ Ethiopian University Enterance Examination Result of

2011- 2012 AcademicYears…………………………………………………………………...172
6.3.1.7 School 04 Grade 11 Learners’ School's Prepared Examination Result of 2011- 2012
Academic Years……………………………………………………………………………….173

6.3.1.8 School 04 Grade 12 Learners’ Ethiopian University Enterance Examination Result of

2011- 2012 Academic Year……………………………………………………………………173

viii
6.3.1.9 School 05 Grade 11 Learners’ School's Prepared Examination Result of 2011-2012
Academic Years……………………………………………………………………………….174

6.3.1.10 School 05 Grade 12 Learners’ Ethiopian University Enterance Examination .Result of

2011-2012 Academic years…………………………………………………………………....175

6.3.1.11 School 06 Grade 11 Learners’ School's Prepared Examination Result of 2011-2012

Academic Years……………………………………………………………………………….176

6.3.1.12 School 06 Grade 12 Learners’ Ethiopian University Enterance Examination Result of

2011- 2012 Academic Years…………………………………………………………………..176

6.3.1.13 Summary of Document Results of the Total Preparatory Secondary Schools

…………………………………………………………………………………………………177

6.4.Observation of the Syllabi…………………………………………………………………179

6.5 The summary of Results of Qualitative Data Analysis; Observation, Documents and Open-
ended Questionnaires………………………………………………………………………….180

6.6 Data Analysis and Presentation of Results from a Close-ended Questionnaires…………185

6.6.1 Charactorstics of Participants……………………………………………………………185

6.6.2 Analysis of Gender of the participants…………………………………………………..186

6.6.3 Analysis of Learners' Response on the Nature of Geography as a Discipline…………..186

6.6.4 Analysis of Learners' Response on Methods of Teaching Practiced by Geography

Teachers………………………………………………………………………………………..188

6.6.5 Analysis of Learners' Response on their Activities in the Learning and Teaching process
of Geography…………………………………………………………………………………..196

6.6.6 Analysis of Learners' Response on Resource Availability in the Schools ……………...199

6.6.7 Analysis of Learners' Response on the Assessment Techniques of Teachers to Measure

Learners' Performance…………………………………………………………………………201
ix
6.7 Summary of the Results ………………………………………………………………….205

6.8 Findings of the Study……………………………………………………………………..206

CHAPTER7: SUMMARY,CONTRIBUTION, CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS AND

RECOMMENDATION ……………………………………………………………………..213
7.1Introduction………………………………………………………………………………...213

7.2 Summary of the Study …………………………………………………………………….213

7.3 Contribution of the study ………………………………………………………………...215

7.4 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………216

7.5 Suggestions for Further Researchers ……………………………………………………...219

7.6 Recommendation ………………………………………………………………………...220

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………225

APPENDEXES…………………………………………………………………………………236

x
List of Figures

Figure Page

Figure 2.1: Kolb’s learning theory…………………………………………………………………32

Figure 2.2: Kolb’s learning cycle…………………………………………………………………..33

Figure 2.3: Race’s ripples model of learning………………………………………………………40

Figure 4.1 The sequential exploratory strategy of mixed method ………………………………..92

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List of Tables Page
Table 4.1: Distribution of Participants in the study……………………………………………98

Table 5.1: Background of Participants ………………………………………………………….107

Table 6.1: 01 Preparatory Secondary School’s prepared Examination Result…………………179

Table 6.2: 01 Preparatory Secondary School's E U E E Result ……………………………….180

Table 6.3: 02 Preparatory Secondary School’s Examination Result……………………………180

Table 6.4: 02 Preparatory Secondary School's E U E E Result ………………………………..181

Table 6.5: 03 Preparatory Secondary School's prepared Examination Result…………………182

Table 6.6: School 03’s E U E E Results ………………………………………………………..183

Table 6.7: 04 Preparatory Secondary School’s prepared Examination Result………………….184

Table 6.8: School 04's E U E E Results………………………………………………………...184

Table 6.9: 05 Preparatory Secondary School’s prepared Examination Results………………..185

Table 6.10: School 05's E U E E Results ………………………………………………………186

Table 6.11: 06 Preparatory Secondary School’s prepared Examination Result……………….187

Table 6.12: School 06's E U E E Results………………………………………………………188

Table 6.13 Summary of Document results……………………………………………………..188

Table 6.14: Biographical Data of participants…………………………………………………196

Table 6.15: characteristics of participants in terms of Gender ………………………………..197

Table 6.16: The Nature of Geography as a Discipline…………………………………………197

Table 6.17: Teaching methods practiced by Geography teachers……………………………..199

Table 6.18: Learners’ learning activities in the teaching process …… ………………………207

Table 6.19: Resource Availability in the Schools……………………………………………..210

Table 6.20: Teachers' Assessment Techniques to Measure Learners' Performance…………..212

I
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction
Geography is an outdoor oriented subject in which students could get good opportunities to
construct their knowledge through interacting with their environment because most Geography
domains such as Physical Geography, Bio-Geography, Economic Geography, Human
Geography, Map-Reading are found outside the classroom (Olusegun, 2006:24). Geography is a
colourful subject for students in secondary schools if lessons are invigorated with various in-and-
out of school activities (Demirci, Kesler & Kaya, 2010:57). It is well known that educational
experiences involving the actively participating in concrete examples are retained longer than
abstract experiences (Abdelraheem & Al-Rabane, 2005:1).

As Demirci, Kesler and Kaya (2010:57) explain, evaluating the types of in-and-out of school
activities that Geography teachers facilitate to create opportunities to the students to engage in
the knowledge construction activities is one of the main focuses of current researchers.
Moreover, Demirci et al. (2010:53) indicate that placing students at the center of learning while
encouraging teachers to act as facilitators during the teaching process necessitates the use of
activities in teaching and learning, which is commonly referred to activity-based learning
paradigmme in pedagogical parlance.

According to Demirct et al. (2010:53), activity-based learning means learning by doing and it
comprises many different in-and-out of school activities practiced by students either individually
or as a group. It ranges from role-playing, discussion, case study to fieldwork methods, projects
and laboratory experiments.

Furthermore, Rambuda and Fraser (2004:10) claim that the study of Geography in senior
secondary schools provides opportunities for students to develop their intellectual capacity for
life-long learning and for generic skills such as critical thinking, information processing, problem
1
solving, decision-making, etc. Learners should be more active than the teacher to perform
activities and the objectives of Geography syllabus should be learner-activity oriented rather than
teacher-activity dominated (Olusegun, 2006:61). On the contrary, most teachers practice the
traditional lecture method that makes learners passive. In most Geography classrooms learners
have been taught geographical facts and concepts with minimal understanding (Rambuda,
1994:57). Thus, literature indicates that teacher-centered approaches dominate learners’
engagement in the knowledge construction activity.

Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the reasons for teacher dominance in
the pedagogy of Geography and suggest learner-centered methods of teaching in the context of
the constructivist principles on students’ learning activities and recommend appropriate
strategies in order to liberate learners from passive learning pedagogy. Teacher dominance
teaching - learning process is now shifting to learner-centered approaches. Supporting the reality
of the shift of teacher-centred approaches to learner-centered approaches, Demirci et al.
(2010:53) writes:

The world in the 20th century has witnessed of enormous changes in education
due mainly to the advance in science and technology. Traditional teaching and
learning methods, which were teacher-centered and based mainly on rote
learning, have changed to student-centered structure over time and today’s
schools in many countries have become places where active learning strategies
are practiced.

Thus, this chapter orientes the readers to the study of the background, statement of the problem,
research questions, objectives, significance, motivation, operational definitions, scope,
limitation, methods and design, ethics and organization of the study.

2
1.2 Background of the Study
Education systems are currently undergoing transformational changes throughout the world and
one of these is a shift from a philosophy of positivist paradigm to constructivist paradigm of
teaching and learning (Rambuda & Fraser, 2004:10). In line with this philosophy, Ethiopia has
designed its education policy for each education structure. The policy incorporates the structure
of education in relation to the development of students’ profile, organisation, methodology,
media of instruction at various levels, educational measurement and evaluation, recruitment,
training, professional ethics and career development of teachers (Minstry Of Education,
1994:15). Accordingly, the Ethiopian education structure is broken down into four cycles which
includes:

• Kindergarten education for children aged 4-6 years;

• Primary education grades 1-8 and sub-divided into two cycles; the first cycle grades1-4
(Basic education) and second cycle Grades 5-8 (General education);
• Secondary education Grades 9-12 and sub divided into two cycles; the first cycle Grades 9-10
(General education) and second cycle Grades11-12 (Preparatory education); and
• Higher education of 2-3 years for Diploma, 3-4 years under-graduate and additional 2-3 years
for post-graduate studies.

Therefore, in the Ethiopian education structure, secondary education has two cycles and four
years of duration. This study focuses on the second cycle that is cycle for Grades 11-12 which is
called preparatory education. Students who attend grades 11-12 are preparatory school students
(MOE, 1994:5). Preparatory school education enables students to choose subjects or areas of
training which will prepare them adequately for higher education and for the world of work
(MOE, 1995:42), hence, it is called preparatory education. Based on their stream, preparatory
students are divided into two which are Social Science preparatory students and Natural Science
preparatory students. This study focuses on the Social Science teaching and more specifically on
the teaching of Geography at preparatory schools of Ethiopia.

3
According to O’Mahony (2000:12), Geography is a reality-based subject with meaningful
learning experiences and it thus needs suitable teaching methods and teaching aids. Getis and
Fellman (2009) in Demirci et al (2010:54) also depict that Geography is broad and applied
discipline which examines the earth from different perspectives by using different tools and
methods in its wide range of sub-fields.

Moreover, Olusegun (2006:29) expresses that the secondary school Geography curriculum
developers have to be elected from the outset to emphasise among others a conceptual approach.
This is based on the belief that a conceptual approach to secondary school Geography supported
by compatible problem-solving procedures and appropriate instructional resources, tempered by
the good sense of an enthusiastic, resourceful and patient Geography teacher, and should assist
the students to learn Geography more efficiently and effectively.

Geography is a very colourful subject for students in secondary schools if lessons are invigorated
with various in-and-out of school activities (Aydin, 2011:298; Demirci et al., 2010:57; Olusegun,
2006:5). Besides, Aydin (2011:277) forges the helpfulness of the application of the constructivist
learning theory, that it has an important place in the field of Geography education as it creates an
active role for students to engage in research for deep knowledge.

On the other hand, Demirci et al (2010:61) state that textbooks, notebooks, blackboards, and
atlases have been the main materials and teacher-centred the dominant methods that teachers
used in their Geography lessons until recent times. However, developments in science and
technology have introduced many new methods, techniques and materials available to
Geography teachers. Moreover, Nan (1992) and Shelagh (1997) in Demirci et al (2010:53) and
Olusegun (2006:65) point out that active learning methods such as, applied learning, cooperative
learning, project-based learning, problem-solving, questioning, discussion, fieldwork, map work,
role-play and simulation are suitable teaching methods and should be employed to develop the
cognitive, psychomotor and affective strategies in the teaching of Geography.

4
Similarly, Bednarz, et-al (1994) as cited in Aydin (2011:298) state that Geography has an
important application field in our lives and should be conveyed to the students through brain-
based learning, computer-based learning, research-based learning, project-based learning,
problem-based learning, cooperative learning, subject-based learning, multiple intelligence and
event-based learning. However, the teaching methods used in the Geography lessons are
generally inefficient for students to learn issues that will be useful or practical in their real lives
(Aydin, 2011:298).

The most important reason of an inefficient lesson is the use of teacher-centered methods and
some of the students or all of them are in turn passive learners (Aydin, 2011:298). Aydin
(2011:298) argues in this regard, that students’ readiness level and learning styles to the issues,
the techniques, methods and teaching materials that the teacher prefers and uses, and the
Geography curriculum are important variables in the teaching process of Geography.

The realisation of active learning through new approaches such as field trips, activity-based
learning, project method, group work, experiment, Geography Information System (GIS),
computer-based learning and other methods which encourage students’ engagement should be
included in the Geography lessons as in all other sciences (Aydin, 2011:298). However, research
and experience indicate that teaching Geography in most secondary schools of Ethiopia in
general and preparatory schools in particular is teacher-centered instruction and students receive
facts and concepts delivered from their teacher without their active engagement (Dufera,
2008:9). In most Geography classrooms students have been taught geographical facts and
concepts with minimal understanding (Rambuda, 1994:57).

As Aydin and Kaya (2010:631) state, the main purpose of Geography teaching is not to explain
particular geographical events and to measure how much of them were memorised via
examinations by the students. Moreover, Aydin and Kaya (2010:631) also explain that in order to
reach the purpose of Geography teaching in terms of individuals, society, country and the world,
teachers should have sufficient knowledge, skills and necessary equipment and should be
conscious and responsible. Logically, then, providing Geography teaching in accordance with the

5
society’s expectations will be possible through reflecting the most recent methods, audiovisual
aids and technology to the lessons. So, as Aydin and Kaya, (2010:632) explain, Geography
teachers should be relevantly qualified in the Geography Science and should have the skills to
teach with suitable methods and techniques using the necessary materials and technologies in
their lessons.

Similarly, Kagoda (2009:31) writes that Geography teachers in general and preparatory teachers
in particular should be supported with training to update their subject matter knowledge and
pedagogical skills to practice active-learning methods and to support the lesson with relevant
teaching aids that encourage students’ engagement/participation. Geography education at
secondary schools is regarded as a burden to the memory because students are expected to
memorise too many facts (Rambuda 1994:10). Thus, the application of learner-centred methods
of teaching and utilisation of varied resources in the teaching of Geography are likely to reduce
memory problems by encouraging learning by doing, thinking critically and using information
creatively (Martin et al. in Rambuda & Fraser, 2004:10). Geography being a dynamic and
practical subject strongly suggests the variety of methods for teaching it (Kagoda, 2009:28).

Learners, teachers, teaching colleagues, adults, classroom/Geography room, the school, the
world beyond the school, printed materials, audio-visual materials, information technology, other
equipments, consumables, models, objects, food and drink, games and activities are important
resources in Geography teaching (Fisher, 1998:40). From this point, it is possible to say that not
only subject matter knowledge and pedagogical skills but also availability of resources and
learners’ engagement have a great contribution on the quality of education in general and
Geography education in particular.

Cook and Leckey (1999:157) express that the quality of education and the effectiveness of
instruction given in a classroom are determined by methods of instruction and efficient
utilisation of resources. Currently, the “how” of teaching is now being given as much
significance as the “what” and “why” in academic circles (Dhand, 2004:1) because teaching
methods and strategies have great influence on contents and objectives of the lesson.

6
Therefore, to assure the quality of instruction and achieve the intended educational objectives,
teachers in general and Geography teachers in particular should practice varied methods and
strategies and varied materials of instruction. Hale (in Ramsden, 1992:19) asserts that an implicit
aim of education in general and higher education in particular is encouraging students to think
themselves and teachers to facilitate students’ self-learning effort.

Freire (1972:45) also explains that in the banking concept of education, teacher-student
relationship at any level, inside or outside the school reveals a narrative character. This
relationship involves a narrating subject/ the teacher, and the patient (listening objects)/the
learners. This relationship turns learners into “containers” to be filled by the teacher and to
memorise mechanically narrated content.

The more completely the teacher fills the containers the better s/he is. The more meekly the
containers (passive learners) the more they permit themselves to be filled, the better learners they
are perceived to be. In other words, the more dominantly the teacher narrates, the more s/he is
perceived as a better teacher, and the more passive receiver the learner is, the better the learner.
Education thus becomes an act of dopositing, in which the students are the depositories and the
teacher the depositor. Reacting to this treatment of education, Freire (1972:45) states that the
content tends in the process of being narrated to become lifeless and petrified; education suffers
with narration sickness.

Freire (1972:45) furthers his reaction by claiming that teachers consider education as banking in
which they deposit knowledge in the students’ mind, consider themselves as knowledgeable and
students knowing nothing. Thus, positivists claim that knowledge is a gift from knowledgeable
teachers to know-nothing students (Freire, 1972:45). However, education must begin with the
solution of the teacher-student contradiction by reconciling the poles of the contradiction so that
both are simultaneously teachers and students. In contrasting to the banking concept of
education, Frerie (1972:46) argues that revealing reality is not an individual or merely

7
intellectual act. Knowing the world is a collective, practical process involving different kinds of
knowledge, consciousness, feeling, desire, will and physicality.

By strengthening Frerie’s view, Desta (2004:72-73) concurs that lecture method dominates the
teaching-learning process. As the teachers usually focus on giving lectures, students depend
primarily on lecture, independent learning is not encouraged. Most teachers lack familiarity with
individual differences among the learners. They have no tendency of utilising different methods
other than lecture. In this method the teacher views him/herself as the sole source of information
whereas students remain passive listeners to formal and structured presentations. Students do not
get opportunities to understand their natural inclination, to think critically, to develop
confidence, to interact with their environment, to enjoy with their mates and develop their
communication skills. Moreover, Olusegun (2006:68) explains the lecture method as follows:

Lecture method is the oldest teaching method which is believed historically to be

dated back into antiquity. It is also referred to as expository method because it is
teacher-dominated and learners passive method. It is also known as talk-and-chalk
method in a situation when the teacher decides to write the summary of the points
s/he has taught on the board. In fact, in this method, the learners’ involvement and
participation is at low ebb because communication is often one way for most of the
time during the teaching-learning process.

Biswas (2007:79) indicates that Geography is the subject that more than any other enables people
to comprehend the earth and its environment, and to appreciate the delicate balances between the
human and physical elements that bind people to this planet. However, more than half of
children are failing to achieve geographic literacy. Thus, to solve this problem, Geography
should be taught practically through varied teaching and learning methods.

The variety of teaching methods which is used within a Geography course is an important
ingredient in creating a course with interest to students and it improves students’ achievement as
well. Similarly, Desta (1986:42) mentions that students understand and keep in mind 10% of

8
what they read, 20% what they hear, 30% what they see, 50% what they see and hear, 70% what
they speak and 90% what they do. Supporting this idea, NICED (in Fisher, 1998:21) is quoted as
declaring that the acquisition of geographical knowledge involves much more than the
memorisation of information. A well developed geographical understanding can only result from
a process of enquiry in which questions are asked, evidence is examined and conclusions
reached.

In order to carry out effective Geography teaching, Geography teachers should use different
approaches of teaching such as sense of place, fieldwork, using new technologies and developing
graphicacy (Fisher, 1998:42). In the planning and supporting of geography learning, Geography
teachers should work with a complex interplay of three specific types of knowledge, being
knowledge about students, knowledge about geography and pedagogic knowledge (Fisher,
1998:32).

According to Biswas (2007:1), Geography is one of the oldest and all-encompassing disciplines
offered in schools. It seeks academically and pedagogically competent teachers to open the door
of this dynamic world and prepare students to be a global competnt citizen in the 21st century
through distinctive teaching methods and investigative tools such as maps, fieldwork, and
powerful digital communication technologies. Besides, Biswas (2007:112) also depicts that
practice and project-based teaching in Geography addresses almost all educational objectives or
combination of objectives, enables teachers to change radically their relationship with students
to the benefit of both and provides different learning opportunities.

The traditional lecture method dominates the instructional process in general and students’
engagement in particular (Demirci, et-al., 2010:53). To reverse this, Now a days, the old
syllabus, teacher-centered method of teaching (the talk-and-chalk method of teaching), has been
improved and replaced by a new one that facilitates the communicative approach which is
student-centered method of teaching (Awlachew, 2010:85). Regrettably, researchers such as
Desta (2004:72-73), Asgedom, Desta and Dufera (2006:22) and Dufera (2008:9) reveal that
teachers resist varied active learning methods. As a result the practice of learner-centred

9
approaches is limited in Ethiopia. Lack of resources, time and support add to preventing
teachers from employing enough number of activities in their lessons (Asgedom et-al., 2006:21-
23). Thus, as stated earlier on in this chapter, literature and experience indicate that the practice
of Geography teaching is dominated by teacher-centered approach in general and in Ethiopia in
particular. This shows incompatibility of teachers to draw from constructivist theory of learning
as well as existing Ethiopian education policy with real actual classroom practice.

Dufera (2008:9) declares that the Ethiopian educational policy and implementation strategies
encourage learner-centered active pedagogy, cooperative learning, development of critical
thinking and problem-solving skills. Yet is surprising to witness a teacher-dominated pedagogy
is the norm in the vast majority of classrooms observed. Therefore, my intention is to
investigate teacher dominance methods of teaching/teacher-centered approach and recommend
alternative strategies that initiate active learning approaches in the teaching of Geography at
preparatory secondary schools of Ethiopia.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

According to the constructivist view, children actively construct their knowledge rather than
simply absorb ideas spoken at them by teachers. The constructivist teaching of Geography
places emphasis on the fact that the individuals should think more and responsible for their
learning (Aydin, 2011:298). Regarding this concept, Freire (1972:45) asserts:

No one knows everything and no one knows anything; no one educates anyone,
no one educates himself alone, people educate each other mediated by the world.
Whoever teaches learns, and whoever learns teaches” and not as a denial of the
specifics the active role that educators must play (Freire, 1972:45).

Learning and teaching are constantly interchanging activities. One learns by teaching but one
cannot teach except by constantly learning (Eble, 1988: 24). Furthermore, Aggrawal (1996:77),
Roberts (1996:58) and Slater (1997:55) points out that selecting teaching strategies is as

10
important as selecting content. The centeral place in the school has been given to the student and
the present century has resultantly been termed the century of the child. However, from the
traditional teaching-learning methods that teachers in Ethiopia seem to cling to it can be
understood that students are perceived as containers to be filled by these teachers. Traditional
methods make students powerless in the knowledge processing activities.

Most teachers in Ethiopia in general and Geography teachers in particular give more emphasis on
the contents than the methods. Bonewell and Eison (1991:185-195) and Asgedom and et al
(2006:21-23) indicate the reasons why most of the teachers have not embraced recent calls for
educational reform and common barriers to instructional change – the powerful influence of
educational tradition, teacher’s self-perception, discomfort and anxiety that change creates and
limited incentives for teachers to change, but certain specific obstacles associated with the use of
active learning are limited class time, a possible increase in preparation time and scarcity of
needed resources.

Generally, empirical research is important to know the common factors that create teachers’
resistance not to transit to active teaching-learning methods. Therefore, I am highly aspired to
investigate the tendency of teachers clinging to teacher dominated teaching of Geography in the
preparatory schools of Ethiopia and to suggest alternative strategies that encourage active
learning approaches. This problem identification leads to the stating of the research question
subsequently.

1.4 Research Question

The main research question is stated as:
How can Geography pedagogy be transformed to follow active learner-centered pedagogy in
Ethiopian preparatory schools? This main research question leads to the sub-questions stated as:

• What is the nature of Geography and its related pedagogical strategies as a subject in a
school context?

11
• What problems lead the teacher to practice teacher-dominance methods of teaching in the
teaching of Geography in Ethiopian preparatory schools?
• How does these teacher-dominance methods of teaching in the teaching of Geography impact
on the students’ learning in Ethiopian preparatory schools?
• What are alternative strategies that can help to promote active-learning/learner-centered
pedagogical strategies in teaching Geography in the Ethiopian preparatory schools?
• To what extent are resources available in the school and reliable to practice learner-centered
methods in the teaching of Geography?
• How do Geography teachers measure and assess learners’ understanding and achievement?

1.5 Aim of the Study

The main aim of the study is to identify the merits and reasons for teacher dominance in the
pedagogy of Geography and suggest alternative constructivist-based strategies that promote
learner-centered methods of teaching and learning. Based on this, the specific objectives of the
study are:

• To explore the nature of Geography and its related pedagogical strategies as a subject in a
school context.
• To find out the problems that cause teacher dominance methods of teaching and to critique
these methods in the teaching of Geography in Ethiopian preparatory schools.
• To know the impacts of teacher dominance method of teaching in the teaching of Geography
on the students’ learning in Ethiopian preparatory schools.
• To suggest alternative strategies that can promote learner-centered pedagogical strategies in the
teaching of Geography in Ethiopian preparatory schools.
• To evaluate the extent of availability of school resources and their reliability to practice
learner-centered methods in Geography teaching.
• To understand how Geography teachers measure and assess learners’ understanding and
achievement.

12
1.6 Significance of the Study

It is desirable that the results of this study will be a means to help teachers, researchers,
educational policy makers and other experts to explore possibilities of developing more effective
strategies of practicing active learning methods in the teaching of Geography. Thus, the results of
this study will create opportunities for curriculum designers, teachers, learners and other
concerned bodies to get information so as to solve problems that hinder the practice of active
learning approaches.

Moreover, the results will provide the necessary assistance to Geography teachers which will
enable them to select the methods that encourage the learners to engage in their knowledge
construction process. Furthermore, the results will raise teachers’ and learners’ interest towards
active learning methods. Finally, they will serve as a stepping stone for researchers who want to
carry out further investigation on the Geography syllabus implementation in Ethiopian schools
contexts.

1.7 Motivation of the Study

The main motive that initiated the need to conduct this study was the desire to solve educational
problems related to the method of teaching in general and Geography in particular in the
Ethiopian context. Accordingly, a lot of literature and forum discussions have indicated problems
related to the quality of education in most African countries in general and Ethiopian education
in particular. In developing countries, the quantitative expansion of education has been much
more rapid than that of any other social variable (Grisay & Mahlak, 1991:5).

In addition to Grisay and Mahlak (1991) and Chapman et al. (1996:46) point out that the
expansion of the education system hindered by many challenging factors such as powerful
influence of educational tradition, lack of academically qualified and professionally trained
teachers, teachers’ self-perception, limited incentives for teachers, shortage of class time, a
possible increase in preparation time and shortage of needed resources have emerged throughout
the world and the situation is worse in the developing countries.

13
Moreover, Magnen (1991:130) states that while we know how to build schools for a growing
number of pupils, our knowledge about methods to improve the quality of education is less
advanced. Likewise, Baum and Tolbert (1985:119) express that developing countries are
educating more of their population than ever before but the quality of education is often poor and
graduates frequently find that what they have to offer is not what employers want. This indicates
that education expansion has been achieved at the expense of quality education. Although
quantitative progress has been made in Ethiopian education, the quality of education being
offered is not the level of desired (MOE, 2004:1). Thus, the issue of quality education has been
and is still a major concern in the Ethiopian education policy (MOE, 1999:37). The question of
quality is attributed to the methodologies of Geography in the context of this study.

Furthermore, I practically observed that the intended number of Grade 11 learners in general and
Social Science learners in particular could not be promoted to Grade 12 and the intended number
of Grade 12 Social Science learners could not successfully join tertiary educational institutions.
For instance, in the South Wollo Zone Education Bureau, in the 2010-2011 academic years 542
learners took Ethiopian University Entrance Examination (EUEE) in the 6 sample schools but
124 learners did not successfully join tertiary education. In other words, both Grades 11 and 12
Social Science learners have problems on their academic achievement in general and in
Geography education in particular. The cause for the problems can be matched to a number of
factors.

However, for the purposes of this study I am confined to teacher-dominance method of teaching
as a factor. Thus, my intention was to investigate teacher dominance in the pedagogy of
Geography in preparatory schools of Ethiopia. Generally, my experiences, theories, research
findings, existing educational policy, and the forum discussions that I attended at different times
and no such empirical research has been conducted in the south wollo zone were most essentially
motivated me to conduct this research.

14
1.8 Scope of the Study

To get access to data gathering processes and to make the study manageable and keep it within
my resource capacity, this study was confined to six preparatory secondary schools out of 20
preparatory secondary schools of South Wollo Administrative Zone of Amhara state of Ethiopia.
It was further confined to preparatory (secondary) schools among other educational institutions
because, through my experience I observed that many Grade 11 learners in general and Social
Science learners in particular can not be promoted to Grade 12. As a result, most of them end up
unemployed and become a burden on their families and the government. This indicates problems
in the practice of preparatory secondary education. Thus, to solve this problem and improve the
quality of education in both educational institutions, more efforts and improvements should be
made at all educational institutions in general and at preparatory secondary schools in particular.

A strong pedagogy in secondary education is a pre-requisite for effective higher education and
skills training (World Bank, 1993:84). Secondary schools are educational institutions that
prepare adolescents for higher education or prepare adolecents to work in different sectors
(Smith, 1990:259). Secondary education is a half-way station between elementary school and
higher education, which concentrates on preparing students for college and various vocations
(Reed & Verna, 1995:478).

In order to manage this study I confined myself to investigating teacher dominance that may
affect learners’ achievement in all educational levels in general and preparatory education in
particular. I was inclined to Geography because Geography is suitable subject for learner-
centered methods of teaching. Moreover, it is my major subject in the undergraduate programme
and I have long years teaching experience in teaching it.

1.9 Limitations of the Study

I envisaged certain problems that I encountered in conducting this study. Shortage of time was
the major problem because my research covers a wide site or scope (6 districts) and my research
design was mixed methods. So it needed more time to collect and analyse quantitative and
qualitative data. Regarding a limitation in the mixed design methods, Creswell (2009:16) as:
15
 For the mixed methods researcher, a project will take extra time because of the
need to collect and analyse both quantitative research and the flexibility of
qualitative inquiry. The limitation include the need for extensive data collection,
the time intensive nature of analysing both text and numeric data, and the
requirement for the researcher to be familiar with both quantitative and
qualitative forms of research.

1.10 Operational Definitions of Key Terms

Preparatory school: A school which is designed to enable students (Grades 11 and 12) to
choose subjects or areas of training prepare them adequately for higher education at a university
or college and for the world of work (MOE, 1995:42).

Teaching strategy: Part of a method of teaching and it is a plan for someone else’s learning. It
encompasses the presentations which the teacher might make, the exercises and activities
designed for the students, materials which will be supplied or suggested for students to work
with, and ways in which evidence of their growing, understanding and capability will be
collected (Toohey,1999:152).

Dominance: Power and influence over the other. It is control or the state of being wielded over
others (Webster Dictionary, 2011).

1.11 Research Design

This study follows a mixed-method approach. Chapter 4 is dedicated to detailing and

substantiating the methods chosen for this approach.

1.12 Organisation of the Study

This research report was planned seven chapters briefly exposed as follows:
Chapter 1: This chapter outlines the introduction, background and problem of teacher-dominated
pedagogy in the teaching and learning of Geography and describs the purposes and significants
16
of the study. The chapter also identifies the research questions, research aim, scope and certain
limitations of the study.

Chapter 2: In this chapter relevant theories that guide the study were explained.

Chapter 3: This chapter deals with different bodies of relevant literature of the study. In this
chapter both classical and contemporary literatures were highlighted to demonstrate the
complexity of the problem.

Chapter 4: This chapter outlines the methodological approaches and research design of the study.
The data collection instruments and data analysis procedures were thoroughly explained.

Chapter 5: Deals with the analysis and presentation of data received from interviews.and open-
ended questionnaires.

Chapter 6: Explains the analysis and interpretation of data received from observation, documents
and close-ended questionnaires. Moreover, the chapter presents the findings of the study.

Finally, Chapter7: considers summary, contribution, conclusions, suggestions and

recommendations of the study.

17
 CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL GROUNDING FOR THE STUDY

2.1 Introduction
Theoretical framework is the bench mark for research work in general and educational research
in particular. “There is nothing as practical as a good theory” (Lewin, 1992:35). Educational
theory may be considered as the distilled experiences of others (Carlile, Jordan and Stack,
2004:4). “Theory matters education practices because without it education is just hit and miss
(Webb, 1996:23). Thus, my research is based on constructivist theory because I critique the
traditional approach to the teaching of Geography and advocate active learner participation in
support of the fact that knowledge is socially constructed. Thus, this chapter presents the
theoretical framework that is anchored on the constructivist teaching model designed with the
aim of bringing changes in the approaches of teaching and learning processes of Geography
education in the preparatory schools of Ethiopia.

2.2 Philosophical Approaches to Learning

Literature indicates two major philosophical approaches in the construction of knowledge, first
based on ideas and second based on experiences and enduring dichotomy in western thought.
The three most influential theories in the western world are Behaviorism, Cognitivism and
Constructivism. Each defines learning in different ways. For behaviorists, to learn is to
demonstrate more or less permanent change in behaviour; for cognitivists, learning is developing
strategies for thinking; and for constructivists, to learn is to see the meaning or significance of
experience or concept (Carlile et al, 2004:4). Thus, there is no single agreed definition of
learning depends on the theory being held. As indicated above, amongst these three theories, my
study is based on the constructivists’ theory. I base my theoretical engagements on Kolb’s
experiential learning theory as a model.

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2.2.1 Constructivism

Considering Brooks and Brooks (2006:59), Tsao (2006:79), Kolb (1984:38) and Freire
(1972:45), constructivism is a kind of philosophy which claims that knowledge is constructed by
the active engagement of the learners. Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the
premise that by reflecting our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we
live in. Learning is a search for meaning. Thus, learning should start with issues around which
students actively try to construct meaning.

Santiago and McKenzie in Asgedom, Desta, and Dufera (2006:6) claim that constructivists’
active learning approaches require teachers to develop deep understanding of their practice and
of the reforms that guide changes in that practice. Constructivists encourage students’ thinking;
accept the autonomy of students, and teachers act as facilitators or mediators. They help students
to discover meaning and understanding, rather than simply to accumulate information. Some
modern trends in learning which have been developed from constructivists’ perspective include
learner-centred learning which stresses the centrality of the learner and fostering independent
learning through the use of negotiated learning strategies and learning contracts.

Constructivists claim that people construct their own meaning by building on their previous
knowledge and experience. New ideas and experiences are matched against existing knowledge
and the learner constructs new rules to make sense of the world. They believe in learning is
desiring to find the meaning in situations and this meaning will be an individual one, since we
have all had different experiences of being in the world (Carlile, et al, 2004:6). Moreover, Tsao
(2006:62) asserts that constructivist-based learning methods offer alternative learning
opportunities and provides learners with the opportunity to apply theory to real-life situations
and bring concepts and theories to life, thereby enhancing learners’ learning.

19
2.3 Theories of Constructive Learning
Currently, constructivist theories are the cornerstone to practice education in general and
practicing Geography education in particular. In line with this concept, Aydin (2011:277) is
quoted as saying:

In recent years constructivist learning theory has an important place in the fields of
Geography education to educate students who play an active role of engaging in
research for deep knowledge and use the information they have learnt rather than
the students who play a passive recipient role in the information (Aydin, 2011:277).

There are several theories that explain the role of individual autonomy on learning. The common
constructivist theories relevant to the topic under study are Kolb’s theory of experiential
learning, Freire’s theory of pedagogy of the oppressed, Race’s ripples model of learning,
Vygotsky’s social learning theory, Gagne‘s conditions learning theory, Papert’s theory of
constructivism, Bruner’s discovery learning theory, Novak’s theory of human mind, Murray’s
achievement motivation theory, Piaget’s cognitive adaptation theory, and Atkinson’s and
Shiffrin’s information processing theory. Each of these theories is discussed subsequently with a
purpose to help explain the constructivist theory that provides the foundation for this study.

2.3.1 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory

Kolb (1984:38) defines experiential learning as learning that relates to or results from
experience. Kolb uses the term “experiential” as his theory is based more on reflection of
experiences. Thus, Kolb calls this theory experiential learning since experience is the source of learning
and development.

Experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984:38) has influenced the work of teachers and trainers
particularly those involved learners with 16 years and above. According to this theory, learning
is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.
Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it (Kolb,
1984: 41).

20
Kolb has proposes six main characteristics of learning:

• Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes;

• Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience;
• Learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of
adaptation to the world (learning is by its very nature full of tension);
• Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world;
• Learning involves transactions between the person and the environment; and
• Learning is the process of creating knowledge that is the result of the transaction between
social knowledge and personal knowledge.

This theory presents a way of structuring and sequencing the curriculum and indicates how a
session or entire course may be thaught to improve learners’ learning. It suggests that learning is
cyclical, involving four stages – experience, reflect, generalise and test. An important feature of
this theory is the different stages which are associated with distinct learning styles and raising
students’ awareness of alternative approaches and helping them to be more flexible in meeting
varied demands of learning situations.

Kolb's learning model is based on two continuums that form a quadrant. The first is processing
continuum, which is approaching to a task, such as preferring to learn by doing or watching. The
second is perception continuum, which is refering to the emotional response, such as preferring
to learn by thinking or feeling. This model is displayed in figure 2.1 below:

21
Figure 2.1: Kolb’s learning theory (1984)

Figure 2.1 reflects the following dimensions:

• Reflective observation (watching): looking for the meaning of the experience.

• Abstract conceptualisation (thinking): logical analysis of the experience.

• Active experimentation (doing): ability to move from the experience to action.

• Processing continuum: one’s approach to learning (doing vs. watching)

• Perception Continuum: one’s emotional response to learning (thinking vs. feeling).

The core of Kolb’s four stage model is a simple description of a learning cycle that shows how
experience is translated through reflection concepts, which in turn used as guidance for active
experimentation and the choice of new experiences. This model of learning is explained as
follows:

• Action: The learner performs some type of activity related to the lesson or subject.
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• Reflection: The learners reflect what s/he did and what happened as a result of her/his
activity. This can be in one of several forms such as, free writing, journaling, or small or
large group discussions.

• Knowledge/theory: The learner uses the results of the reflection to develop knowledge and
theories, which helps further the learning process because the learner is conceptualising
his/her own theories, not accepting the theory of the instructor.

• Planning: It is based on the learner’s theories what to do next and anticipate the results of
further activity. This process moves the learner into the higher levels of thinking than merely
recall and recite facts.

Kolb's learning theory sets out four distinct learning styles, which are based on a four-stage
learning cycle. In this respect, Kolb's model offers both a way to understand individual learning
styles, which he named the "learning styles inventory," and also an explanation of a cycle of
experiential learning that applies to all learners. It provides a learning cycle that involves four
processes that must be present for learning to occur and displayed below:

Perception Continuum
Concrete
experience
(Feeling)

Active Processing Continuum Reflective

experimentation observation
(Doing)
(Watching)
Abstract
Conceptualisat
ion (Thinking)

Figure 2.2: Kolb’s learning cycle (Source: Kolb, 1984)

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The learning cycle is explained as:

• Concrete experience (feeling): Learning from specific experiences and to people being
sensitive to other's feelings.
• Reflective observation (watching): Observing before making judgment by viewing the
environment from different perspectives. It looks for the meaning of things.
• Abstract conceptualisation (thinking): Logical analysis of ideas and acting on intellectual
understanding of a situation.
• Active experimentation (doing): Ability to get things done by influencing people and events
through action. It includes risk-taking.

Depending upon the situation or environment, the learners may enter the learning cycle at any
point and will best learn the new task if they practice all four modes. Listed below are some
examples:

Example 1: Learning to ride a bicycle:

• Reflective observation: Thinking about riding and watching another person ride a bike.
• Abstract conceptualisation: Understanding the theory and having a clear grasp of the biking
concept.
• Concrete experience: Receiving practical tips and techniques from a biking expert.
• Active experimentation: Leaping on the bike and have a go at it.

Example 2: Learning a software program:

• Active experimentation: Jumping in and doing it.

• Reflective observation: Thinking about what you just performed.
• Abstract conceptualisation: Reading the manual to get a clearer grasp on what was
performed.
• Concrete experience: Using the help feature to get some expert tips.

Example 3: Learning to coach:

• Concrete experience: Having a coach guide you in coaching someone else.

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• Active experimentation: Using your people skills with what you have learned to achieve your
own coaching style.
• Reflective observation: Observing how other people coach.
• Abstract conceptualisation: Reading articles to find out the pros and cons of different
methods.

Kolb views the learning process as a context of people moving between the modes of concrete
experience (CE), abstract conceptualization (AC), reflective observation (RO) and active
experimentation (AE). Thus, the effectiveness of learning relies on the ability to balance these
modes, which Kolb sees as opposite activities that best promote learning.

In addition, Kolb (1984:75) claims that concrete experience and abstract conceptualisation reflect
right-brain and left-brain thinking respectively. Kolb theorised that the four combinations of
perceiving and processing determine one of four learning styles of how people prefer to learn.
Kolb believes that learning styles are not fixed personality traits, but relatively stable patterns of
behavior based on their background and experiences. Thus, they can be taught of more as
learning preferences, rather than styles. Learning styles are briefed as follows:
• Diverging (concrete, reflective): emphasises the innovative and imaginative approach to do
things. It views concrete situations from many perspectives and adapts by observation rather
than by action. It is interesting in people and tends to be feeling-oriented. Likes such
activities as cooperative groups and brainstorming.
• Assimilating (abstract, reflective): pulls a number of different observations and taughts into
an integrated whole. Like to reason inductively and create models and theories. It also likes
to design projects and experiments.
• Converging (abstract, active): It emphasises the practical application of ideas and solving
problems. It likes decision-making, problem-solving and practical application of ideas. It also
prefers technical problems over interpersonal issues.
• Accommodating (concrete, active): uses trial and error rather than taught and reflection. It is
good at adapting to changing circumstances; solves problems in an intuitive, trial-and-error
manner, such as discovery learning. It also tends to be at ease with people.

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Furthermore, Kolb (1984:48) focuses the role of experience and active learning. He suggests a
cycle of learning begins with experience and progresses to reflection on that experience. The
next stage of the cycle is that of conceptualisation or the acquisition of key ideas. These may
arise from the reflective process or from established theory. This will lead on to the next stage.
This stage states the synthesis of experience, reflection and theory lead to a modification of the
learning cycle. The iteraction of the learning cycle leads to a growth in knowledge, depth of
understanding and improved practice.

This cycle has been influential in curriculum planning, in the popularity of active learning, and in
the identification of the specific learning orientations of learners. Kolb’s own instrument and that
derived from it by the UK psychologists, Honey and Mumford (1992:97) seek to identify
learners along the four dimensions identified above. Kolb’s theory points to the diversity of
learner styles and the importance of different learning strategies. Therefore, so as to satisfy
individual learner’s learning styles, teachers have to consider learners with their different
learning styles and apply varied learning-teaching strategies.

As already mentioned above, Kolb's learning theory sets out four distinct learning styles based
on a four-stage learning cycle. Thus, this theory is related to the teaching of Geography in which
learners should get an opportunity to learn through a strategy that match with their learning
styles because each learners has his/her learning style. Moreover, just like Kolb’s view, I believe
in that learning is best conceived as a process, not as outcomes aggregating the two continuums,
processing continuum and perception continuum.

Therefore, learning by doing, learning by watching, learning thinking and learning by feeling are
the main strategies of the theory and thus they are the main learning-teaching strategies of
Geography teaching. Therefore, I appreciate and work in line with Kolb.s experiential learning
theory and I am encouraging the idea that teachers should provide opportunities to the learners
so as to practice learner-centered learning-teaching strategies and encourage learners to be
responsible for their learning. So Kolb’s theory is the bench mark for my work.

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2.3.2 Freire’s Theory of Pedagogy of the Oppressed

Pedagogy of the oppressed is the most widely known philosophy, Freire's work. It proposes
pedagogy with a new relationship between teacher, learners and society. Dedicated to what is
called “the oppressed" and based on his own experience helping Brazilian adults to read and
write. Freire had included a detailed Marxist class analysis in his exploration of the relationship
between what he calls "the colonizer" and "the colonized." His book, Pedagogy of the oppressed,
remains popular among philosophies all over the world and is one of the foundations of critical
pedagogy. In the book Freire calls traditional pedagogy the "banking model" because it treats the
learners as an empty vessel to be filled with knowledge, like a piggybank. However, he argues
for pedagogy to treat the learner as a co-creator of knowledge.

The first part of his work explores how oppression has been justified and how it is overcome
through a mutual process between the "oppressor" and the "oppressed" (oppressors-oppressed
distinction). Examining how the balance of power between the colonizer and the colonised
remains relatively stable, Freire admits that the powerless in society can be frightened of
freedom. In this regard, Freire (1972:45) writes:

Freedom is acquired by conquest, not by gift. It must be pursued constantly and

responsibly. Freedom is not an ideal located outside of man; nor is it an idea which
becomes myth. It is rather the indispensable condition for the quest for human
completion (Freire, 1972:45).

According to Freire, freedom will be the result of praxis-informed action — when a balance
between theory and practice is achieved. His work examines the "banking" approach to
education — a metaphor that he used to suggest that learners are considered empty bank
accounts that should remain open to be deposited by the teachers. Freire rejects the "banking"
approach, claiming its results in the dehumanisation of both the learners and the teachers. In
addition, he argues that the banking approach stimulates oppressive attitudes and practices in
society. Instead he advocates for a more world-mediated, mutual approach to education that
considers people incomplete. According to Freire, this "authentic" approach to education must
allow people to be aware of their incompleteness and strive to be more fully human. This attempt

27
to use education as a means of consciously shaping the person and the society is called
conscientisation, a term first coined by Freire in his book cited above.

As indicated above, Freire’s theory strongly criticises the banking approach of education;
learners considered as empty bank accounts remain open to deposits made by the teacher. Thus,
it implies that learners are considered as empty vessels waiting for the teacher to be filled and
teachers are a fountain of knowledge. No chance is given to the learners to exercise their
academic power to construct knowledge by themselves. There must be power balance between
teachers and learners – teachers facilitate the instructional process and learners construct
knowledge.

Therefore, I appreciate and work in line with the core idea of this theory which suggests mutual
approach to education that considers people incomplete. Both learners and teachers are learners.
Thus, to be complete human being, they should learn each other. As a result, learners get an
opportunity to engage in the learning-teaching process and construct knowledge. Pedagogical
freedom in the learning-teaching process in general and in Geography education in particular is
the key factor to create opportunities to the learners so as to practice variety of learning strategies
relevant to their learning styles. Therefore, this theory is the pillar of my work.

2.3.3 Race’s Ripples Model of Learning

Race (1993) in Ademe (2010:77) proposes a simpler and more “down-to-earth” model of
learning which he feels practicing teachers and learners could relate to more easily. Race’s
model is based on the premise of experiential learning, learning by doing as he describes it. He
agrees with Kolb and others experiential learning on the importance of receiving feedback on the
success or otherwise of the learning process, often from other people, and on the importance of
reflecting on one’s learning experience and developing a sense of ownership. He departs from
Kolb in identifying a new element in the learning process, the internal motivation that makes a
person want to learn something in the first place.

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Accordingly, Race (1993) in Ademe (2010:76) lists the four basic elements of his model as:

• Wanting: motivation;

• Doing: practice, trial and error;

• Digesting: making sense of it or gaining ownership; and

• Feedback: seeing the results; other student’s reactions

As it was mentioned earlier, Race’s model of learning is similar to that of Kolb in that it is based
on experiential learning and that it is dynamic in nature. However, Race’s model differs from
Kolb in that various elements are not regarded as constituting a sequential cycle. Rather, they are
regarded as constituting an integrated, interacting ‘whole’ – to use Race’s words, “rather like
intersecting systems of ripples on a pond” (Ademe, 2010:76). For further understanding, Race’s
model is diagrammatically displayed as follows:

Figure 2.3: Race’s ripples model of learning (Source: Ademe, 2010:76)

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Regarding Race’s model of learning, Ademe (2010:76-77) explains:

The model is active, in that, the ‘wanting’ element need to be all ‘pervasive’, so
that ‘doing’ is wanted, opportunities for digesting are seised, ‘feedback’ is
positively sought, and so on. Therefore, wanting is placed at the very heart of
model, sending ripples of motivation out through the surrounding layers.
Placing wanting at the centre of the schematic representation of the model also
symbolises its internal origin within the learner. Similarly, ‘feedback’ is all-
pervasive, sending sets of ripples into the model from the various sources that
provide it (instructors, fellow learners, self-assessment questions, and so on).
Placing of ‘feedback’ the outside of the model symbolises its mainly external
origin. ‘Doing’ and ‘digesting’, on the other hand, are regarded as overlapping
processes that are continuously influenced both by internally-generated
‘wanting’ and by externally-generated ‘feedback’ (Ademe, 2010:76-77).

This theory is related to the teaching of Geography because wanting is the core of learning in
general and Geography learning activities in particular. I believe in that knowledge is constructed
by the learners through active participation in the learning-teaching process. In order to
participate, learners have to develop wanting/motivation to learn. Motivation is the base of all
fruitful learning-teaching activities in general and Geography learning-teaching activities in
particular. Besides, feedback is also important factor to students’ academic improvement because
it increases their motivation to learn from their experiences and from their friends through
learning by doing, demonstration, observation and field report. Thus, this theory is highly
relevant to teaching in learner-centred approach in general and geography teaching in particular.

2.3.4 Vygotsky’s Social Learning Theory

Vygotsky (1978:87) focuses on the impacts of social interaction on learning. Vygotsky maintains
that peers, parents, teachers or othe socities who interact with the learners play an important role
in the learners’ learning. Moreover, Vygotsky (1978:90) argues that there is a limit to which the
individual can perform a given tasks alone. Beyond that limit his/her success depends on support
from other people. Vygotsky refers to this limit as a zone of proximal development. This zone is

30
the boundary between what a learner can successfully performs without support and what he/she
will be able to perform in the future as new skills are required.

The implication of Vygotsky’s theory to the teaching and learning process is that learner’s ability
to reconstruct ideas is enhanced through interaction and exchange of ideas with other people.
This theory recognises that learners can modify their preconceptions through social negotiation
of ideas. Social negotiation of meaning implies exchanging of ideas, weighing alternative
conceptions from multiple perspectives. Through negotiating meanings, learners identify the
pitfalls of their preconceptions and modify them in the light of shared meaning.

Vygotsky’s theory appreciates social interaction as the base of effective learning and teaching
activities. Geography is an interactive discipline. Its domain, such as the physical aspects,
political aspects, demographic aspects, economic aspects and biological aspects are highly
conducive for social interaction. Thus, it has commonalities with my view because I believe in
that learners construct knowledge from their experience, interacting with their mates, teachers,
families and their environment where as teachers are facilitators.

When learners learn from each other, teachers may have not a chance to dominate learning and
teaching activities or exercise more power to transfer knowledge rather they become facilitators.
Learners’ interaction is the main strategy for critical thinking, confidence, creativity, team work
in any educational activities in general and Geography education in particular.

By and large, the theory encourages learner-centered activities; learners are knowledge
constructors and teachers are facilitators. So I am working on learning and teaching strategies
that make learners responsible to their own learning and teachers facilitate learners’ learning
activities. Geography by its nature is an interactive discipline. Geography learners interact with
their friends, the surrounding community and their environment at large to construct their
knowledge. Therefore, Vygotsky’s theory supports the teaching of Geography through learner-
centered methods.

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2.3.5 Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory

Gagne’s (1985:113) theory of the conditions of learning advocates that learning is influenced by
internal and external conditions. Internal conditions of learning refer to the psychological state of
the learners such as attention, motivation and recall. On the other hand, external conditions of
learning refer to environmental factors that determine how learning events are arranged and the
timing of stimulus events in any learning endeavor. Thus, these two factors jointly interact to
account for differences in the ability to learn.

This theory provides a framework for analysing the place of problem-solving in learning. When
learners confront with problems, they quickly recall previously learned rules in a bid to reach a
solution to the problem. They test hypotheses to judge the applicability of new propositions.
Moreover, Gagne further stressed that when individuals find the appropriate combination of rules
that fit in to logical propositions they have not only solved the problem but also have learned
something new. Conditions of learning theory identify problem-solving as consisting not only of
the learning of rules but also the application of cognitive strategies in finding solutions to
problems.

This theory encourages learner-centered learning strategies such as problem solving. Moreover,
the theory advocates that learning is influenced by internal as well as external factors such as
attention, motivation, recall, and timing of stimulus and arrangements of learning events. Thus, if
learners are the center of learning, they have attention for their learning and teaching activities
and the teacher acts as a facilitator; he/she should motivate learners’ effort and participation. So
when learners attend attentively they will recall what they have learned. As a result, learners
increase their interest towards their learning and accept that as they are responsible for their
learning. Therefore, knowledge is constructed by their active engagement to the learning and
teaching activities.

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Moreover, so as to solve problems, learners have to apply cognitive strategies (problem solving,
discussion method, questioning technique) and previously learned rules. Here, what we
understand that, the above mentioned strategies are the main learning and teaching strategies of
Geography. In order to solve problems, learners have to recall the previous learning experiences.
In order to recall the past learning experiences, learners have to learn through active learning
strategies that develop learners’ critical thinking capacities. So I am working on the learning and
teaching strategies of Geography that motivate learners to learn by themselves via interacting
with their mates, recall their experiences and interact with their environments by reducing the
teachers’ power to transmit information. Therefore, this theory is the corner stone to the teaching
of geography or my work.

2.3.6 Papert’s Theory of Constructivism

In the theory of constructivism, Papert (1993:158) states that individuals learn by actively
constructing or designing personal meaningful artifacts rather than by absorbing information
transmitted to them by someone else. This theory stresses that knowledge is generated by
experiencing the environment and sharing of ideas with other people. Its assumption is that
Papert’s doctrine has had a remarkable influence on education in recent times, and essentially in
Geography education for its departuring from the traditional view of learning that purports the
learners as a tabula rasa, empty vessel to be filled with knowledge.

Crucial to Papert’s constructivism is his revolution of the emphasis that the school places on
abstract reasoning while little is done to promote learning from concrete experiences. This view
is consistent with Piaget (1970:121) and Vygotsky (1978:86), who conceived learning as the
construction of new knowledge. If we advocate that knowledge is constructed, therefore,
instruction should aim at guiding the learners to modify their preconceptions rather than transmit
knowledge to them. Thus, it is important for teachers to recognise the need of the learners to live
the lesson that they learn.

33
2.3.7 Bruner’s discovery Learning Theory
Jerome Bruner’s (1961:94) theory states that learners construct new ideas by selecting and
transforming ideas, propounding tentative views, and by taking ownership of the learning
process and outcomes. Thus, teaching should be concerned with the presentation of experiences
and contexts that make the learners have a willing and able to learn through discovery of
meaning. Moreover, Bruner (1966:17) had asserted that teaching should recognize the
importance of the learning readiness and the way to organise and present learning activities in
order for the ideas to make sense to the learners.

Bruner (1996:84; 1990:91; 1986:73) also argues that teaching should be designed in ways that
promote the extrapolation of ideas. The extrapolation of ideas means shifting from information
transmission to knowledge construction. Furthermore, Bruner (1966:62) has argued that
individuals learn concepts by formulating and testing their ideas about the concepts. He
conceives of learning as an active process that involves the construction of new ideas based up
on prior and present experiences.

Generally, according to Bruner (1966:37) the importance of discovery in learning is reactivating

the mental structures or schema that the learner has already constructed. Thus, apart from the
reactivation of existing cognitive schema, discovery oriented activities facilitate the formation of
the new mental structures as the learners make sense of their environment.

I also agree with Bruner’s view; discovery learning is the main strategy in the educational
process in general and Geography education in particular because it motivates the learners how
to reason and think themselves. As a result, learning becomes unforgettable. Therefore, teachers
have to create opportunities to the learners to learn by discovery method. Geography learners
should learn and construct knowledge through active learning strategies such as discovery
learning, fieldwork, activity-based learning, role-play, inquiry, discussion, demonstration etc
(Olusegun, 2006:65). Therefore, Bruner’s theory and my view are positively overlap because
they encourage active learning and learners have to be the center of learning and knowledge
constructors where as teachers should be facilitators the teaching process.

34
2.3.8 Novak’s Theory of Human Mind
Novak (1977:49-51) explains knowledge construction as high level of meaningful learning and
propositions as building blocks to construct ideas. Knowledge construction is challenging
process because it involves activity, thinking, and reflection. It is also exciting in the sense that
the individual feels some sense of accomplishment and ease of tension when conceptual
ambiguity is reconciled.

New concepts are learned as the individual constructs new mental patterns. According to Novak
(2002:31; 1998:17; 1993:9; 1990:25) the construction of new knowledge requires that the
individual should demonstrate commitment to persist in searching for new meanings. From the
constructivist point of view, the centeral purpose of education is constructing and applying new
knowledge. In this view, knowledge is not something that an individual transmits to another.
Rather, individuals construct and reconstruct their own knowledge.

This theory highly emphasised on knowledge construction not knowledge transmitting. Thus, in
order to construct knowledge, learners have to get a strategy that encourages their activity-based
learning, critical thinking and reflection. Teachers should facilitate individual learner to learn
through learning by doing, critical thinking and reflection and searching new meanings to apply
new knowledge to solve problems. Therefore, since the emergence of the theory acknowledge
construction, various active learning methods, difference in individual learning styles, difference
in perception and experiences, it is strongly related with Geography education because
nowadays, geographers advocate learner-centered approaches, differences in individual learning
styles, differences in perception and experiences.

Moreover, I am working on the view that learners in general and Geography learners in
particular have to get a learning strategies that encourage learners engagement, individual
learner’s learning style, individual learner’s level of understanding and experiences. Therefore,
Novak’s theory of human mind has a strong linkage in Geography education in general and my
research work in particular.

35
2.3.9 Murray’s Achievement Motivation Theory
The theory of Murray (1938:71) which is the theory of achievement motivation states that
humans have the desire to manipulate and organise or overcome obstacles, attain a high standard
to excel. Academic success demands cognitive engagement on the part of the learners. Cognitive
engagement is the amount of effort spent in either studying or completing assignments.

According to McCombs and Marzano (1990:13), achievement outcomes are a function of skill
and will. Skill is the ability while will is motivation. Individuals who have the skills and are
more willing to learn are likely to excel than those who lack the will even if they have the skills.
Willingness is not achieved through teacher-centered; passive learners instruction. Moreover,
Tuckman (1999:53) points out that the extent to which individual’s motivation to learn is
influenced by the value and nature of the activity and the value of the outcomes.

This theory also acknowledges learners’ engagement in the learning and teaching activities to
construct knowledge. As stated in the theory, learners are active participants and the core of the
learning and teaching processes. Moreover, the theory underlines that learners’ willingness is
affected by teacher-centered / passive learning instruction. Therefore, since Murray’s theory
acknowledge learner-centered approach and learners’ willingness to learn, it is strongly linked
with my work because I have been working my research on the strategies that provide
opportunities to learners to engage in the learning and teaching activities and able to construct
their own knowledge by themselves.

2.3.10 Piaget’s Cognitive Adaptation Theory

Piaget is one of the scholars whose work influences understanding of how humans construct
knowledge. As Piaget (1972:37; 1970:23) maintains, the theory of cognitive adaptation explains
the influence of direct or authentic experience with the environment on learning. Through
authentic experience, individuals come to face to face with reality, scuffle with it, hypothesise
about it, move on to search for further meaning to clarify thoughts and turn back to test if the
initial propositions are tenable.

36
Moreover, Piaget (1966:115) recognises the role of social environment on learning and argues
that human being is immersed in a social environment affects him as much as his physical
environment. According to this theory, human beings are constantly learning or adapting as they
interact with the environment. Learning is a process of adaptation to the new environments and
making sense of new events with reference to existing knowledge. In other words, adaptation
entails fitting new ideas in to an existing cognitive structure.

Furthermore, Piaget (1970:102) emphasises another cognitive process that is accommodation.

Accommodation is the restructuring of existing mental schemes in order for them to be adapted
to new situations. If new information cannot be made to fit into existing schemes, a new more
appropriate structure must be developed to fit in it. Each individual is responsible for what he fits
in to his/her schema; no one should fit in ideas into another’s schema. Based on this notion, the
teaching that emphasises the transmission of knowledge from teacher to learners is feeble/week
and unproductive in the sense that it attempts to fit the teacher’s thoughts and beliefs into the
learner’s schema.

Most classroom teachers, though unintentionally, have denied the learners’ opportunity to
discover and invent ideas by doing what the learners themselves should do and thinking what the
learners should have been allowed to think. Following the Piaget’s view, Lorsbach and Tobin
(1992:45) state that instruction should provide the learners with opportunity to apply the senses
in search for meaning. It is only through seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and testing that an
individual interacts with the environment and build a picture of the world.

Piaget’s theory criticises teachers’ dominance on the learners’ learning and teaching activities.
So I am doing on the teachers’ dominance teaching and indicate strategies that reduce teacher
dominance teaching and increase learners’ opportunity to engage in the knowledge construction
process. Therefore, Piaget’s theory is also linked to my bench mark theory; Kolb’s experiential
learning theory.

37
2.3.11 Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s Information Processing Theory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968:78) use the information store model to illustrate how information is
processed by individuals. The theory recognises that the learner is not empty vessel to be filled
with ideas but rather an active organism that seeks and constructs meaning as he/she interacts
with the environment. They likened knowledge construction to a library shelving system.
Shelving is a hypothesis testing process. Shelving provides the opportunity for the review of
meaning. Ideas cannot be shelved without being re-examined. Instructions that facilitate shelving
are those that provide the opportunities for learner to review alternative conceptions.

One of the ways to facilitate the review alternative conception is learning by doing rather than
transmission and absorption of factual knowledge. Through shelving the learner retrieves and
reconstructs meaning. The shelving of meaning is not facilitated by the teacher-centered
instruction. Knowledge transmission instruction is ineffective to activate the existing mental
schemes to stimulate the shelving process. Instructions that facilitate shelving are those that
recognize the learner as the meaning maker.

2.4 Application of the Afore-mentioned Theories in Geography Education

The above theories are related to my work because I stood from the premise of incompatibility of
education policy and actual practice in Geography education at preparatory secondary school in
particular. The education policy advocates learner-centered approaches, considers individual
differences in learning styles, capacity and experiences. However, in my experience and
literatures reveal that in most Ethiopian preparatory schools learning and teaching activities of
Geography is conducted through traditional teaching strategy, dominantly by lecture method.
Whereas the practice is teacher-centered approaches and does not acknowledge individual
differences in learning styles and experiences. As a result, learners are dominated by teacher’s
activity/information. Therefore, the aforementioned theories are the key instruments to break this
type of teacher’s dominance teaching and to make learners active participant and knowledge
constructers as well as to make teachers as facilitators of the teaching and learning process of
Geography.

38
Thus, these theories are valid and plausible framework for my study because they provide a
rationale for a variety of learner-centered learning and teaching strategies to make learners
knowledge constructors such as field work/trip, independent learning, learning by doing, work-
based learning and problem-based learning which recently received much attention in Geography
education.

One of the particular strength of these theories is that they provide a theoretical rationale for
ensuring effective links between policy and practice in Geography education because Geography
is an outdoor, more practical and participatory discipline. Moreover, Geography by its nature is a
real and practical subject and needs a down-to-earth approach and Geography is an interactive
science so that ripple-pond effect is clearly observed. It means if there is learners’
wanting/motivation there will be an active interaction among learners with their environment,
with their mates, with the society and with their teachers in Geography teaching and learning
process and construct Geographical knowledge. Thus, Geography learning and teaching
strategies have a triples-pond effect, learners’ readiness ripples other learning and teaching
activities. In other word learners’ wanting/motivation has an impact on learners’ doing, digesting
and feedbacks.

Generally, learner-centered methods have to be practiced to substitute a portion of conventional

lectures in Geography education. Geography teaching should be designed in ways that promote
the extrapolation of ideas; Geography learners shift from information receiver to knowledge
constructor and Geography teachers also should shift their view from information transmitter to
facilitator to learners’ knowledge construction activities. Owing to reach mathematical analysis
relevance to Geographical application like map reading, population and vegetation distribution
variation in terms of attitude differences, tourism and other Geographical domains in which
traditional teaching methods might have been found to be inadequate in the past.

Demonstration modules to be designed by learners using Kolb’s model and multi-media

presentations introduce a learner-centered learning environment in Geography education. These
modules integrated into the subject produce several desirable outcomes. Feedback from the

39
learners will be obtained through a feedback sheet and learners’ journals have discussed.
Suggestions for further improvement of this activity have also provided. With some
modification, this approach can become one of the most efficient ways of teaching Geography in
the future.
2.5 Conclusion
Generally, the chapter incorporated introduction, philosophical approaches, constructive theories
of learning such as Kolb’s experiential learning theory, Freire’s theory of pedagogy of the
oppressed, Race’s ripples model of learning, Gagne’s conditions learning theory, Papert’s theory
of constructivism, Bruner’s discovery learning theory, Novak’s theory of human mind, Murray’s
achievement motivation theory, Piaget’s condition adaptation theory, Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s
information processing theory.

All the afore-mentioned theories advocate the view of constructivism and are related each other.
Even though each theories has its own drawback, all the aforementioned theories have also
contribution to my study; Geography education in line with constructivist point of view because
Geography is an outdoor discipline and practiced in real object and phenomena and thus, it needs
a learning and teaching strategies that encourage learners’ engagement in the knowledge
construction activities and make the learners responsible for their own Geography learning.

40
 CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF TEACHING-LEARNING GEOGRAPHY

3.1 Introduction
Researchers need much reading to understand their work and methods to employ even though it
is difficult to get on top of or make sense of it (Mengistu, 2011:35). This is confirmed by
Fraenkel and Wallen (2000:71):

Before planning the details of a study, researchers usually dig into the literature
to find out what has been written about the topic they are interested in
investigating (both the opinions of experts in the field and other research studies
are of interest), such reading is referred to as a “review of literature (Fraenkel
and Wallen, 2000:71).”

Fraenkel and Wallen (2000:71) further state that literatures review are helpful for the researchers
to glean the ideas of others interested in a particular research questions and let them to see what
the results of others’ (similar, or related) studies related to the study under investigation.
Researchers then weigh information from a literature review in light of their own concerns and
situation. Thus, they need not only locate others work dealing with their intended area of study
but also to be able to evaluate this work in terms of its relevance to the research questions of
interest.

Therefore, so as to understand the degree of the problem internationally, regionally and locally
researchers should read various relevant literatures to the topic they intend to investigate. Hence,
this chapter indicates the main relevant scholarship surveyed about the topic under study. It does
this by specifically surveying literature on the approaches of teaching, methods of teaching,
teacher competence, and school efficiency and instructional media.

41
3.2 Approaches of teaching
3.2.1 Teacher-centered Approach
Teacher-centered approach is an approach which makes the teacher the center of the teaching-
learning activities. Regarding this approach, Ademe (2010:85) states:

In the traditional teacher-centered approach, the teacher imparts subject matter

knowledge to a class of students. The classes normally take place at set times and
last for a predetermined period, as indicated by timetable, while the teaching
methods are almost invariably of the face-to-face type. The whole system is
generally geared towards the smooth operation of the teaching institution, with
little or no attempt being made to cate for the different learning styles and
particular difficulties of individual students (Ademe, 2010:85).

One of the main methods being blamed for the tradition of teacher dominance in teaching is the
lecture method. Lecture method is the method which makes the teacher knowledge transmitter
and learners passive receivers. To strengthen this claim, Olusegun (2006:68) argues:

Lecture method is the oldest teaching method which is believed historically to be

dated back antiquity. It is also referred to as expository method because it is
teacher dominated and learners passived method. It is also known as talk-and-
chalk method in a situation when the teacher decides to write the summary of the
points s/he has taught on the board. In this method, the learners’ involvement and
participation is at low ebb because communication is often one way for most of the
time during the teaching-learning process (Olusegun, 2006:68).

Moreover, Young, Robinson and Alberts (2009) have depicted that maintaining students’
concentration in lectures has long been a challenge for teachers. Pedagogical research
consistently finds a drop in attention between 10 and 30 minutes into the lecture, which has been
associated with the passive nature of the standard format and has consequences for learning

42
approaches and outcomes. However, undoubtedly, one of the reasons why the lecture has
retained its dominant place in the educational and training scene is that the method appears to be
highly cost-effective since it enables high teacher-students ratios to be achieved (Ademe,
2010:116).

In large class size, insufficient resources and scarcity of qualified teachers, the lecture method
may be an appropriate teaching method in general and in Geography teaching in particular.
Similarly, Olusegun (2006:68) merits the lecture method based on such constraints that teachers
face.

Thus, in a large class of learners and in a situation where there is inadequate number of
competent and qualified teachers coupled with insufficient instructional materials lecture method
with note taking technique may be more effective than any other methods. In fact, in the
Geography teaching lecture method will be more effective in a very large class situation in which
the teacher combines the method with the effective use of instructional materials, questioning
technique and other appropriate strategies.

Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to identify the reason why teachers resist a
paradigm shift from teacher-centred to learner-centered approach in the Ethiopian schools
context and give appropriate/relevant recommendation to the concerned bodies so as to
encourage learners’ engagement in their Geography learning-teaching processes.

3.2.2 Learner-centered Teaching Approaches

According to Ademe (2010:89) while conventional approach is strongly dominated by the
teacher and institutional constraints, learner-centered approach is designed to provide the
learner with a highly flexible system of learning which is geared to individual life and
learning styles. In such approach, the teacher and the institution play supportive rather than
central roles. Nayak and Rao (2004:213) also claim that the teacher primarily becomes the
facilitator who structures learning opportunities and encourages students to work together to
build a common body of knowledge.

43
Thus, to make the teaching-learning process active, giving attention in the classroom to the
student as the centre of learning is an important concern of teachers. Collaborative learning
among students, between students and instructors, and between classes, independent learning
and generative active learning techniques such as fieldwork, seminar, discussion, debate,
group projects, case study, simulation, role playing exercises, sharing of solutions problems
or answer for review questions for exams, collaborative compositions of essays, stories or
research debates, and role play games.

Active learning requires that students are engaged and active in the learning process. The
teacher is coach or facilitator, guiding students through activities but letting them to take
control of the learning event itself (Brown & Duguid, 2000:133). The implementation of
learner-centered learning and teaching approaches has its own principles and the main
principles are indicated below.

3.2.2.1 Principles of Learner-centered Teaching

Learner-centred teaching represents a fundamental shift from the teacher being the centre of
attention in the classroom to the student as the centre of learning (Wiemer in Baker College,
2005:2). According to this author, learner-centered teaching follows seven principles stated as
follows:

Principle 1: Teachers do learning tasks less, but learners do more of organising the content,
generating the examples, asking the questions, answering the questions, summarising the
discussion, solving problems, constructing diagrams.

Principle 2: Teachers do less telling but learners do more discovering, stop telling students
everything and hold them accountable for knowing or asking.

Principle 3: Teachers do more design work based on effective assignments and activities,
increase learners’ skills, motivate learners’ involvement and participation, designing work that is

44
related to the discipline/real world, and develop content knowledge, learning skills and
awareness.

Principle 4: Faculty does more modeling for learners by demonstrating how an expert
approaches a learning task.

Principle 5: Faculty does more to get learners’ learning from and with each other through
collaborative and cooperative groups for learning.

Principle 6: Faculty creates climates for learning and an environment of accountability.

Principle 7: Faculty does more with feedback, providing formative feedback separate from
evaluation and grading.

Thus, from the afore-mentioned principles, it is possible to suggest that in the teaching-learning
process learners are responsibled for their learning and constructing knowledge by themselves
through varied learning activities and active participation. Therefore, teachers should facilitate
the teaching-learning activities by creating conducive teaching-learning atmosphere through
varied teaching-learning strategies and motivate students’ activity through immediate and
constructive feedback.

The aforementioned principles of teaching should be integrated to the learner-centred curriculum

and practiced in the real learning and teaching activities of Geography education via varied
methods of teaching. Thus, the nature of learner-centered curriculum is discussed below.

45
3.2.2.2 Learner-centered Curriculum Structures

Good (1973:157) defines curriculum as a general overall plan of courses and learning
experiences offered to students under the guidance of the school. Curriculum planning and
development focuses the main components such as themes, units, objectives, contents, teaching
methods, instructional materials and evaluation techniques. It also explains the arrangements of
topics from the learners’ immediate environments to the other parts of the country (Olusegun,
2006:35). Research on educational practices and projections about future needs in society
contributes to the current understanding of the structure of school curriculum in general and in
Geography curriculum in particular.

It is argued that learner-centered approach should be integrated with curriculum in general and
Geography curriculum in particular (Gardner, 2011, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). Gardner
(2011:2 Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) also provides reasons why learner-centered approach
should be integrated with the curriculum; it strengthens learners’ motivation, promotes peer
communication, builds teachers and learners relationships, promotes discovery/active learning
and gives responsibility for one’s own learning.

Thus, so as to provide relevant contents, objectives, methods, teachers’ role and students’
activities in the curriculum, the curriculum designers should consider the unique nature of each
discipline. Therefore, Geography as a discipline has its unique nature that curriculum designers
should take in to consideration. Regarding the nature of Geography, Olusegun (2006) quoted as:

Geography is versatile, expressive, creative, problem-solving, practical and

intellectually stimulating school subject. The distinctive characteristics of
Geography, i.e. centeral concepts, logical internal structure, methodology,
integrative nature and transparent interdisciplinary effects make it an integral
part of any worthwhile school curriculum (Olusegun, 2006:28).

Supporting the above claim, Demirci, Kesler and Kaya (2010:53-54) explain that Geography
curriculum has to be revised and encourage teachers to implement many different activities in
46
their lessons by utilising new methods and techniques. Demirci, Kesler and Kaya (2010:59) also
posit that the development of a new secondary school Geography curriculum is a milestone
which not only carries many new concepts and methods in to Geography lessons, but also
triggers a big debate about text books. Debates such as the content organisation based on
learners’ experience and in line with the three domains, content integration (vertical and
horizontal), activities that stimulate learners’ engagement, teachers’ role as a facilitator,
appropriate media, appropriate time allocation and tools of measurement and evaluation are
reflected in the curriculum development process.

Therefore, both Geography curriculum and Geography textbook should incorporate identical
contents in line with the three domains; cognitive, psychomotor and affective. In the same vein,
Glathorn and Jailall (2000:53) also explain that curriculum should emphasise deep rather than
broad coverage of important areas of knowledge, authentic and contextualised problems of study,
and problem-solving that stresses skills development as well as knowledge acquisition. It is
argued, therefore, that like other disciplines’ curriculum, Geography curriculum should also
consider individual differences, closely coordinate and selectively integrate subject matter, and
focus on results or standards and targets for student learning. Gibbs (in Ramsden, 1992:21)
indicates that curriculum must aim to stimulate inquiry, analytical and creative approach
encouraging independent judgment and critical self-awareness.

In the same vein, Olusegun (2006:29) expresses that the senior secondary school Geography
curriculum developers have elected from the outset to emphasise among others a conceptual
approach. This is based on the belief that a conceptual approach to senior secondary school
Geography, supported by compatible problem-solving procedures and appropriate instructional
resources, tempered by the good sense of an enthusiastic and patient Geography teacher, should
assist the pupils to learn Geography more efficiently and effectively. Therefore, for its proper
implementation, the development of Geography curriculum for the senior secondary school
should pass through many stages, such as general objectives, rationale, evaluation and
recommendations for the implementation.

47
Since Geography curriculum is the benchmark for its implementation, it should be developed in
line with learner-centered approaches. Unless, it will be difficult to practice varied learner-
centred strategies and continuous assessment techniques as well. As a result, lecture method will
be the dominant learning-teaching method and summative assessment will be dominant
assessment tool as well.

Thus, Geography curriculum should be developed in line with the learning strategies that
encourage learners’ engagement, indicate utilisation of resources and guides the teachers how
they facilitate the learning-teaching processes, how to assess their students’ progress and these
paved the way to practice learner-centered approaches in the teaching- process of Geography.
Therefore, different methods of teaching that teachers practice in learningtheir learning and
teaching process in general and in Geography learning and teaching process in particular are
briefed below.

3.3 Methods of Teaching

Methods are general ways in the implementation process that answers the question of how. The
methods to be employed depend on the objectives and content of the lesson (Adem, 2010:371).
In a good lesson a variety of strategies are used to create a range of learning opportunities suited
to the need of all learners (Fisher, 1998:37). The different ways that the teacher uses to impart
knowledge, skill, values and attitudes to the students during the teaching-learning process are
referred to as teaching methods. Such methods include discussion method, project method,
inquiry method, lecture method, questioning, activity-based method, field-trip and laboratory
technique among others (Olusegun, 2006:65). Desta (1984:19-20) adds that the methods of
teaching range from the traditional lecture to the present innovative ones like computer assisted
instruction, the project study methods, laboratory demonstration method, simulation method, the
role-play method, and the discussion method.

In spite of the presence of these varied methods of teaching, the choice and use of one or more
of them by the teacher depends on certain variables. The objective of the lesson, the
contents/subject, the particular knowledge skill or attitude to be developed, the size and nature

48
of the content to be taught and the skill and ability of the teacher in selecting and using the
method are worthy to mention as variables. Thus, teachers should select methods that make
learners active participants. Such methods are more elaborated below.

3.3.1 Active-Learning Methods

3.3.1.1 The concept of Active Learning
According to Simons (1993:19), all learning is active in a certain sense, but some kinds of
learning are more active than others. Here, active learning is defined in one sense to mean that
the learner uses opportunities to decide about aspects of the learning process. A second
definition of active learning connects it to mental activity in another sense. It refers to the extent
to which the learner is challenged to use his or her mental abilities while learning. Thus, active
learning on the one hand has to do with decisions about learning and on the other hand making
active use of thinking. Fisher (1998:53) defines active learning as:

Active-learning refers to an activity where learners are given a marked degree

of autonomy and control over the organisation conduct and direction of the
learning activity, and used to improve level of motivation, recognise inter-
disciplinary nature of real-life situations as well as improve the level of
students’ understanding (Fisher, 1998:53).

Ademe (2010:208-209) writes that active learning methods are strategies which make learners
active participants during the teaching-learning process. Thus, Ademe (2010:209) and Aydin
(2010:277) mention the common types of active learning techniques that are effective for
Geography teaching – questioning, group learning, problem-solving, field visits, cooperative
learning, project-based learning, action oriented and others. Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006)
claim in this case that the 20th century has been a prolonged attempted shift from didactic
knowledge transfer approaches to learning such as Stenhouse’s (1975:68-72) objective-led
education, to approaches which rely on active learning. These authors argue that active-learning
is a process where activities are learner-driven through their own interest, resulting in the
generation of knowledge and competences which come through the students’ own interaction

49
with the learning focus. This suggests that active learning is any process whereby students
develop an understanding through their own investigation, rather than acting as passive
recipients of information. This is further emphasised by Stein (2005:37) who argues that active
learning is directly linked to active participation of motor areas in memory networks inside the
brain. He therefore states:

Children made to sit and listen passively to teacher without active involvement in
teaching themselves have consistently been shown to lag behind children who are
encouraged to actively find out things for themselves (Stein, 2005:37).

In learner-centered approach the student has an opportunity to pose problems, asking questions,
collecting information, finding solutions to problems and answering questions through his/her
effort/activity (Nayak & Rao, 2004:109-110). At this stage, the teacher has to encourage the
child’s participation in the above process through activities. The whole process of teaching-
learning is geared towards the development of the learner’s creativity and thinking. Therefore,
student engagement represents a key component of student success. Engagement is defined here
as the extent to which students are contributing to activities such as active learning, involvement
in enriching educational activities, seeking guidance from staff or working collaboratively with
other students (Coutes, 2005:26).

The concept of approach describes a qualitative aspect of learning. It is about how people
experience and organise the subject matter of a learning task; it is about ‘what’ and ‘how’ they
learn rather than how much’ they remember (Ramsden, 1992:40). To support this assertion,
Fisher (1998:132) and Desta (1984:19-20) elaborate that the chalk-and-talk method of teaching
curriculum contents where the teacher talks and the students listen is gradually being changed to
learning by doing and discovery method. In these methods, the teacher creates opportunities for
the students to find out knowledge for themselves through different activities.

50
Trad in Fisher (1998:28) is quoted as saying:

You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink.
You can send a kid to college, but you can’t make him think.

Therefore, as many scholars mentioned, the learner-centered approaches create opportunities for
the learners to engage in the teaching-learning process based on their experiences and learning
styles. Nevertheless, many teachers perceive teaching is simply the transformation of
information to the students by forgetting the experience and individual differences as well as
engagement of learners. In the same vein, Desta (2004:77) confirms:

Knowledge of the subject matter is considered as the sole determinant factor for
effective teaching. For many staff, teaching means, in the main, the act of the teacher
and the main requirement for teaching is knowledge of the subject matter...But
considering teaching as merely as a matter of knowledge of the content is fallacious.
Such understanding excludes the centeral person, a student who is in reality the main
actor. Unless teachers understand and appreciate this, it will be difficult to make the
teaching-learning process student-centered and to encourage the deep approach to
learning (Desta, 2004:77).

Active learning strategies in Geography curriculum and letting learners to learn by doing and the
positive attitude of Geography teachers towards active learning strategies are decisive factors for
effective Geography lessons (Demirci, Kesler & Kaya, 2010:61-62). Similarly, Aydin
(2011:278) writes that Geography teaching should take place in the active participation of
students in the process of holistic and meaningful relationships, while processing topics and
multi-dimensional thinking skills. Thus, Geography has a rich history of developing and utilising
a wide range of learning approaches which reflect many of the principles of active learning, such
as teachers do learning tasks less, teachers do less telling, teachers do more design work, faculty
does more modeling, faculty does more to get learners learning from and with each other use
collaborative and cooperative groups for learning, faculty works to create climates for learning

51
create an environment of learner accountability, and faculty does more with feedback provide
formative feedback separate from evaluation and grading. This may well be the direct
consequence of a subject attempts to help students understand the complexity of the world
around them.

Active learning in social studies in general and in Geography courses in particular involve
providing the opportunities for students to participate meaningfully by talking, writing, reading
and reflecting on the content, ideas, issues and concerns of an academic subject (Abdelraheem &
Al-Rabane, 2005:2). Unfortunately, many classrooms continue to be dominated by a single
medium and this is usually the printed textbooks. This dominance prevents teachers from
reaching all students. Instead, it forces them to cater to those who find the texts accessible and
this creates barriers for those who do not. There are further consequences in the sense, even
though students are able to access the text; there are certain learning elements that are missing.
Some missed elements include media that are more suitable for communicating particular kinds
of learning materials are not readily available and shortage of media and tools relevant to
students’ preferences and proclivities that play an important role in deepening and enhancing
students’ engagement and learning experiences.

3.3.1.2 Why Active Learning?

Why is there so much attention to active learning nowadays? Simons (1993:21) states that many
reasons have been forward for greater emphasis on active-learning as opposed to more passive
forms of learning. These reasons have to do with learners, teachers, schools and society at large.
Active learning can be more attractive for learners than passive forms of learning because
learners can be more motivated and interested when they have a say in their own learning and
when their mental activity is challenged. Being involved in the decisions about learning, learners
can connect to their prior knowledge and their own needs and interests. In finding out things
independently, they can follow their own interests and motivation. In the process they can learn
to make decisions and take responsibility about and for their learning.

52
Active learning is important to provide opportunities for learners to learn. Learners can learn
how to learn by thinking how to do it. Giving them responsibility for parts of the decisions that
can or should be made is one way to teach them how to learn. In earlier times one thought that
learning to learn and active learning were for the elite. Only the best students were expected to
learn actively. For the weaker students highly structured forms of teaching were to be preferred,
so was the conventional wisdom. Palincsar and Brown in Simons (1993:21) argued as:

However, in the "learning economy" this picture has changed. Several empirical
studies have found that active learning and learning to think are especially
important for the weaker students. When the weakest students learned how to
think, their learning performance improved drasticall (Palincsar and Brown in
Simons 1993:21).

Moreover, Simons (1993:21) states that active learning is also important for teachers.
Motivational and burn out problems of teachers may disappear when students are more
motivated and more active learners. Besides, teaching will become more intellectually
challenging when students are learning actively and independently. Thus, the importance of
active-learning methods in the teaching-learning process of Geography is discussed below.

3.3.2 Active learning Methods in the Teaching of Geography

In any pedagogical practice, the teacher engineers the learning environment through his/her skill,
tactical and technical ways of imparting knowledge, skill, values and attitudes in learners
(Olusegun, 2006:64). These ways are christened teaching methods. Therefore, teachers as the
facilitators and motivators of instructional communication process and should carefully select
appropriate teaching methods or strategies which are suit for effective teaching-learning process.
According to Olusegun (2006:68-101), the major teaching methods that are relevant to the
teaching-learning process of Geography and make students active participants include
discussion, project method, inquiry method, questioning method, problem solving method,
simulation, role-play, field work, map reading, activity method/learning by doing, laboratory
technique are among others.

53
3.3.2.1 Types of Active Learning Methods in Teaching Geography
3.3.2.1.1 Fieldwork method in Geography Teaching
Fields are any places where supervised learning can take place via first-hand experience outside
the constraints of the four-well classroom setting (Lonergan & Andresen, 1988:64). Fieldwork
consists of planned and organised educational tour or visit or journey or excursion to a particular
place or point of interest outside the classroom or even outside the school, such as factories,
universities, museums, the real environment/geographical locations, etc (Brown et al, Lawton
and Gordon in Ademe, 2010:254). It should be considered that the range of fieldwork delivery
methods and styles varies considerably within Geography has changed rapidly since the 1950s
(Lonergan & Andresen, 1988:64-66). Foskett cited in Oladimeji (2011:468) suggests that
acquisition of ‘real’ geographical knowledge takes place in the field is through interaction of
physical, mental and emotional experiences.

Fieldwork is vital method of Geography teaching, yet the problems and difficulties of organising
and running an effective field course are increasing at the present time (Clark, 1996; Gardiner,
1996; in Kent, Gilberson & Hunt, 1997:327). Olusegun (2006:94) supports this idea thus:

In the teaching of Geography, fieldwork has been observed as a “sine qua non”
aspect of the Geography teaching because it fosters and even enhances
observational skills and critical thinking ability in the learners. Therefore, the
importance of fieldwork, types of fieldwork, organisation of fieldwork and
learning outcomes in fieldwork are important points and should be considered
(Olusegun, 2006:94).

54
Yet Oladimeji (2011:467) states:

In philosophy, Geography education is aimed at understanding the dimensions of

man environment relationships. This can best be understood through experience
and observation. Thus, fieldwork method of teaching in Geography education is
enhancing the continuous comprehension of the changes in our environment to
initiate practical understanding and permanent learning processes of geographical
changes (Oladimeji, 2011:467).

Fieldwork method of teaching enhances pupils’ learning outcomes through experimental learning
(Foskett & Lidstone in Oladimeji, 2011:468). Though studies have shown that due to the
introduction of subjects like Social Studies, fieldwork is being suppressed; its relevance is being
valued in some countries, especially developed countries (Oladimeji, 2011:468). Elsewhere like
Nigeria the importance of fieldwork method of teaching in the curriculum is much less well
established in the secondary education. In the USA and many states in Europe the role of
fieldwork has been marginal. In most less developed countries resource constraints have made
fieldwork development very low (Oladimeji, 2011:468-469).

Kent et al (1997:320) postulate that fieldwork is widely regarded as an essential method of

Geography education and teachers generally agree that it represents one of the most effective
and enjoyable forms of teaching and learning for teachers and learners. Field studies provide the
opportunity to experiment with a wide variety of different modes of content delivery and have a
valuable role as a vehicle for the integration of many theoretical and practical concepts taught in
Geography. Similarly, Wiley and Humphreys (1985:126-127) and Kern and Carpenter
(1986:182-183) claim that abstract topics and higher level concepts are easier to teach in the
field than in class.

55
Regarding the importance of outdoor learning-teaching strategies, O’Mahony (2000:12) is
quoted as stating:

Fieldwork is a necessary and basic part of teaching Geography, and we should be

familiar with all existing school policies regarding these activities, or assist in
drawing up new and useful policies that can facilitate such teaching techniques
(O’Mahony, 2000:12).

Geography fieldwork involves the study of geographical phenomenon in the actual site of
the occurrence of the phenomena (Olusegun, 2006:95). It entails actual geographical
study or work carried out in the field. It is usually any outdoor lesson which enables the
learners the opportunity to observe physically and practically what they might have learnt
in-door. Olusegun (2006:95) further gives stress about fieldwork as:

In Geography teaching emphasis is now on problem solving rather than the

prescriptive and expository, hence, the development of such skills like observation,
recording, data analysis and the use of information to solve problems are very
crucial indeed. In fieldwork, all these will be developed (Olusegun, 2006:95).
.
Geographers must be able to address issues concerning the value of fieldwork and enhancing the
process of teaching and learning through fieldwork (Oladimeji, 2011:469). This helps in arriving
at the general cognitive and affective relevance of fieldwork in Geography and the need to
allocate precious time and resources to it at the secondary level to promote environmental
education for sustainable development.

3.3.2.1.2 Types of Fieldwork Activity

According to Kent, Gilbertson and Hunt (1997), in practice there are many types of activities
available in the field characterised by different forms and levels of involvement of students and
teachers. However, according to Olusegun (2006:95) there are three major types of fieldwork,
field observation, field teaching and field research. From the students’ pointview all field

56
activities can be placed somewhere on two continua: between observation and participation;
between dependency and autonomy.

3.3.2.1.2.1 Observational Fieldwork

As Olusegun (2006:95) explains that field observation takes place in the form of field trips or
excursion and it affords learners the opportunity to observe the phenomena that they have learnt
in the classroom, or it enables them to physically and practically learn new things the teacher
introduces. It enhances the development of learners’ ability to observe vividly and to familiarise
with the events or phenomena within their immediate environment.

Observational fieldwork is an important way of sharing staff experiences and ideas which is
comparatively easy to organise (Kent, Gilbertson & Hunt, 1997:315). The principal problem
with observational field-work is that students are only required to be there with the result, their
attention may actually be elsewhere, especially if the experience is protracted (Kent, Gilbertson
& Hunt, 1997:315).

The simplest and most traditional form of observational field-work is Cook’s Tour or look-see
field visit. It is a rapid but extensive tour or survey of anything. This approach is based on
observation and description and very dependent on lecturers lecturing in the field with a
minimum of student participation. Starting around 1950-1970 field-work was largely the
traditional 'look see' or 'Cook's Tour. Students often describe this type of activity as boring, since
they are not deeply engaged in the field-work process (Brown in Kent et al., 1997:320), but it
can be useful at the start of a field course, to give a first overview of unfamiliar landscape.

Kent et al (1997:325) argue that carefully directed observation can be a useful learning method,
especially if reinforced by on-site tutorial style discussion. Students become more engaged,
typically, if the tour is on foot and they have the opportunity to converse with staff rather than
being lectured at (Gold in Kent et al., 1997:325). This format allows students to make some
observations independently and to follow up informal issues they find interesting with staff.

57
Unfortunately, during observational field-work, if unprompted, students often miss key features,
and if prompted, have a tendency to reproduce the staff viewpoint.

Moreover, Olusegun (2006:95) captures the importance of fieldwork as:

Field observation usually takes the form of field trip or excursions. It affords the
learners opportunity to observe physically the phenomena they have learnt in the
classroom. Field observation enhances the development of the learners’ ability to
observe vividly and to familiarise with the events or phenomena within their
immediate environment (Olusegun, 2006:95).

3.3.2.1.2.2 Field Teaching

As Olusegun (2006:95) points out that field teaching involves the actual teaching of an aspect of
Geography at the site examples can be found. For instance, if a teacher wants to teach a topic,
such as local industries; pottery, she/he can take the learners to the place where pots are being
produced, i.e. pottery, so that learners can observe and even collect necessary first-hand
information about pottery from the potters or pot-makers. It makes teaching practical, concrete
and simple because learners will be able to see things themselves.

3.3.2.1.2.3 Field Research

According to Olusegun (2006:96), field research is usually being carried out for experimentation
or testing so also for data collection. It is usually being organised on the assumption of possible
explanation for a given problem under study. Field research is a testing ground or a laboratory
for teaching ideas or concepts. Thus, learners should be properly informed the phenomena under
study is being observed and studied for a purpose illustration of more general idea, law or
concept.

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3.3.2.1.2.4 Advantages of Fieldwork
Fieldwork has many advantages in education in general and in the teaching of Geography in
particular. Thus, Olusegun (2006:98), Ademe (2010:254) and Oladimeji (2011:328) mention the
following benefits that the lessons will draw from a carefully and properly planned fieldwork;

• Learners are being trained in the crucial skills of keen observation, data collection and
analysis through fieldwork, which are difficult to develop in the classroom;
• Learners are acquainted with real life situations, problems and potentials of their environment,
thus they become more familiar with and have better appreciation of their environment;
• Learners get to begin to study and interpret what is relevant to their lives;
• Learners develop a concrete understanding of what they have learnt in the classroom, having
also observed them in their actual form;
• Learners are relived of the boredom of classroom work as field work stimulates them and
makes the lesson more practical and realistic;
• Learners are motivated to learn and develop a more positive attitude towards their
environment; and
• Learners are encouraged to develop logical and critical thinking and which helps the learners
to develop interest in the study of geography as a discipline.

However, effective learning cannot be expected just because students are taking into the field
(Lonergan & Andreson, 1988:70). Fieldwork should be efficient and viable within time and
budgetary constraints. Debriefing of students is a critical but often neglected part of fieldwork
(Pearson & Smith in Kent et al., 1997:322). This is because fieldwork is often so complex and
time-limited, there is insufficient time for students to relate theoretical concepts to what they
actually experience (Lonergan & Andresen in Kent et al., 1997:322).

3.3.2.1.2 Enquiry-based Learning

In the inquiry method of learning students inquire into the nature of the problem with a view of
finding some answers why the problem exists (Ademe, 2010:153). Moreover, Joyce and Weil in
Ademe (2010:153) claim that inquiry method of teaching-learning can be seen as a process for

59
investigating, searching, explaining, interpreting of unusual, unknown, or problematic situations.
Dunkin and Brown et.al in Ademe (2010:154) declare thus:

In the real situation, the inquiry method can be employed, by the presentation of
puzzling situation, such as “why the number of female students is so small at
Adama University? Teacher and students then engage in a Socratic – type
dialogue in which together they derive a list of potentially relevant causes, analyse
or formulate alternative hypotheses/ suggested solutions, test the hypotheses by
collecting data, draw conclusions, and apply the conclusions in new situations to
new data and develop meaningful generalization (Ademe, 2010:154).

The inquiry method of teaching can be employed to any subject area at higher institutions and
secondary schools (Ademe, 2010:155). Furthermore, Olusegun (2006:67) depicts that inquiry
method involves probing, inquiring, investigating, analysing, discovering, evaluating,
questioning, thinking, searching, exploring, experimenting, collecting with a view of acquiring,
updating or validating knowledge and information in Geography. It is simply a method of
finding out something (Olusegun, 2006: 67).

To give stress to the significance of inquiry method, Olusegun (2006) quoted that:

Meanwhile, in the Geography teaching, the use of inquiry method arises out of the
curiosity or inquisitiveness of the user. Therefore, the children in elementary
schools have little or no problem with this problem because they are full of curiosity
already. However, in the post primary school institutions, the teacher has to put in
greater effort in imparting the skill of how to find out and think through the regular
use of the inquiry method (Olusegun, 2006: 68).

Five steps can be adapted during the process of inquiry method. These include problem
identification, information and data collection, data analysis, solution is derived from the
analysed data or information and generalization is made from derived solutions (Olusegun,

60
2006:68). The success or failure of inquiry method depends on the competence, enthusiasm and
confidence of the teacher. Like other methods of teaching, inquiry has both good and bad
qualities (Ademe, 2010:155). Thus, Dunkin and Brown et al in Ademe (2010:155) summarise
the advantages inquiry method are:

• It tends to generate enthusiasm and interest in the learners.

• It enhances critical thinking and skills of scientific investigation.
• It facilitates the how of finding answers to problematic situations.
• It permits teachers to model the values and attitudes essential to an inquiry mind such as in
reasoning skills (observing, collecting and organising data, identifying and controlling
variables, formulating and testing hypotheses), learning autonomy, verbal expressiveness,
tolerance for ambiguity and persistence.

Olusegun (2006:67) has explained that the main benefit of inquiry method is to motivate learners
on how to reason and think themselves. Therefore, the acquisition of these skills are very crucial
and in fact important for the learners of today and the future who will face a myriad of
unprecedented socio-political and economic problems to which they will have to find solutions
to with a credible creativity. However, inquiry method is time consuming and more suitable for
intuitive and creative learners (Ademe, 2010: 155).

No method is absolutely advantageous; each method has its own drawback. Therefore, though
inquiry method is time consuming, it has great advantage to produce active and creative learners.
Therefore, Geography teachers better to tolerate the time constraint and practice inquiry method
to make learners responsible on their own learning and become problem solvers.

3.3.2.1.3 Discussion Method

According to Olusegun (2006:66), discussion method is one of the most comprehensive methods
of teaching in the sense that every teacher is daily involved in one form of discussion or the other
either within or outside the school. Moreover, Olusegun (2006:66) discusses the method as:

61
 Although, the unconscious use of discussion methods permeate all the other
teaching methods with perhaps the exception of the ideal lecture method. However,
what is required is the deliberately planned and systematic use of the discussion
method. Discussion can take various forms in the teaching of geography. It can be
between and among small or large group of learners during which they contribute,
share examine, question, accept or reject ideas or opinions (Olusegun, 2006:66).

Furthermore, Olusegun (2006:66) explains that the usefulness and effectiveness of the varieties
of discussion methods can be considerably enhanced if adequate instructional materials are
effectively utilised with the adoption of the methods. For instance, to examine, share, clarify,
simplify, accept or reject ideas easily, may use relevant instructional materials. However, the
teacher’s role in the discussions is facilitating, guiding, assisting, moderating, contributing and
aiding the discussion.

3.3.2.1.4 Project Method

Olusegun (2006:66) depicts that project method involves doing something practical, concrete and
realistic which is self-motivated, self-generated and self-directed by the learners themselves. The
role of the teacher is to inspire and guide the learners in the process of carrying out the project.
The teacher should try to encourage learners on projects that help to clarify concepts in
Geography. According to Olusegun (2006:67), the following are examples where projects can be
carried out:

• Interpreting and making or drawing maps;

• Constructing, model, drawing, painting, label, identifying, observing, etc.;
• Collecting rocks, fruits, materials and specimens of geographical interest;
• Visiting factories, market places, zoos, museums, etc and reporting one’s experiences; and
• Excursion or field trip to geographical interesting places.

Olusegun (2006:67) also lists the benefits of project method as:

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• It enables the learners to make use of their total experience;
• It involves the use of initiative and responsible thinking by the learners;
• It provides for the manipulation of and experimentation of ideas by the learners;
• It gives the learners the opportunity for satisfaction from seeing the product of their efforts;
• It makes learning practical, realistic and pragmatic;
• It encourages spirit of cooperation, leadership and dignity of labour in the learners.

However, if the project method is not meaningfully and properly executed it may lead to time
loss, energy wasted, and in fact financial loss. Therefore, this method needs proper planning and
scrupulous execution for a worthwhile feedback (Olusegun, 2006:67).

3.3.2.1.5 Questioning Method

Olusegun (2006:68) asserts that questioning method is one of the most superficially used
methods in teaching and in fact, badly employed. It is a principal technique of teaching which
can possibly be referred to as versatile (Ademe, 2010:210). Moreover, Olusegun (2006:68-69)
points out that many teachers seldom use this method but they encourage questioning by the
learners to cover up their inadequacies particularly concerning their knowledge of the subject
matter. Nevertheless, at all levels of educational system and in all subjects, a whole lesson could
be taught from the inception to the end through questioning method. This may not exclude any
other appropriate and suitable methods that can be combined with the questioning technique.
However, the following important factors should be considered in utilising this method
(Olusegun, 2006:69):
• The questions should deal with important areas of the subject matter;
• The questions must be of the learners’ interest;
• The questions must not be too difficult or easy for the learners to answer;
• The questions should be logically expressed and structured;
• The development of the habit of critical thinking in the learners should be encouraged through
the questioning;
• Questioning should encourage both teachers and learners in the preparation for every lesson;
• It should be able to enhance both the teacher’s and learners’ performance.
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3.3.2.1.6 Activity Method
Olusegun (2006:69) has elaborated that activity method enables learners to learn by doing, to
imitate and be engaged in self directed activity; to study at site, to observe and recognise, to
imagine and create etc. The method also serves as the link between the classroom learning and
the outside world. That is, learners are in constant touch with the outsides world through this
method. It is akin to project method, field trip and laboratory techniques.

Moreover, according to Olusegun (2006:69), in the Geography teaching the following can be
embarked on during activity method:

• Map drawing and interpretation;

• Modeling of object, physical features, e.g. with paper machine;
• Collection of materials, e.g. sample of rocks, crops, soil, minerals, etc.;
• Watching Films on geographical interesting topics or documentations;
• Writing reports on visited places during field trips or executions;
• Visiting places of geographical interest;
• Gathering information through interview on interesting topics, e.g. market survey or prices
of commodities.

According to Olusegun (2006:69-70), it can be deduced that in any classroom situation it is

advisable to employ eclectic methods of teaching to make teaching-learning activities more
effective and exciting to the learners. For example, project method is combined with activity,
discussion, questioning, inquiry methods, etc. However, Olusegun (2006:70) mentions the
following factors which should be considered while selecting the teaching methods to be
adopted:
• The subject matter or topic to be taught;
• Learner’s characteristics, such as age, ability levels, gender, etc.;
• The instructional objectives;
• The instructional materials available;
• The time and place of the lesson.
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3.3.2.1.7 Simulation Method
Olusegun (2006:89) has depicted that simulation method is the creation of a model of real world
in which participants assume different roles to make decisions about the issues raised as well as
the difficulties encountered. It is usually designed to be mirror of the existing or inherited
problems of man in the society. Therefore, simulation generally creates opportunities for
exploration, experimentation, commitment and decision making aimed at resolving important
issues and problems affecting man in his environment.

Thus, Olusegun (2006:89) further strengthened that if simulation method is effectively used in
teaching Geography, learners will derive the following benefits:

• Develop insight in to the issues and problems of the society;

• Experience the outside world in a lively, interesting and realistic manner;
• Become more actively involved in the teaching-learning process;
• Give free expression to their creative abilities without any inhibitions;
• Direct and manage their own affairs by themselves;
• Learn to be flexible in their thinking approach to the situation;
• Interact closely with one another;
• Develop internal motivation for school work;
• Understand the nature and value of decision making in the daily lives of individuals and
nations;
• Demonstrate and develop their qualities of leadership.

Furthermore, Olusegun (2006:90) has indicated the three types of simulation that can be
employed in the teaching of Geography:
1. Historical simulation: It involves past events and real people who have lived in the past. It
resembles role-playing except that such simulations are patterned to resemble as closely as
possible what happened in the past. It serves as a model of what actually happened.
2. Simulation activities: These are students playing roles in the classroom except that such
roles focus on current events in the society. Such activities present certain basic social,
65
economic or political operations which learners study and learn through direct experiences and
practices.
3. Simulation games: They are also called operational games. They are with a define structure
and procedure which try to stimulate some real environmental process or situation in their
playing. Generally, such games attempt to reveal certain basic structures in the environment by
simplifying them so that attention could be paid to them. In the teaching of Geography, many
of these have been developed and produced commercially. For example, the jigsaws puzzle
game on Maps. This game is highly educative for primary and secondary school learners
particularly in teaching them the states and capitals. The states of certain continental maps will
be dismantled and then the learners will be asked to fix them one by one at their correct
locations.

However, the following considerations should be taken cognisance when using either locally or
commercially produced simulation games in the classroom situations (Olusegun, 2006:90-91).
Simulation games:
• Clarify the statement of the objectives for the simulation;
• Properly explain the requirements of simulation in terms of skills, knowledge and
responsibilities to the learners;
• The roles to be played should be determined, identified as well as purposefully distributed
among the learners;
• The rules should be observed by the participants and should be simple, straightforward and
very few;
• The procedure to be followed from the beginning to the end should be borne in mind, in that
too detailed operating procedure is bound to lead to loss of simplicity and easy
manipulations by the participants, concentration on the achievement of accuracy at the
expense of play ability, loss of freedom to explore possibilities by the participants;
• The teacher should always play the role of a guardian or facilitator throughout the game;
• The major concepts to be incorporated into the play for teaching-learning purpose should
guide the design of the games;

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• The materials used for the game should be simple, handy, harmless and easy to improvise
and manipulate;
• The time allocated for the play should be reasonable and sufficient;
• Opportunity should be given to the participants to criticize any aspect of the game and to
proffer useful suggestions;
• Evaluation of the games or play should be done at the end of the play to determine the
achievement level and the reflection of the real world situation.

3.3.2.1.8 Role-play Method

It is a spontaneous dramatisation of the contextual life or total personality of the persons or posts
whose roles are being played and it involves initiating, acting, imagining and emotional display
(Olusegun, 2006:91). Olusegun (2006:91) considers the following benefits learners can derive
from role-playing method in the teaching of Geography:
• It enables the learners to appreciate the fact that the demands of a role as well as the
situational characteristics of the environment within the role played often make people to
behave the way they do;
• It gives learners the opportunity to express their thoughts and feelings freely;
• It helps to develop cooperative attitudes and the desirable social behaviors as well as the
consequences of doing otherwise in the learners;
• It is also used to resolve conflicts and settle problems as well as to teach certain feelings of
emotion which might be difficult for the teacher to express or demonstrate by him/her.

Finally, Olusegun (2006:92) claims that the relevant of role-play method too many Geography
contents as:

In the Geography teaching, there is a good number of problems that could be

treated through the use of role-playing method most especially in the teaching
of human geography. Such problems include agricultural problems, population
problems, rural-urban migration problems, industrial problems, etc. However,
both the teacher and the learners should prepare properly for the effectiveness

67
 of the methods in the teaching of geography or in general teaching-learning
process (Olusegun, 2006:92).

3.3.2.1.9 Map work Method

Olusegun (2006:100) asserts that map is a “sine qua non” tool of geographers. It is even
christened the short-hand language of the geographers. Through maps, geographers are able to
capture and abstract a great deal of detail. Maps are indispensable tools to Geography teachers.
Therefore, map work is considered to be a very important aspect of Geography teaching at the
secondary school level.

Moreover, Summer in Olusegun (2006:100) posits that the teaching of map work particularly
map reading in the secondary school is very important because it is argued that 99% of
geographical information could be put on map. Furthermore, Thower in Olusegun (2006:101)
has depicted that in all human endeavors, maps are very useful tool that every literate person
should be able to recognise and appreciate the facts that a map conveys and reading a map as
easily as a book, without consciousness of the reading process should be therefore highly
desired.

Map work skills and competences required in Geography teaching. Olusegun, (2006:101)
explains that all maps specialised visual language is used to pass across the information to the
users. This visual language is known as conventional signs or symbols or key or legend. It is this
first language that the learners should begin to learn so as to comprehend and interprets the map.
Learners or map users should also be able to select information because each map is peculiar
with its own degree of complexity.

In the same vein, Egunjobi in Olusegun (2006:101) declares:

Skills that are also essential for acquisition by the learners in map work include
the ability to perceive three-dimensional features depicted as two dimensional on

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 maps and the ability to give description of human activities of the area covered by
the map in a simple form.

Therefore, So as to provide appropriate skills for Geography learners, Geography teachers better
to get continuous professional improvement and refresher trainings.

3.4 Ongoing Professional Development of Geography Teachers

Professional development is useful for all teachers in general and Geography teachers in
particular. It provides up-to-date information to the teachers particularly in teaching
methodology. In other words, professional development courses refresh and motivate teachers to
their teaching profession.

In the same vein, Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2005:3) view that professional development
can overcome shortcomings that may have been part of teachers’ pre-service education and keep
teachers abreast of new knowledge and practices in the field. Teachers need to develop practices
that provide the flexibility for experimentation and innovation in the classroom so that they
become adaptive experts. It is important for Geography teachers to think and attend about
training of methodology which relates the science of Geography (O’Mahony, 2000:12).
Geography teachers should be encouraged from time to time and sponsored for refresher courses
to keep in touching with current trends in their field (Oladimeji, 2011:471).

Regarding this, Craig, Kraft and Plessis (1998:75) argue that ongoing training for teachers can
have a direct impact on learners’ academic achievement. Case studies from Bangladesh,
Botswana, Guatemala, Namibia and Pakistan have provided evidence that ongoing professional
development, especially in the early years after initial preparation and then continuing
throughout a career contribute significantly to student learning and retention.

Effective professional development may take many forms. It should not be limited to formal off-
site kinds of programers. Dialogue and reflections with colleagues, peer and supervisor
observations and keeping journals are all effective ways for teachers to advance their knowledge.

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A program in Kenya, the Mombasa School Improvement Project, built on this approach to
professional development, showed that teachers supported with in-service as well as external
workshop training improved significantly in their abilities to use child-centred teaching and
learning behaviors (Anderson, 2000:27). In India, an effective program used interactive video
technology to reach a large number of teachers who sought professional development. This
program found that training using interactive video technology led to improved conceptual
understanding of pedagogical issues for a large number of geographically dispersed teachers
(Maheshwari & Raina in United Nation Children’s Fund, 2000:15).

Teacher education, both pre-service and in-service, should help teachers develop teaching
methods and skills that take new understandings of how children learn into account. Just
curriculum should be child-centred and relevant, so should instructional methods. The limited
view of teaching as presentation of knowledge no longer fits with current understandings of how
and what students learn. Instead, instruction should help students build on prior knowledge to
develop attitudes, beliefs and cognitive skills as well as expand their knowledge base. Teaching
styles in many places, however, remain traditional, teacher-centred and fairly rigid or even
authoritarian (Carron & Chau in UNICEF, 2000:15).

According to Asgedom et al (2006:30-31), when Ethiopian teachers were interviewed about the
degree to which their teaching practices were learner-centred and relevant to students’ lives,
about half said they link lessons to the daily life of pupils at least once a week. Almost two-
thirds, however, said they never or rarely ask pupils what their interests are, or what they would
like to learn. Greater understanding of student-centred learning can be encouraged through
programs, such as the Bangladeshi project on “Multiple Ways of Teaching and Learning.” Begun
in 1994, the projects improve teachers’ skills by integrating brain research and multiple
intelligences theory as the foundation for understanding children’s needs.

Teaching methods that facilitate active student learning rather than promote passivity and rote
memorisation represent a new paradigm for many teachers. Ethiopian government acknowledges
the key role that teachers play in education quality and places teachers at the core of its quality

70
improvement strategies. The recently initiated Teacher Education System Overhaul Program of
the Ministry of Education guides teacher education in Ethiopia (Ministry of Education 2005b:18-
19).

Supporting the afore-mentioned concept; teachers’ paradigm shift and effort, Sallis (1993:49)
points out that the more people built capacity the more they can perform. Since teachers are
crucial, educational policy makers should get a clear picture of who their teachers are, how they
view their role in the system and the type of incentives, regulations, training that will increase
their effort and capacity to improve the teaching-learning process.

In addition to Sallis, Mona and Tesfaye (2000:3) point out that among other problems, the
quality of teachers is most crucial because quality personnel in the future should not only have
knowledge; more important, they should be devoted and faithful to their tasks. The influence on
students by the teacher’s own personality cannot be replaced by any teaching material.
Moreover, Meyer and Gayle (1996:43), Deer (1996:16), Carnoy (1999:83-84) and Minguan
(1989:89) have pointed out that teachers’ motivation influences the quality of education.
Demotivated teachers were found to be the cause for the poor quality of teaching (Noah &
Morrison, 1997:134).

Geography teachers should be motivated by means of special remuneration (Olusegun, 2006:33).

So as to deliver quality of education, quality of teaching and teacher effort is essential. The
highest quality teachers, those most capable of helping their students learn, have deep mastery of
knowledge in their subject matter and pedagogy (Darling-Hammond in UNICEF, 2000:13).
Moreover, Asgedom et al (2006) have confirmed the positive impact of teachers’ subject matter
knowledge, pedagogical skill, resources, conducive work environment and access of training to
the quality of education.

Quality of teaching can take place only when teachers have the necessary
qualifications, support from the school management, teaching/learning

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 resources, a conducive work environment, and regular teacher improvement
opportunities (Asgedom et al, 2006:10).

The preparation that teachers receive before beginning their work in the classroom, however,
varies significantly around the world and even within the least developed countries. In Cape
Verde, Togo and Uganda, for example, 35% to 50% of students have teachers who had no
teacher training. Yet in Benin, Bhutan, Equatorial Guinea, Madagascar and Nepal, over 90% of
students do have teachers with some form of teacher training. In these latter countries, most
teachers have, at least, lower secondary education; this contrasts sharply with Cape Verde and
Tanzania where over 60% of students have teachers with only a primary education (Postlewaithe
in UNICEF, 2000:17).

Perhaps as a consequence of too little preparation before entering the profession, a number of
teachers in China, Guinea, India and Mexico were observed to master neither the subject matter
they taught nor the pedagogical skills required for good presentation of the material. This affects
educational quality since student achievement, especially beyond basic skills, depends largely on
teachers’ command of subject matter and their ability to use that knowledge to help students
learning (Carron & Chau in UNICEF, 2000:14). Besides other factors, teachers’ incentives affect
education quality because they are one form of motivation.

Regarding teachers’ incentive and motivation, Noah and Morrison (1997:134) express that
demotivated teachers were found to be the cause for poor quality teaching. It is possible to say
that better motivated teachers provide better methodology of teaching and other services. The
UNESCO (1966) identified salary as the main factor affecting the interest of teachers’ particular
importance. In addition to sufficient preparation and incentive, teacher competence and school
efficiency are significant factors to bring the intended education quality. Thus, more is discussed
below about the positive impact of teacher competency and school efficiency on learners’
achievement.

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3.5 Teachers’ Competence and School Efficiency
Whether a teacher uses traditional or more current methods of instruction, efficient use of school
time has a significant impact on students’ learning. Regarding this, Carron and Chau and Fuller
et al in UNICEF (2000:14) discuss that teachers’ presence in the classroom represents the
starting point. Many teachers face transportation and housing obstacles that hinder them from
getting to school on time and staying until school hours are over. Many teachers must hold
second jobs, which may detract from the time and energy they expend in the classroom. They
may miss school altogether.

A study in China, Guinea, India and Mexico found that nearly half of teachers interviewed
reported being absent at some point during the previous month requiring other teachers to
compensate for them or leaving students without instruction for the day. Next, when teachers are
present, learning occurs when teachers engage students in instructional activities rather than
attending to administrative or other non-instructional processes (UNICEF, 2000:38).

The opportunity to learn and the time on task have been shown in many international studies to
be critical for educational quality. Finally, some schools that have been able to organise their
schedules according to children’s work and family obligations have seen greater success in
student persistence and achievement. The quality of a school and teaching of the individual
teacher is higher in schools that are able to make more efficient use of the available time of its
teachers and pupils. Under teacher competence and school efficiency, diversity of processes and
facilities are considerable parts. Thus, more elaboration is indicated below about the significant
of diversity of processes and facilities for the implementation of learner-centred approach in
Geography lesson.

3.5.1 Diversity of Processes and Facilities

According to Nayak and Rao (2004:213), virtual classroom is an environment that facilitates
student-centred learning. Moreover, Fisher (1998:39) confirm that resources are any devices that
assist the teaching and learning Geography and to develop skills, attitudes and knowledge,
73
understanding and application to a learner, Thus, major resources in the teaching of Geography
include the world at first hand as well as charts, drawings, pictures, film, model, book, machines,
maps, globs, school facilities and buildings intended to facilitate learning.

Thus, school facilities are important resources for effective curriculum implementation in general
and Geography curriculum in particular. Moreover, Carron and Chau (1996:73) explain that the
presence and heterogeneous uses of resource in schools are one manifestation of how school
organisations can become more diversified to meet the needs, interests, experiences and realities
of individuals and groups, i.e. how schools can become more student-centred. However, most
Ethiopian preparatory schools lack resources.

As a result, it is difficult to carry out active and live teaching-learning process in geography
session. It is difficult to demonstrate and substantiate classroom lessons in rural secondary
schools of Ethiopia that do not have enough or no laboratory, teaching aids and reference
materials (Wolyie, 2006:11).

Therefore, Geography is one of the subjects offered in the school and its quality may be affected
by a shortage of resources and facilities.

3.5.2 Instructional Media

According to Olusegun (2006:78), instructional media are no doubt the information carriers that
facilitate teaching-learning process. However, the selection and utilisation of these media should
be based on certain criteria such as learners’ characteristics, instructional objectives, suitability,
technicality, practicability, and the teacher’s capability among others. Maps, Globs, charts,
models, meteorological instruments, etc, should be employed in the teaching of Geography to
facilitate and make learning more effective and interesting.

It is well known among educators that utilising educational experiences and concrete examples
in the learning-teaching process raises learners’ active participation. The teaching of Social
Sciences course in general and Geography courses in particular have always been based on a

74
limited knowledge base and as a result, the utilisation of instructional media among teachers
often relied on traditional applications of technology (Abdelraheem & Al-Rabane, 2005:1).
There is, however, a tremendous potential for technology to be fostered as a tool that can
overcome the traditional isolation classroom setting, provide access to expensive resources and
improve overall productivity (Abdelraheem & Al-Rabane, 2005:1).

To achieve the desired outcomes with the utilisation of technology the teaching of the Social
Studies courses must focus not only on making teachers competent at using such technology, but
at the same time, promote strategies that enable the integration of technology that enhances
teaching and learning. Bolick et al (in Abdelraheem & Al-Rabane, 2005:1) point to the
precarious relationship between teaching of Social Studies and utilisation of technology.
Moreover, Bolick et al (in Abdelraheem & Al-Rabane, 2005:1) argue that “….while some
educators have been fascinated by the potential of technology to enhance teaching and learning,
many schools have lagged behind in assimilating technology and instruction.” Other scholars
like Berson & Shaver (in Abdelraheem & Al-Rabane, 2005:1) express doubt that technology will
ever incite instructional reform in the Social Studies. It is stated that this conflict “… has led
some researchers to conclude Social Studies in general and Geography in particular has not
appreciably changed as a result of technology” (Martorella, 1997; White, 1997).

3.5.3 Availability of Instructional Media

Olusegun (2006:74) indicates that teachers should be sure if the materials to be used for the
media production are available locally or are commercially produced, or if they are available in
the school or they have to be loaned from other school or pedagogical resource centre in the
locality. Sometimes the teacher can improvise them. Unavailability of instructional media has an
adverse effect on the quality of education. The shortage of reading materials (textbooks,
reference books, journals, etc.) and other pedagogical resources such as maps, charts, graphs,
globs, etc discourages teachers from carrying out their duties effectively (Doll, 1989:51).
Similarly, Olusegun (2006) further argues that:

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 Federal and state governments should provide adequate funding to schools so
that Geography as a core subject should have the basic equipment and
materials that would enhance its teaching. Geography contents can be
effectively taught with basic equipment and materials which necessarily call for
setting up a Geography laboratory in every school. The laboratory should be
equipped with furniture designed for practical learning and storage of materials
like maps, rock specimens, models, tapes, surveying chains, prismatic compass,
etc (Olusegun, 2006:32).

Fisher (1998:42) and Olusegun (2006:73-74) also depict that an inventory of the basic teaching
aids and their sources including improvised types should be made available to schools in
appropriate places. This indicates that the success of curriculum implementation in general and
Geography curriculum implementation in particular is often depended on the availability of
equipments and instructional media in the school. Scarcity of instructional media as the main
problem is enormously wide spread in many developing countries while it seems insignificant in
developed countries.

Many studies have shown that among other things, education system in the developing countries
is characterised by the in availability and in adequacy of instructional materials. Supporting this
idea, Chapman and Mahlak (1997:13) state that the inadequacy of instructional materials
jeopardises the ability of developing countries to provide quality education. Thus, many schools
in developing countries today face critical shortage of instructional materials and consequently
the quality teaching and learning continues to be low.

As the preceding discussion has shown, instructional materials are required for successful
curriculum implementation. Particularly for the learning activity of young children, the
availability of tangible instructional materials such as models, real objects, maps, charts, graphs
etc, have paramount importance. In spite of this fact, in developing countries like Ethiopia these
requirements are often unmet. As a result, in developing countries curriculum implementation in

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general and Geography curriculum implementation in particular is seriously hindered by the
shortage of instructional materials.

Moreover, Asgedom (1999:64) strongly argues that in the Ethiopian situation there is a strong
deficiency in preparation, provision and utilisation of instructional materials. The system seems
to have given more attention to other quality aspects of education such as preparation of teachers,
classrooms, class size, etc. In most schools students have been observed to learn in a passive
way. The teachers have identified a shortage of materials for instruction as the most critical
problem. It is however, observed that limited effort is made to address this problem at the school
level.

3.5.4 Instructional Media in Geography Teaching

Instructional media are all forms of materials with which students and teacher interact for the
purpose of teaching and learning Geography. The materials can be concrete; models, specimens,
simulators, objects which allow physical involvement of learners; or abstract which allow
imaginative involvement of learners with minimum effect of physical involvement or sensory
involvement (Asgedom, 1999:53). Instructional media are the information carriers used in any
teaching-learning process to facilitate the rate of learning in the learners and to enhance the
teacher’s presentation (Olusegun, 2006:72). Olusegun (2006:73) mentions the reasons why
instructional media should be used in Geography teaching-learning process:

Instructional media are useful to focus learners’ attention, motivate learners’

interest, reinforce verbal and visual messages, elucidate verbal concepts, save
teacher’s time for presentation, provide source of information and authority,
provide experience, make learning more practical, exciting and lively, for easy
evaluation of the learning outcomes, to make the learning more permanent and real
in the learners’ mind (Olusegun, 2006:73).

Generally, Olusegun (2006:74-75) argues that instructional media are no doubt the information
carriers that facilitate teaching-learning process. However, the selection and utilisation of these

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media should be based on certain criteria such as learners’ characteristics, instructional
objectives, availability, suitability, technicality, practicability of media and the teacher’s
capability to utilize are among others.
3.5.5. Types of Instructional Media for use in Geography Teaching
Olusegun (2006:76) has selected world globe, maps, models, charts, diagrams, pictures,
realia/real objects, meteorological instruments, projected media, chalkboard and printed media as
the media for utilisation in the teaching of Geography. Published materials such as textbooks,
journals, activity packs and photo cable resource sheets; audio-visual materials such as video and
television programmes, slides and music, models, artifacts and collected materials are the main
resources that teachers use to support their teaching to help pupils’ learning in Geography
(Lambert & Balderstone in Abdelraheem & Al-Rabane, 2005:3). A major part of school
Geography is about what can be seen in the world and Geography teachers rely heavily the visual
material to bring reality in the classroom (Rubinson, 1987:37).

3.6 Conclusion
Review literatures are the corner stone to understand the problem globally and locally.
Therefore, I have gone through different literatures which were done in different corners of the
world and in the Ethiopian context which are directly related to my topic under study. Thus, the
literatures reviewed in this text are factors that directly affect the practice of learner-centred
approaches in the teaching of Geography. Hence, this chapter included introduction, approaches
of teaching (teacher-centred approach and learner-centred approach), learner-centred curriculum
structure, methods of learning, active learning methods in learning Geography, advantages and
disadvantages of active learning of Geography teaching, ongoing professional development of
Geography teachers, teachers competence and school efficiency, instructional media in teaching
Geography and instructional media to be used in Geography teaching.

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 CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 Introduction
As Kothari, (2004:31) defines that a research design is the arrangement of conditions for the
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure. In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from
writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.

Thus, this chapter presents variables of the study, the design of the study; the methods of data
collection and strategies, population, samples and sampling techniques, data collection
instruments, data collection procedures, reliability and validity of data, ethical protocol of the
study and conclusion of the study.

4.2 Independent and Dependent Variables of the Study

Independent variables for this study were lecture methods of teaching, resources, learners’
interest to learn through learner-centred methods, the school syllabus, teachers resistant for
paradigm change from teacher-centred to learner-centred approach, assessment techniques. And
dependent variable of this study was constructivsts’ approaches of instruction. It includes
learner-centred methods, learners’ engagement, and continuous assessment techniques as well as
facilitators commitment.

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Independent Variables

School Traditional Learners’ interest

syllabus methods of to learn through
teaching active-learning
methods

Assessment
Dependent variables techniques

Facilitators’
commitment
Resources
Constructive approaches of teaching
and school
facilities
Learner- Continuous
centred assessment Learners’
methods of techniques engagement
teaching

Fig 4.1: Conceptual frame work

4.3 Research Design

Since the main purpose of this study was to identify the reasons of incompatibility between
Ethiopian education policy and the practice of learner-centred approaches in Geography
education in higher education preparatory secondary schools of Ethiopia, a descriptive survey
research design was used. This design helped to reveal factors that hinder the practice of learner-
centred approaches in Geography education in general and in higher education preparatory
secondary schools Geography education in particular.

Thus, this study employed a mixed-method approach. Therefore, to get empirical evidences and
in-depth insights from participants’ perspective as well as to establish the validity and reliability
of data, Qual-quant approach was used. Qualitative method was applied first to collect data from

80
small samples (teachers and departmental heads) through interviews as well as first-hand
information through observation and evidences from technical documents/rosters and analysed
these data through narration.

Whereas quantitative method was used next to qualitative method and the data was collected
from large number of sampled learners. And these data were analysed through descriptive
statistics such as frequency, percentage and mean. As Creswell (2009:211) explains, this type of
strategy of mixed design is known as sequential exploratory strategy.

Sequential exploratory strategy involves a first phase of qualitative data collection

and analysis, followed by a second phase of quantitative data collection and analysis
that builds on the results of the first qualitative phase. Weight is generally placed on
the first phase, and the data are mixed through being connected between the
qualitative data analysis and the quantitative data collection. At the basic level, the
purpose of this strategy is to use quantitative data and results to assist in the
interpretation of qualitative findings (Creswell, 2009:211).

Generally, I have chosen the mixed approach with the notion that any inherent weaknesses of the
qualitative method would be offset / counterbalance by the quantitative method and vice versa.
One main advantage of the mixed approach is that it draws conclusion based on corroborated
evidences. Thus, by using multiple methods of data collection and techniques of data analysis I
offered opportunity to confirm, cross-validate and corroborate qualitative evidences with
quantitative evidences.

QUAL quan

QUAL data QUALdata quan data quan data Interpretation of

collection Analysis collection Analysis Entire Analysis

Figure 4.2: Sequential exploratory strategy of mixed method design (Source: Creswell,
2009:209)

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Capitalisation in figure 4.2 indicates a weight or priority on the qualitative or quantitative data,
analysis and interpretation in the study. Thus, in my case (QUAL/quan) notation implies that the
quantitative methods are embedded within qualitative design.

Supporting the aforementioned approach, Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009:179) indicate that
researchers are bridging the gap between qualitative and quantitative methods in numerous ways.
A qualitative report might acknowledge a small size sample but attempt to prove that the sample
is representative of similar people within the population from which it was drawn.

Similarly, we see studies that employ a triangulation of methods (i.e., using more than one
methodology to address the same question) to establish the validity and reliability of the data; for
example, a quantitative survey combined with qualitative interviews. Moreover, we see
qualitative studies that employ both quantitative and qualitative analyses of data, such as the
reporting of descriptive statistics for particular themes or patterns discovered in narrative data.
Therefore, mixed methods can secure both qualitative and quantitative data so as to maximize
the accuracy of research findings.

Regarding the values of mixed methods design, Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009:179) declare:

Thankfully, new scholars are being trained in both qualitative and quantitative
methods. Despite the political minefield of scholarly argument over which approach
is more rigorous and worthy, the best approach is to learn the procedures and
processes of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. It makes sense that a mix
of methodologies, maximizing the benefits of both approaches, will provide the
richest and most complete understanding of the phenomenon under study. It also
makes sense that the research question should dictate the mode of inquiry. Some
questions lend themselves to quantitative approaches, other questions lend
themselves to qualitative approaches, and some questions call for an integration of
both qualitative and quantitative methods (Vanderstoep & Johnston, 2009:179).

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Denzin and Lincoln (2003:12) and Kothari (2004:5) explain that qualitative research is
concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. phenomenon relating to involving qualities of
entities and studies things in their natural setting, seeing things through the informants’
perspective favoring interviews as well as open-ended questionnaire. Quantitative research on
the other hand is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena
that can be expressed in terms of quantity or amount and favors close-ended questionnaires as
well as structured interview.

In general, quantitative research specifies numerical assignment to the phenomenon under study,
whereas qualitative research produces narrative or textual descriptions of the phenomenon under
study.

4.3.1 Data Collection Methods and Strategies

The term data refers to the kinds of information researchers obtain on the subjects of their
research (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000:127). Kothari (2004:95) explains that the task of data
collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design plan chalked out.
While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher
should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary.

Thus, researcher would have to decide which sort of data he/she would be used for his/her study
and accordingly he/she will have to select one or the other method of data collection. The
methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally
collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of
compilation.

Data sources are compulsory so as to get pertinent and reliable information for the study. Thus,
the data sources for this study were both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was
collected from department heads, teachers and students through interviews, questionnaires and
from observation of class room teaching and school resources. But secondary data was collected
from technical documents: rosters and national examination results. Therefore, teachers
dominated teaching strategies were explored via semi-structured interview with teachers and
83
departmental heads as well as through questionnaires with learners, through observation and
documents (learners’ results/roster).

Supporting the above data gathering strategy, Kothari (2004:95-96) depicts that primary data can
be obtained either through observation or through direct communication with participants and
through questionnaire with respondents. Moreover, Kothari (2004:111) has noted that secondary
data may be either published data or unpublished data. Thus, relevant journals, books, research
reports, documents, magazines and syllabus were used for this study.

Interview questions were developed, edited and finally administered to 12 participants (teachers
and departmental heads) in a face-to-face contact. Moreover, an observation checklist was
developed to gather data through observation. Then observation took place on the practice of
teaching methods, on the utilisation of instructional media during the actual teaching activities
and learners activities while the learning and teaching process was going on. Moreover, after the
class room observation, the availability of resources in the class room and in the school was also
observed. In addition to interview and observation, I gathered secondary data from technical
documents, such as rosters and national examination results.

Furthermore, questionnaires were initially developed in view of the basic research questions of
the study. Before they were administered to the respondents, a pretest was carried out in 01
higher education preparatory secondary school to ensure language clarity and appropriateness of
items contained in the questionnaire (items validity) and the questionnaires’reliability was
examined through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). As a result, the reliability of
the questionnaires was .77.

Thus, the questionnaire items were reliable. Moreover, experts of curriculum and English
language from Wollo University and Dessie College of teachers’ education were consulted and
appropriate amendments were made in the questionnaire items. And additional revisions were
made depending on the comments that were collected during the try-out. These questionnaires
were set in their final forms and its’ the objective was explained to the participants to maximize

84
the return of questionnaires. Finally, questionnaires were administered to 199 learners in the
appropriate time after my supervisor gave me additional comments and gained consent from
South Wollo education bureau.

4.3.2 Population, Samples and Sampling Techniques

A population is all items in any field inquiry and sample is the representative of the total
population in order to produce a miniature cross-section (Kothari, 2004:4). A sample design is a
definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the
procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as
well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample, the size of the sample. There are
many sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more
precise and easier to apply than others. Researcher must select a sample design which should be
reliable and appropriate to his/her research study (Kothari, 2004:58-60).

Accordingly, population of this study were all grade 11&12 social science learners (976) and
their Geography teachers (6) as well as all (6) Geography departmental heads of the six sampled
preparatory secondary schools under which the study was conducted. Thus, to determine the
sample size from the population, I employed both probability sampling and non-probability
sampling techniques for quantitative and qualitative data respectively. Therefore, 1 zone was
selected through purposive sampling technique and 6 preparatory secondary schools were
selected through simple random sampling technique.

Generally, I selected six higher education preparatory secondary schools out of twenty
preparatory schools through simple random sampling technique. Moreover, the sampled learner
participants were selected through simple random sampling technique. Thus, 20% (199 learners)
out of 976 (the total number of learners) were randomly selected the sample of the study. From
the total number of learners (976) 524 were males and 452 were females. To keep gender
equitability/to avoid gender bias, proportional samples were taken from both groups of learners
(males and females).

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Accordingly, I took 107 samples from male learners (524) and 92 samples from female learners
(452). The reason for using random sampling technique in determining the sample was to give
equal chances for every higher education preparatory secondary schools and learners to be
included under the study. Almost all the sampled learners were from Amhara ethnic group
because the sampled schools and sampled populations were found in Amhara regional state of
Ethiopia.

Since schools have different number of sections with different number of learners in each
section, I employed quota sampling technique to take sample learners from each school, each
grade levels and each section. Therefore, learners from each school were again selected through
simple random sampling based on their ratio. Moreover, I took all Geography teachers and
Geography departmental heads from the selected preparatory schools through purposive
sampling technique because they were pertinent sources and their number was manageable for
data analysis. Therefore, 12 participants were intentionally selected (6 Geography teachers and 6
Departmental Heads). Generally, the participants’ distribution of the study is displayed in the
following table.

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Table 4.1: Distribution of Participants
N Schools Population in each sample school Samples will be taken
o

Geo. Learners Geo.

Deptal teachers S. Sc. Geo.
heads Geo. Deptal Learners teachers
heads

M F T M F T M F T M F T M F T M F T

1 School 01 1 0 1 127 178 305 1 0 1 1 0 1 26 36 62 1 0 1

2 School 02 1 0 1 8 8 59 147 1 0 1 1 0 1 18 12 30 1
0 1

School 03 1 0 1 124 81 205 1 0 1 1 0 1 25 16 41 1 0 1

3

4 School 04 1 0 1 93 69 162 1 0 1 1 0 1 19 14 33 1 0 1

5 School 05 1 0 1 49 36 85 1 0 1 1 0 1 10 8 18 1 0 1

6 School 06 1 0 1 43 31 74 1 0 1 1 0 1 9 6 15 1 0 1

Total 6 0 6 524 452 976 6 0 6 6 0 6 107 92 199 6 0 6

These were the 6 higher education preparatory secondary schools in south Wollo Zone of
Amhara state of Ethiopia in which the study was conducted.

4.3.3 Data Collection Instruments

Fraenkel and Wallen (2000:127) have explained that the collection of data is an extremely
important part of all research endeavors; the conclusions of a study are based on what the data

87
reveal. As a result, the kind(s) of data to be collected, the method(s) of collection to be used and
the scoring of the data need to be considered with care.
In order to triangulate the data and to fill the drawback of each tool, I employed varied data
gathering instruments, such as interview, observation sheet and document analysis sheet and
questionnaire. Using varied tools is useful to fill the limitation of one tool by the other and to
triangulate the responses of each tool. Triangulation refers to the use of multiple instruments of
data collection (Denzin in Mouton & Marais, 1988:91).

4.3.3.1 Interview
Semi-structured interview was employed to collect in-depth insights from teachers and
Department Heads concerning the suitability of the designed teaching methods in Geography
syllabus to learner-centred learning, availability of resources for Geography education, the
dominance teaching methods practiced by Geography teachers, the awareness and interest of
Geography teachers to use learner-centred methods of teaching, the utilisation of instructional
media by the teacher, the awareness and interest of the learners to learn through learner-centred
methods and the compatibility of education policy with actual practice. A semi-structured
interview approach is particularly well suited to uncovering the meaning structures that
participants use to organise their experiences and make sense of their worlds (Hatch, 2002:94).

4.3.3.2 Observation
Open and uncontrolled observation were conducted to gather first-hand information about the
compatibility of education policy and actual practice of Geography education, the availability of
school resources, the methods of teaching practiced by Geography teachers, the utilisation of
instructional media by Geography teachers and learners’ rate of participation. In open
observation I noted down key points about actual classroom interaction, classroom facilities,
textbook distribution, library facilities, Geography laboratory, and Geography room with its
facilities, Geography departmental room and pedagogical centre with its Geography
resources/teaching materials on their natural setting.

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Many researchers perceive observational data as a vital set of data in the study of curriculum
implementation. For instance, Gesten and Carrin as cited in Tekilu (2005:25) explains that
despite the widespread use of interview techniques to assess and measure levels of an
educational practice, the most valid way is direct observation. Moreover, Merriam (1988:102)
cited in Kothari (2004) also contends observational data gives a first-hand account of the
situation under study and when it combined with interviewing and document analysis, show a
holistic interpretation of the phenomenon being studied. Furthermore, Kothari (2004:96)
indicates the merits of observation as:

Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own
direct observation without asking the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to
consumer behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by
the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage of this method is
that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately. Besides, the
information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not
complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes. Furthermore,
this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens
to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method (Kothari, 2004:96).

4.3.3.3 Document Analysis

I also analysed technical documents such as education policies and curriculum materials
(syllabus, teacher’s guides) to address the questions regarding the designed teaching methods
and identified resources the teaching of Geography, the assessment techniques and the education
policy with the Geography curriculum implementation and rosters of grade11 and 12 learners’
result to understand the influence of the problem on learners’ academic performance and to
compare learners’ school examination result with Ethiopian University Enterance Examination
(EUEE), national examination result to understand learners’ academic status at national standard.

89
4.3.3.4 Questionnaire
Moreover, I employed close and open-ended questionnaires to collect data from large number of
learners’ participants (199). Questionnaires are appropriate to secure data from large samples at a
time and give freedom for the participants to express their ideas and opinions freely without
interviewer’s bias and answers are in participants’ own words (Kothari, 2004:100-101). Thus,
questionnaires were employed to address questions regarding learner-centred approaches, the
utilisation of instructional media, availability of school resources, the teaching methods
dominantly practiced by Geography teachers and its suitability for the learners learning and
evaluation tools utilised by Geography teachers.

Accordingly 54 questions were prepared (51 close-ended and 3 open-ended questions). The
answer continuum of the questionnaire was on a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5. After the
reliability was tested via SPSS in the pilot test and certain comments and amendments were
made by 2 lecturers of English language department and 2 lecturers of pedagogical science
department of Wollo University and Dessie College of Teachers’ Education as well as
constructive comments of my supervisor were incorporated.

4.4 Data Collection Procedures

The data gathering instruments were prepared from different sources, works and by reviewing
different literatures. When data gathering instruments were prepared, I secured instruments’
validity and reliability. Validity is the appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the
inferences researchers make based on the data they collect. Reliability refers to the consistency
of scores or answers from one instrument to another and from one set of items to another
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000:169).

Thus, to secure the validity of the questionnaire, critical comments were taken about the concept
and grammatical construction of the questionnaires and interview questions from experienced
lecturers of Wollo University and Dessie College of Teachers’ Education who are from the
department of education and English language. Accordingly 2 English language experts and 2
curriculum experts went through the questionnaires and gave me constructive comments. As

90
result, 7 questions were canceled out and the close ended questions were reduced from 58 to 51
and 5 open-ended questions were reduced in to 3. Moreover, they corrected grammatical errors
on 5 questions and an amendment was made. Furthermore, they gave me comments on the
grammatical constructions on 3 structured interviews questions.

Likewise, to secure questionnaires reliability, a pilot test was conducted in school 01 Preparatory
Secondary School before the actual study was conducted. Thus, the questionnaires were
distributed to 62 learners to be filled. Then the questionnaire papers were collected and organised
for reliability test. At last and SPSS was employed and computed the reliability of the items. The
reliability of the questionnaire was tested using Cronbach’s Alpha. And, the test result indicated
the reliability is .77. Some amendments were made on some items; the number of items was
modified, items with similar message were merged, language clarity was edited and difficult
words were avoided. Finally, after I incorporated my supervisor’s constructive comments and
suggestions, the questions were administered to the sampled learners. After administration, the
questionnaires were reserved and attached at appendix part.

4.5 Data Analysis

According to Kothari (2004:122) data analysis is referring to the computation of certain
measures along with searching for the patterns of relationship that exist among data groups.
Analysis of data in a general way involves a number of closely related operations which are
performed with the purpose of summarising the collected data and organising in such a manner
that they are answering the research question(s). It is a systematic search for meaning (Hatch,
2002:148).

Data that were gathered through interviews, open-ended questionnaire (recorded in tape
recorder) and observation were analysed inductively using narrations and descriptions through
words, phrases and statements. However, data that were gathered through documents were
organised in the form of tables and analysed deductively by units via percentage. Whereas, data
that had been gathered from the respondents through close-ended questionnaire were edited,

91
coded, classified, tabulated, organised in the form of tables and analysed through frequency,
percentage and mean.

4.6 Reliability and Validity

Validity is the appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the inferences researchers
make based on the data they collect. Reliability refers to the consistency of scores or answers
from one instrument to another and from one set of item to another (Fraenkel & Wallen,
2000:169).

Thus, I ensured the validity and reliability of this research through multiple methods, adequate
representative samples from the population, using, multiple data gathering instruments and by
preparing adequate number of samples of items or questions represent the content to be measured
and appropriate formatting of instruments by keeping clarity of printing, clarity of direction, size
and type of items, adequacy of work space, using appropriate language and placing of
checkmark.

4.7 Ethical Protocol

Ethics refers to a question of right or wrong (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000:41). It deals with how
those who participate in the research are being treated and how data are handled after being
collected (Vanderstoep & Johnston, 2009:12-13). Thus, I recognised participants’ consent
through:
• Clear explanation about the details and the purpose of the study to the participants.
• Informing participants as they have the right to withdraw from the study at any time.
• Made it clear to the participants that no incentives will be offered or granted due to lack of
sufficient funds.

Then I submitted a thorough plan for data collection and sample of any instruments that I
administered to participants. And to protect plagiarism, I acknowledged the idea and data of
others from whom, when and where it was taken.

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Moreover, so as to protect participants from harm or risk, I removed their names from all data
collection forms. This was done by substituting number or letter to each subject instead of their
names. Thus, all participants were remained anonymous and confidential. In this study,
participants’ identity also protected through the use of aliases for all participants referring their
names (assigning cod for their identity).

To strengthen the above ethical concept, Fraenkel and Wallen (2000:42-43) and Belmont (1979)
in Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009:12) explain that the three very important issues that every
researcher should address are the protection of participants from harm, ensuring of
confidentiality of research data and the question of deception of subjects. Protecting participants
from harm is the most important ethical consideration of all. Thus, it is fundamental
responsibility of every researcher to do all his/her power to ensure that participants are protected
from physical or psychological harm, discomfort, or danger that may arise due to research
procedures.

Regarding confidentiality, Fraenkel and Wallen (2000:43) have also argued that the names of the
subjects should be removed from all data collection forms. This can be done by assigning a
number or letter to each subject can be asked to furnish information anonymously.

4.8 Conclusion
Research design and methodology are the core steps of the research process because all research
activities are carrying out in line with the chosen research design and methodology. Thus,
researchers should select appropriate research design and methodology relevant to their research
topic, epistemology/paradigm and research approaches.

Accordingly, this study employed mixed method; qualitative and quantitative research approach.
The qualitative design was employed to gather pertinent data from teachers and Departmental
Heads through interview as well as observation. But quantitative design was employed to gather
pertinent data from learners and from documents such as learners’ rosters. This chapter also
indicated that the population of the study was all social science learners, Geography teachers and

93
Geography departmental heads of the six sampled higher education preparatory secondary
schools.

It was also mentioned that to take samples from the population both purposive and random
sampling techniques were .employed. Thus, data gathering instruments that I employed were
interview, observation, documents and questionnaires. Furthermore, the chapter elaborates the
different activities in the data collection procedure. Finally, the validity and reliability of data
were tested by curriculum and language experts and pilot test respectively. And in the ethics part
of the research varieties of strategies were identified that I followed to secure the participants
from risk/danger or harm.

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 CHAPTER 5
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS AND
OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRES

5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the finding of qualitative qualitative data analysis of the study. As Kothari
(2004:122) defines the term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with
searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. Hatch (2002:148) states:

“Data analysis is a systematic search for meaning. It is a way to process qualitative

data so that what has been learned can be communicated to others. . . .Researchers
always engage their own intellectual capacities to make sense of qualitative data. . . .
Only the intelligence, creativity and reflexivity of the human mind can bring meaning
to those data.(Hatch, 2002:148).”

Analysis of data in a general way involves a number of closely related operations which are
performed with the purpose of summarising the collected data and organising these in such a
manner that they answer the research questions. The analysis procedure of this study started from
qualitative data and end with quantitative data. Therefore, in this chapter the data gathered
through qualitative tools such as interviews and open-ended questionnaires were recorded in
short scripts and were analysed inductively through narration, description of words, phrases and
statements. Here the direct words of participants were quoted. Generally, the chapter deals with
the analysis of data collected from Geography departmental heads and Geography teachers
through interviews and learners’ responses of open-ended questionnaires. Finally, based on these
analysed data the results were presented.

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5.2 Analysis of Interview Data
5.2.1 Charactorstics of participants
The distribution of samples of teachers and Departmental Heads are displayed in the following
table in terms of their sex, experience and qualification.

Table 5.1: Background of participants

No Respondents Sex Experience in years Qualification

M F .. Total 1-5 11-15 16-20 Diploma BA M

Ed
5

1. Teachers 6 _ 6 2 4 _ _ 1

2. Departmental 6 _ 6 3 1 2 _ _
Heads

Total 12 _ 12 5 5 2 _ 11 1

Table 5.1 indicates that all of the participants in this study were male. The table also shows the
experience distribution of participants in the sampled schools. Seven participants had above 11
years work experience. But only 5 participants had below 5 years work experience. From this
data, we can understand and conclude that the majority of the participants had reasonable work
experience in the teaching of Geography. Thus, they have been supposed that they had sufficient
professional knowledge and skill to teach and facilitate the learning activities of preparatory
secondary school Geography education.

Furthermore, the table shows the participants’ level of qualification and thereby majority (11) of
them is BA holders and one is an M.Ed holder. There was no diploma holder at the time of
investigation. Therefore, all participants were BA and MA holders. Thus, it is possible to
understand and infer that Geography teaching staff is better qualified and experienced to the

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level of preparatory secondary school and seemed to have a better subject matter knowledge and
pedagogical skill to practice learner-centred methods in the teaching of Geography.
5.2.2 Analysis of teachers’ and Departmental Heads’ responses to interview questions
5.2.2.1 Teachers’ responses to interview questions
I raised 16 open-ended interview questions to the Geography teachers. In the open-ended
interview, the exact wording and sequence of questions have been determined. Questions were
ordered in a complete open-ended format. All interviewees have been asked the same basic
questions in the same order. The responses of interview questions were analysed subsequently.

5.2.2.1.1 Teachers’ experiences regarding the teaching and learning process of Geography
It was collected from the responses that most teachers teach Geography traditionally through
lecture method. Teachers have continued transmitting already organised information and learners
passively receive the information being transmitted by the teacher. Thus, both teachers and
learners have been practicing their past trends of traditional lecture method in the current
Geography teaching and learning processes. A respondent from School 05 explained as follows:

I had learnt all subjects through teacher-centred method of teaching when I was
elementary, secondary and university student. So I continued my past experience when
I am teacher (WODA).

Most Geography teachers complained that learners are disappointed when teachers assign them
to learn by themselves either in group or individually through learner-centred methods. Whereas
few respondents mentioned that there is shortage of time to practice learner-centred methods of
teaching. As a result, they rushed out large portion of contents through lecturing.

Thus, it is possible to conclude that both learners and teachers resist the practice of learner-
centred methods such as field work, map work, project work, discussion, role-play, simulation,
drama and others. Therefore, teachers are continuing the practice of traditional lecture method of
teaching in the teaching of Geography.

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5.2.2.1.2 The unique nature of Geography and teaching-learning strategies it requires
The respondents confirmed the uniqueness of Geography and that its contents are aggregated
from both social and natural sciences. Thus, Geography is a bridge science and most of its
contents are found outside the classroom and need practical activities as well as invites learners
to engage actively in the teaching process. Moreover, respondents stated that field work, learning
by doing, presentation, group discussion, experimentation are significant strategies to teach
Geography effectively. For instance, one respondent from School 03 asserted as:

Most Geography contents are unique; its domains are found in the social and natural
science disciplines and reflect the real world. And thus, they are comfortable for
practical teaching strategies such as field observation, experiment and demonstration.
In addition, Geography contents need unique teaching materials like Globs, Maps,
films, rock and mineral samples (BOAR).

Another respondent from School 02 explained:

Geography contents uniquely need learner-centered teaching strategies such as project

work, Map work, field work, group work and presentation which are useful for the
learners to share ideas, to process information, knowledge, to help each other, to
improve drawing skill, speaking skill and to develop self confidence (HADAGN).

With regard to the unique nature of Geography and supporting the respondents, NICED
elaborated as:

The acquisition of Geographical knowledge involves much more than the

memorization of information. A well developed Geographical understanding can only
result from a process of enquiry in which questions are asked, evidence is examined
and conclusions have been reached (NICED, 1988 in Fisher, 1998, p. 21).

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Similarly, the authors of Grade 12 syllabus such as Asfaw, Sharma, Woldesemait and
Weldeslassie (2011: VI) elaborate on the unique nature of Geography as:

Geography is primarily an observational science in its practical application in contrast,

for example, to chemistry and other sciences whose practical work is primary
conducted in laboratories. Due to this fact, Geography students must experience
outdoor teaching methods, such as field trips and field work. For example, you might
take them to a nearby area to look for various land forms made by both endogenic and
exogenic forces. In addition to satisfying the requirement such practical experience,
field trips and field work make the subject more realistic and increase students’ interest
(Asfaw etal, 2011:VI).

The above assertions also confirm Olusegun’s (2006:28) view regarding the unique nature of
Geography, stated as follows:

Geography is versatile, expressive, creative, problem-solving, practical and

intellectually stimulating school subject. The distinctive characteristics of Geography,
i.e. central concepts, logical internal structure, methodology, integrative nature and
transparent interdisciplinary effects make it an integral part of any worthwhile school
curriculum (Olusegun, 2006:28).

Furthermore, Olusegun (2006:29) claims that senior secondary school Geography curriculum
developers have to be chosen from the outset to emphasise among others a conceptual approach.
This is based on the belief that a conceptual approach to senior secondary school Geography
supported by compatible problem-solving procedures and appropriate instructional resources,
tempered by the good sense of an enthusiastic and patient Geography teacher; should assist the
pupils to learn Geography more efficiently and effectively.

In addition to Olusegun (2006), Demirci, Kesler and Kaya (2010:59) also posit that the
development of a new secondary school Geography curriculum is a milestone which not only

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carries many new concepts and methods in to Geography lessons, but also triggers a big debate
about textbooks. Debates such as the content organisation, content integration, activities that
stimulate learners’ engagement, teachers’ role as a facilitator, appropriate media, sufficient time
allocation and tools of measurement and evaluation are reflected in the curriculum development
process.

Therefore, both the respondents and the literature imply that Geography is unique discipline and
needs its own practical and outdoor learning and teaching strategies, assessment techniques,
resources, effective curriculum designers and practitioners. Thus, so as to incorporate relevant
contents, objectives, methods, assessment techniques, teachers’ role and learners’ activities in the
curriculum, the curriculum designers should consider the unique nature of Geography as a
discipline.

5.2.2.1.3 Teaching strategies designed in Geography syllabus

Concerning this question, most respondents explained that the teaching strategies designed in
higher education preparatory secondary school Geography syllabus are learner-centered, such as
brainstorming, questioning, discussion, demonstration, explanation, harmonising, project work,
documentation, guest speaker, field trips and field work.

A respondent from School 05 had this to say about teaching strategies:

Appropriate learner-centred teaching strategies such as fieldwork, presentation,

demonstration, exercises, activities, project work and discussion were identified in
Geography syllabus (KEAR).

To cross-check the responses, I consulted Grades 11 and 12 syllabi and found that the teaching
strategies explained by the respondents were encapsulated in the syllabi. Thus, I am in a position
to say that the design of the syllabi has no problem in promoting learner-centred approach to the
teaching of Geography. The syllabi encourage learners to construct their own knowledge
independently and thus present teachers with the opportunity to facilitate rather than only teach

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the learners. Moreover, I have seen and understood that the evaluation strategies identified in the
syllabi were continuous assessment technique and practiced while teaching-learning process is
going on.

Based on literatures and responses, one can sum up that learner-centred methods, such as
brainstorming, questioning, discussion, demonstration, explanation, harmonizing,
documentation, project work, guest speaker, field trips and field work were properly identified in
preparatory secondary school’s Geography syllabus.

5.2.2.1.4 Teaching methods teachers practice in the teaching of Geography

In relation to this question, the majority of the participants responded that most of the time they
practice lecture method of teaching in the implementation of preparatory secondary school
Geography syllabus. They prefer lecture method to learner-centred methods of teaching due to
shortage of time to cover the contents of the annual lesson, low interest of the learners to learn
through learner-centred methods of teaching, learners’ disturbance, few better achievers’
dominance and shortage of resources in the school, shortage of budget to purchase instructional
media and to facilitate fieldwork method of teaching.

For instance, a respondent from School 03 explained:

Most of the time, I practice lecture method of teaching to cover the annual lesson in
the schedule’s time and to manage the class room discipline properly (BOAR).

Moreover, another respondent from school 06 remarked:

I employ lecture and note giving method of teaching because it is time saving and
students want teacher’s explanation and organised note. But other methods of teaching
need much time otherwise the period will be ended before we perform the intended
task. For instance, in group discussion the period may come an end even before we
form the group itself (MEQYE).

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Though many scholars mentioned that learner-centred approaches create opportunities for the
learners to engage in the teaching-learning process based on their experiences and learning
styles, most respondents perceived that teaching is simply the transmission of information from
the teacher to the learners and did not take into account their experience and individual
differences as well as engagement of learners. For instance, Nayak and Rao (2004:213) claim
that the teacher primarily becomes the facilitator who structures learning opportunities and
encourages students to work together to build a common body of knowledge. Active learning
requires that students are engaged and active in the learning process. Teacher serves coacher or
facilitator, guiding students through activities but letting them to take control of the learning
event itself (Brown & Duguid, 2000:133).

Supporting the aforementioned idea, Desta (2004:77) confirms:

Knowledge of the subject matter is considered as the sole determinant factor for
effective teaching. For many staff, teaching means, in the main, the act of the teacher
and the main requirement for teaching is knowledge of the subject matter...But
considering teaching as merely as a matter of knowledge of the content is fallacious.
Such understanding excludes the central person, a student who is in reality the main
actor. Unless teachers understand and appreciate this, it will be difficult to make the
teaching-learning process student-centred and to encourage the deep approach to
learning (Desta, 2004:77)

Therefore, from the above literature and respondents’ explanations one can understand and come
to an end that most teachers were practicing traditional teacher-centred method of teaching. This
implies that the teaching process was dominated by the teacher. As a result, learners could not
get an opportunity to engage and participate in the teaching processes and they became passive
receivers.

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5.2.2.1.5 The value of learner-centred methods in the teaching of Geography
As far as the value of learner-centred methods of teaching is concerned, most respondents
reported that learner-centred methods of teaching have an enormous value like encouraging
learner participation and interaction with their mates, develop learners’ creativity, develop
critical thinking ability, self-confidence, learners’ independent learning ability, learners’
commitment and responsibility of their own learning. Moreover, respondents elaborated that
learner-centred teaching methods are valuable for the learners to integrate theoretical classroom
lesson with the outdoor practical learning. For instance, DEAK from School 01 stated that:

Learner-centred strategies have advantages to teach Geography contents. For example,

field work has its own great advantage for Geography teaching. There is a proverb
people speak so many times, “seeing more leads to believing.” Thus, through field work
method of teaching it is possible to show students with their naked-eye what things look
like in the environment and students can easily understand and internalize as well as
can create permanent knowledge for their future life. But when we apply lecture
method in the class, students have not a chance to see what physical features look like
and what the reality is (AKAS).

The above idea confirms Olusegun’s (2006:94) assertion, that:

In the teaching of Geography, fieldwork has been observed as a “sine qua non” aspect
of the Geography teaching because it fosters and even enhances observational skills
and critical thinking ability in the learners. Therefore, the importance of fieldwork,
types of fieldwork, organisation of fieldwork and learning outcomes in fieldwork are
important points and should be considered (Olusegun, 2006:94).

In the same way, Johns, Wright et.al and Getaneh et.al (in Awulachew, 2010:91-92) discussed the
merits of learner-centred i.e. learner-centred methods reduce teachers’ burden in monitoring and
giving the overall atmosphere of classroom, promote effective climate in the classroom, create
learners’ feel-at-home, develop learners’ creativity, encourage learners to be involved and be

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more concerned about the task and lead learners’ participation. These scholars also generalised
that learner-centred methods are the most effective techniques of teaching under the present
circumstances to fulfill the purpose of modern education.
In learner-centred approach, the student has an opportunity to pose problems, ask questions,
collect information, find solutions to problems and answer questions through his/her
effort/activity (Nayak & Rao, 2004:109-110). In the learner-centred methods, the teacher should
encourage the child’s participation through activities. The whole process of teaching is geared
towards the development of the learner’s creativity and thinking. Therefore, learner engagement
represents a key component of learner success.

Similarly, Fisher (1998:53) writes that in the learner-centred methods learners are given a
marked degree of autonomy and direction of the learning activity and used to improve level of
motivation, recognise the inter-disciplinary nature of real-life situations as well as improve the
level of the learners’ understanding.

Moreover, Ademe (2010:208-209), Demirci, Kesler and Kaya (2010:61-62) and Aydin
(2011:278) discuss active learning strategies in the Geography curriculum that help learners to
learn by doing. The positive attitude of Geography teachers towards active learning strategies is
the decisive factor for effective Geography lessons and to develop learners’ holistic and
meaningful relationships as well as multi-dimensional thinking skills. O’Mahony (2000:12)
recommends outdoor teaching strategies for Geography as follows:

Fieldwork is a necessary and basic part of Geography teaching. And we should be

familiar with all existing school policies regarding these activities, or assist in drawing
up new and useful policies that can facilitate such teaching techniques (O’Mahony,
2000:12).

Fieldwork in teaching Geography involves the study of geographical phenomenon in the actual
site of the phenomena (Olusegun, 2006:95). Fieldwork entails the actual geographical study
carried out in the field. It is usually any outdoor lesson which enables the learners to observe

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physically and practically what they have learnt in-door. Olusegun (2006:95) further stresses
fieldwork as follows:

In Geography teaching, emphasis is now on problem solving rather than the

prescriptive and expository methods. Hence, the development of skills like observation,
recording, data analysis and the use of information to solve problems are very crucial
indeed (Olusegun, 2006:95).

Thus, both the respondents and the literature have asserted that learner-centred methods of
teaching make teachers to do learning tasks less, do less telling, design more work, do more
modeling, do more to get learners’ learning from and with each other, use collaborative and
cooperative groups for learning, work to create climates for learning, create an environment of
accountability, do more with feedback and providing formative feedback.

Therefore, it is possible to conclude that learner-centred methods of teaching have an enormous

value such as encouraging learner participation, learners’ interaction with their mates, develop
learners’ creativity and develop their critical thinking ability and self-confidence, learners’
independent learning ability, learners’ commitment and responsibility of their own learning.
Moreover, participants asserted that learner-centred methods of teaching are valuable for the
learners to integrate theoretical classroom learning with outdoor practical lesson and make the
instructional process active and live.

5.2.2.1.6 Teachers’ readiness to practice learner-centred methods of teaching

Concerning teachers’ readiness to practice learner-centred methods of teaching, most
respondents explained that their readiness for the teaching profession in general and to
implement learner-centred methods of teaching in particular is low due to lack of training about
the advantage and the way how to practice learner-centred methods of teaching in preparatory
secondary school Geography education, lack of interest for the teaching profession, lack of
incentives for teachers motivation, shortage of time. Accordingly, responses indicated that
teachers are loaded with extra work rather than teaching, insufficient supply of resources relevant

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to preparatory secondary school Geography contents, learners’ low interest to learn through
learner-centred methods of teaching, learners’ low motivation for learning, learners’ disturbance
and incapable for self-learning (the more capable learners joined natural science stream).
One respondent from School 03 explained the main problems related to the practice of learner-
centred methods of teaching:

…it is difficult to practice learner-centred methods of teaching due to lack of training,

lack of comfortable school environment, lack of teaching materials, large class size and
shortage of finance. As it is known field work method of teaching is best to teach
Geography. However, due to shortage of finance we haven’t been practicing it yet
(BOAR).

As far as teachers’ contribution towards the effectiveness of teaching, Yayeh (2011:61) claim
that schools without effective teachers are less likely to realise their mission of producing all
rounded and competent citizens. At any level of educational programme, teachers play a decisive
role to the success of national educational aims. Moreover, Tareke (2010:139) attributes
teachers’ low interest to their profession as follows:

Teachers do not love the teaching profession due to unsatisfactory payment for their
work and low respect from the society.

Strengthening the afore-mentioned respondents’ response and literature about the teachers’ low
interest in the teaching profession, David and Beriner (1992:302) state that the love of the
teaching profession is one of the factors that affect academic performance of learners. Teachers
who teach one thing with their lips and carry another in their heart must go through an inner
training. The teacher who feels the importance of his/her profession should be a teacher first and
a teacher last. Besides, Sallis (1993:49) points out that the more people build capacity the more
they can perform. Since teachers are crucial, educational policy makers should get a clear picture
of who their teachers are, how they view their role in the system and the type of incentives,

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regulations, training that will increase their effort and capacity to improve the teaching and
learning process.

Similarly, Omer (2010:62) points out that the commitment of teachers in South Wollo secondary
schools was found to be low. Teachers themselves expressed that they are not motivated and not
as concerned about improving the quality of education, and instructional leaders also asserted
that it is hard to find a significant number of committed teachers in their schools. As most
respondents remarked, Tareke (2010:141) also asserts that to raise teachers’ readiness to the
profession and improve the quality of education, the government should pay attention to the
teaching profession, understand the needs of the teachers, improve teachers’ salary and keeping
teachers’ benefit as well.

Furthermore, Mona and Tesfaye (2000:3) point out that among other problems, the quality of
teachers is most crucial because quality personnel in the future should not only have knowledge;
that more importantly they should be devoted and faithful to their tasks. The influence on
learners by the teacher’s own personality cannot be replaced by any teaching material. Generally,
in relation to teachers’ readiness, most respondents responded that teachers are not well prepared
to practice learner-centred methods of teaching. These respondents explained the reasons why
they are not ready to practice learner-centred methods of teaching. A reason, which has been
cited sufficiently this far, is that learners are not interested to learn in general and learning
through learner-centred methods of teaching. Moreover, few high achievers are disappointed to
help low achievers. As a result, teaching and learning activities such as group discussion,
assignments, project works and presentation are dominantly done by few high achievers, and the
teaching and learning activities are affected by learners who have a desire to disturb the class
room lesson.

The respondents also explained that they practice lecture method of teaching to cover large
contents in short time and shortage of resources as well as absence of trainings about learner-
centred methods of teaching. Moreover, learners resist learning by themselves and they
considered the teachers ineffective and give low mark during evaluation to which they try to

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practice learner-centred methods of teaching. As a result, most teachers prefer practice lecture
method of teaching to varied learner-centred methods of teaching. The other reason why teachers
are practicing lecture method of teaching is that most teachers resist changing their methods of
teaching from lecture to learner-centred methods of teaching. Most respondents complain that no
sufficient time and resources to practice learner-centred methods of teaching.

Therefore, both the respondents and literature asserted that teachers’ readiness to practice
learner-centred methods of teaching is low due to the absence of training concerning the practice
of learner-centered methods of teaching in preparatory secondary school Geography education,
teachers’ low interest and commitment for the teaching profession, lack of incentives for
teachers’ motivation, shortage of time. Teachers are loaded with extra work other than teaching,
have insufficient resources relevant to preparatory secondary school Geography. Learners’
interest in learner-centred methods of teaching is low. For instance, MEQYE from School 06
complained that shortage of budget and material resources are the major constraints to practice
learner-centred methods of teaching like field work.

5.2.2.1.7 Teachers’ roles in the implementation of Geography syllabus

Regarding major teachers’ roles, the respondents explained that teachers have diversified roles in
the school, such as preparing annual and daily lesson plan, lecturing, preparing and providing the
main notes of the lesson to the learners, giving tutorials for female learners, preparing and
administering mid and final examinations, participating in co-curricular activities, attending the
school and departmental meetings. For instance, a respondent from School 06 mentioned his role
as:

Preparing and facilitating materials to the students, providing detail explanation about
the lesson, providing short and clear note to the students and participating in different
school affairs are my major role while practicing the syllabus (MEQYE).

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From this point of view, it is possible to infer that teachers are busy with different roles and are
thus faced with time constraints and even exhausted to practice variety methods of teaching. As a
result, teachers have been diverting their methods to traditional lecture method of teaching.

Thus, it is possible to sum up that most Geography teachers recognise that traditional method of
teaching, specifically the lecture method and summative assessment techniques are the main
techniques of teaching activities; the learner-centred method of teaching like field work, project
work, role-play, discussion, drama, demonstration and continuous assessment, such as class
work, homework, assignment, quiz and test, were neglected. It means that teaching methods and
assessment techniques, which encourage learners’ engagement and participation, were ignored.

5.2.2.1.8 Problems teachers encounter in the practice of learner-centred methods of

Geography teaching
The respondents mentioned the problems that affect the implementation of learner-centred
methods of teaching: learners’ resistance to learn through learner-centred methods of teaching,
lack of awareness about the advantage and implementation of learner-centred teaching methods
from the side of teachers and learners, dearth of resources in the school, shortage of time and
lack of financial support from the school management for field work activities; majority of
learners are less capable to learn by themselves and to take responsibilities about their own
learning. Furthermore, the respondents explained that most activities are dominantly performed
by few better achievers. As a result, the majority of the learners (low and medium achievers) are
exposed for dependency.

With regard to the problems that teachers encounter while they practice learner-centred methods
of teaching, a few respondents stated their cases as follows:

KEARG from School 05:

…. Shortage of resources, large class size, uncomfortable seats for group discussion
and other activities, lack of school management support, poor learners’ English

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 language ability(learners are shy to speak and explain their idea) are the main
constraints to practice learner-centred methods of teaching.

MEQYE from School 06:

Shortage of resources, lack of learners’ interest for self-learning, low ability to discuss
with their friends, shyness to explain their idea and learners’ inability to understand
the written text are the problems to practice learner-centred methods in the teaching of
Geography.

HADAGN from School 02:

… lack of schools’ management support, shortage of resources and lack of conducive

class room environment; poor black board quality, shortage of appropriate seats, dusty
class rooms, lack of students interest to learn and lack of sufficient text book (1:2 book-
pupil ratio) are the major problems that I encounter while practicing Geography
syllabus through learner-centred methods of teaching.

The respondents’ responses support the Ethiopian MOE (1998:4-9) assertion, which states that:

…teaching through learner-centred methods has been neglected due to lack of

convenient instructional materials, lack of motivation from the parts of the learners,
lack of conducive classrooms, lack of smooth teacher-learner interaction and learners’
anxiety.

Similarly, Anyanwu (2008:209) indicates the importance of resources and sufficient time to
implement learner-centred methods of teaching that more resources should be supplied to
schools, that more time is required for learners to reflect on their own learning, and that teachers
should implement the constructivist approach to teaching. Likewise, Asgedom et al (2006:10)

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confirm the positive impact of teachers’ subject matter knowledge, pedagogical skill, resources,
conducive teaching environment and access of training to the quality of education, as they claim
as:

Quality of teaching can take place only when teachers have the necessary
qualifications, support from the school management, teaching-learning resources,
conducive school environment and regular teacher improvement opportunities.

To indicate the negative impact of traditional method of teaching on learners’ performance,

Stein (2005:37) points out that:

Children made to sit and listen passively to teacher without active involvement in
teaching themselves have consistently been shown to lag behind children who are
encouraged to actively find out things themselves.

Therefore, it is possible to conclude that due to the shortage of resources, lack of motivation
from learners and teachers, lack of well facilitated classes, shortage of time and lack of smooth
teacher-learner relationship, teachers practice lecture rather than learner-centred methods of
teaching. Thus, the lecture method of teaching negatively affects learners’ creativity, critical
thinking, and generation of new ideas and construction of knowledge.

5.2.2.1.9 Availability of resources in the school relevant to Geography contents

Regarding the availability of resources in the schools, most respondents responded that there is a
great dearth of resources. As a result, Geography teachers encounter problems of resources to
support the teaching activities with instructional media and to practice varied methods ofteaching.
Moreover, the respondents mentioned that the scarcity of resources negatively affect learners’
participation in the teaching activities.

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 In relation to the shortage and unavailability of resources, a respondent from school 05 asserted
as:

Resources such as, Maps, Atlas, Globs, diagrams, charts and New paper are
insufficiently available whereas resources such as, meteorological instruments,
projectors, computers, slides, films, TV, Video, real objects, photographs, and LCD
power point are totally unavailable in the school. As a result, it is difficult for teachers
to practice participatory methods of teaching. This in turn affects students’ academic
achievement and quality of Geography education (KEAR).

Another respondent also indicated the negative impact of the shortage of resources in the teaching
of Geography through learner-centred methods as:

There are no sufficient materials in the school. For instance, the class rooms have not
comfort seats, black boards are too old to write and to draw a display diagram on
them, no Geography room and Geography laboratory. As a result, it is difficult to
teach practically like map reading activities and other geomorphologic activities
(BOARE).

In relation to this point, Olusegun (2006:74) indicates that teachers should ensure the locally or
commercially produced, availability of materials to be used for the media production or whether
the materials should be loaned from other schools or resource centre in the locality. The
unavailability of instructional media has an adverse effect on the quality of education. The
shortage of reading materials such as text books, reference books, journals, and so on, and other
pedagogical resources such as maps, globes, charts, graphs, etc discourages teachers from carrying
out their duties effectively (Doll, 1989:51). Olusegun (2006:32) further argues that:

Federal and state governments should provide adequate funding to schools so that
Geography as a core subject should have the basic equipment and materials that
would enhance its teaching. Geography programme can be effectively taught with

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 basic equipment and materials which necessarily call for setting up a Geography
laboratory in every school. The laboratory should be equipped with furniture designed
for practical learning like maps, rock specimens, models, tapes, surveying chains,
prismatic compass, etc.

Fisher (1998:42) and Olusegun (2006:73-74) depict that an inventory of the basic teaching aids
and their sources including improvised types should be available to schools in the appropriate
places. This indicates that the success of curriculum implementation in general and Geography
curriculum implementation in particular often depends on the availability of equipment and
instructional media in the school. Scarcity of instructional media as the main problem is
enormously wide spread in many developing countries while it seems insignificant in developed
countries.

Many studies have shown that among other things, education systems in developing countries are
characterised by the unavailability and inadequacy of instructional materials. Supporting this
idea, Chapman and Mahlak (1997:13) state that the inadequacy of instructional materials
jeopardises the ability of developing countries to provide quality education. Thus, many schools
in developing countries today face the critical shortage of instructional materials and
consequently the quality of teaching and learning continues to be low.

5.2.2.1.10 Learners’ activities in the process of teaching and learning

Related to this issue, the majority of respondents responded that students have not been involved
in the activities; students listen to the lectures and they take notes of the lesson. The respondents
further elaborated that students are not interested and committed to learn by themselves and
perform tasks independently because they came through the trends of teacher-centred methods of
teaching, are shy to explain their idea, are afraid to ask questions, fear to speak in front of their
friends due to lack of confidence in their English language, and their lack of subject matter
knowledge.

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Concerning the passiveness of learners in the teaching of Geography, a respondent from School
03 explained said:

Learners have a desire to learn by teacher’s lecture and want to get an organised note
from the teacher. Most learners don’t ask and answer questions while I teach in the
class room. They are disappointed when I give individual and group tasks. Even they
disturb when I give a group works in the class room (BOAR).

Thus, from this point of view one can conclude that learners were passive in the classroom due to
their past learning experience, shyness, frustration, lack of confidence, lack skills of English
language and lack of subject matter knowledge. As a result, learners are passive and wait for
teachers’ lecture, while the teachers themselves have been practicing lecture method of teaching
in line with learners’ interest.

5.2.2.1.11 Types of teaching methods frequently practiced by Geography teachers

With regard to this question, except one respondent, the others mentioned that they practice
lecture method of teaching in the implementation of Geography syllabus. They also elaborated
on the main reasons why they practice lecture method of teaching frequently. Accordingly,
lecture method is time saving, learners are passive while they are encouraged to respond in a
certain group or individual task, are shy and afraid when they are assigned to learn through
discussion and other self-learning methods, due to lack of self-confidence, as if they could not
speak English fluently and this causes learners’ resistance against learner-centred methods of
teaching.

One respondent claimed that he practices lecture and discussion teaching methods frequently
even I did not observe him do this during my actual class observation. Inversely, one respondent
attempted to justify his lecture method as follows:

I frequently practice lecture method of teaching in the implementation of Geography

syllabus because learners resist learning through learner-centred method of teaching

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 due to their lecture method trend. As a result, they have been disturbing during group
discussion and other active-learning methods. And it is difficult to cover the intended
contents in the given period of time. Thus, I have been pushed to divert the practice of
lecture method of teaching and keeping class room discipline (WORDA).

Another respondent from school 06 justified his reason as follows:

Most frequently, I employ lecture method of teaching because it is suitable for the
students and to cover the contents within a given time (MEQYE).

Similarly, Desta (2004:72-73) discusses that most teachers lack familiarity with individual
differences among the learners and have no tendency of utilising different methods other than
lecture. In this method a teacher views him/herself as the sole source of information whereas
learners remain passive listeners to formal and structured presentations.

Furthermore, the majority of the respondents did not deny that they have not carried out activities
outside the schools, such as field work due to lack of support from the schools’ management,
scarcity of resources and absence of budget allocation from the schools. I proved the truth of the
afore-mentioned respondents’ response during my actual class observation. Concerning the
negative impact of budget in the practice of learner-centred methods of teaching such as field
work, one respondent from school 01remarked:

Though field work is appropriate method in the teaching of Geography, we haven’t

been practicing it yet due to the absence of budget, absence of means of transport and
lack of training about how to manage, organise, guide and practice the field work
activities properly; among all, lack of finance is the most series problem to practice
field work. Thus, I frequently practice lecture method of teaching (AKAS).

Therefore, both the respondents’ response and the literature assert that teachers frequently
practice lecture method of teaching in the implementation of preparatory secondary schools

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Geography syllabus due to the shortage of resources and of budget, lack of schools’
administrative support, learners’ resistance towards learner-centred teaching methods, low ability
to speak English, lack of training of teachers about the practice of learner-centred methods of
teaching, learners’ experiences of the lecture method and shortage of time. Consequently,
learners’ creativity, involvement, confidence and self-learning effort were hindered by this
teacher-dominance method of teaching.

5.2.2.1.12 Dominant assessment techniques teachers practice to assess learners’ academic

achievement
The majority of respondents mentioned that Geography teachers assess their learners’ academic
progress and achievement through class work, home-work, assignment, quiz, test, mid and final
examination. For instance, a respondent from School 04 stated in this regard:

I use tests, quizzes, class works, participation, assignments, home works, mid and final
examination to assess students’ academic performance (KEAR).

However, I did not see teachers who practice continuous assessment techniques such as class
work, home-work, quiz and other forms of class activities while I observed the actual teaching in
class. As I observed, all the periods were characterised by teachers’ lecture and note giving
activities as learners were listening to the lecture and taking notes. Moreover, during my class
observation I did not see marks given by teachers for the learners’ class work, home-work and
other exercises in learners’ exercise book.

Therefore, I saw that Geography teachers didn’t practice continuous assessment techniques while
the teaching activities were going on. Learners’ academic progress was not assessed in each
period and continuously. Finally, it is possible to conclude that though continuous assessment is
part and parcel of learner-centred methods of teaching and that respondents responded as if they
were practicing it, it was practically neglected. The respondents may have not been responsible;
they were afraid to tell me the truth because they seemed to fear that they would be questioned for

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wrong doing or for going against the policy. In reality, teachers did not practice continuous
assessment techniques, particularly class participation, class work, home-work, quiz and test.

I was informally informed that teachers give group assignments but it is done by one or two high
achievers, not by the whole group members. Besides, if there is no high achiever in the group, the
assignment will be done by another person out of the group member with payment. As a result, all
the group members score the same results. Thus, individual learners’ academic progress was not
assessed regularly and continuously. As a result, learners’ participation, creativity, critical
thinking ability, confidence and independent learning were not regularly encouraged.

5.2.2.1.13 Teachers’ opinions about the negative impact of lecture method of teaching on
learners’ academic achievement
The majority of the respondents responded that traditional lecture method makes learners
dependent on the teacher’s information and activities. This dependency deteriorates learners’
confidence and motivation as well as responsibility to generate new ideas and construct
knowledge. As a result, most learners expect every information and activities from their teachers;
they hate independent work by partnering with their mates. Participants further explained that
traditional teaching methods discourage learners’ participation and engagement. A respondent
from School 05 expressed the disadvantage of the traditional method as follows:

In the traditional method of teaching, learners are silent to ask and answer questions
concerning the concepts of their lesson. All tasks are performed by the teacher and
learners expect all information and knowledge from the teacher and these make the
teacher busy. As a result, learners depend on their teachers’ information and note;
they hate independent work, will be less confident, shy, less active and dependent
(WODA).

The above respondents’ response support Fisher (1998:37), who views the traditional teaching
methods as making learners passive and shallow minded and discouraged to show creativity in
their learning. A variety of strategies should be used to create a range of learning opportunities

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suited to the need of all learners. Besides, Olusegun (2006:68) explains the demerits of lecture
method as follows:

Lecture method is the oldest teaching method which is believed historically to be dated
back antiquity. It is also referred to as expository method because it is teacher-
dominated and learners passiveed method. It is also known as talk-and-chalk method
in a situation when the teacher decides to write the summary of the points s/he has
taught on the board. In fact, in this method, the learners’ involvement and
participation is at low ebb because communication is often one way for most of the
time during the teaching-learning process (Olusegun, 2006:68).

Similarly, Freire (1972:45) explains that teachers consider education as banking in which they
deposit knowledge in the learners’ mind; consider themselves as knowledgeable bodies and
learners as knower of nothing. Positivists claimed that knowledge is a gift from knowledgeable
teachers to know nothing learners. But education must begin with the solution of the teacher-
learner contradiction by reconciling the poles of the contradiction so that both are simultaneously
teachers and learners (Freire, 1972:45).

To strengthen Frerie’s view, Desta (2004:72-73) and (Biswas, 2007:79) claim that the lecture
method dominates the teaching and learning process. More than half of children failed to achieve
Geography literacy. As teachers usually focus on giving lectures, learners depend primarily on
lecture. Learners couldn’t get the opportunity to construct knowledge and independent learning is
not encouraged.

Therefore, both the respondents and literature revealed that traditional lecture method negatively
affects the learners’ confidence, commitment, responsibility, creativity, critical thinking,
engagement, participation, interaction among themselves and independency. Thus, to solve this
problem, Geography should be taught practically through varied teaching methods. The variety of
teaching methods, which is used in a Geography course, is an important ingredient in creating a
course with interest to learners and improves learners’ academic achievement as well.

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5.2.2.1.14 Teachers’ opinions about challenging factors in the practice of learner-centred
methods of teaching in preparatory school Geography syllabus
Regarding the main problems that the respondents encounter in the practice of learner-centred
methods of teaching in Geography, most respondents explained that shortage of time, lack of
learners’ interest to learn through learner-centred methods of teaching, lack of awareness about
the advantages of learner-centred methods of teaching on the part of the learners, shortage of
teaching materials and learners’ lack the English language competency to engage in lessons are
the main constraints of learner-centred methods of teaching in the implementation of Geography
syllabus. Though the policy encourages practicing learner-centred methods of teaching, due to
these mentioned constraints, most teachers have continued practicing teacher-centred methods of
teaching. In relation to these constraints, one respondent expressed that:

…shortage of time, shortage of resources such as text books, reference books,

teaching materials, students’ disturbance, dependency of majority of students on few
better achieved students, low interest of students to learn through learner-centred
methods and majority of the students are less competent; high achievers join Natural
science stream are the major factors that negatively affect the practice of learner-
centred approaches in the implementation of Geography syllabus (WORDA).

Concerning the scarcity of Geography reference books, another respondent from school 01
remarked:

Scarcity of social science reference books in general and Geography reference books in
particular is a series problem in the school to practice learner-centred methods
teaching. Though students raised a question for school administrators as additional
reference books are needed for social science students, no response is given yet. This
has a negative impact on students’ performance and to choose social science stream
because it seems emphasis is not given for social science stream (AKAS).

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Supporting the above-mentioned remarks, Aydin (2011) points out that:

Factors such as readiness level of the students to the issues and their learning styles,
the techniques and methods the teacher prefers, the teaching materials and education
services that the teacher uses and Geography curriculum are important variables in the
teaching process of Geography (Aydin, 2011:298).

Moreover, this respondent remarked about the main reasons why teachers do not practice
learner-centred methods:

…the first reason is students always claim when teachers facilitate learner-centred
methods; they said that why teacher gives us note and discusses the lesson by himself
unless why teachers are paid salary. This condition leads teachers’ paradigm to
continue teacher-centred method of teaching particularly lecture method. The second
reason is most teachers came through teacher-centred teaching strategies. As a result,
they are fixed with that trend when they become teachers and they are not considered
and happy when they facilitate students’ learning by themselves unless they teach
through lecture method (AKAS).

Therefore, it is possible to conclude that there is incompatibility between the education policy
and the actual practice of learner-centred methods of teaching on the implementation of
Geography syllabus particularly in the higher education preparatory secondary schools. Most of
the respondents suggested relevant solutions to solve the problems such as creating awareness in
both the teachers and learners about the advantage of learner-centred methods of teaching
through training, allocate sufficient time to cover the contents through learner-centred methods
of teaching, provide sufficient teaching materials and other resources.

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5.2.2.1.15 Problems teachers encounter while they implement the preparatory school
Geography syllabus
With regard to the problems teachers encounter while implementing the Geography syllabus,
most of the respondents raised the issue of the shortage of resources such as Geography room,
Geography laboratory, department room, reference books, textbooks and other instructional
media, insufficient school facilities such as appropriate seats and comfortable classrooms, floor,
less attractive and low learners’ interest to learn are the problems teachers encounter while
implementing preparatory school Geography syllabus.

Moreover, the respondents explained that learners’ low interest in learning, teachers’ low interest
and low motivation to teaching profession, placement of low achievers in social science stream
in general and Geography Department in particular, shortage of time to accomplish the designed
contents, learners’ disturbances, few high achievers’ dominance and absence of plasma TV
transmission due to the interruption of electrical energy are hindrances of the implementation of
preparatory schools Geography syllabus. For instance, a respondent from school 02 explained the
problem as follows:

Large class size, shortage of time (period), shortage of resources, lack of students’
acceptance of the learner-centred methods are the main problems to implement
Geography syllabus through learner-centred methods of teaching. For instance, in
grade 12 the class size is large and it is difficult to practice group work, pair work and
other learner-centred methods of teaching (HADAGN).

Therefore, it is possible to generalise that these listed problems are hindering the implementation
of preparatory schools Geography syllabus through learner-centred methods of teaching.

5.2.2.1.16 Problems affecting the quality of preparatory school Geography education

Regarding the problems that affect the quality of Geography education in general and
preparatory secondary school Geography education in particular, most respondents explained
that the absence of resources such as, physical resources, class room facilities, shortage of

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instructional media, shortage of sufficient Geography reference books, scarcity of budget,
placement of incompetent learners in social science stream, learners low interest to learn through
learner-centred teaching and learning methods, learners’ low engagement in the teaching
activities, low interest and commitment on the part of teachers and lack of teachers’ professional
training about how to practice a variety of teaching methods and how to employ continuous
assessment techniques are the major problems affecting the quality of higher education
preparatory secondary school Geography education. Concerning the negative impact of scarcity
of resources on the quality of Geography education, a respondent complained that:

In our school there is scarcity of resources; even no physical and political map of
Ethiopia. But grade 12 Geography contents are talking about the physical and political
aspects of Ethiopia and teachers have been teaching theoretically without these maps.
As a result, this teaching strategy affects learners’ understanding and quality of
Geography education (AKAS).

Moreover, another respondent stated that:

Teachers’ interest has a negative impact on the quality of Geography education;

teachers were interested to join the teaching profession but later on they become less
interested due to lack of incentives, low salary and low economic status in the society.
Therefore, teachers have not been working with full interest and commitment and this
in turn affects the quality of Geography education (AKAS).

The above respondents’ response confirm the claims of Meyer and Gayle (1996:43), Deer
(1996:16), Carnoy (1999:83-84) and Minguan (1989:89) who point out that the quality of teacher
affects the quality of education. Demotivated teachers were found to be the cause for the poor
quality of teaching (Noah & Morrison, 1997:134). Geography teachers should be motivated by
means of special remuneration (Olusegun, 2006:33). Quality of teaching and teachers’ effort is
essential so as to deliver quality of education. Moreover, Asgedom et.al (2006:10) confirm the

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positive contribution of teachers’ subject matter knowledge, pedagogical skill, resources,
conducive work environment and access of training to the quality of education as:

Quality of teaching can take place only when teachers have the necessary
qualifications, support from the school management, teaching-learning resources, a
conducive work environment and regular teacher improvement opportunities
(Asgedom et.al, 2006:10).”

Yayeh (2011:73) also asserts that teachers are overloaded, stressed and ineffective, and that the
poor quality of teachers’ professional development training and absence of well established
system of induction for newly deployed teachers are the inhibiting factors for fostering of
behaviors and attributes of effective teaching.

Therefore, the literature and respondents’ response suggest a conclusion that these listed
problems are the major constraints to bring quality Geography education in higher education
preparatory secondary schools.

5.2.3 Analysis of Departmental Heads’ responses to interview questions

I conducted 16 semi-structured interview questions with Geography Departmental Heads just
like Geography teachers. Responses in the open-ended interview questions were determined the
exact wording and sequence of questions. All participants have been asked the same basic
questions in the same order. Questions were ordered in a complete open-ended format.
Therefore, both interview questions were analysed. The following sub-sections present the
findings.

5.2.3.1 Relevance of preparatory school Geography syllabus to Ethiopian education policy

The respondents did not find any fault with preparatory secondary schools Geography syllabus
compared to the Ethiopian education policy. According to the responses received, both the
syllabus and the policy encourage learners’ self-learning, creativity, participation and

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confidence, as well as teachers as facilitators of the teaching process. Besides, a respondent from
School 03 explained that:

Geography syllabus was prepared based on the country’s education policy. Thus like
the policy, the syllabus also encourages students to be creative, active, problem solvers
and rational decision makers. And teachers are also encouraged by the policy and the
syllabus to be facilitators of the teaching process; they should motivate students to be
active participant in the teaching process (DEBO).

Therefore, from the respondents’ responses, it is possible to understand that the syllabus was
prepared based on the education policy and in line with the constructivists’ methods of teaching;
teachers facilitate learners’ independent learning, creativity, critical thinking effort, commitment
and responsibility for their own learning. Even though the syllabus encourages learner-centred
methods of teaching in line with strategies identified in the education policy, teachers practice
the syllabus through lecture method against to the strategies identified in the education policy.
As a result, the practice of the preparatory secondary school Geography syllabus was
incompatible with the education policy.

5.2.3.2 The unique nature of Geography compared with other disciplines

Concerning this question, most respondents explained that Geography is a unique subject
compared to other subjects because most Geography domains such as Physical Geography, Bio-
Geography, Demography, Economic Geography, Map Reading and Map Projection are found
outside the classroom, i.e. they are found in real contexts. Therefore, Geography needs the
teaching strategies that initiate practical learning and learning by doing as well as assessment
based on students’ day-to-day practical activities. A respondent from School 04 asserted that:

Even though disciplines have mutual relationship, Geography has its own unique
nature; most of its contents are designed to be performed practically through learning
by doing, fieldwork, map work and map projection. Moreover, Geography contents

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 need relevant teaching materials like Globs, Maps, real objects, real samples and
instruments (DEWO).

In accordance with respondents’ responses, Biswas (2007:79) contends that Geography is the
subject more than any other enables people to comprehend the earth and its environment and to
appreciate the delicate balances between the human and physical elements. Thus, based on
respondents’ responses and the literature, it can be concluded that though sciences have mutual
co-existence and integrity, they have their own unique nature. Likewise, Geography has unique
nature. Therefore, it needs its own well qualified teachers, relevant teaching strategies, its own
resources and its own assessment techniques.

5.2.3.3 Feasibility of Geography syllabus

With regard to this question, most participants agreed that the Geography syllabus can be easily
implemented due to its lively nature; the contents are clear and are arranged from simple to
complex and can be integrated vertically and horisontally; its language is simple and
understandable; strategies to teach it have been identified; activities are recommended; contents
are up to date; it suits learners’ level of understanding and experience; and it is well attuned to
learner-centred methods of learning.

A respondent from School 01indicated that:

The syllabus is fitting learners’ experience and understanding, its contents are up-to-
date, feasible because they are directly related with environmental and physical
features. Moreover, the syllabus is comfortable to learner-centred methods of teaching
such as field works, project works and others (DEAK).

Another respondent also explained the suitability of the syllabus as:

The syllabus is prepared well because the contents are up-to-date, feasible, related with
students’ daily life, provided with sufficient activities, contents are arranged from simple

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 to complex, the language is easily understandable, teaching strategies are suitable for
active-learning and encouraging students interest (DEMEQ).

However, most of the respondents explained that the allotted time is insufficient to cover the
contents through learner-centred methods of teaching, shortage of instructional media and other
facilities, as well as low teachers’ and learners’ interests in the learning-teaching processe affect
the feasibility of the Geography syllabus. Gibbs (in Ramsden, 1992:21) argues that curriculum
must aim to stimulate an inquiry, analytical and creative approach encouraging independent
judgment and critical self awareness.

Therefore, from participants’ response and literature, it can be concluded that due to the
insufficient time, scarcity of resources, low teachers’ commitment and low learners’ interest, the
syllabus is designed not to be feasible and it does not have a negative impact on the practice of
learner-centred methods of teaching.

5.2.3.4 Teachers’ readiness to practice learner-centred teaching methods

The majority of respondents responded that teachers are not ready to practice learner-centred
methods of teaching and gave the reasons why they are not ready. The trend that both teachers
and learners were coming through was teacher-centred methods of teaching. Teachers did not
receive training on learner-centered methods of teaching and how to practice these methods in
the teaching-learning process.

Similarly, learners were not made aware about the advantage of learner-centered methods of
learning. Learners are not happy when they are encouraged to practice learner-centered learning
methods, such as group discussion, project work, inquiry, reflection and others. As a result,
teachers are incapable to practice learner-centered methods of teaching relevant to the contents
of the lesson. Thus, they are continuing the practice of lecture method of teaching. A respondent
from School 06 expressed the reason why he is not ready to practice learner-centered methods
while he teaches:

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 Teachers didn’t get training regarding the practice of learner-centered teaching
methods; learners are not happy to learn by themselves because they came through
lecturing and note taking teaching methods as well as learners disturb during group
discussion (DEMEQ).

Accordingly, Desta (2004:77) confirms the misunderstanding of teaching due to lack of training:

For many staff, teaching means, in the main, the act of the teacher and the main
requirement for teaching is knowledge of the subject matter...But considering teaching
as merely as a matter of knowledge of the content is fallacious. Such understanding
excludes the central person, a student who is in reality the main actor. Unless teachers
understand and appreciate this, it will be difficult to make the teaching-learning process
student-centered and to encourage the deep approach to learning (Desta, 2004:77).

Generally, the majority of the respondents complain that low learners’ interest, shortage of
budget and material resources, lack of training that makes teachers ready for their profession,
lack of interest on the part of teachers to teaching profession due to lack of incentives are the
major constraints to practice learner-centered methods of teaching. As a result, the majority of
teachers prefer to practice lecture method of teaching to learner-centered methods of teaching
such as field work, map work and others.

In accordance with the afore-mentioned respondents’ response regarding teachers’ readiness,

Yayeh et.al (2011:44-45) and Liyew, kebede and Enyew (2011:1) point out that the quality of
education depends on the quality of teachers. Low teachers’ pedagogical and subject matter
knowledge competencies, shortage of supply of material inputs, teachers’ autocratic managerial
styles and unfair treatment to the learners, teachers’ incompetency to practice a variety of
teaching methods and continuous assessment techniques, lack of conducive school environment
and learners’ resistance are problems that hinder the implementation of educational programmes
through active-learning methods.

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In the same vein, Sallis (1993:49) claim that the more people know the more they can do. The
better trained the staff, the better they will be able to perform quality investments/ quality
education. It is the quality of the teacher that determines the quality of learning in the classroom
(Deer, 1996:160). Secondary school teachers should be well trained and competent in their
professional skills (Meyer & Gayle, 1996:43). Teachers are expected to thoroughly get prepared
to carry out their teaching-learning process sufficiently; trained teachers use learner-centered
teaching approaches in well-managed classrooms and skillful assessments to facilitate learning
and improve quality of education (UNICEF, 2000 in ETA, 2006:45).

Similarly, E.T.A. (2006:33) remarked that:

…Of all inputs required to carry out an educational activity, teachers are the major
component in successfully accomplishing the task. Effective teaching is determined by
individual teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter and mastery of pedagogical skills,
which create a strong positive effect on learners’ achievement preparation. For this to
happen, adequate preparation of teachers is required. This means that a teacher needs
professional training to be able to understand the need of the learners and to assist
them expertly in a more effective way (E.T.A., 2006:33).

Therefore, both respondents and literature asserted that teachers’ readiness is the basic factor to
bring quality education in general and quality Geography education in particular. Thus, it is
possible to sum up that lack of teachers’ readiness affects the practice of learner-centred
methods. This in turn negatively affects the quality of preparatory school Geography education.

5.2.3.5 Teachers’ role in the implementation of preparatory school Geography syllabus

Most respondents explained that teachers have different roles both in and outside the classroom,
such as preparing annual and daily lesson plans, carry out teaching activities, assess learners’
performance, keep classroom discipline, distribute textbooks to the learners, give advice to the
late comers, absents and low achievers, give tutorial for low achievers and female learners, call
parents to have discussions about learners’ academic progress and disciplinary conditions, attend

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school, departmental meeting to discuss the general teaching activities and the quality of
Geography education, participate in co-curricular activities, evaluate textbooks, read books,
watch television and get involved in community activities.

Teachers have different and many roles in the school such as teaching students, assess
students by preparing tests and examinations, check and give feedback for the students,
working roster, participating in the co-curricular activities, giving tutorials for female
students and participating in the school as well as department meetings (DEHA).

From this finding, it is understood that teachers are very busy as they carry out various activities
in and outside the classroom. Thus, teachers do not have sufficient time for creativity and
research work. Therefore, such busyness makes teachers more exhausted to perform even the
regular teaching activities. During my observation, I noticed that there were no launches and
other recreational places or materials in the schools where teachers can refresh themselves when
they are exhausted. Thus, teachers are incapable to carry out their duties properly especially after
the third period of the lesson. Therefore, being busy and the absence of refreshment also make
teachers feel uncomfortable to perform their duties properly in general and to practice learner-
centered methods of teaching in particular.

5.2.3.6 Availability of relevant resources to preparatory schools Geography contents

In relation to resource availability, most respondents complained about minimal provision of
resources. Physical resources such as Geography room, weather station, Geography display room
and display field, map work room, pedagogical centre and launch were unavailable in all the
sampled schools. But there were the library and departmental room. The library was the only
resource available in all schools with limited books and facilities.

Moreover, concerning the availability of Geography material resources, such as boards, Maps,
Globes, real objects, specimens, photographs, illustrations, films, Television, video, computers,
charts, atlas, diagrams and pictures, most respondents responded that some are available but are

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not sufficient. On the contrary, a few respondents lacked this equipment in their schools. A
respondent from School 03 asserted that:

In our school there is a great scarcity of resources. For instance, there is no

department room, Geography room and pedagogical center; there are no sufficient
reference books, Maps, Globs, Atlas, Charts, Diagrams, Meteorological instruments &
Drawing instruments for map reading and no real objects. Therefore, teachers don’t
utilise the relevant teaching materials while they teach Geography (DEBO).

The majority of respondents remarked that meteorological instruments such as Rain-gauge, wind
vane, Thermometer, anemometer, barometer and hygrometer were unavailable in their schools.
Printed media such as textbooks, reference books and newspapers were insufficiently available
as well. Magazines, periodicals and reports were totally unavailable in the schools. DEMEQ
explained in this regard, that:

Absence of resources, such as laboratory, cartography room, GIS, computer, LCD,

slides, films and projectors hinder the effectiveness of Geography teaching activities.

Besides respondents’ explanation I also cross-checked during my observation and noticed that
most of the studied schools did not have sufficient resources and. Thus, this scarcity and
unavailability of resources negatively affect the teaching and learning activities in general and
the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching in Geography education in particular.

5.2.3.7 Teaching methods frequently practiced by Geography teachers

Most of the participants explained that lecture method is a method of teaching that is practiced
frequently by Geography teachers. The reasons given for the lecture method were to cover large
portions of the lessons in a short time, to cover lessons for the year schedule in the given time, to
manage classroom discipline, to satisfy learners’ interest. Furthermore, learners are not happy to
process knowledge or to learn independently and in groups. Lastly, group work is dominated by
few high achievers, while the low and medium achievers are not really active in groups.

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Moreover, most learners are not well capable to work independently. This is the main reason
why teachers have been practicing lecture method of teaching frequently rather than other
methods such as group work, role-play, demonstration, project work and so on. But they
explained the reasons why they did not practice learner-centered methods – fieldwork presented
them with financial problems and time constraints.

A respondent from School 06 elaborated the reason why Geography teachers continue to practice
lecture method of teaching:

...based on their ability, students are divided in to three. However, in the social science
stream, most students are almost in the same level of performance; most of them are
low achievers because the education policy gives high emphases for Natural sciences
stream and high achievers join natural science stream. And the remaining low
achievers join social science stream. As a result, most students are disappointed to
learn by themselves and to discuss the lesson with their friends because they are not
capable enough to learn independently without the teachers’ presentation. As a result,
teachers shift their methods of teaching from learner-centered to the lecture method of
teaching (DEMEQ).

Therefore, from the respondents’ responses it can be concluded that Geography teachers
frequently practice lecture method of teaching due to the shortage of time to cover the contents
in a given period of time, learners’ low ability to participate in the teaching activities and to learn
by on their own.

5.2.3.8 Tools teachers frequently use to measure learners’ academic achievement

Concerning this question, majority of respondents explained that teachers measure learners’
academic achievement through quiz, test, mid and final examination. But few participants
elaborated that teachers measure learners’ academic achievement through quiz, test, home-work,
class activities and participation in addition to mid and final examination. Thus, from the
respondents’ responses it can be summed up that the majority teachers neglected most

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continuous assessment techniques like class work, home work, class participation and
assignment to measure learners’ academic progress. DEKE from School 04 explained that:

Most teachers frequently assess learners’ academic performance through tests, mid
and final examination based on the school’s schedule (DEKE).

Moreover, during my class room observation I did not see a teacher who gave class work,
homework, assignment, quiz and test. Learners were not participating actively in the teaching
process. As I observed, lessons were presented through teachers’ lecture. As a result, the learners
only listened to the teacher’s lecture and took notes. Teachers gave 10% of marks for the
learners’ class participation simply by looking learners’ attendance sheet.

Therefore, though there were some paradoxes between few respondents’ response and my actual
observation, I believe what I saw happen practically. Hence, most teachers neglected continuous
assessment techniques such as class works, home works, assignments, presentation and project
work to measure learners’ academic progress due to the dominance of the lecture method of
teaching and summative assessment techniques. Thus, learners’ day-to-day academic progress
was not assessed continuously.

5.2.3.9 Learners’ activities while the learning and teaching process is going on
Regarding this question, most respondents explained that most learners figure out things or the
lesson through listening to the teacher’s lecture and only few of them figure out the lesson
through working together in groups. Moreover, respondents explained that most learners have a
desire to learn through the teacher’s lecture and supervision rather than by themselves. As a
result, teachers are more inclined to lecturing and giving notes. DeH asserted that:

Learners’ activities are low in the class room because most of them are medium and
low achievers due to their frustration; they have low language skills and knowledge.
Therefore, they prefer listening teachers’ lecture to perform different activities by
themselves.

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From this point of view, one can understand that most of the learners resist learning through
variety of learner-centered methods. As a result, teachers are discouraged to practice learner-
centred methods of teaching. Generally, teachers are inclined to traditional teaching methods to
satisfy learners’ desires. As a result, teachers become autonomous in the teaching activities and
learners became passive recipients of knowledge.
Moreover, in relation to the negative impact of traditional methods of teaching on the learners’
academic achievement, Freire (1972:45) claimed that teacher-student relationship at any level,
inside or outside the school reveals its fundamental narrative character. This relationship
involves narrating subject (the teacher) and the patient; listening objects (the learners) that leads
the learners to memorise the narrated content mechanically.

Therefore, both the respondents and the literature asserted that teacher’s dominance methods of
teaching make learners dependent, less confident, exposed for rote memory, shallow thinking
and dependent learning, and finally they become academically incompetent. Thus, it is possible
to mark that due to lack of awareness about learner-centered methods of teaching, learners make
themselves as containers to be filled by the information transmitted by the teacher.

5.2.3.10 Roles of Geography Departmental Heads in the implementation of preparatory

school Geography syllabus
Concerning this question, the majority of respondents revealed almost similar roles. They carry
out the teaching activities, check and evaluate annual and daily lesson plans, evaluate textbooks,
prepare and lead staff meetings, attend the school meetings, participate in co-curricular activities,
evaluate teaching methods and assessment techniques through classroom supervision, facilitate
the needed materials to the departments, solve contradictions of teachers and learners and
communicate with parents and discuss about learners’ academic and discipline matters.

A respondent from School 01 responded as follows:

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 I have performed Variety of roles in the teaching of Geography syllabus. For instance,
teaching Geography for Grade 12 students, giving tutorials for female & low achiever
students, preparing & submitting reports to the school, preparing and administering
examinations, supervising the teaching activities and giving feed backs, evaluating
examinations prepared by Geography teachers, carrying out meetings in the department
to evaluate the teaching and learning activities, participating in the co-curricular
activities, in the school meetings and evaluate Geography teachers’ work performance
(DEAK).

Therefore, it is possible to conclude that Departmental Heads cover the required roles and
responsibilities to make the Geography teaching process effective. However, they are stressed by
many activities and they encounter time constraints to follow up and supervise the classroom
teaching and learning activities and practice varied learner-centered methods of teaching as well.
Thus, this situation directly or indirectly hinders the practice of effective learner-centered
methods and academic competency.

5.2.3.11 Geography teachers’ attitude towards their profession

With regard to this question, the majority of the respondents responded that teachers show an
interest in their profession and that is the reason why they chose the academic profession.
However, respondents added that teachers are dissatisfied with their salary. For instance, DEAK
from School 01 exclaimed:

Teachers are not extra economic generators and their salary is low comparing with
other offices’ workers of the same level of education. As a result, they are found in
lower economic status in the society and thus teachers are not doing to the extent the
work is expecting to be worked. Therefore, though teachers have good attitude to be
teacher, their low living condition negatively affects the teaching process (DEAK).

To strengthen the afore-mentioned respondents’ responses, Meyer and Gayle (1996:43), Deer
(1996:16), Carnoy (1999:83-84) and Minguan (1989:89) have pointed out that the quality of

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teacher affects the quality of education. Demotivated teachers found to be the cause for the poor
quality of teaching (Noah & Morrison, 1997:134).Geography teachers should be motivated by
means of remuneration (Olusegun, 2006:33).

Thus, from the participants’ and literature point of view, it is generalized teachers’ interest to
their profession is affected by low salary and absence of incentives. This in turn negatively
affects the quality of preparatory secondary schools Geography education.

5.2.3.12 Types of questions Geography teachers frequently ask while they are teaching
It was found that the majority of the respondents responded that most teachers frequently ask
‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions and rarely ask true or false, multiple choice, short answer, matching and
essay questions. Few respondents responded that most teachers ask ‘yes’ or ‘no’, true or false,
multiple choices questions rarely and short answer, matching and essay questions often.

However, there was a paradox nature between respondents’ responses and what I observed in the
actual classroom teaching. In my observation, except one Grade 11 teacher who asked one ‘yes’
or ‘no’ question, the majority of teachers did not ask any question throughout the whole period.
Thus, I am in a position to say that almost all teachers did not ask questions and no questions
were raised from the part of the learners. Teachers gave their lecture and learners passively
received the information, and the communication was one way, i.e. from the teacher to the
learners.

Therefore, it is possible to conclude that there was no interactive teaching process in the
classroom. The teachers dominated the teaching activities and learners depended on the teachers’
lectures. As a result, learners did not get an opportunity to be involved in the teaching process.
This in turn negatively affected the learners’ participation, creativity, confidence as well as
responsibility of their independent learning.

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5.2.3.13 Departmental Heads’ opinion about the negative impact of traditional methods of
teaching on learners’ academic achievement
Regarding the negative impact of traditional methods of teaching, the majority of respondents
expressed that traditional method of teaching negatively affects learners’ academic achievement
in different ways: limits their participation, deteriorates their confidence, reduces their
interaction with their mates, makes them shy to share ideas with their mates, and reduces their
critical thinking skills and independent learning. For instance, a respondent from School 01
stated the disadvantage of lecture method of teaching:

Lecture method of teaching makes students shy, less active, less confident, silent,
dependent and careless in the teaching-learning process. And students to take notes
with broken statements and abbreviations given by teachers during lecturing and these
notes are difficult to understand when they study. Finally, they score low results in the
examination due to jotting down broken concepts and dispersed information (DEAK).

In supporting the respondents’ responses, Olusegun (2006:68) and Ademe (2010:85) argue that
the traditional teacher-centered method is the oldest method that teacher uses to deliver the
subject matter to a class of learners. The classes normally take place at set times and last for a
predetermined period as indicated in the timetable, while the teaching methods are almost
invariably of the face-to-face and talk-and-chalk type. Furthermore, the whole system is
generally geared towards the smooth operation of the teaching institution with little or no attempt
being made to cater for the different learning styles and particular difficulties of individual
learners. Thus, learners’ involvement and participation is at low ebb because communication is
often one way, from the teacher to the learners while the teaching-learning process goes on.

Thus, respondents’ responses and literature indicated that a traditional lecture-method of

teaching makes learners passive receivers and dependents of information provided by their
teacher. Consequently, teachers are highly authorised on the teaching process and on the contrary
learners are passive and dependent on the teacher’s lecture. Therefore, the traditional teacher-
centred method of teaching makes learners to be less competent, inefficient, less confident,

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responsible, inactive and less creative in the preparatory secondary schools Geography teaching
and learning process.

5.2.3.14 Criterion of good quality Geography teachers

Concerning Geography teachers’ quality of teaching, most respondents explained that teachers’
subject matter knowledge, pedagogical skill and classroom management skill, interest and
commitment are good indicators of teachers’ quality of teaching in general and Geography
teachers quality of teaching in particular. In relation to good quality Geography teachers, a
respondent expressed that:

Punctuality for time, updating of knowledge by reading different materials supporting

their lessons with teaching and learning materials, being model of their learners, being
good leader of the classrooms and advising their learners are the major criterion of
good qualities of Geography teachers (DEAK).

Another respondent also explained the criteria of a good quality teacher as:

First he/she should know how to teach his / her students; it means he/she should be
qualified in Geography subject. Second he/she should know the general topography of
his / her surroundings. Third he/she should deliver the subject matter to the students
through simulation and other methods (DEHA).

Furthermore, regarding teachers’ quality, Darling-Hammond (in UNICEF, 2000:13) discussed

that the highest quality teachers those most capable of helping their learners to learn, have deep
mastery both in their subject matter knowledge and pedagogical skill. A teacher who makes the
lesson easily understandable through practicing a variety of methods of teaching, utilizing
different teaching materials, relating the classroom lesson to the reality through practical and
field work methods of teaching, responding to learners’ questions and treating them politely and
following learners’ progress through continuous assessment techniques and giving immediate

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feedback, facilitate conducive teaching environment and create ample opportunity for the
learners to participate and involve in the lesson are good indicators of teachers’ quality.

Moreover, managing the classroom discipline, giving guidance and counseling service for the
learners, love their learners, ready to learn from his/her learners and friends, has high intention to
upgrade and update his/her knowledge through reading and training, keep schools’ properties
and resources, producing instructional media, conducting research to solve educational problems,
respecting school’s rules and regulation as well as respecting professional code of ethics are also
implying teachers’ quality.

These responses on teachers’ quality support Sallis’ (1993:49) assertion that the more people
build capacity the more they can perform. Since teachers are crucial educational policy makers,
they should be devoted and faithful to their tasks, get a clear picture of who their learners are,
how they view their role in the system and the type of incentives, regulations, training that
increase their effort and capacity to improve the teaching-learning process. The influence of
learners by teacher’s own personality cannot be replaced by any teaching material.

Thus, based on the respondents’ responses and the consulted literature, it is difficult to admit
that there are quality Geography teachers because I doubt that most teachers in general and
Geography teachers in particular could not fulfill the criterion mentioned by the respondents and
the literature. Therefore, it can be concluded that if Geography teachers have the above
mentioned quality, they have a potential to perform effectively in the teaching process and
through constructivists’ methods of teaching.

5.2.3.15 Factors that hinder the practice of learner-centred methods of teaching in the
implementation of preparatory secondary school Geography syllabus
Regarding this question, the majority of the respondents indicated that lack of teachers’ and
learners’ awareness about the advantage and way of implementing learner-centered methods of
teaching, shortage of resources and school facilities, un appropriate seats, lack of learners’
interest in learner-centered methods of teaching, lack of teachers readiness to implement learner-

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centered methods of teaching, placement of low capable learners in social science stream and
shortage of time are the major constraints hindering the implementation of learner-centered
methods of teaching in preparatory secondary school Geography education.

A respondent remarked as follows in this regard:

Most teachers do not practice learner-centered teaching methods due to lack of interest
from the part of the learners, shortage of resources in the school, low ability of the
learners because high achievers placed in natural science stream and low achievers
remained in social science stream (DEMEQ).

Moreover, another respondent from School 06 stated that:

Learners disliked learning by themselves and they considered the teachers ineffective
and give low mark during teachers’ performance evaluation if teachers try to practice
learner-centered teaching methods (DEAK).

Furthermore, another respondent also remarked as follows:

Lack of management support; learners are disturbing while they are discussing with
their mates, lack of learners’ interest to learner-centered teaching methods, shortage of
instructional media, shortage of time, lack of teachers’ preparation for learner-
centered teaching methods and un comfortable seats for learner-centered teaching
methods are the main constraints to practice learner-centered methods of teaching in
Geography education (DEWOR).

In support of the respondents’ remark, Anyanwu (2008:216) depicts that teachers inability to
practice constructivists’ methods of teaching in most effective way was due to dearth of
resources, heavy work load and overcrowded curriculum. The portion of secondary school work
schedule cannot be finished in the allotted time. As a result, insufficient time allotment could

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affect the quality of education (E.T.A., 2006:65). Farrant (1980:169) suggests that due
consideration should be given to classrooms in a way that encourages both teachers and learners
in creating conducive environments for learning. Such a classroom situation is attractive for
learners, which encourages them to exert great efforts in learning.

Therefore, based on the respondents’ remarks and literature evidence, it is possible to conclude
that lack of teachers’ preparation for learner-centered teaching methods, lack of learners’ interest
to learn, low ability of the learners, disturbance and lack of confidence on the part of the learners,
lack of management support, shortage of resources in the schools, uncomfortable seats for
learner-centred teaching methods; no appropriate seats for the learners to practice learner-
centered methods of teaching like group discussion and shortage of time are the major factors
hindering the implementation of learner-centered methods of teaching in preparatory secondary
schools Geography education.

5.2.3.16 Factors affecting the quality of preparatory school Geography education

The majority of the respondents discussed that low interest of the learners, shortage of
instructional materials and other resources as well as school facilities such as shortage of
department room, laboratory room, display room, pedagogical center, shortage of time to cover
the intended contents at appropriate time, lack of teachers preparation and commitment for their
profession, lack of incentives for teachers and learners’ disturbance are the factors that affect the
quality of education in general and Geography education in particular. For instance, one
respondent remarked about the hindrances of quality of education as:

Based on their ability, learners are divided in to three; high achievers, medium
achievers and low achievers. But in social science stream there is one type of learners;
low achievers because the policy gives high emphasis for Natural science stream and
high achievers are encouraged to join Natural science stream. But the rest low
achievers join the Social science stream. As a result, learners are in capable to learn
independently and with their friends. Therefore, they prefer to learn by depending on

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 the teacher. And teachers have been encouraged to teach through lecture method with
large and organised note (DEMEQ).

Therefore, from the afore-mentioned respondents’ response it is possible to conclude that low
interest and ability of the learners, learners’ disturbance, shortage of instructional materials,
school facilities and unavailability of physical resources such as shortage of department room,
laboratory room, display room, pedagogical center, shortage of time to cover the intended
contents at appropriate time, lack of teachers preparation and commitment for their work, low
salary and lack of incentives for teachers are the major factors that affect the quality of
Geography education.

5.3 Analysis of learners’ responses of open-ended questionnaires

5.3.1 Teaching methods that most learners prefer to learn Geography
The majority of the respondents explained that the teaching method they like to learn Geography
is learner-centered and participatory. Accordingly, these learners specified the methods that they
discussion, question and answer, field work, presentation and project work. Moreover,
respondents expressed their desire for learning through practical learning and learning with
instructional media especially real objects. However, few respondents responded that they like
lecture method of teaching. One respondent stated his liking as follows:

I like discussion method, lecture method and presentation method of teaching.

However, presentation is a teaching method I like very much because when I present
the given task my fear is reduced and develop my confidence (L-6).

The nature of learners’ response was contrast with teachers and Departmental Heads responses.
Teachers and Department Heads put their story as if learners’ desire is the cause for the frequent
practice of lecture method in the teaching process. However, the problem seems to lie in the
teachers themselves, i.e. teachers did not facilitate the lessons properly and they did not make
teaching attractive and they did not motivate the learners to learn by themselves and with their
mates. What I observed is that teachers were careless to control the class discipline as well as to

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promote learners’ concentration in the teaching process. Therefore, teachers were the cause for
the learners being less interested to learn in general and learning through learner-centered
methods of teaching in particular.

5.3.2 Factors which affect learners’ participation in Geography teaching process

In relation to learners’ participation, many respondents responded that the absence of practical
teaching activities like field work and field visit, learning by doing, carrying out the teaching
process without utilising instructional media like computer, films, television, video,
meteorological instruments, projectors, maps, atlas, globes, guides, shortage of reference books,
textbooks are factors negatively affect learners’ participation.

Moreover, respondents also explained that physical resources like Geography room, laboratory
room, teachers’ desire to teach through lecture-method, students’ low interest and motivation to
learn, absence of classroom activities like class work, questions, answers and other classroom
tasks, unpleasant relationship between teachers and students, teachers’ negative attitude for the
students, students’ disturbance, shortage of text books, the frequent practice of lecture method of
teaching, teachers give much note and the lesson is being boring, low teachers subject matter
knowledge and pedagogical skill, lack of teaches’ interest and motivation, lack of class room
management skill on the part of the teachers, lack of understanding about students’ learning style
and needs on the part of the teacher and aggressive nature of the teacher are significant factors
that negatively affect learners participation.

To assert the above findings, one respondent from School 01stated:

I am not participating in the teaching-learning activity because the whole period is

covered by the teacher through lecturing and note giving without practical work,
without utilizing instructional media like computer, projectors; Geography needs field
work but we didn’t perform it, no guides and reference books and no Geography
laboratory to practice an experiment (L-53).

Moreover, another respondent also elaborated as:

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 When I learn Geography lesson, I didn’t visit historical places and real worlds of
Geographical interest like castles, churches, mosques, lakes, mountains, rivers,
volcanic areas, parks and areas of special economic activities. Besides, I learn
through teacher’s lecturing style without instructional media. Thus, I am being
discouraged to participate in the learning-teaching process (L-38).

Similarly, another learner also explained that:

… the teacher doesn’t utilise teaching and learning materials like graphs, maps and
other materials. Consequently, I am not interesting to participate in the learning and
teaching process (L-18).

Likewise, another respondent from School 01 also elaborated about the problems that hinder his
class room participation as:

Shortage of materials, shortage of good teacher; a teacher who makes participatory

learning-teaching process by asking questions, giving home works, lack of good school
administration; an administration who gives award and reward for active participation
and better achievement (L-42).

Moreover, another respondent from School 01 has also indicated her obstacle of participation as:

No mutual understanding between the teacher and the students, teacher gives high
emphasis in giving note, stresses students by boring lecture and much note as well as
autocrat behavior of the teacher hindered me from the participation of the teaching
and learning process (L-39).

In the same way, another respondent also explained teacher and learner relationship as:

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 Due to lack of good relationship between teachers and students, lack of teachers’
motivation to the students as well as teacher covers the whole period through lecturing
I did not get an opportunity to participate in the teaching-learning process (L-9).

Furthermore, another respondent noting that:

Teachers are careless, hot tempered, autocrats; they don’t know how to enteract and
treat students and they don’t know about professional ethics. Thus, teachers better to
take trainings about the way how to enteract and treat students as well as taking
training regarding ethics of teaching profession (L-22).

Generally, these findings indicate that the dominant lecture method of teaching, the autocratic
and aggressive teachers’ behavior, teachers’ low interest and motivation, absence of practical
learning and teachers failed to utilise instructional media hinder learners’ participation in the
teaching-learning process. This in turn negatively affects learners’ academic performance as well
as the quality of Geography education.

5.3.3 Teaching strategies suitable for Geography learning

According to most respondents, group discussion, field work, field visit, demonstration,
technology-based learning like computer, GIs and TV, classroom activities, question-and-answer
method, practical learning, formative assessment techniques and other participatory methods
make the Geography lesson easily understandable and unforgettable. In general, respondents
asserted that learner-centered methods of teaching are appropriate for effective Geography
teaching process.

5.3.4 Learners’ general comments and suggestions about Geography teaching process
It is highly recommended by the learners that teachers should give more emphasis to learner-
centered methods of teaching and for practical learning than theoretical learning. It has been also
commented by learners that teachers need to work hard to raise learners’ interest and motivation
to learn Geography actively. Moreover, the school should provide necessary budget for practical
learning so that teachers could make their lesson more participatory. Teachers also need to listen

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to what learners feel and say; they should try to make learners be independent when it comes to
learning. They should also give class works, homework, assignments, project works and field-
work tasks and then assign learners to present and report in the classroom. In providing notes for
students, teachers need to be clear and precise.

Moreover, the teaching process should be supported by instructional media and Geography
reference books as well as other materials. Physical resources like Geography room, Geography
laboratory should be available in the school and teachers should be democrats and should respect
their learners.

Geography Departmental Heads should supervise the teaching process and give feedback as well
as provide advice about the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching, learners’
participation and class room management skills. Besides, the newly rolled-out textbooks should
incorporate the required illustrations, definitions and explanations. Teachers should practice
continuous assessment techniques like quizzes, tests, class works, home works, assignments and
other tools continuously to measure learners’ academic progress. Teachers should better prepare
diversified item types of examination; they often prepare essay type item and this does not
prepare the learners for EUEE/Ethiopian University Entrance Examination because it is prepared
in multiple choice item types.

Furtherover, learners recommended that Geography teachers should consider the three types of
learners; high achievers, medium achievers and low achievers while they construct Geography
examination. Finally, learners strongly suggested that the government should raise learners’
learning interest by creating job opportunities to the new graduates.

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5.3.5 Summary of analysis of teachers and Departmental Heads interview questions as well
as learners open-ended questionnaires
5.3.5.1 Summary of analysis of teachers’ interview questions
Respondents clearly discussed that Geography is unique from other discipline regarding to its
contents, methods of teaching, resources, school and classroom facilities, instructional media and
commitment of teachers and school managements.
Moreover, respondents reported that most Geography contents are not found in the school
compound and in the class room. Therefore, Geography contents need practical activities and
they are more comfortable for learner-centered methods of teaching than the traditional methods
of teaching.

Besides, respondents asserted that learner-centered teaching strategies, such as brainstorming,

questioning, discussion, demonstration, explanation, harmonising/ reorganising, documentation,
project work, guest speaker, field trips and field work are identified in the higher education
preparatory secondary school Geography syllabi. Thus, the design of the Geography syllabi has
no problem in identifying the learning and teaching strategies and assessment techniques.

Furthermore, as far as the value of learner-centred methods of teaching is concerning, all

respondents reported that learner-centered methods of teaching have enormous values, such as
they encourage learners participation, interaction with their mates and share ideas, develop
learners creativity, critical thinking skill, self confidence, learners independent learning ability,
enable learners to integrate theoretical class room lesson with outdoor practical learning,
develop learners’ commitment and responsibility of their own learning.

Respondents did not only mention the value of learner-centered learning and teaching methods
but also they depicted the demerit of traditional methods of teaching. Accordingly, majority of
the respondents mentioned that traditional methods of teaching make learners dependent on
teacher’s activities deteriorate learners’ creativity, critical thinking skill, participation,
confidence, motivation and responsibility to generate their own ideas as well as to construct their
own knowledge.

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However, majority of the respondents (except one respondent) did not deny responding that
majority of teachers frequently employ lecture method of teaching. And they prefer lecture
method to learner-centred methods of teaching due to shortage of time to cover the contents of
the annual lesson; teachers are busy by different activities in the school and faced time
constraints and even exhausted to practice variety of teaching methods, lack of awareness about
the advantages of learner-centered methods of teaching and continuous assessment techniques
both on the part of the teachers and the learners, low interest of the learners to learn; learners are
passive while they are encouraged to participate in a certain group or individual tasks, shy,
afraid, while they assigned to learn through discussion and other self-learning activities due to
lack of confidence on their ability as if they couldn’t able to speak English language fluently and
learners are incapable for self learning (the more capable learners joined natural science stream),
learners’ disturbance, few better achievers dominance, dearth of resources in the school, shortage
of budget to purchase instructional media, and to facilitate fieldwork method of teaching.

Likewise, majority of the respondents explained that their readiness for the teaching profession
in general and to implement learner-centred methods of teaching in particular is low due to lack
of training about the advantage of learner-centered methods of teaching and the way how to
implement them in secondary school Geography education, low interest for the teaching
profession due to lack of incentives for the teachers as motivation, shortage of time; teachers are
loaded with extra works rather than teaching.

In addition to teachers’ readiness, teachers and learners experience negatively affect the practice
of learner-centered methods of teaching. As majority of the respondents reported both teachers
and learners came through teacher-centred method of teaching. As a result, learners resist the
new constructivists’ approaches of learning and teaching and teachers were not committed to
bring a paradigm change and adopt learner-centered methods of teaching. Therefore, both
teachers and learners contributed for the practice of traditional method of teaching permanently.

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Finally, respondents mentioned that all Geography teachers employ continuous assessment
technique, such as class work, home work, assignment, quiz, test, mid and final examination to
measure the level of learners’ academic progress and achievement. However, I did not trust the
respondents’ response particularly the continuous assessment techniques, such as class work,
home work, quiz and other forms of learners’ participation because I did not see a teacher who
gave home work, class work, quiz and other forms of class activities to the learners while I
observed the actual class room learning and teaching process. As I observed, the whole periods
were covered by teacher’s lecture and note giving activities and learners were busy by listening
the lecture and taking the note.

Generally, participants briefed the main factors those negatively affect the practice and quality of
higher education preparatory secondary school Geography education. Accordingly, the absence
of resources, such as physical resources, class room facilities, shortage of instructional media,
shortage of sufficient Geography reference books, scarcity of budget to practice field work
method and other activities , placement of incompetent learners in social science stream, learners
low interest to learn through learner-centered methods of teaching, learners’ disturbance,
shortage of time to cover the content, absence of plasma TV transmission due to the interruption
of electrical energy, low interest and commitment on the part of the teachers and lack of teachers
professional training regarding how to practice variety methods of teaching and how to employ
continuous assessment techniques are the major problems that hider the implementation of
Preparatory secondary school Geography syllabus through constructivist approaches of teaching.
As a result, this affects the quality of higher education preparatory secondary school Geography
education.

At the end respondents forwarded remarks to solve the problems that affect the practice of
learner-centered methods of teaching and to assure the quality of higher education preparatory
secondary school Geography education.

Accordingly, so as to improve the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching and to assure

the quality of higher education preparatory secondary school Geography education, the school

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better to provide resources and instructional media through producing in the school and buying
from market, fulfilling school and class room facilities, Providing Geography reference books,
sufficient time for the contents, equal opportunity for all learners to be placed in a stream based
on their interest, the schools provide budget, practicing variety methods of teaching, motivate
teachers’ interest and commitment through training and incentives, create awareness to the
learners about the use of education in general and Geography education in particular, supervise
and provide feedback to improve the learning and teaching process.

5.3.5.2 Summary of Departmental Heads’ interview questions

Regarding the preparation of higher education preparatory secondary school Geography syllabus,
all respondents responded that preparatory secondary school Geography syllabus was prepared in
line with Ethiopian education policy and constructivists’ methods of teaching. According to their
response both the policy and the syllabus encourage learners’ self-learning, creativity,
participation, confidence, continuous assessment techniques as well as teachers have been
encouraged being facilitator of the learning and teaching process.

Besides, majority of the respondents agreed that Geography syllabus is prepared to be practiced
easily / feasible because the contents are clear and arranged from simple to complex, integrated
vertically and horizontally, the language is simple and understandable, no more editing
problems, strategies are identified, activities are recommended, contents are up to date, it fits
learners’ level of understanding and experience and it is suit to practice learner-centred methods
of teaching.

Moreover, majority of respondents explained that Geography is unique subject from other
subjects because most Geography domains such as Physical geography, Biogeography,
Demography, Economic Geography, Map reading and map projection are found outside the
class room; found in the real world. Therefore, Geography needs learning and teaching strategies
that initiate practical learning and learning by doing as well as teachers who have good subject
matter knowledge, pedagogical skill, class room management skill, interest and commitment to
implement Geography syllabus through learner-centered methods of teaching.

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However, most respondents explained that teachers frequently practice lecture method of
teaching. As they discussed the reasons why teachers frequently practiced lecture method of
teaching were to cover the annual lesson and to finish on the given time, to manage the class
room discipline, to satisfy the majority of the learners’ interest; learners are not happy to process
knowledge by themselves or to learn by themselves independently and in group. The other
reason was group work is dominated by few high achievers; the low and medium achievers are
not active in the group work and thereby the whole activities have been covered and done by
high achievers.

Majority of the learners are not well capable to work independently and weak participants in the
group work. Thus, most of the learners figure out things or the lesson through listening of
teacher’s lecture. Therefore, learners’ role is limited to listen teacher’s lecture and taking the
note. Moreover, lack of teachers’ readiness was considered by most of the respondents as it is the
main hindrance to practice learner-centred methods of teaching in preparatory secondary school
Geography education. The main reasons why teachers do not have readiness are they did not get
trainings to refresh their profession regarding learner-centred methods of teaching and
continuous assessment techniques; the trend that most teachers were coming was teacher-
centered methods of teaching. As a result, they are not happy and committed to practice learner-
centered methods of teaching.

In addition to this, teachers and Departmental Heads are overloaded by different types of tasks
both in the classroom and outside the class room. As a result, they exposed for time constraint to
carry out effective learning and teaching activities.

Regarding teachers’ interest for their profession, majority of the respondents explained that
though teachers have good interest for their profession and they joined the profession based on
their interest, they are dissatisfied by their salary and disappointed by the policy of 70:30 (the
ratio of Natural Science and Social Science respectively) that means the policy encourages
Natural Science teachers and learners and high achievers and majority learners are encouraged to

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join the Natural Science and Geography teachers left with low achievers. As a result, they are
demoralised being Social Science teachers in general and Geography teachers in particular.

Furthermore, respondents complained on the shortage of resources as a big constraint to practice

learner-centred methods of teaching. Most resources are unavailable in the schools and few are
insufficiently available. Accordingly, regarding physical resources like Geography room,
weather station, Geography display room and display field, map work room and launch are
completely unavailable. But Library is the only resource available in all schools with limited
reference books and facilities and department room is available in one school with limited
facilities. Moreover, disorganised pedagogical centers were available in the two sampled schools
with few resources.

As far as concerning assessment techniques, majority of the respondents explained that teachers
measure learners’ academic achievement through quiz, test, mid and final examination.
Moreover, respondents reported that most teachers ask yes or no questions frequently and true or
false, multiple choice, short answer, matching and essay questions rarely while the learning and
teaching process is going on. Thus, majority of the teachers ignored most continuous assessment
techniques/ formative assessment techniques such as class work, home work, class participation
and assignment to measure learners’ academic achievement.

Moreover, during my observation I did not see a teacher who gave class work, home work,
assignment, quiz, test; and no one learner participate in the learning-teaching process; the whole
periods of the lesson were covered by teacher’s lecture. And the learners were listenning
teacher’s lecture and taking the note provided by the teacher. Besides, I informed through
informal talk that teachers give 10% and more marks to the learners as class participation simply
by looking learners’ attendance sheet.

Furthermore, there was a paradox between informants’ response and what I observed in the
actual classroom; in my observation except one grade 11 teacher who asked one yes or no

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question the other teachers didn’t ask any question throughout the whole periods. And I believed
what I observed rather than what I have been told me by others.

Finally, majority of the respondents reported that lack of teachers and learners awareness about
the advantage and way of implementation of learner-centred methods of teaching, lack of
awareness about the advantage and the way how to employ continuous assessment techniques,
the over loaded of teachers and Department Heads by different tasks, shortage of Physical
resources, shortage of instructional materials and other resources as well as school facilities, un
appropriate type and arrangement of seats, absence of budget supply from the schools, shortage
of time to cover the intended contents at a given period of time, lack of learners’ interest to learn
through learner-centred methods of teaching, lack of teachers readiness to implement learner-
centered methods of teaching, un faire placement of learners in social science stream, learners
are not able to learn by themselves and with their friends, lack of confidence on the part of the
learners to learn independently and to reflect their own views and shortage of time are the major
problems that hinder the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching and the quality of
Geography education in higher education preparatory secondary schools.

At the end, respondents conclude their report by forwarding condensed remarks. Accordingly, so
as to assure the quality of education in general and Geography education in particular,
instructional materials, school facilities and other resources should be fulfilled, teachers should
get long and short term trainings through in-service and pre service programs, learners’ interest
to education in general and Geography education in particular should be raised through certain
motivation mechanisms and advices, teachers’ interest and commitment to their profession
should be raised through trainings, workshops as well as incentives, sufficient time should be
allotted in the syllabus to cover the contents in the appropriate schedule, an awareness should be
created on learners’ mind about the advantages of learner-centered methods of teaching, learners
should get advise not to disturb the teaching and learning process especially during learner-
centred methods of teaching, sufficient text and reference books should be fulfilled, the school
should provide budget for field work and other practical activities, teachers should practice
variety methods of teaching to encourage learners understanding and participation, the

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government should revise the policy of 70:30 ratio ( learners of Natural science stream and
learners of Social science stream respectively) and should give equal attention and chances
(50:50 ratio) with learners of mixed ability.

5.3.5.3 Summary of Learners’ Responses on Open-ended Questionnaires

Concerning the teaching methods that most learners prefer to learn Geography, majority of the
respondents explained that learner-centered methods of teaching such as field work, group
discussion, question and answer, presentation and project work are their favorite methods of
teaching to learn their Geography lesson. Moreover, respondents expressed their desire for
learning through practical learning and learning with instructional media especially real objects.
However, few respondents responded that they like lecture method of teaching.

Thus, the nature of learners’ response was contrast with teachers and Departmental Heads
responses. Teachers and Departmental Heads put their story as if learners’ desire is the cause for
the frequent practice of lecture method of teaching in Geography education. However, learners
responded that learner-centered methods of teaching are their preferences to learn Geography.
Hence, the problem lies in the teachers themselves, i.e. teachers did not facilitate the lessons
properly and they did not make teaching attractive and they did not motivate the learners to learn
by themselves and with their mates. What I observed in the actual classroom teaching is that
teachers were careless to control the class discipline as well as to promote learners’ concentration
in the teaching process. Therefore, teachers were one of the causes for the learners being less
interested to learn through learner-centered methods of teaching.

With regard to the factors which affect learners’ participation in Geography teaching process,
many respondents responded that the absence of practical teaching activities like field work and
field visit, learning by doing, teaching without instructional media (Computer, Films, Television,
Video, Meteorological instruments, Projectors, Maps, Atlas, Globes, Guides, shortage of
reference books and textbooks) are factors negatively affect learners participation.

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Moreover, respondents also explained that physical resources like Geography room, laboratory
room, teachers’ desire to teach through lecture method, absence of classroom activities like class
work, questions, answers and other classroom tasks, unpleasant relationship between teachers and
learners, learners’ disturbance, teachers give much note and the lesson is being boring, low
teachers’ subject matter knowledge and pedagogical skill, lack of teaches’ interest and motivation,
lack of class room management skill on the part of the teachers, lack of understanding about
learners’ learning styles and needs on the part of the teacher and aggressive behavior of the
teacher are significant factors that negatively affect learners participation.

Generally, dominant lecture method of teaching, the autocrat and aggressive behavior of
teachers, teachers’ low interest and motivation, absence of practical learning and teachers failed
to utilise instructional media are hindrances of learners’ participation in the teaching-learning
process. This in turn negatively affects learners’ academic performance as well as the quality of
Geography education.

Finally, learners strongly recommended that teachers should give more emphasis to learner-
centered methods of teaching than theoretical learning. It has been also commented by learners
that teachers need to work hard to raise learners’ interest and motivation to learn Geography
actively. Moreover, the school should provide necessary budget and facilities for practical
learning so that teachers could make their lesson more participatory. Teachers also need to listen
to what learners feel and say; they should try to make learners be independent thinkers when they
come to learning.

Teachers should practice continuous assessment techniques like quizzes, tests, class works, home
works, assignments, project works, field work tasks and other tools continuously to measure
learners’ academic progress. Teachers should also prepare diversified item types of examination;
they often prepare essay type item and this does not prepare the learners for Ethiopian University
Entrance Examination (EUEE) because it is prepared in multiple choice item types. In providing
notes for learners, teachers need to be clear and precise.

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Furthermore, the teaching process should be supported by Physical resources, instructional
media and other materials and facilities as well as teachers should be democrats and should
respect their learners. Besides, Geography Departmental Heads should supervise the teaching
process and give feedback as well as provide advice about learner-centered methods of teaching,
learners’ participation and class room management skills. Geography teachers should consider
the three types of learners; high achievers, medium achievers and low achievers while they
construct Geography examination, the government should raise learners’ learning interest by
creating job opportunities to the new graduates.

5.3.6 Summary of analysis of interviews and open-ended questionnaires

Regarding the unique nature of Geography, respondents clearly indicated that Geography is
unique from other disciplines regarding its contents, teaching methods, resources, school and
classroom facilities, instructional media as well as commitment of teachers and school
managements. Thus, according to the majority respondents’ responses, Geography is a unique
subject from other subjects because most Geography domains such as Physical Geography,
Biogeography, Demography, Economic Geography, Map Reading and Map Projection are found
outside the classroom. Hence, Geography needs teaching strategies that initiate practical learning
as well as teachers who have good subject matter knowledge, pedagogical skills, classroom
management skill, interest and commitment to implement Geography syllabus through learner-
centred methods of teaching.

Therefore, Geography content needs practical activities more suitable for learner-centered
teaching than the traditional methods of teaching. Besides, respondents asserted that learner-
centred methods of teaching strategies such as field work, brainstorming, questioning,
discussion, demonstration, explanation, harmonising, documentation, project work and guest
speaker are identified in the higher education preparatory secondary school Geography syllabi.

Concerning to the preparation of higher education preparatory secondary school Geography

syllabus, most respondents responded that preparatory secondary school Geography syllabus was
prepared in line with Ethiopian education policy and constructivists’ methods of teaching. Thus,

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both the policy and the syllabus encourage learners’ confidence for self-learning, creativity,
participation, continuous assessment techniques as well as teachers have been encouraged to be
facilitator of the teaching and learning process.

Besides, respondents stated that Geography syllabus is prepared to be practiced easily / feasible
because the contents are well integrated, clear and arranged from simple to complex, the
language is simple and understandable, no more editing problems, strategies are identified,
activities are recommended, contents are up to date, it fits learners’ level of understanding and
experience and it is suit to practice learner-centered methods of teaching. Thus, the design of the
syllabi has no problem in identifying the teaching strategies and assessment techniques except
the insufficient time allotted to practice learner-centered methods of teaching.

Furthermore, as far as the value of learner-centered methods of teaching is concerned, most

respondents reported that learner-centered methods of teaching have enormous values, such as
they encourage learners’ participation, interaction with their mates and share ideas, develop
learners’ creativity, critical thinking skill, self confidence, learners independent learning ability,
enable learners to integrate theoretical class room lesson with outdoor practical learning, make
learners decision makers, develop learners’ commitment and responsibility of their own learning.

Respondents did not only mention the value of learner-centered methods of teaching but also they
complained the demerit of traditional methods of teaching. Accordingly, majority of respondents
mentioned that traditional methods of teaching make learners dependent on teacher’s activities
deteriorate learners’ creativity, critical thinking skill, participation, confidence, motivation and
responsibility to generate their own ideas as well as to construct their own knowledge.

However, majority of the respondents did not deny responding as majority Geography teachers
frequently employ lecture method of teaching. And they prefer lecture method to learner-centered
methods of teaching due to shortage of time to cover the contents of the annual lesson; teachers
are busy by different activities in the school and faced time constraints and exhausted to practice
variety methods of teaching, lack of awareness about the advantages of learner-centered methods

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and continuous assessment techniques due to lack of training both on the part of the teachers and
the learners, low interest of the learners to learn through learner-centered methods of teaching;
learners are passive while they are encouraged to participate in the group or individual tasks, shy,
afraid, while they assigned to learn through discussion and other self-learning activities due to
lack of confidence on their ability, lack of confidence on their English language skill and learners
are incapable for self learning (poor back ground knowledge), learners’ disturbance, few better
achievers dominance during group discussion, dearth of resources in the school, shortage of
budget to purchase instructional media and to facilitate fieldwork method of teaching.

Likewise, large part of respondents explained that teachers’ readiness for the teaching profession
and to implement learner-centered methods of teaching is low due to lack of training about the
advantage of learner-centered methods of teaching and the way how to implement them in
secondary school Geography education and low interest for the teaching profession due to lack of
incentives for the teachers as motivation.

In addition to teachers’ readiness, teachers and learners experience negatively affect the practice
of learner-centered methods of teaching; majority respondents reported that both teachers and
learners came through teacher-centered method of teaching. As a result, learners resist the new
constructivists’ approach of teaching and teachers were not committed to bring a paradigm
change and adopt learner-centered methods of teaching. Therefore, both teachers and learners
have agreat contribution for the practice of traditional method of teaching dominantly and
permanently in the teaching of preparatory secondary school Geography education.

Finally, respondents mentioned the assessment technique that teachers employ to measure the
level of learners’ academic progress and achievement. Accordingly, most respondents gave their
witness as all Geography teachers employ continuous assessment techniques like class work,
home work, assignment, quiz and test, mid and final examination. However, during my class
room observation I did not see teachers who implement the continuous assessment techniques,
such as class work, home work, quiz and other forms of learners’ activities and participation.

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As I observed, the whole periods were covered by teacher’s lecture and note giving activities and
learners were busy by listening the lecture and taking the note. Moreover, I did not see marks
given by the teacher for learners’ class works, home works and other exercises in learners’
exercise books during my class room observation.
Generally, respondents briefed the main factors that hinder the practice of learner-centred
methods and the quality of higher education preparatory secondary school Geography education.
Accordingly, the absence of resources such as, physical resources, class room facilities, shortage
of instructional media, scarcity of budget to practice field work method of teaching and other
activities, learners’ low learning interest, learners’ low engagement in the teaching activities,
learners’ disturbance, shortage of time to cover the content, absence of plasma TV transmission
due to the frequent interruption of electrical energy, low interest and commitment on the part of
the teachers and lack of teachers professional training about how to practice variety methods of
teaching and employing continuous assessment techniques were the major problems that hider the
implementation of higher education preparatory secondary school Geography syllabus through
constructivists’ approaches of teaching and this in turn affecting the quality of higher education
preparatory secondary school Geography education.

At the end, respondents conclude their report by forwarding strong remarks to solve problems of
practicing learner-centered methods of teaching and to assure the quality of higher education
preparatory secondary school Geography education. Accordingly, so as to assure the quality of
education in general and Geography education in particular, instructional materials, school
facilities and other resources should be fulfilled, teachers should get long and short term trainings
through in-service and pre service programs, raise learners’ interest to education in general and
Geography education in particular through different motivation mechanisms and advices, raise
teachers’ interest and commitment to their profession through trainings, workshops as well as
incentives, sufficient time should be allotted to cover the contents at an appropriate schedule, an
awareness should be created on learners’ mind about the advantages of learner-centered methods
of teaching, learners should get advise not to disturb the teaching and learning process especially
during learner-centered methods of teaching, sufficient text and reference books should be
fulfilled, the school should provide budget for field work and other activities, teachers should

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practice variety of teaching methods to encourage learners’ understanding and participation,
Ethiopian MEO give high emphasis to facilitate and provide sufficient resources for social science
stream in general and Geography education in particular, supervise and follow up the teaching
activities and provide feedback to improve the quality of Geography education.
5.4 Conclusion
Data was gathered through interviews and open-ended questionnaires and then analysed finally
identified the problems that hinder the practice of learner-centred methods of teaching in the
implementation of Geography syllabus in higher education preparatory secondary schools.
Accordingly, scarcity and unavailability of resources, teachers’ past learning and teaching
experience, lack of teachers’ training, lack of teachers’ commitment, learners’ low interest to
learn, shortage of time for learners’ activity, low salary and absence of other incentives for
teachers were identified as the main hindrances in the practice of constructivist methods of
teaching in most effective way in the implementation of Geography syllabus.

Thus, Geography teachers are reluctant to drop the old tradition of teaching where knowledge is
absorbed rather than reviewed and regurgitated rather than applied to solve problems. As a result,
teaching activities are dominated by teacher-centered method of teaching and learners are
dominated by teachers’ information transmission process. Therefore, learners failed under
teachers’ dominance method of teaching and summative assessment techniques.

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 CHAPTER 6

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS FROM OBSERVATION,

DOCUMENTS AND CLOSE-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE

6.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the analysed data from observation, documents andthe
closed-ended questionnaires. Findings from the data gathered through observation arepresented
through narration, whereas those from data gathered through documents are presented as
organised in tables, and those gathered through the questionnaire are presented through
descriptive statistics, frequencies, percentages and mean.

6.2 Observation
The observations were focused on a variety of issues such as the teaching methods practiced in
the actual classroom of the teaching process, the type of assessment techniques,the utilisation of
instructional media by Geography teachers, teachers’ and learners’ activities, classroom facilities
(seats, blackboard and others), class size, availability of instructional media, availability of
reference materials and availability of physical resources with their facilities, such as Geography
room, Geography Laboratory, Geography Departmental room, library, pedagogical centre and
teachers’ and learners’ refreshment rooms/lounges in the schools as well as infrastructure of the
schools.

6.2.1 Observation of classroom

6.2.1.1 Actual classroom teaching
I observed all the sampled schools that I had chosen to be my research sites. Accordingly, in the
observation a variety of issues was incorporated, such as the type of teaching methods, the
teachers’ and the learners’ activities, the utilisation of the instructional media in the teaching
process, the number and type of learners’ seats, the class size, the quality and size of the

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blackboard. Thus, I carried out the observation on the actual practice of Geography teaching
process in each classroom and in each grade level.

Accordingly, I observed the classroom lessons in four consecutive sessions in different grade
levels and sections. Thus, regarding the type of teaching methods dominantly practiced by
Geography teachers was lecture method and writing notes on the blackboard. Learners were
listening and receiving the information transmitted by the teacher and copying the teacher’s
notes from the blackboard. Therefore, learners considered the teacher as the fountain of
knowledge and expected all things such as information, activities, knowledge and others from
him. This lecture method of teaching has a negative impact on learners’ participation and
academic progress. Olusegun (2006:68) asserts that the lecture method is the oldest and
expository teaching method because it is teacher-dominated and learners-passive method. It is
also known as talk-and-chalk method in a situation the teacher decides to write the summary of
the points he has taught on the board and communication is often one way during the teaching-
learning process.

Concerning the utilisation of instructional media by the Geography teachers I observed in the
four sessions, no one of them tried to utilise instructional media in the process of teaching
Geography.The teaching process was dominantly talk-and-chalk. As a result, the lesson was not
really understood by learners and was easily forgotten and it promoted rote memorisation. The
observation data showed that most of Geography teachers were transmitting knowledge to
learners rather than allowing learners to construct their own knowledge. Only one Grade 12
Geography teacher facilitated the lesson which was transmitted through the plasma TV by giving
an introduction and conclusion of the lesson. However, learners were passive and the classroom
communication was only from the teacher and the plasma TV to learners. This situation therefore
made learners to be passive participants andthus performed unsatisfactorily in Geography.

The importances of instructional media have been heavily discussed by many researchers. For
instance, Olusegun (2006:78) and Abdelraheem and Al-Rabane (2005:1) explain that
instructional media are no doubt the information carriers that facilitate teaching process.

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However, the selection and the utilisation of these media should be based on certain criteria such
as learners’ characteristics, instructional objectives, suitability, technicality, practicability and the
teacher’s capability among others. Maps, Globs, charts, models, meteorological instruments,
Technologies, etc., should be employed in the teaching of Geography to facilitate and make
learning more effective and interesting.

As far as learners’ engagement is concerned, I saw that no learners participated either by

carrying out activities, asking questions or giving suggestions and comments about the lesson.
As mentioned above, learners were passive during the teaching sessions and the whole period
was covered by the teacher providing the information.

I tried to check learners’ Geography exercise books to identify whether the teacher gave class
work, homework and assignment or not. There was none or other activities in the learners’
exercise books and there was no teacher’s signature and marks given to the learners’ activities.
Continuous assessment which is part and parcel of the teaching process and is encouraged by the
education policy was neglected by most participating teachers in this study.

Thus, it can be concluded that these Geography teachers did not make any effort to promote
constructive methods of teaching which encourage learners to think critically and learn by
themselves. This approach to teaching only confirms the fact that traditional methods are not
effective on learners’ mental maturation and academic achievement in general as well as on the
quality of Geography education in particular. Desta (2004:72-73) argues that lecture method
dominates the teaching process.

As teachers usually focus on giving lectures, students depend primarily on lecture note and
independent learning is not encouraged. Most teachers lack familiarity with individual
differences among the learners. In contrast, Rambuda and Fraser (2004:10) write that the study
of Geography in senior secondary preparatory schools provides opportunities for students to
develop their intellectual capacity for life-long learning and skills such as critical thinking,
information processing, problem solving, decision-making, etc. Similarly, Demirci, Kesler and

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Kaya (2010:57) claim that Geography is a colourful subject for students in secondary school if
lessons are invigorated with various in-and-out of school activities and students are placed at the
centre of learning whilst encouraging teachers to guide learners during the teaching process as
well as evaluating the types of in-and-out of school activities. Geography teachers facilitate and
create opportunities to learners to engage in the knowledge construction activities. It is well
known that educational experiences involving the students’ actively participating in concrete
examples are retained longer than abstract experiences (Abdelraheem & Al-Rabane, 2005:1).

In the traditional method the teacher views him/herself as the sole source of information whereas
learners remain passive listeners to formal and structured presentations. Learners do not get the
opportunities to understand their natural inclination, think critically, develop confidence, interact
with their environment, enjoy with their mates and develop their communication skills. Learners
should be more active than the teachers. The objectives of Geography syllabus should be learner-
activity oriented, not teacher-activity dominated (Olusegun, 2006:61). On the contrary, most
teachers practice traditional lecture method and make learners passive. In most Geography
classrooms, learners have been learned geographical facts and concepts with minimal
understanding (Rambuda, 1994:57).

Therefore, based on my observation and the research findings, it can be concluded that the
practice of constructive methods of teaching and the utilisation of instructional media were
neglected in most participating teachers in this study, and this was one of the major reasons for
low quality of education in general and the learners’ low achievement in Ethiopian University
Entrance Examination (EUEE) in particular.

6.2.1.2 Classroom facilities

I saw that there were sufficient seats in the classrooms, but they were arranged straight in rows.
As a result, learners were seated facing towards the blackboard. Thus, the seats could not be
arranged in circular and horse shoe manner and thus could not encourage learner-centered
teaching methods.

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In relation to the size and quality of the blackboard, the sizes of the boards were not large enough
and not sufficient to write notes, to draw pictures, diagrams and to discuss the lesson. The boards
were of poor quality and not suitable to write and draw on them. Besides, in the two schools
(School 03 and school 04) blackboards were very old and cracked and therefore it was difficult
to write and draw on them. Teachers struggled to write notes on them. Moreover, I observed the
number of the learners in the class (the class size) was not too much or too small in most sections
and grade levels their size was between 30-45 learners.

Thus, in the Ethiopian context it is possible to say that the class size was optimum and was not
an obstacle to practice learner-centred methods of teaching and continuous assessment
techniques. Generally, there was a problem of size, quality and the oldness of the blackboard as
well as the type and arrangement of seats. With regard to the quality of the classroom, most
classrooms were below standard, were not corniced and the floors were not well cemented. As a
result, learners and teachers were exposed to dust, cold and suffocation because schools were
found on high lands and low lands.

6.2.1.3 Availability of physical resources

My observation was focused on the availability of material resources, meteorological
instruments, printed media, projected media and physical resources such as Geography
room/laboratory, GIS room, map work and display room, departmental room, library,
pedagogical centre and weather station. Material resources such as models, real objects,
photographs, illustrations, films, TV, Video, graphs, transparencies, computers, charts, diagrams
and pictures were unavailable in all the sampled schools except the old and low quality
blackboards, few number of old maps and one Globe in some sampled schools. Moreover,
meteorological instruments such as Rain-gauge, Wind-vane, Thermometer, Anemometer,
Barometer and Hygrometer were unavailable in all sampled schools. Similarly, printed media,
such as magazines, periodicals, reports and newspapers were unavailable in all the sampled
schools except insufficient number of textbooks and reference books. Projected media such as
slide projector, overhead projector, opaque projector, computer and power point/LCD were
completely unavailable in the sampled schools as well. Physical resources such as Geography

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room/laboratory, weather station, Geography display room, Geography display-field, map work
room and Geography department room were totally unavailable except libraries with insufficient
reference books in the sampled schools, disorganised pedagogical centres in two sampled
schools (School 03 and School04) and Geography departmental room in one sampled School
(school 04) with low facilities.

Thus, it can be concluded that there were no available instructional media and other resources in
most sampled schools. As a result, learners encountered problems to learn by themselves.
Therefore, it is possible to generalise that the shortage of instructional media and other resources
negatively affect the implementation of learner-centred methods and the improvement of
learners’ creativity and performance. Desta (2004:72-73), Asgedom et al (2006:21-23) and
Dufera (2008:9) state in this regard that teachers resist varied active learning methods due to lack
of resource, time and support preventing teachers from employing enough number of activities in
their lessons. As a result, the practice of learner-centered approaches is limited in Ethiopia.

Besides, regarding the importance of school facilities in general and the instructional media in
particular, Carron and Chauin UNICEF (2000:17) explain that the presence and heterogeneous
uses of resource in schools are one manifestation of how school organisation can become more
diversified to meet the needs, interests, experiences and realities of individuals and groups, i.e.,
how schools can become more learner-centered. Moreover, regarding the negative impact of the
shortage of instructional resources on the practice of active learning methods, Anyanwu
(2008:216) states that teachers’ inability to implement the constructivist methods of teaching in
the most effective way is due to problems such as heavy workload, overcrowded curriculum and
dearth of teaching and learning resources in the schools. Furthermore, Olusegun (2006:32) puts a
strong recommendation concerning the importance of resources to the concerned bodies to give
due attention as:

Federal and state governments should provide adequate funding to schools so that
Geography as a core subject should have the basic equipment and materials that would
enhance its teaching. Geography program can be effectively taught with basic

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 equipment and materials which necessarily call for setting up a Geography laboratory
in every school. The laboratory should be equipped with furniture designed for
practical learning and storage of materials like maps, rock specimens, models, tapes,
surveying chains, prismatic compass, etc (Olusegun, 2006:32).

Finally, Asgedom (1999:64) and Wolyie (2006:11) strongly suggest that in the Ethiopian
preparatory schools there is a strong deficiency in preparation, provision and utilisation of
instructional materials. The system seems to have given more attention to other quality aspects of
education, such as preparation of teachers, classrooms, class size, etc. In most schools students
have been observed in learning in a passive way. The teachers have identified the shortage of
materials for instruction as the most critical problem. It is however, observed that limited effort
is made to address at the school level.

6.2.1.4 Summary of the results of observed data analysis

The results of observed data indicate that the classroom teaching was dominantly carried out
through the lecture method. Learners were passive receivers of knowledge as the teacher
dominated the stage. Teacher’s did not afford time to the learners to construct their own ideas,
and did not make use of sketches and diagrams in the process of clarifying the new concepts to
the learners. Moreover, teachers did not draw examples from everyday life to help explain the
new concepts to the learners. As a result, most learners were unable to provide some examples of
their own concepts and unable to relate new concepts to what they had learnt previously.

Teachers did not give the class activities such as class work and other tasks.These teachers did
not sign and give a mark on learners’ exercise books. The schools did not have plasma TV
transmission except in one school. There was no teacher who utilised instructional media while
he was teaching Geography; the teaching was dominantly talk-and-chalk.

The seating arrangement was not suited to practice learner-centered teaching and for teachers to
carryout supervision; seats were arranged strait in rows. Thus, it was difficult to let learners seat
in a circle. Moreover, blackboards were too old to write on and the roofs of the classroom were

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without cornices. Therefore, the classrooms were not conducive to carry out effective teaching in
general and to practice learner-centered methods of teaching in particular.

There was lack of resources in the schools; most physical resources such as Geography
room/laboratory, weather station, Geography display room and Geography display-field and map
work room were completely unavailable except libraries with insufficient reference books in all
the sampled schools, disorganised pedagogical centers in two sampled schools and Geography
departmental room in one sampled school. The teacher dominated lecture method of teaching,
scarcity of resources in the school, shortage of classroom facilities and teachers’neglect to utilise
instructional media were the main problems hindering learner-centred methods of teaching in the
preparatory secondary schools with reference to the Geography teaching.

6.3 Document Analyses

Data were obtained from the examination rosters and national examination results from the
preparatory secondary schools.The schools’ rosters and national examination results are
summarised by comparing learners’ performance. Lastly, the Grades 11 and 12 syllabi are
presented through narration.

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 6.3.1 Grade 11 learners’ results of school prepared examination and Grade 12 learners’
Ethiopian University Entrance Examination (EUEE) results of the 6 sampled schools (01-
06) in 2011-2012 academic years
6.3.1.1 Grade 11 learners’ results of school 01’s prepared examination of 2011-2012
academic years
Table 6.1: 01Preparatory Secondary School’s prepared examination results
Subject: Geography
Grade year School’s examination result from 100 %
<50% 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 Total

11 2011 1 10 16 10 6 3 46
11 2012 12 22 12 4 1 _ 51
Total 13 32 28 14 7 3 97

In % 13% 33% 29% 15% 7% 3% 100%

Table 6.1 indicates that 84 of 97 learners scored 50 and above and thereby they passed the school
examination. Only 13 of 97 learners scored below 50% and thus they failed the examination.
Therefore, it can be concluded that nearly 87% of the learners passed the examination and thereby
they successfully achieved the intended objectives, but 13% of the learners failed the examination.
Thus, it is possible to sum up that Geography educational objective at Preparatory Secondary
School 01 was relatively well achieved.

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6.3.1.2 Grade 12 learners’ EUEE results of 2011-2012 academic years
Table 6.2: 01Preparatory Secondary School’s EUEE results
Subject: Geography
Grade year EUEE result from 100% Total

<50 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100

12 2011 103 45 28 4 _ _ 180

12 2012 111 52 22 2 _ _ 187
Total 214 97 50 6 _ _ 367

In % 58% 26% 14% 2% _ _ 100%

From the two consecutive years’ results as indicated in Table 6.2, 153 of 367 learners scored 50%
and above and 214 of 367 learners scored below 50%. Thus, it implies that only 42% of learners
passed in the EUEE but the rest 58% of learners failed. When we compare these results with those
of the school’s prepared examination results of school 01, a great difference is observed, i.e. the
learners’ school prepared examination results are better than the learners’ EUEE results (only 13%
of learners failed in the school examination. However, 58% of learners failed in the EUEE.
Therefore, one can generalise that a paradox nature was observed between learners’ school’s
prepared examination results and learners’ EUEE results in 01Preparatory Secondary School.

6.3.1.3 School 02 Grade 11 learners’ results of school’s prepared examination of 2011-2012

academic years:
Table 6.3: 02 Preparatory Secondary School‘s examination results
Subject: Geography
Grade year <50% 50-60% 61-70% 71-80% 81-90% 91-100% Total

11 2011 1 3 19 14 6 _ 43
11 2012 - 4 18 11 3 _ 36

Total 1 7 37 25 9 _ 79

In % 1.3% 9% 47% 32% 11% - 100%

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Table 6.3 displays that all learners except one passed the school’s prepared examination, and 71
of 79 learners scored above 60%. Only 7 learners scored 50%-60%. Thus, from this point of view,
it is possible to say that 98.7% passed the school’s prepared examination. Only 1 (1.3%) failed the
school examination. Therefore, we can understand that Preparatory Secondary School 02 learners
showed a great academic achievement in the examination that was prepared in the school level in
the two consecutive academic years (2011-2012).

6.3.1.4 School 02 Grade 12 learners’ results of EUEE in 2011-2012 academic years

Table 6.4: 02 EUEE results of 2011 academic year
Subject: Geography
Grade year EUEE result from 100 % Total

12 2011 <50 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100

43 19 7 3 _ _ 72
Total 43 19 7 3 - - 72
In % 59.7% 26.4% 9.7% 4.2% 100%

Table 6.4 indicates that 43 (59.7%) of 72 learners scored below 50% and 29 (40.3%) of 72
learners scored 50% and above. From these 29 learners 19 (26.4%) scored between 50%-60%.
Only 10 (13.9%) learners scored 61%-80%. But no learner scored above 80%. Thus, we can
generalise that the majority of learners (nearly 60%) failed in the EUEE. 29 of 72 (40%) of
learners passed with low results. This result shows only one year information due to the
unavailability of 2012 results.The record officer did not find the 2012 academic year results from
the record and documentation office while I asked him to take the copy. And he Saied me that I
forgot where I had been put the results. As a result, I only analysed the 2011 results.

When we compare learners’ school’s prepared examination results and EUEE (national
examination) results, learners better achieved in their school’s prepared examination than in
their EUEE (national examination) results. This implies that Preparatory Secondary School 2
learners’ school’s prepared results were better than the EUEE results.Thus, it can be deduced
that Preparatory Secondary School 2 learners did not compute the EUEE, national examination
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standard. There might be a problem in the teaching process of Geography at Preparatory
Secondary School 02.

6.3.1.5 School 03 Grade 11 learners’ results of school’s prepared examination of 2011-2012

academic years:
Table 6.5: 03 Preparatory Secondary School’s prepared examination results
Subject: Geography
Grade year <50 50- 61- 71- 81- 91- Total
% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
11 2011 22 11 8 5 4 _ 50
11 2012 4 19 14 6 1 1 45

Total 26 30 22 11 5 1 95

In % 27% 32% 23% 12% 5% 1% 100%

Table 6.5 clearly identifies that from 95 learners only 26 (27%) learners scored below the
passmark (50%) but the rest 69 (73%) of the learners got a pass mark and above. The majority of
learners (52) scored between 50% and 70%, and 16 learners scored between 71%-90%. Only 1
learner scored above 90%. Thus, it can be concluded that from 95 learners, 69 learners (73%)
passed the school examination. However, 26 (27%) learners failed in EUEE, national
examination. More learners (22) failed in 2011 academic year than 2012 academic year (4
learners failed). Thus, it is possible conclude that learners’ performance showed a relative
progress in the 2012 academic year.

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6.3.1.6 School 03 Grade 12 learners’ results of EUEE in 2011-2012 academic years:
Table 6.6: School 03’s EUEE results
Subject: Geography
Grade year EUEE results from 100 % Total
<50 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100

12 2011 52 47 36 15 1 _ 151

12 2012 22 25 21 4 _ _ 72

Total 74 72 57 19 1 0 223

In % 37% 33% 22% 7% 0.4% 100%

It can be noticed from Table 6.6 that 74 of 223 learners scored below 50%. However, 149 of 223
learners passed the EUEE, national examination. 72 learners scored between 50% and 60%. 77
learners scored between 61% and 80%. Only 1learner scored between 81% and 90%. No learner
scored between 91% and above. Thus, it is possible to conclude that 37% of learners failed in
EUEE and 63% of learners passed. We can also understand that majority learners (33%) passed
in EUEE with low results (50%-60%).

When we compare the school’s prepared examination and the EUEE, national examination
results of the learners, it is possible to see little improvement in the learners’ school’s prepared
examination results than in the EUEE, national examination results (69 of 95 learners passed the
school examination), but 149 of 224 learners passed in the EUEE, national examination. Thus,
we can understand from table 6.6 that learners passed the school’s prepared examination better
than the EUEE, national examination (41% of the learners scored 61% and above in the school
examination but 29% of the learners scored 61% and above in the national examination).

Though, both the school and the EUEE results indicated problems in the teaching-learning of
Geography and the learners’ achievement, these School 03 learners scored better in EUEE
results than the other five sampled preparatory secondary schools’ learners. This improvement
was due to learners’ effort for their own learning but not better availability of school facilities
and teaching strategies than the other sampled schools.
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6.3.1.7 School 04 Grade 11 learners’ results of School’s prepared examination in 2011-2012
Academic Years
Table 6.7: 04 Preparatory Secondary School‘s prepared examination results
Subject: Geography
Grade year School administered examination result from 100 %
<50 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 Total

11 2011 11 16 6 4 6 1 44
11 2012 10 19 6 10 8 3 56

Total 21 35 12 14 14 4 100

In % 21% 35% 12% 14% 14% 4% 100%

The results in Table 6.7 show that 79 of 100 learners scored 50% and above, while 21 of 100
learners scored below 50%. Thus, it is possible to say that 79% of learners passed the school’s
examination and 21% of learners failed the school’s examination. Thus, the data leads us to
conclude that learners of Preparatory Secondary School 04 were successful in their Geography
school’s examination.

6.3.1.8 School 04 Grade 12 learners’ results of EUEE in 2011-2012 academic years

Table 6.8: School 04’s EUEE results
Subject: Geography
Grade year EUEE result in100% Total

<50 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100

12 2011 38 14 12 3 1 _ 68

12 2012 13 17 2 _ _ _ 32
Total 51 31 14 3 1 _ 100

In % 51% 31% 14% 3% 1% _ 100%

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The Table displayed the two consecutive years of learners’ EUEE, national examination results
and thereby 49 of 100 scored 50 and above, but the rest 51 learners scored below 50%. Thus, it is
possible to say that more than half (51%) of the learners failed in theEUEE, national examination
and the rest less than half (49%) failed in the EUEE, national examination. Therefore, learners’
school examination results are better than learners’ EUEE, national examination results. It
implies that learners performed higher results in school examinationthan in EUEE, national
examination.

6.3.1.9 School 05 Grade 11 learners’ results of school’s prepared examination of 2012

academic years
Table 6.9: 05 Preparatory secondary schools’ prepared examination results
Subject: Geography
Grade year <50% 50-60% 61-70% 71-80% 81-90% 91- Total
100%

11 2011 - - - - - - -
- - 4 14 9 2 29
2012
Total - - 4 14 9 2 29
In % - - 13.8% 48.3% 31% 6.9% 100%

As the Table displayed, no learner scored below 60% and only 4 of 29 learners scored between
61% and 70%. But the rest 25 learners scored above 71%. Thus, the table indicated that 100 %
of the learners passed the school’s prepared examination. Therefore, one can conclude that 05
higher education preparatory secondary school learners achieved their academic goal with great
school examination results and no learner who was low academic achiever in the school.

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6.3.1.10 School 05 Grade 12 learners’ EUEE results of 2011- 2012 academic years
Table 6.10: School 05 EUEE results
Subject: Geography
Grade year EUEE result from 100% Total

<50 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100

12 2011 18 3 2 _ _ _ 23
2012 11 3 _ _ _ _ 14

Total 29 6 2 _ _ _ 37

In % 78.4% 16.2% 5.4% - - - 100%

The above Table showed that 29 of 37 learners scored below 50% and only 8 of 37 learners
scored 50% and above in theEUEE, national examination. From 8 better achievers 6 scored
between 50 % and 60% and only 2 better achievers scored between 61 % - 70%. From this point
of view, it is possible to infer that only 21% of the learners passed inthe EUEE, national
examination. But the rest 79% of learners failed in the EUEE, national examination.

When we compare this EUEE, national examination results with the school examination results
there is a great difference between them. In other word, learners’ school’s prepared examination
results were by far better than learners’ EUEE, national examination results. Therefore, these
controversial results clearly indicat the problem in the teaching process, in the assessment and
strategies of Geography education in 05 higher education preparatory secondary school.

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6.3.1.11 School 06 Grade 11 learners’ results of school’s prepared examination of 2011-
2012 academic years
Table 6.11: 06 Preparatory Secondary School’s prepared examination results
Subject: Geography

Grade year School’s examination result from 100 %

<50 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 Total

11 2011 1 11 11 4 4 1 32
2012 2 14 7 5 5 _ 33

Total 3 25 18 9 9 1 65

In % 5% 38% 28% 14% 14% 1% 100

As indicated in the above Table, majority of the learners (62 of 65) scored between 50% and 90
% and few learners (3 of 65) scored below 50%. Therefore, about 95% of the learners passed the
school examination and only 5% of the learners failed the school examination. Thus, it is
possible to conclude that the majority of 06 higher education preparatory secondary school
learners seemed successfully achieving Geography education goal.

6.3.1.12 School 06 Grade 12 learners’ results of EUEE in the 2011- 2012 academic years
Table 6.12: School 06’s EUEE results
Subject: Geography

Grade year EUEE results from 100 % Total

<50 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100

12 2011 13 12 8 1 _ _ 34
12 2012 21 6 4 _ _ _ 31

Total 34 18 12 1 65

In % 52% 28% 18% 2% - - 100%

As the Table displayed learners’ results, almost half of the learners (34 of 65) scored below 50%
and the rest 31 of 65 scored 50% and above. Therefore, from the general view of the data it can
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be conclude that majority of the learners (52%) failed the EUEE, National examination but the
rest 48 % of the learners passed the EUEE, National examination.

When we compare these results with the school’s prepared examination results, there is a great
difference between them. That means 95% of the learners passed in the school examination but
only 48 % of learners passed in the EUEE, National examination. Only 5 % of learners failed in
the school examination, but 52 % of the learners failed in the EUEE, National examination.
Thus, learners’ results were opposite each other. Therefore, 06 higher education preparatory
secondary school learners were not competent enough at national academic status. This implies
that there were problems both in the teaching strategies and in the assessment techniques of
Geography syllabus at school 06 higher education preparatory secondary school.

6.3.1.13 Summary of document results of the total preparatory secondary schools

Table 6.13: Summary of document results

Learners Learners Total

Grade levels year those scored those scored
below 50 % 50% and
above
Grade 11 learners’ result of 2011& 2012 64 401 465
School’s prepared Examination
In percent (%) 14% 86% 100%
Grade12 learners’ National 2011&2012 445 419 864
Examination result (EUEE)
In percent (%) 52% 48% 100%

The above summary Table 6.13 of the sampled higher education preparatory secondary schools
learners’ schools’ prepared and EUEE, National examination results imply those majority
learners (401 of 465) scored 50% and above but the rest few learners (64 of 465) scored below
50%. From this data it is possible to infer that 86% of learners passed but only 14% of learners

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 failed in their schools’ prepared examination. Therefore, majority learners successfully passed
the schools’ prepared examination and they seem achieved Geography education at school
levels.

However, on the contrary more than half of the learners (445 of 864) or 52% scored below 50% in
the EUEE, national examination and less than half (419 of 864) or 48% of the learners scored
50%and abovein the EUEE, national examination. Even from this number, majority learners’
results are found in the range of 50% -60%. Thus, we can understand that learners scored better in
the schools’ prepared examination than in the EUEE, National examination.Thereby,
controversial results are observed between learners’ schools prepared examination and EUEE,
National examination results. Thus, based on this evidence one can generalize that majority of
learners of the entire sampled schools were incompetent in the EUEE, National examination.

Regarding this, one respondent from school 01 explained the reasons why learners’
schoolsprepared examination and EUEE, National examination results were controversial each
other as

…the first reason is the school examination is prepared under standard; very easy
questions. As a result students score high result. And the second reason is during the
continuous assessment; when students are given assignments and home works they
didn’t do by themselves rather by other individual outside the school and other groups
copy from the first group and thereby all students get high result without working by
themselves. The third reason is teachers are questionable when students scored low
results in the schools’ examination. Therefore, to be free from any claim teachers
prepare easy questions and they are careless when they administer the exam and
students cheat each other and get high result without their effort and ability. However,
when they take the National examination they score low result because cheating is
controlled and the questions are standardised. These factors make students’ school
examination result high and National examination result low (AkAs).

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From these data, we come to the conclusion that learners the sampled higher education preparatory
secondary schools were not well competent in the EUEE, National examination or standardized
test.Generally, when we compare learners’ EUEE, National examination results of the sampled
schools, school 03 learners scored better results than the others due to learners’ private effort; no
better facilities in the school than the other sampled schools.

6.4 Observation of the Syllabi

This observation was carried out in Grades 11 and Grade 12 Geography syllabus. Accordingly,
the observation was focused on the availability of syllabi, the arrangement of the contents, the
difficulty level of the contents, the complexity nature of the language, the feasibility of the
contents, the methods/strategies designed to implement the contents, the instructional media
designed to be utilised in the implementation process, the activities designed for the learners and
the teacher, the assessment techniques to measure learners academic achievement and the allotted
time to cover the contents through learner-centered methods of teaching.

In my observation I came across great scarcity of the syllabi in the sampled schools. I got only
one syllabus from each grade levels.After I found the syllabi, I carried a simple look at them
based on the aforementioned issues. Accordingly, regarding the arrangement of the contents, the
contents are arranged from simple to complex, general to specific and they are well integrated.
Besides, the contents are easily understandable and directly related to learners’ daily life and an
experience as well as the language is simple and easily understandable by the learners. Moreover,
the contents are practicable and related learners’ day-to-day activities as well as the real world.

Furthermore, the learning and teaching strategies designed in the syllabi are variety of learner-
centered approaches such as Geography information system (GIS), field work, discussion, project
work, drama, role-play, map work/projection, inquiry method, questioning, activity-based method,
and laboratory techniques. Similarly, relevant instructional media such as maps, Globes, charts,
slides, projectors etc are identified to be utilised in the teaching and learning process. Likewise,
the continuous assessment and summative assessment such as, class activities, assignments, home
works, project works, mid and final examination are properly identified in the syllabi. Finally, I

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compared the allotted time and the broadness of the contents. Accordingly, I found that the
allotted time is not sufficient to cover the contents through learner-centered methods and
continuous assessment techniques.

Therefore, one can deduce that the nature of Geography, the content organisation, the methods
designed in the syllabi, the instructional media identified in the syllabi, the language in which the
contents were organised, the integration and feasibility of the contents, the assessment techniques
designed in the syllabi are suitable for the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching. The
only problems that I found were insufficient time allotment in the syllabus and scarcity of syllabus
in the schools.

6.5 The Summary of the Results of Qualitative Data Analysis: Observation and
Documents
Based on the analysis of the qualitative data, the following results were found:
1. Geography is a unique subject because most of its contents are found outside the class room,
found in the real world. Therefore, Geography contents need teaching strategies that initiate
practical learning and learning by doing as well as teachers who have good subject matter
knowledge, pedagogical skill, classroom management skill, interest and commitment to
implement Geography syllabus through learner-centered methods of teaching. Thus, the study
revealed incompatibility between Geography teaching strategies identified in the syllabus and
actual teaching strategies practiced by Geography teachers.Though learner-centered strategies of
teaching are identified, traditional lecture method of teaching was frequently practicing in the
actual teaching process. This method of teaching doesn ot provide an opportunity for learners to
construct their own knowledge. As a result, learners failed under teachers’ academic oppression.

2. The classroom teaching process was dominantly carried out through traditional lecture method
of teaching. As a result, learners were receiving the teacher’s lecture and taking the note.
Teacher’s lecture did not afford time to learners to construct their own ideas, teachers’ did not
make use of sketches and diagrams when they were clarifying new concepts to the learners,
teachers did not draw examples from everyday life when they explain new concepts to the

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learners and teachers’ lecture was not eliciting learners’ prior ideas. As a result, most learners
were unable to provide some examples of their own concepts and unable to relate new concepts to
what they had learnt previously.

3. Teachers frequently practice lecture method of teaching. As they discussed the reasons why
teachers frequently practiced lecture method of teaching were to cover large portion of lesson in a
short time and to finish the annual lesson in the given period of time, to manage the class room
discipline, to satisfy the majority learners’ interest; learners were not happy to process knowledge
by themselves or to learn by themselves independently and in group and the other reason was
group work is dominated by few high achievers; the low and medium achievers(majority of the
learners) were not active in the group work and thereby the whole activities were dominated
(covered and done) by high achievers.

4. The majority of the learners are incapable to work independently and weak participant in the
group work. Thus, most learners figure out things or the lesson through listening of teacher’s
lecture. Therefore, learners’ role was limited in listening of teacher’s lecture and taking note.

5. The research also found out that teachers are not ready to practice constructivists’ methods of
teaching. The main reasons why teachers do not have readiness are they did not get trainings to
refresh their profession especially regarding learner-centered methods of teaching and continuous
assessment techniques; the trend that most teachers were coming was teacher-centered methods of
teaching. As a result, they were not happy and committed to practice learner-centered methods of
teaching.

6. The results of this study also revealed that shortage of resources is a big constraint to practice
learner-centered methods of teaching. Most resources were totally unavailable in the schools and
few were insufficiently available. Accordingly, regarding physical resources such as weather
station, map work room, Geography display room and display field were completely unavailable.
However, library is the only resource available in all schools with limited reference books and
facilities, but Departmental room is available in only one school with limited facilities. Besides,

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disorganised pedagogical center was also available in one sampled school. Moreover, the research
revealed a series shortage of printed instructional media like maps, Globes, charts, reference
books as well as weather station instruments.

7. Concerningthe assessment techniques, majority of the respondents explained that teachers

assess learners’ academic achievement through quiz, test, mid and final examination. Moreover,
they reported that most teachers ask yes or no questions frequently. However, most teachers
assess their learners’ performance through true/ false, multiple choice, short answer, matching and
essay questions rarely while the teaching process is going on. Thus, majority teachers neglected to
practice continuous assessment techniques/ formative assessment techniques such as class work,
home work, class participation and assignment to measure learners’ academic progress and
academic achievement.

Furthermore, during my observation I did not see a teacher who gave class room activities such as
class works, home works, assignments, quiz, tests; and no one learner participate in the teaching
process; the whole periods of the lesson were covered by teachers’ lecture. Thus, learners were
listening teachers’ lecture and taking note which was provided by the teacher. Teachers in all
sampled schools did not ask questions throughout the whole periods. And I believed what I
observed rather than what I have been told me by others.

8. There was no plasma TV transmission except in one sampled school due to frequent electric
power interruption.

9. Teachers failed to utilise instructional media while they were practicing the teaching process of
Geography; the teaching process was dominated by talk-and-chalk type.

10. The class rooms facilities were not sufficient to carry out effective teaching process because
the black boards were too old to write on them, the seats were not comfort to seat and to write as
well as they were arranged in raw towards the blackboard; it was difficult to make circle, half
circle and horse shoe seating arrangement to practice learner-centered methods of teaching and to

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move in the needed position, the roofs was not covered with cornice and the floors were not well
cemented. As a result, learners were disturbed with dusts, suffocations and colds from seasons to
seasons.

11. To make Geography lesson easily understandable and unforgettable, participatory methods of
teaching such as, group discussion, field work, demonstration, technology based learning like
computer, GIs and TV, class room activities, question and answer method, practical learning and
project methods were identified to be alternative teaching strategies in the syllabus. However, the
study generally revealed that the lesson was totally dominated by lecture method of teaching. As
the respondents clarified that scarcity of resources in the school, shortage of class room facilities
and teachers inability to utilise instructional media were the main problems to practice learner-
centered methods of teaching.

12. Lack of awareness both on the part of teachers and learners about the advantage and way of
implementation of learner-centered methods of teaching, lack of awareness about the advantage
and the way how to employ continuous assessment techniques, the over loaded of teachers and
departmental heads by different tasks, shortage of resources (physical resources, instructional
materials and other resources) as well as school facilities, un appropriate type and arrangement of
seats, absence of budget supply from the schools were the main problems that hider the practice of
constructivist approaches of teaching.

13. Moreover, the study revealed that shortage of time to cover the intended contents at a given
period of time, lack of learners’ interest to learn through learner-centered methods of teaching,
lack of teachers readiness and commitment to implement learner-centered methods of teaching,
placement of low achievers in social science stream, learners could not able to learn by
themselves and with their friends, lack of confidence on the part of the learners to learn
independently and to reflect their own views and shortage of time were also the major problems
that affect the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching and the quality of Geography
education in higher education preparatory secondary schools.

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14. The majority learners of the sampled schools were not well competent in EUEE, National
examination or standardised test; learners scored better in the school examination than in the
EUEE, National examination due to the fact that schools’ examination is prepared with easy
questions and learners scored high results, the miss practice of continuous assessment techniques;
when learners are given assignments and home works they did not do by themselves rather by
other individuals.

Besides, teachers will be questioned when learners score low results in the school’s examination.
Thus, teachers make themselves free from any claim and they prepare easy questions as well as
they are careless when they administer the exam. As a result, learners cheat each other and score
high results without their effort and ability. On the contrary, when learners take the EUEE,
National examination they score low results because cheating is relatively controlled and
questions are standardized. Therefore, these factors make learners school’s examination results
high and National examination results low.

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6.6 Data Analysis and Presentation of Results from a Close-ended
Questionnaire
The quantitative data were gathered through close-ended questionnaires and organised in the
form of tables and analysed via descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage and mean.

6.6.1 Characteristics of participants

Table 6.14: Biographical data of participants
Schools’ Grade Total Grant total In %
code 11 12
M F M F M F
01 15 17 11 19 26 36 62 31.2
02 10 6 8 6 18 12 30 15.1
03 15 11 10 5 25 16 41 20.6
04 13 10 6 4 19 14 33 16.6
05 6 5 4 3 10 8 18 9.0
06 6 3 3 3 9 6 15 7.5
total 65 52 42 40 107 92 199 100%
In % 55.6% 44.4% 51.2% 48.8% 53.8% 46.2% 100%

Table 6.14 reveals that 53.8% (107 of 199) of participants were male and the rest 46.2% (92 of
199) of the participants were females. Thus, the numbers of male participants were relatively
larger than female participants. So relatively larger participants were found in Grade 11.
Moreover, the largest numbers of participants (62 / 31.2%) were found in School 01 and the
smallest numbers of participants (15 / 7.5%) were found in School 06. Large numbers of female
learners (36 of 62) were found in School 01 due to its location; it is found relatively in urban
center.

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6.6.2 Analysis of gender of the participants
Table 6.15: Characteristics of participants in terms of gender
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid Female 92 45.8 46.2 46.2
Male 107 53.2 53.8 100.0
Total 199 99.0 100.0
Missing 0 0
Total 199 100.0

From Table 6.15 we can observe that from 199 (100%), 92 (46.2%) learners were females and
107 (53.8) were males. This implies that the numbers of male learners were greater than the
number of female learners.

6.6.3 Analysis of learners’ response on the nature of Geography as a discipline

Table 6.16: The nature of Geography as a discipline
N ITEMS A U D T X
O N

1 Geography is unique for me from other F 176 20 3 199 4.33

disciplines. % 88.4 10. 1.5 100
1
2 In my opinion, the concept of the contents of F 198 1 0 199 4.25
my Geography textbook is clear and easily
% 99.5 0.5 0 100
understandable.
3 The language in my Geography textbook is F 197 1 1 199 4.21
simple and easily understandable. % 99 0.5 0.5 100
4 The contents of the text book are arranged F 196 1 2 199 4.17
from simple to complex. % 98.5 0.5 1 100
5 Geography text book has participatory F 197 1 1 199 4.18
exercises/activities. % 99 0.5 0.5 100
6 I think that the annual lesson will be covered F 7 25 167 199 2.15
at a given time. % 3.5 12. 83.9 100
6

Note: A= agree, UN = undecided, D= disagree, T= total, X= mean

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As Table 6.16 indicates, 176 (88.4%) of the respondents agreed that Geography is unique from
other discipline, while 20 (10.1%) respondents were not able to decide where as the rest 3 (1.5)
of the respondents disagreed about the unique nature of Geography from the other disciplines.
Thus, most respondents believe that Geography is unique from the other disciplines and teachers
should acknowledge and implement its syllabus according to its unique nature.

Moreover, regarding the contents and concepts of Geography textbooks, 198 (99.5%) of the
respondents agreed that the contents are clear and easily understandable for the learners, while 1
(0.5%) of respondent was unable to decide but no respondent rating on disagree. Thus, it is
possible to understand that no challenging factor in thehigher education preparatory secondary
school Geography contents to practice learner-centered methods of teaching. Therefore, the
hypothesis failed due to continuous revision on higher education preparatory secondary school
Geography text books and Geography syllabus.

Furthermore, 197 (99%) of the respondents responded that the language that the textbook was
prepared is simple and easily understandable, whereas 1 (0.5) of the respondent was unable to
decide but the remaining 1 (0.5) of the respondent was rating disagree. Therefore, as to the
respondents, the language of the text book does not affect the practice of learner-centered
methods of teaching in the higher education preparatory secondary schools Geography
education. Thus, it failed to fit the hypothesis.

Regarding the arrangement of the contents of Geography textbooks, 196 (98.5%) of the
respondents agreed that the contents are arranged from simple to complex. And 1 (0.5%) of the
respondent was unable to decide but 2 (1%) of the respondents disagreed that the contents of
Geography text books are not arranged from simple to complex. Thus, from the majorities’
perspective we can understand that the contents are arranged properly; from simple to complex
and it has not a negative impact in the practice of learner-centered approaches of teaching in
higher education preparatory secondary school of Geography education.

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Concerning activities/exercises of the higher education preparatory secondary school Geography
textbooks, 197 (99%) of the respondents agreed that both Grades 11 and 12 textbooks have
participatory exercises, while 1 (0.5%) of the respondent did not decide and the remaining 1
(0.5%) of the respondent disagreed that textbooks have not exercises to be practiced by the
learners. From these data it is possible to sum up that text books have exercises that encourage
learners’ participation.

Finally, as Table 6.16 indicates,7 (3.5%) of the respondents agreed that the annual lesson is
covered in the allotted time,while 25 (12.6%) of the respondents were not able to decide but the
rest 167 (83.9%) of the respondents agreed that the annual lesson is not covered with in the
allotted time. Thus, we can understand that there is shortage of time to cover the annual lesson
and has a negative impact in the practice of constructivist approaches in the higher education
preparatory secondary school Geography teaching process.

Though it was hypothesised that the nature of Geography as a discipline would be a challenging
factor for the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching, the result of the study on the
contrary revealed that the nature of the curriculum rather facilitate the practice of learner-
centered methods of teaching. This was due to the frequent revision and updating of the
curriculum. Thus, the result did not confirm to the hypothesis.

6.6.4 Analysis of learners’ response on methods of teaching practiced by Geography

teachers

Table 6.17: Teaching methods practiced by Geography teachers

No Items A UN D T X
1 My teacher gives me a chance to ask F 24 3 173 199 2.24
questions and express my opinions at
any time while the learning-teaching % 11.5 1.5 86.9 100

process is going on.

2 I have visited geographical areas F 26 0 173 199 1.45
relevant to the classroom lesson. % 13.1 0 86.9 100
3 My teacher practices varied teaching F 26 0 173 199 1.45
methods. % 13.1 0 86.9 100

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4 My teacher motivates my classroom F 25 7 167 199 2.27
participation. % 12.5 3.5 83.9 100
5 My teacher advises/encourages me to F 25 18 156 199 2.35
take responsibilities on my own % 12.5 9 78.4 100
learning.
6 My teacher cooperates with me when I F 10 125 64 199 2.68
encounter problems in learning
% 5 62.8 32.1 100
Geography.
7 My teacher checks and gives feedback F 25 10 164 199 1.83
for my day-to-day activities. % 12.5 5.0 82.4 100
8 My teacher utilizes instructional F 26 0 173 199 1.76
materials in the teaching-learning % 13.1 0 86.9 100
process.
9 I have experience/learning background F 35 1 163 199 1.88
in learner-centered methods. % 17.5 0.5 81.9 100
10 My Geography teacher frequently F 165 0 34 199 1.73
practices a lecture method of teaching.
% 82.9 0 17.1 100

11 My Geography teacher frequently F 26 0 173 199 1.66

practices discussion method of teaching.

% 13.2 0 86.9 100

12 My Geography teacher frequently F 22 3 174 199 1.37

practices inquiry method of teaching.
% 11.1 1.5 87.4 100
13 My Geography teacher frequently F 18 8 173 199 1.38
practices role-play method of teaching.
% 9.0 4.0 86.9 100
14 My Geography teacher frequently F 25 0 174 199 2.01
practices questioning method of
% 12.5 0 87.4 100
teaching.

15 My Geography teacher frequently F 24 1 174 199 1.44

practices simulation method of teaching.
% 12 0.5 87.4 100

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 16 My Geography teacher frequently F 25 0 174 199 1.42
practices fieldwork method of teaching.
% 12.6 0 87.4 100

17 My Geography teacher frequently F 23 2 174 199 1.41

practices map work method of teaching.
% 11.5 1.0 87.4 100
18 My Geography teacher frequently F 25 12 162 199 1.69
practices activity method of teaching.
% 12.5 6.0 81.4 100
19 My Geography teacher frequently F 19 9 171 199 1.58
practices project method of teaching.
% 9.5 4.5 85.9 100
20 My Geography teacher frequently F 25 0 174 199 1.67
practices demonstration method of
teaching. % 12.5 0 87.4 100

Note: A= agree, UN = undecided, D= disagree, T= total, X= mean

Table 6.17 indicates that 24 (11.5%) of respondents agreed that their Geography teachers give a
chance to ask questions and express their opinions while the teaching process was going on and 3
(1.5%) of the respondents were neutral to decide, but the majority of the respondents, i.e. 173
(86.9%) disagreed that their Geography teachers do not give a chance to them to ask questions
and to express their opinions while the Geography teaching process was going on. Therefore, the
data lead us to understand that learners could not get a chance to participate in the teaching
processes. Thus, one can infer that the higher education preparatory secondary school Geography
education has been practicing through teacher-centered method of teaching and learners were
encouraged to be information receivers.

Moreover, Table 6.17 indicates that 26 (13.1%) of the respondents agreed that they visit
Geographical areas relevant to their class room lesson, while 173 (86.9%) of the respondents
agreed that they do not get an opportunity to visit areas of Geographical interest relevant to their
class room lesson, but no respondent who was neutral to decide about the visiting of
Geographical areas relevant to their classroom lesson. Therefore, as majority of the respondents
pointed out that the classroom lessons were not supported by practical field work learning. Thus,

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we can infer that learning by doing as well as practical learning method was ignored in the
implementation of higher education preparatory secondary school’s Geography syllabus.

Regarding item 3 in Table 6.17, 26 (13.1%) of the respondents agreed as their Geography
teachers were practicing variety of teaching methods. However, the majority of the respondents,
i.e. 173 (86.9%) agreed that their Geography teachers were not practicing variety methods of
teaching, but there was no respondent who remained neutral. Thus, based on the majority’s
response, it is possible to understand that teachers were dominantly practicing one type of
method of teaching, lecture method.

With regard to item 4 in Table 6.17, 25 (12.5%) of the respondents agreed that Geography
teachers motivate their class room participation, while 7 (3.5%) of the respondents were neutral
to decide whether the response was agree or disagree. However, majority of the respondents (167
(83.9%)) agreed that their Geography teachers do not motivate their class room participation.
From the majority’s response it is possible to generalise that teachers did not motivate learners’
class room participation. As a result, learners prefer be silent to engage in the teaching process.

Concerning item 5 of Table 6.17, 25 (12.5%) of the respondents agreed that their teachers advise
them to take their responsibilities about their own learning, while 18 (9%) of the respondents
were neutral to decide whether the response was agree or disagree. However, 156 (78.45%) of
the respondents agreed that their Geography teachers did not advise them to take their
responsibility about their own learning. Thus, we can say that teachers were not advising the
learners as they are responsible for their own learning. Consequently, learners become careless
for their own learning and expecting all lessons from their teachers. So this condition makes
learners to be dependent of teacher’s information.

Regarding teachers’ co-operation with the learners (item 6 of Table 6.17), 10 (5%) of the
respondents agreed that teachers cooperate with the learners to solve learners’ problems, while
125 (62.8%) of the respondents were neutral. However, the majority, 64 (32.1%) of the
respondents agreed that their teachers do not co-operate with learners to solve learners problems.

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Thus, it is possible to understand that teachers’ co-operation to solve learners’ problems was not
significantly observable by the learners. Therefore, it can be conclude that teachers’ contribution
to solve learners’ problems is not as such significant.

Regarding check and feedback (item 7 in Table 6.17), 25 (12.5%) of the respondents agreed that
their teachers check their day-to-day activities and give them immediate feedback for each
activities, while 10 (5.0%) of the respondents remained neutral. However, the majority of the
respondents, i.e. 164 (82.4%) disagreed that their teachers check and give immediate feedback to
their day-to-day activities. According to majority respondents’ response, we understood and infer
that teachers do not follow learners’ day-to-day activities and give immediate feedbacks.

Moreover, concerning the utilisation of instructional materials (item 8 in Table 6.17), 26 (13.1%)
of the respondents agreed that their teachers utilise instructional materials in the teaching process
of Geography, while the majority of the respondents, i.e. 173 (86.9%) disagreed that their
teachers utilise instructional materials in the teaching of Geography. However, there were no
neutral respondents. Thus, we understand that teachers do not utilise instructional materials while
they were teaching Geography. Thus, such type of teaching makes the lesson easily forgettable
and the learners become shallow thinkers. As a result, learners could not be competent enough in
the EUEE, National examination.

With regard to learners’ experience about learner-centered methods of teaching (item 9 in Table
6.17), 35 (17.5%) of the respondents agreed that they came through learner-centered methods of
teaching, whereas 163 (81.9%) of the respondents disagreed that they come through learner-
centered methods of teaching. However, 1 (0.5%) of the respondent was neutral. Thus, we can
understand that learners did not come through learner-centered methods of teaching and this
trend is new for them. As a result, they could not able to adapt the learner-centered approach and
this again negatively affects learners’ independent learning.

Concerning the practice of lecture method of teaching (item 10 in Table 6.17), 165 (82.9%) of
the respondents agreed that their teachers were frequently practicing lecture method of teaching,

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while 34 (17.1%) of the respondents disagreed that their teachers were not frequently practicing
lecture method of teaching. However, there was no respondent neutral to decide on the response.
Therefore, we can comprehend that Geography teachers were frequently practicing lecture
method of teaching. This in turn negatively affects learners’ engagement and knowledge
construction activities.

Furthermore, regarding the practice of discussion method of teaching (item 11 in Table 6.17), 26
(13.2%) of the respondents agreed that their teachers were frequently practicing discussion
method of teaching, while the majority of the respondents, i.e. 173 (86.95%) disagreed that their
teachers were frequently practicing the discussion method of teaching. No respondent who was
neutral. From this one can infer that teachers were neglecting the practice of discussion method
of teaching in higher education preparatory secondary school Geography education.

Regarding item 12 in Table 6.17, 22 (11.1%) of the respondent agreed that their teachers were
frequently practicing inquiry method of teachingand 3 (1.5%) of the respondents did not make
any decision on the response. However, the majority of the respondents, i.e. 174 (87.4%)
disagreed that their teachers were frequently practicing inquiry method of teaching. This
indicates that most teachers were not frequently practicing inquiry method of teaching. Thus, it
also affects the critical thinking effort of the learners in Geography education.

Item 13 in Table 6.17, 18 (9.0 %) of the respondents agreed that their teachers were frequently
practicing role-play method of teaching, and 8 (4.0%) of the respondents were neutral. However,
173 (86.9%) of the respondents disagreed as their teachers were frequently practicing role-play
method of teaching. This indicates that majority of the respondents acknowledged that teachers
were not frequently practicing role-play method of teaching.

Item 14 of Table 6.17 indicates that 25 (12.5%) of the respondents rated their agreement on their
teachers frequent practice of questioning method of teaching. However, 174 (87.4%) of the
respondents rated on disagree in the teachers’ frequent practice of questioning method of
teaching. No respondent was rated on undecided response. From this point of view, one can

193
understand that majority of the respondents made an approval that teachers were not practicing
questioning method of teaching in their teaching process.

Concerning Item 15 in Table 6.17, 24 (12.0%) of the respondents rated an agreement that their
teachers were frequently practicing simulation method of teaching, while 1 (0.5%) of the
respondent was neutral to make decision. However, 174 (87.4%) of the respondents disagree
with the teachers frequent practice of simulation method of teaching. Thus, one can understand
that majority of the respondents reported that most teachers were not frequently practicing
simulation methods of teaching in the higher education preparatory secondary Geography
education.

For item 16 of Table 6.17, 25 (12.6%) of the respondents rated that their teachers were
frequently practicing field work method of teaching while 174 (87.4%) of the respondents rated a
disagreement. There was no neutral respondent. This implies that teachers were not frequently
practicing fieldwork method of teaching. Since Geography is an out-door discipline, field-work
is indispensible method of teaching in higher education preparatory secondary school Geography
education. However, Geography teachers failed to employ field work method of teaching by
implication therefore, exposing Geography learners for rote memorisation. Consequently,
learners become incompetent in the EUEE, National examination.

From item 17 in Table 6.17, 23 (11.5%) of the respondents rated an agreement that their teachers
were frequently practicing map work method of teaching while 174 (87.4%) of the respondents
rated a disagreement that their teachers were frequently practicing map work method of teaching.
Only 2 (1%) respondents were neutral. From this point of view one can understand that teachers
were not practicing map work method of teaching. As a result, learners become inefficient to
read and to draw different Geography maps.

Regarding item 18 in Table 6.17, 25 (12.5%) of the respondents rated an agreement on teachers’
frequent practice of activity method of teaching, while 162 (81.4%) of respondents rated disagree
on the question of their teachers’ frequent practice of activity method of teaching. However, 12

194
(6.0%) of the respondents did not make any decision. Thus, from this data one can understand
that teachers were not practicing activity method of teaching in the teaching and learning
process.

Concerning item 19 in Table 6.17, 19 (9.5%) of the respondents agreed that their teachers were
frequently practicing project method of teaching, while 171 (85.9%) of the respondents were
rated a disagreement and 9 (4.5%) of the respondents were neutral. Thus, as majority of
respondents’ opinion implied that teachers have not frequently practiced project method of
teaching. This also affects learners self-learning efforts.

Finally, regarding item 20 in Table 6.17, 25 (12.5%) of the respondents rated an agreement,
while 174 (87.4%) of the respondents were rated a disagreement. There was no respondent who
was neutral to make decision. Therefore, it is possible to understand that teachers were not
frequently practicing demonstration method of teaching. This data implies that learning by doing
is totally ignored and affects learners’ creativity and knowledge constructing activities.

Therefore, from Table 6.17 we can generalise that teachers were not practicing learner-centered
methods of teaching, such as field work, inquiry, discussion, role-play, map work, questioning,
project, demonstration and simulation methods of teaching in the learning-teaching process of
Geography. Moreover, from the table it can be conclude that teachers were frequently and
dominantly practicing traditional lecture method of teaching while they were implementing
higher education preparatory secondary school Geography syllabus.

Furthermore, the above data (Table 6.17) revealed that learners have not experience about
learner-centered methods of teaching; they came through the traditional lecture method of
teaching. Finally, Table 18 depicted that teachers were not practicing varied learner-centered
methods of teachingas well as they were not utilising instructional materials, they also failed to
motivate and advice the learners to involve in the learning and teaching activities as well as they
failed to solve learners’ problems.

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6.6.5 Analysis of learners' response on their activities in the learning and teaching of
Geography
Table 6.18: Learners’ learning activities in the teaching process
N Items A UN D T X

o
1 I figure out things through teacher’s lecture F 44 4 151 199 2.12

while the learning-teaching process is going on

% 22.1 2 75.9 100

2 I have active participation in a Geography F 1 0 198 199 1.61

learning-teaching process.
% 0.5 0 99.5 100

3 Iwork without teacher supervision while the F 15 88 96 199 2.34

learning-teaching process is going on. % 7.5 44.2 48.2 100

4 I figure out things on my own while the F 18 36 145 199 1.78

learning-teaching process is going on.

% 9 18.1 72.8 100

5 I work together in groups while the learning- F 27 34 138 199 1.9

teaching process is going on. % 13.5 17.1 69.4 100

6 I think while the learning-teaching process is F 56 20 123 199 2.38

going on.
% 28.1 10.1 61.8 100

7 I have high interaction with my friends and my F 11 4 184 199 1.26

teacher during classroom learning-teaching % 5.5 2.0 92.5 100

process.

Note: A= agree, UN = undecided, D= disagree, T= total, X= mean

As indicated in Table 6.18, Item 1, 44 (22.1%) of the respondents was rated as an agreement,
while item 151(75.9%) of the respondents was rated as a disagreement. However, 4 (2%) of the
respondents was neutral. From this, it can be inferred that learners were not figuring out things
by them while the teaching process of Geography was going on. This implies again that learners’
creativity and contribution in the learning and teaching process was low. Moreover, Table 6.18
displayed Item 2 as 1 (0.5%) an agreement, while 198 (99.5%) of the respondents were rated as
disagreed. There were no neutral responses. Thus, this analysis leads to the conclusion that
learners were not actively participating in the learning and teaching processes. This evidence also
leads to generalising that there was no learners’ engagement in the learning and teaching process
of Geography education.
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Regarding Item 3 in Table 6.18, 15 (7.5%) of the respondents chose the “agree” option, while 96
(48.2%) of the respondents disagreed. However, 88 (44.2%) of the respondents were neutral.
From this point of view, it is possible to infer that learners’ independent activities about their
learning process was limited and highly supervised by their teachers while the teaching process
was going on. In general, learners’ independent activities and self-learning efforts were over-
shone by the teachers’ continuous supervision. Besides, Table 6.18 showed that in Item 4, 18
(9.0%) of the respondents’ agreement but 145 (72.8%) of disagreement and 36 (18.1%) of
neutrality. From the majorityresponses, we can understand that learners were not figuring out
things by themselves while the learning and teaching process was going on. Moreover, we can
infer that learners did not get an opportunity to learn by themselves through their own efforts
through critical thinking. Thus, we can say that the teaching process was dominantly carrying out
by the teachers through lecture method of teaching.

Concerning Item 5 in Table 6.18, 27 (13.5%) of the respondents were rated as agreement while
138 (69.4%) of the respondents were rated as disagreement. However, 34 (17.1%) of the
respondents were neutral. From these results, one can infer that there was no group discussion/
group work/activities and interaction among the learners themselves. Thus, it implies that the
interaction was one-way, from the teacher to the learners and all activities have been performed
by the teachers. As a result, learners were receivers of teachers’ activities and information.
Therefore, this teacher dominated teaching affects learners’ teamwork and knowledge
construction activities as well as their self confidence.

Furthermore, Item 6 in Table 6.18 indicates that 56 (28.1%) of the respondents agreed with the
item statement while 123 (61.8%) of the respondents disagreed with it and 20 (10.1%) were
neutral. From the majorities’ response, we can understand that learners were not thinking while
their learning and teaching process was going on. Thus, learners were simply absorbing while
their teachers were providing information. This method of teaching negatively affects learners’
critical thinking effort and engagement in the learning and teaching process of Geography.

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Finally, regarding to Item 7 in Table 6.18, 11(5.5%) of the respondents were rated as agreement
while 184 (92.5%) of the respondents were rated as disagreement, whereas 4 (2.0%) of the
respondents were neutral. From these results, we can understand that majority of the respondents
proved that no multidirectional interaction in the classroom while the Geography teaching
process was going on. Thus, we can infer that there was no interaction between learners and
teachers as well as among the learners themselves while the teaching process was going on.
Therefore, the classroom interaction was one-way, from the teacher to the learners and the
learners were receivers of teachers’ information.

From the aforementioned results, it can be possibly concluded that there was no learners’
independent work as well as group activities while the teaching and learning process was going
on; the whole teaching and learning processes was dominated by the teachers and the
communication was only one-way, from teachers to learners. This evidence implies that learners
did not get an opportunity to take part/ engage in their lesson. This in turn makes learners to be
passive receivers of teacher’s information.

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6.6.6 Analysis of learners’ response on resource availability
Table 6.19: Resource availability in the schools
N Items A UN D T X
o
1 There is Geography room/laboratory in my F 20 1 178 199 1.34
school.
% 10.0 0.5 89.4 100

2 There are adequate Geography instructional F 21 0 178 199 1.55

materials in my school. % 10.5 0 89.5 100
3 The ratio of Geography textbooks to students F 21 2 176 199 1.80
is 1:1
% 10.5 1.0 88.4 100

4 My lesson is supported with Geography F 18 3 178 199 1.34

information system.
% 9.0 1.5 89.4 100

5 My Geography lesson is supported with a F 21 0 178 199 1.37

computer. % 10.5 0 89.5 100

Note: A= agree, UN = undecided, D= disagree, T= total, X= mean

Regarding Item 1 as indicated in Table 6.19, 20 (10%) of the respondents agreed that Geography
laboratory is available in their schools. while 178 (89.5%) of the respondents disagreed about the
availability of Geography laboratory/room in their schools.There was 1 (0.5%) respondent who
did not make decision. Thus, from this result we have understood that there were no available
Geography laboratories in higher education preparatory secondary schools.

Moreover, concerning Item 2 in Table 6.19, 21 (10.5%) of respondents agreed with the
statement, while 178 (89.5%) of the respondents disagreed. There were no neutral responses.
This result indicates that there were no adequate Geography instructional materials inhigher
education preparatory secondary schools. These conditions in turn negatively affect the quality
of Geography education in general and the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching in
particular.

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This table also displays the ratio of text books to learners (Item 3). Accordingly, 21 (10.5%) of
the respondents agreed that the ratio of text book was 1:1, while 176 (88.5%) of the respondents
disagreed with the statement. Only 2 (1.0 %) of the respondent was neutral. Thus, it is possible to
sum up that there is scarcity of text books in the sampled schools. Regarding Item 4 in Table
6.19, 18 (9.0%) of the respondents were rated as agreement while 178 (89.4%) disagreed. Only 3
(1.5%) of the respondents were neutral. Thus, based on the majorities’ response it is possible to
summerise that Geography lessons were not supported with Geography Information System
(GIS). As a result, Geography learners become ignorant for the application of GIS in their
practical activities.

Finally, Table 6.19 shows Item 5 as 21 (10.5%) of the respondents, which agreed that their
Geography lessons have been supported with computer, while 178 (89.5%) were rated as
disagreement on the utilisation of computer to support Geography lessons. However, there were
no neutral respondents. Therefore, based on this information it is possible to sum up that
Geography lessons have not been supported with computer. As a result, Geography learners
could not able to update themselves with the new technologies and they become ignorant to
apply computer in different duties.

From the above result, it can be summed up that Geography laboratory rooms were absent in the
schools.There were scarcity of instructional materials including text books, computers and
Geography Information system. This implies that Geography education in the sampled schools
was not supported with Computer, Geography Information System and other instructional
materials. These in turn has a negative impact on the practice of constructivist approaches;
learner-centered methods of teaching in higher education preparatory secondary schools.

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6.6.7 Analysis of learners’ response on the assessment techniques of teachers to measure
learners' performance
Table 6.20 Teachers’Assessment techniques to measure learners’ performance
No Items Rating of raising questions
F S R T X
1 My Geography teacher raises F 10 67 122 199 2.34
Yes or No questions while the
learning-teaching activities are % 5.0 33.7 61.3 100
going on.
2 My Geography teacher raises F 14 1 184 199 1.35
True or False questions while
the learning-teaching activities
% 7.0 0.5 92.5 100
are going on.

3 My geography teacher raises F 15 0 184 199 1.09

multiple choice questions while
the learning-teaching activities % 7.5 0 92.5 100
are going on.
4 My Geography teacher raises F 15 2 182 199 1.29
short answer questions while
the learning-teaching activities % 7.0 1.0 91.4 100

are going on.

5 My Geography teacher raises F 14 2 183 199 1.07
essay questions while the
learning-teaching activities are % 7.5 1.0 91.5 100
going on.
6 My Geography teacher raises F 15 0 184 199 1.02
matching questions while the
learning-teaching activities are
% 7.5 0 92.5 100
going on
7 To assess my performance my F 13 6 180 199 1.54
Geography teacher uses
homework. % 6.5 3.0 90.4 100
8 To assess my performance my F 16 13 170 199 1.18
Geography teacher uses project
work/assignment. % 8.0 6.5 85.5 100

9 To assess my performance my F 14 29 156 199 2.12

Geography teacher uses class
% 7.0 14.6 78.4 100
participation.

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 10 To assess my performance my F 22 122 55 199 2.76
Geography teacher uses tests.
% 11.0 61.3 27.6 100

11 To assess my performance my F 14 5 180 199 1.3

Geography teacher uses quiz.
% 7.0 2.5 90.4 100

12 To assess my performance my F 15 0 184 199 1.19

Geography teacher uses class
work % 7.5 0 92.5 100

13 To assess my performance my F 184 1 14 199 1.38

Geography teacher implements
% 92.5 0.5 7.0 100
examination.

Note: F= frequently, S= sometimes, R= rarely, T= total, X= mean

Item 1 in Table 6.20, 10 (5.0%) of the respondents were rated as frequently, while 122 (61.3%)
of the respondents were rated as rarely and 67 (33.7%) of the responseswere rated as sometimes.
From these responses, it is possible to judge that teachers were not raising yes or no questions
frequently while Geography teaching activities were going on. Besides, this Table shows Item 2
as 14 (7.0%) of the respondents, which were rated frequently, while 184 (92.5%) of the
respondents were rated as rarely. However, 1 (0.5%) of the respondents was rated as sometimes.
From this respondents’ perspective, one can understand that teachers were not raising true or
false questions while the teaching activities were going on.

Regarding Item 3, Table 6.20 indicates that 15 (7.5%) of the respondents were rated as
frequently, while 184 (92.5%) of the respondents were rated as rarely. However, there was no
respondent who was rated as sometimes. Thus, as the majority respondents indicated that
teachers were not raising multiple choice questions frequently while the teaching activities were
on. And this has a negative impact on the learners’ preparation for their EUEE, National
examination because EUEE is prepared in the form of multiple choice items. Thus, it might be
one of the reasons that learners scored low results in the EUEE, National examination.

202
Moreover, Table 6.20 indicates Item 4 as 15 (7.5%) of the respondents were rated frequently,
while 182 (91.5%) of the respondents were rated as rarely and 2 (1.0%) of the participants were
rated sometimes. From these responses, we can comprehend that teachers have not been raising
short answer question frequently while the teaching activities were going on. This situation does
not encourage learners reasoning power and rationality.

Concerning Item 5 in Table, 6.20, 14 (7.5%) of the respondents were rated as frequently, while
183 (91.5%) of the respondents were rated as rarely, but 2 (1.0%) as rated sometimes. From this,
one can infers that teachers have not been raising essay questions while the learning and teaching
activities were going on. Consequently, learners could not be able to think critically and
elaborate what they have in their mind as well as observing and diagnosing their environment.
Thus, learners are remained with rote memory and shallow knowledge. Concerning Item 6
(Table 6.20), it shows that 15 (7.5%) of the respondents were rated as frequently, while 184
(92.5%) of the respondents were rated as rarely. However, there was no respondent who was
rated sometimes. From this result, it is possible to know and sum up that teachers were not
raising matching questions frequently while the teaching activities were going on.

Table 6.20 further displays Item 7 as 13 (6.5%) of the respondents were rated as frequently,
while 180 (90.4%) of the respondents were rated as rarely. However, 6 (3%) of the respondents
were rated as sometimes. Thus, from this evidence, it is possible to say that teachers were not
using home work frequently to measure learners’ academic performance. Regarding Item 8 in
Table 6.20, 16 (8.0%) of the respondents were rated as frequently and 170 (85.5%) as rarely, but
13 (6.5%) of the respondents were rated as sometimes. Thus, we can infer that teachers were not
practicing assignment frequently to measure learners’ academic performance.

Item 9 is displayed in Table 6.20 as14 (7.0%) of the respondents and rated as frequently. On the
other hand, 156 (78.4%) of the respondents were rated as rarely and 29 (14.6%) as sometimes.
From this, we can infer that teachers were not practicing class participation frequently to
measure learners’ academic performance. Regarding Item 10 (Table 6.20) indicates that 22
(11.0%) of the respondents were rated as frequently, 55 (27.6%) as rarely and 122 (61.3%) as

203
sometimes. From these respondents response, we can understand that teachers were not using
tests frequently to measure learners’ academic performance. This negatively affects learners’
awareness on their level of understanding on their lessons. As a result, learners score low results
in the mid and final as well as EUEE examinations.

Regarding Item 11 in Table 6.20, 14 (7.0%) of the respondents were rated as frequently while
180 (90.4%) of the respondents were rated as rarely and 5 (2.5%) as sometimes. Thus, one can
infer that teachers have been using quiz rarely to measure learners’ day-to-day academic
progress. This has a negative impact on learners’ regular and pre-exam preparation. Furthermore,
Item 12 in Table 6.20 shows15 (7.5%) of the respondents, which were rated as frequently while
184 (92.5%) of the respondents were rated as rarely and there was no respondent who was rated
as sometimes. These evidences lead us to infer that teachers were using class work rarely to
measure learners’ day-to-day academic performance. Therefore, learners’ day -to-day activities
and progresses were totally neglected. So that the practice of continuous assessment techniques
were ignored in higher education preparatory secondary schools Geography education.

Finally, Table 6.20 shows Item 13 as 14 (7.0%) of the respondents were rated as frequently while
184 (92.5%) of the respondents were rated as rarely, but 1 (0.5%) of the respondent was rated as
sometimes. From the majorities’ response, it is possible to infer that teachers have been using
examination frequently to measure learners’ academic performance. Generally, from the afore-
mentioned data (Table 6.20 responses), one can be in a position to infer that teachers were failed
to implement continuous assessment techniques as part of the learning and teaching process to
measure learners’ day-to-day academic progress while the teaching activities were going on.
Teachers have been implementing mid and final examination as a major assessment tools to
measure learners’ academic performance and achievement.

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6.7 Summary of the Results
1.Though it was hypothesised that the nature of Geography as a discipline would be a
challenging factor for the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching, the result of the study
on the contrary revealed that the nature of Geography as a discipline and its curriculum rather
facilitate the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching. Most Geography contents are
found outside the classroom (in the real world), constructivist teaching strategies are identified in
the syllabus, contents and concepts identified in the text book are clear and easily understandable
and teachers are assigned to be facilitators of the teaching process. This was due to the frequent
revision and updating of the curriculum. However, the allotment of insufficient time was found
as a problem to practice learner-centered methods of teaching in the implementation of
Geography syllabus.

2. Moreover, the results revealed that learners have not experience about learner-centered
methods of teaching; they came through the lecture method of teaching. Furthermore, it depicted
that teachers were not practicing varied methods of teaching as well as they were not utilising
instructional materials. They also failed to motivate and advise the learners to be involved in the
teaching and learning activities. Teachers also failed to cooperate with the learners to solve
learners’ problems.

3. The results lead to comprehend that there was no learners’ independent work as well as group
activities while the teaching process was going on.The whole teaching process was dominated by
the teachers and the communication was only one-way, from teachers to learners. This implies
that teachers were reluctant to shift their power to the learners. As a result, learners did not get an
opportunity to take part or to be engaged in their lesson and construct their knowledge.
Consequently, learners became incompetent in the EUEE, National examination.

4. Regarding availability of resources, the results revealed that the Geography laboratory rooms
were absent in the schools.There were scarcity of instructional materials such as text books,
computers and Geography Information system. This implies that higher education preparatory
secondary schools Geography education in South Wollo administrative zone was not supported

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with Computer, Geography Information System and other instructional materials. This in turn
negatively affected the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching as well as learners’
academic achievement.

5. Finally, the results revealed that teachers failed to implement continuous assessment
techniques as part of the teaching process to measure learners’ day-to-day academic progress
while the teaching activities were going on. Teachers have been implementing mid and final
examination as major assessment tools to measure learners’ academic achievement. Such type of
assessment techniques are product oriented, do not show the process how learners improve their
academic progress continuously. Thus, the dominant practices of summative assessment
techniques negatively affect the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching in general and
learners' participation in particular.

6.8 The Main Findings of the Study

Based on the results of qualitative and quantitative data analysis and in line with research
questions, findings of the study are forwarded as follows:
1. Geography is unique subject because most of its contents are found outside the class room, i.e.
found in the real world. By its nature, Geography contents are comfortable to practice learner-
centered methods of teaching. Thus, Geography contents need teaching strategies that initiate
practical learning and learning by doing as well as teachers who have good subject matter
knowledge and pedagogical skill especially about learner-centered methods of teaching, i.e. the
practice of field-work method, map work, GIS, class room management skill, interest and
commitment to implement Geography syllabus through learner-centered methods of teaching.
Therefore, Geography is a unique discipline regarding its methods of teaching, resources, class
room facilities, instructional media, teachers’ training as well as the nature of contents. It needs
practical activities which are more comfortable for learner-centered methods of teaching than
traditional lecture method of teaching.

2. Preparatory secondary schools Geography syllabus was prepared in line with Ethiopian
Education Policy and constructivists’ methods of teaching. Both the policy and the syllabus

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encourage learners’ self-learning, creativity, participation, confidence, continuous assessment
techniques as well as teachers have been encouraged to be facilitator of the teaching and
learning process. However, this study revealed that there is incompatibility in the implementation
of Geography syllabus and the Ethiopian Education Policy.The policy encourages the
constructivists’ approaches of teaching but on the contrary the sampled schools’ Geography
teachers were frequently practicing traditional lecture method of teaching. Therefore, the policy
and the syllabus implementation are incompatible.

3. As the study revealed, Geography syllabus is prepared to be practiced easily.The contents are
clear and arranged from simple to complex, integrated vertically and horizontally, the language
is simple and understandable, no more editing problems, strategies are identified, activities are
recommended, contents are up to date, it fits learners’ level of understanding and it is suitable to
practice learner-centered methods of teaching. However, the sampled schools’ Geography
teachers were practicing traditional lecture method of teaching. Therefore, learners failed under
teacher’s academic oppression.

4. The results revealed lack of teachers’ readiness and awareness about the advantages and the
way how to practice learner-centered methods of teaching and continuous assessment
techniques in higher education preparatory secondary schools Geography education due to lack
of training for Geography teachers, low interest in the teaching profession (due to lack of
incentives for the teachers as motivation), learners’ low interest to learn, shortage of time and
overloading of teachers and departmental heads with extra work rather than teaching. All these
hindered the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching as well as to carry out effective
Geography teaching activities.

5. Teachers’ and learners’ experience was traditional teacher-centered methods of teaching. Both
teachers and learners came through traditional lecture method of teaching. As a result, both
teachers and learners resisted constructivists’ approaches of teaching and teachers were not
committed to bring a paradigm shift and adopt learner-centered methods of teaching. Therefore,
both teachers and learners contributed a lot to continue the practice of traditional lecture method

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of teaching permanently. This method of teaching made teachers and learners to be
pedagogically powerful and powerless respectively. Consequently, learners failed under
teachers’ pedagogical oppression by being dependent to teachers’ information and activities.

6. Teachers were dissatisfied with their salary and disappointed with lack of incentives in the
profession. As a result, they were demoralised being teachers as well as to implement the
teaching and learning process effectively. As a result, teachers were reluctant to practice learner-
centered methods of teaching in Geography education. Therefore, learners could not get an
opportunity to be involved in the teaching and learning process and to construct their own ideas;
they have been filled by teachers’ information. Learners became shallow thinkers as well as less
competent in the EUEE, National examination.

7. Majority of learners had low ability and was incapable to work independently and was weak
participants during group work (the more capable learners joined natural science stream). Most
of the learners figured out things or the lesson through receiving of teacher’s lecture. Therefore,
learners’ roles were limited in receiving teacher’s lecture and taking note and finally learners
prepare themselves for examination through rote memorisation. This implies that learners came
from the lower grades without sufficient knowledge and ability. As a result, they became
incompetent or incapable in self learning, in generating new idea and concepts; in creativity,
confidence, engaging, critical thinking and responsibility for the construction of their own
knowledge.

8. Learners were passive when they were encouraged to participate in a certain group or
individual tasks, were shy and afraid when they were assigned to learn through discussion and
other self-learning activities due to lack of confidence in their ability. This in turn affected
teachers’ effort to practice learner-centered methods of teaching.

9. Learners’ disturbance, few better achievers dominance, dearth of resources in the school,
shortage of budget to purchase instructional media and to facilitate fieldwork method of teaching

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were revealed as other factors hindering the practice of learner-centred methods of teaching in
the implementation of higher education preparatory secondary schools Geography education.

10. The study revealed that the traditional lecture method of teaching makes learners dependent
on the teacher’s information and activities. This dependency deteriorates the learner’s confidence
and motivation as well as responsibility to generate their own ideas and to construct their
knowledge. As a result, most learners expect and wait for every information, activities and
knowledge from teachers; they hate independent work and work with their mates as well as
discourage learners’ participation and engagement as well as affect learners’ academic
achievement.

11.Though learner-centered methods of teaching have enormous value such as, they encourage
learners’ participation, interaction with their mates and share ideas, develop learners’ creativity,
critical thinking skills, self confidence, learners’ independent learning ability, integrate
theoretical classroom lesson with outdoor practical learning, develop learners’ commitment and
responsibility in their own learning, give opportunity for learners to generate their own ideas as
well as to construct their own knowledge, most Geography teachers on the contrary neglect the
practice of these methods of teaching.

12. Even though Participatory methods of teaching, such as group discussion, field work, field
visit, demonstration and practical learning, technology-based learning like computer, GIs, TV,
classroom activities, question-and-answer method, project methods as well as formative
assessment techniques were identified to be learner-centered teaching strategies to make learners
knowledge constructors and making Geography lesson easily understandable and unforgettable,
on the contrary, most Geography teachers were frequently practicing traditional lecture method
of teaching.

13. The learners’ seats were arranged permanently and fixed in raw towards the blackboard.
Thus, teachers were not feeling comfort to practice learner-centered methods of teaching like
group discussion and carrying out supervision activities. As a result, teachers were diverted to

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continue their traditional lecture method of teaching. Thus, learners could not get a chance to
participate in the teaching process. Consequently, learners became passive receivers of the
teachers’ lecture. This in turn negatively affected learners’ creativity, knowledge construction
effort, problem solving and decision making ability.

14. Most Geography teachers did not utilise instructional media while they were practicing
Geography teaching process. The teaching process was dominated by talk-and-chalk. The
teachers’ lecture did not afford time to the learners to construct their own ideas.Teachers did not
make use of sketches and diagrams when they were clarifying new concepts to the
learners.Teachers did not draw examples from everyday life when they explaining new concepts
to the learners and the teachers’ lecture did not elicit learners’ prior ideas. Therefore, the
traditional lecture method of teaching makes learners dependent on teachers’ activities;
deteriorate learners’ creativity, critical thinking skills, participation, confidence, motivation and
responsibility to generate their own ideas as well as to construct their own knowledge.

15. The results of the study also revealed shortage of resources as a big constraint to practice
learner-centered methods of teaching in general and to improve learners’ academic achievement
in higher education preparatory secondary schools Geography education in particular. Most
resources were completely unavailable in the schools and few were insufficiently available.
Accordingly, physical resources such as Geography room, weather station, Geography display
room and display field, map work room, were completely unavailable. The library, departmental
room and pedagogical centre are insufficiently available. Thus, the library was the only resource
available in all schools with limited reference books and facilities, and a narrow departmental
room was available in one sampled school with limited facilities. Disorganised pedagogical
centres were available in two sampled schools. Moreover, the study revealed a series shortage of
printed instructional media like maps, globes, charts, reference books, atlas, magazines and
newspapers as well as weather station and cartography instruments.

16. Besides, the results of the study revealed that most Geography teachers of the sampled
schools did not ask questions throughout the periods and there was no classroom participation as

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well. Therefore, the sampled Geography teachers did not give classroom activities such as class
works and other tasks. There was no plasma TV transmission except in one sampled school (06).

17. Furthermore, the study revealed that the sampled schools Geography teachers did not
frequently employ continuous assessment techniques such as class work, home work,
assignment, quiz and other forms of learners’ participation to measure the level of learners’ day-
to-day academic progress. No marks were given by the teachers on learners’ exercise books for
the activities such as class work, home work and other exercises. However, through informal
talk, I found out that teachers gave 10% of marks to the learners as class participation simply by
looking in the learners’ note books and attendance sheet. Therefore, mostly learners were
assessed through summative assessment, mid and final examination. Learners were transferred
from Grade 11 to Grade 12 through cheating and chance without sufficient knowledge.
Consequently, learners become less competent and fail to join the EUEE, National examination.
At last, they became unemployed and burden of their family as well as their country.

18. From the study acontroversial situation was observed between learners’ school examination
results and EUEE, National examinationresults. Learners were scored better in their school
examination than in their EUEE, National examination. This is due to the fact that schools’
examination was prepared under standard with very easy questions, assigning marks merely
based on learners’ note book and attendance as well as group works. When learners were given a
group assignments and project work they did not work by themselves, but by one or two better
achievers of the group members.

All groups scored high without working on their own. Besides, teachers were responsible and
questionable by the school’s administrator when learners scored low results in the school’s
prepared and administered examination.Therefore, to be free from claim teachers’ prepared easy
questions, were careless when they administered the examination and thus learners cheat each
other and score high result without their effort and ability.

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On the contrary, when learners took the EUEE, National examination they scored low because
cheating was relatively controlled and the questions were standardised. As a result, learners
scored high in the schools’prepared and administered examination but low result in EUEE,
National examination. Consequently, majority of learners from the sampled higher education
preparatorysecondary schools were not competent in the EUEE, National examination and failed
to join the university ultimately.

Generally, the findings can be summarised as: though the nature of Geography, its syllabus
development and its contents feasibility were hypothesised as the factors that negatively affect
the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching in higher education preparatory secondary
schools Geography education, the results of the study revealed that the documented pedagogical
methods and strategies are ideal for learner-centered teaching.

However, the study revealed that the absence of resources, such as physical resources, classroom
facilities, shortage of instructional media, shortage of sufficient Geography reference books,
scarcity of budget to practice field work method and other activities, placement of incompetent
learners in social science stream, learners’ low interest to learn, learners’ low engagement in the
teaching activities and learners’ disturbance, are the significant factors hindering the practice of
constructivists methods of teaching in higher education preparatory secondary schools
Geography education. Besides, the study revealed that shortage of time to cover the content,
absence of plasma TV transmission due to frequent interruption of electrical energy, low interest
and commitment on the part of the teachers and lack of teachers’ professional development about
the practice of variety teaching methods and how to employ continuous assessment techniques,
were factors that hindered the implementation of higher education preparatory secondary schools
Geography syllabus through constructivists’methods of teaching and making learners free from
teachers’ domination.

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 CHAPTER 7
CONTRIBUTION, SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS
AND RECOMMENDATION OF THE STUDY

7.1 Introduction
This chapter presents summary, contributin, conclusion and limitations of the study as well as
suggestions for future researchers in the field of curriculum studies and recommendations of the
study.

7.2 Summary of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the merits and reasons for teacher dominance in
the pedagogy of Geography and suggest alternative constructivist-based strategies that promote
learner-centred methods of teaching.
To address the issue, the study raised the following basic questions:
• What is the nature of Geography and its related pedagogical strategies as a subject in a school
context?
• What problems lead the teacher to practice teacher-dominance methods of teaching in the
teaching of Geography in Ethiopian preparatory schools?
• How do these teacher-dominance methods of teaching in the teaching of Geography impact on
the students’ learning in Ethiopian preparatory schools?
• What are alternative strategies that can help to promote active-learning/learner-centered
pedagogical strategies in the teaching of Geography in Ethiopian preparatory schools?
• To what extent are resources available in the school and reliable to practice learner-centered
methods in the teaching of Geography?
• How do Geography teachers measure and assess learners’ understanding and achievement?

Thus, based on the above questions and after the data were analysed the results of the study were
summerised. Accordingly, the result of the study reveals that teachers frequently practice lecture
method of teaching and summative assessment as dominant assessment techniques due to dearth
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of resources, lack of budget to purchase teaching materials and to facilitate field work teaching,
shortage of time, lack of commitment on the side of teachers (low salary and no incentives), lack
of training about learner-centred methods of teaching and continuous assessment techniques,
incapacity of learners to perform tasks independently, learners disturbance, few learners
dominance. As a result, learners failed under teachers’ domination.

Generally, the study has been summarised based on each chapters:

Accordingly, chapter 1 introduced the study. The problem to be tackled in this study was
explored, which helped to state the specific research problem, research questions and aims and
objectives. The study was motivated and definition of the working concepts presented. The
chapter ended with mapping out the ensuing chapters of the study.

Likewise, Chapter 2 discussed the theoretical frameworks which are guiding the study. Thus, the
chapter deals with the different theories of constructivists’ philosophy which are relevant to the
study like kolb’s experiential learning theory. Bisides, chapter three deals with literature review.
The chapter reviews relevant literatures which show the degree of the problem globally and
contextually, which also support the data analysis of the study. Thus, the chapter indicated that
the study was supported with other research works.

Moreover, chapter four considers about the research design and methodology. In this chapter
variables were elaborated. The chapter again explained the design and the approach of the study,
the study employed mixed approach and descriptive survey design. Data gathering methods and
strategies were also clearly identified in this chapter. Population and sampling techniques were
explained, the study employed random and purposive sampling techniques to select the sample
of the study. This chapter indicates as varied data gathering instruments employed in the study,
such as observation, interview, document analysis and questionnaires. The chapter also deals
with the data analysis technique employed in the study, narration for qualitative data and
frequency, mean and percentage for quantitative data. Validity and reliability as well as ethics of
the study were presented. Finally, the chapter ends with conclusion.

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Chapter five considers the presentation and analysis of data gathered from teachers’ and
Departmental heads’ interview questions and from learners’ open-ended questionnaires. The
chapter ends with the summary of the analysis and forwarded conclusions of the analysed data of
interview and open-ended questionnaires.

Moreover, chapter six presents the introduction, results from the analysis of documents,
observation and close-ended questionnaires. Thus, the chapter deals with the results of document
analysis like syllabus, the schools’ prepared examination and Ethiopian University Entrance
Examination as well as observation of actual class room teaching, resources and facilities.
Furthermore, the chapter considers the results of the analysed data from close-ended
questionnaires. Finally, the chapter ends with the summary of the results and forwarded the main
findings of the study based on the research questions.

The last chapter, chapter seven presents the introduction of the chapter, Summary of the study
and Contribution of the study. Besides, suggestions and recommendations of the study were
forwarded in the chapter. At last, the chapter ends with the presentation of personal reflection of
the study.

7.3 Contribution of the Study

The costructivist theory promotes learner-centred approaches of teaching and learnig and these
approaches motivate learners to construct knowledge by themselves. These approaches identified
teachers to be facilitators of the teaching and learning process. However, the result of this study
reveals agaist the constructivist theory, teachers practice lecture method of teaching and the
teacher is the centre of teaching and learning process. This in turn makes learners passive
information receivers. Thus, there is incompatibility between the theory and the actual practice
of the teaching and learning process of Geography education, there is a gap between the theory
and the actual practice of teaching and learning process of Geography education. Therefore, the
result of this study has the following contribution:

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The result of this study shall be a means to help teachers, researchers, educational policy makers
and other educational experts to explore possibilities of developing more effective strategies of
utilising the active learning methods in the teaching of Geography. Thus, the result of this study
could be an input for curriculum designers, teachers, learners, educational managers and other
concerned bodies to solve problems which lead teachers to practice teacher-centered methods of
teaching and to shift power from teachers to learners.

Moreover, the study fills the gap of the constructvist theory and the actual practice of Geography
education since no research has been conducted to address this problem in the context of
Ethiopia. Thus, the study provides the necessary assistance to the Geography teachers to select
the strategies and resources that encourage learners to engage in knowledge construction
processes during their learning. Furthermore, the result of this study indicates strategies that raise
teachers’ and learners’ interest towards active learning methods and continuous assessment
techniques.

This study also provides information for Government representatives as to why teachers feel
discomfortable with their profession and to find out relevant solutions so as to carry out effective
and efficient education in general and quality Geography education in particular. Furthermore,
the study serves as a stepping stone for other researchers who want to carry out further
investigation on the implementation of the Geography syllabus in the Ethiopian school contexts.

7.4 Conclusions of the Study

In line with the major findings presented above, the following conclusions were drawn:
Though the nature of Geography and the preparation of Geography syllabus were hypothesised
as factors affecting the teaching of Geography, the result of this study revealed a disregard of
active learning methods evidenced through teacher-centered teaching which is out of step with
the constructivist approaches.

Geography by itself and the preparation of the syllabus encourage teachers to be facilitators of
the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching. However, Geography teachers frequently

216
practiced the traditional method of teaching due to lack of training about the practice of learner-
centred methods of teaching and continuous assessment techniques, teachers and learners
experience of traditional teaching method, learners’ incompetence to work independently,
shortage of time, dearth of resources, lack of commitment on the part of the teachers, learners
disturbance and few better achievers dominance.

Thus, the practice of teacher dominated method of teaching makes learners passive receivers of
information. It does not give the opportunity for learners to think critically and construct
knowledge by themselves. Generally, the traditional method of teaching makes learners
dependent of teachers’ activities and containers of teachers’ information. This in turn hinders
learners’ academic achievement and quality of Geography education.

To free learners from teachers’ teaching dominance and make them knowledge constructors and
Geography easily understandable and unforgettable, this and previous studies identified
alternative teaching strategies such as group discussion, field work, field visit, demonstration,
technology-based learning like computer, GIs and TV, class room activities, question and
answer method, practical learning and project methods, map work, role-play and simulation,
brain-based learning, computer-based learning, subject-based learning, multiple intelligence and
event-based learning and formative assessment techniques that most Geography teachers neglect
to practice these methods and make the learners under their power.

Though resources are without doubt needed for effective and efficient curriculum
implementation in general and Geography curriculum implementation in particular, they were
insufficient and totally unavailable in the sampled schools. Thus, physical resources such as
Geography room, weather station instruments, Geography display room and display field and
map work rooms are totally unavailable in most sampled schools. However, library is the only
resource available in all the sampled schools with limited reference books and facilities. The
departmental room was available only in two sampled schools with limited facilities.
Unorganised pedagogical center was available only in one sampled school.

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Moreover, this study revealed a serious shortage of printed instructional media like maps,
globes, charts, reference books; atlas, magazines and Newspapers as well as audio-visual
materials, information technology, equipments, consumables, and objects were insufficient in
the schools. Thus, dearth of resources negatively affects the practice of learner-centered methods
of teaching as well as learners’ involvement in Geography education, and they are the cause for
the learners to be failed under teachers’ academic oppression.

Assessment is part and parcel of teaching and learning processes. However, this study revealed
that teachers failed to measure learners’ academic progress through continuous assessment
techniques. The role of effective feedback and motivation on learners’ progress in any
discussion of effective teaching and assessment cannot be overstated. Learners are
understandably angry when they receive feedback on an assignment that consists only of a mark
or grade.

Regarding learners’ competency, this study revealed that learners scored high in the school’s
prepared examinations and on the contrary they scored low in the EUEE, National examinations
due to the fact that the schools’ prepared examinations were below standard and the
administration techniques were exposed for cheating whereas the examination that is prepared
and administered at the national level is of a high standard and cheating is relatively minimal. As
a result, learners were not competent in the National examination. Thus, relatively low numbers
of learners were joined university among large number of learners those took the EUEE,
National examination.

Generally, the result of this study indicates that group discussion, field work, demonstration,
technology-based learning like computer, GIs and TV, class room activities, question and
answer method, practical learning, project methods, map work, role-play, simulation, brain-
based learning, multiple intelligence, event-based learning and formative assessment techniques
were identified to be alternative teaching strategies to make learners knowledge constructors and
making Geography education easily understandable and unforgettable.

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However, Geography teachers neglected to practice these alternative strategies in the teaching
and learning process of higher education preparatory secondary schools Geography education.
As a result, learners were powerless and dependent in the teaching and learning activities in
general and the knowledge construction process in particular; the power of teaching was
completely authorised by their teachers.

Moreover, problems such as dearth of resources, teachers and learners experience, lack of
awareness on the part of teachers, teachers’ resistance to paradigm change, teachers failed to
practice formative assessment techniques and inability of learners to perform tasks
independently were pushing the teachers to practice teacher-dominance method of teaching in
the teaching of Geography in the sampled Ethiopian higher education preparatory secondary
schools.

7.5 Suggestions for Further Researchers

The findings of this study suggest researchers should:
 Investigate the effect of the constructivist model, Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory in the
teaching of Geography on teachers’ paradigm shift from lecture method of teaching to
constructivist methods of teaching and learners’ engagement in their learning in private and
public secondary preparatory schools of Ethiopia as well as extension programme since my
study was conducted only in regular government higher education preparatory secondary
schools.

 Investigate the effect of the constructivist model, Kolb’s Experiential Learning in the
teaching of Geography on teachers’ paradigm shift from lecture method of teaching to
constructivist methods of teaching and learners’ engagement in their learning in secondary
schools (Grades 9 and 10) of Ethiopia since this study was conducted only in the higher
education preparatory secondary schools (Grades 11 and 12).

 Investigate the nature of learners’ results of school administered and Ethiopian University
Entrance Examination (EUEE) with complete documents since this research was conducted

219
 with incomplete documents due to the inaccessibility of some documents from some sampled
schools.

 Investigate the effect of the constructivist model, Kolb’s Experiential Learning in the
teaching of Geography on teachers’ paradigm shift from lecture method of teaching to
constructivist methods of teaching and learners’ engagement in their learning with large
numbers of sample schools in Ethiopia since this study was conducted only in the six higher
education preparatory secondary schools.

7.6 Recommendations
1. Time plays a crucial role in the effective teaching and learning process. Thus, Geography
teaching should be designed and implemented in such a way that allows the learners’ sufficient
time to search for and reflect on their own ideas. Therefore, so as to carry out effective learner-
centered methods of teaching in Geography, to give opportunities for the learners to construct
their own knowledge and to cover the contents at appropriate academic schedule, curriculum
developers should allocate sufficient time in higher education preparatory secondary schools
Geography syllabus.

2. The value of knowledge depends on its use. Thus, teaching should aim at enhancing the
learners’ ability to apply the Geography concepts and principles they have learned to solve their
daily problems. Thus, the implementation of Geography syllabus should be in line with the
Ethiopian education policy which encourages learners to be active and creative as well as
problem solvers. Therefore, school managements, supervisors, departmental heads and other
concerned bodies should monitor, follow and encourage the implementation of the syllabus to be
in line with the Ethiopian education policy.

3. Geography teachers should be encouraged to practice the constructivist methods of teaching.

Therefore, Geography educationists should organise the sensitisation programmes for Geography
teachers to create awareness in them so that the traditional method of teaching becomes less
relevant to achieve the goal of Geography education in the 21st century.
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4. The Ministry of Education in collaboration with Regional Educational Bureau and
stakeholders as well as donors should provide training, workshops and seminars to English
language teachers on how to teach English language fluently and give due attention and make
learners skillful as well as confident to express and reflect their idea in the teaching and learning
process.

5. Geography teachers should provide ample opportunities to the learners to formulate their own
ideas and construct their knowledge rather than absorbing teachers’ information. It is important
for teachers to note that all knowledge emanates as hypothetical construction. No individual
constructs knowledge for another. The knowledge that the learner constructs by him/herself is
more meaningful than transmitted to him/her by the teacher.

6. Geography education should recognise the preconception the learners come with in to new
lesson are resistant to change. Consequently, Geography teaching should aim at providing the
learners with opportunities to identify their misconceptions and modify them in the light of new
evidence.

7. The Government, particularly Ethiopian Ministry of Education and other concerned bodies
should improve teachers’ living conditions and motivate teachers’ interest and commitment to
their profession through incentives, rewards and other means such as transportation fee, house
allowance.

8. Teachers should be committed to supervise and follow up learners’ activities and thereby
provide feedback to encourage the strong sides and to improve the weak sides; assure the quality
of Geography teaching through learners’ involvement.

9. Vice directors, schools’ supervisors and departmental heads should follow and encourage
teachers to practice variety of learner-centered methods of teaching and motivate learners to
engage in Geography teaching and learning process actively.

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10. To practice effective learner-centered methods of teaching and to authorise learners on their
own learning in Geography education in general and higher education preparatory secondary
school Geography education in particular, Ethiopian Ministry of Education, the school
managements, Amhara States Education Bureau and other concerned bodies should provide
budget, resources, Geography reference books and textbooks, other instructional media and
facilities through producing in the school and buying from the market.

11. In order to carry out life and quality Geography education in higher education preparatory
secondary schools, Ethiopian MOE, Amhara State education bureau, Zone, District, the schools’
administrators and others concerned bodies should equip schools with adequate physical
resources for Geography education in particular, such as Geography departmental room,
Geography room, Geography laboratory room and Geography pedagogical center.

12. Schools’ management should equip schools with adequate resources such as globs, maps,
atlas, meteorological instruments, drawing instruments and reference books etc; which are very
crucial for Geography teaching through the practice of learner-centered methods of teaching.

13. Ethiopian electrical energy and power agency as well as other concerned bodies should
investigate the problem of electric power interruption and give appropriate solution and increase
the continuity of plasma TV transmission and supporting the lesson with it.

14. Since field work is an appropriate and effective method of teaching for most Geography
contents, school administrators, departmental heads, Geography teachers and other concerned
bodies should facilitate budget and other utilities to practice fieldwork.

15. The Government, particularly Ministry of Education in collaboration with Amhara State
Education Bureau and other concerned bodies should develop teachers’ profession regarding
learner-centered methods of teaching, continuous assessment techniques and classroom

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management strategies in long and short term training, workshops and seminars through in-
service and pre service programmes.

16. Geography teachers should assess learners’ day-to-day academic progress continuously
through formative assessment techniques such as class work, home work, oral questions, quiz
and tests regularly and give them constructive feed backs.

17. Teachers and departmental heads should prepare standard examinations that measure
learners’ ability properly. Schools’ prepared questions should have equal standard with Ethiopian
University Entrance Examination’ questions to make learners competent at National level.
Moreover, invigilators, teachers, departmental heads and school administrators and other
concerned bodies should take care to keep the secret and protect cheating when the examination
is prepared and administered respectively. And thus, each learner should do the examination
independently by her/him self and should score based on their ability.

223
Personal reflections
Though the Government makes a tremendeous effort in the expanasion of education in general
and higher education preparatory secondary schools in particular, significant efforts were not
made in the quality of education in general and Geography education in particular. As a result,
quality of education becomes the current questionable issue that every citizen has discussed due
to the fact that incompetent graduates have been produced.

The Government, particularly MOE designed a wonderful education policy based on

constructivists’ philosophy and the curriculum was developed and its implementation strategies,
methods and resources as well as teachers and learners activities and responsibilities have been
clearly identified.

However, the actual practice of education in general and Geography education in particular is
contrary to the policy, the curriculum implementation strategies and teachers and learners
activities and responsibilities identified in the Geography syllabus due to scarece and
unavailability of resources, lack of budget, lack of teachers’ commitment due to insufficient
salary and lack of incentives, learners’ low interest and inolvement due to unemployment of new
graduates, lack of training for teachers about active-learning strategies and continuous
assessment techniques, large class size and teachers are overloaded with extra tasks rather than
teaching.

Therefore, the Government, especially MOE should give due attention for the quality of
education parallel with the expansion by providing resources and facilities to the school,
allocating budget for fieldwork and other activities, giving training for teachers, increase
teachers’ salary and provide incentives, creating job opportunities for new graduates to raise
learners’ learning interest, motivate researchers to conduct research in the area of education and
use the results of the research as an input to solve problems which affect the quality of education

224
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Appendix I Questionnaire for learners

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education
Questionnaire for learners

Dear Student

The main purpose of this questionnaire is to gather pertinent data regarding the practice and
problems of Geography teaching in the higher education preparatory secondary schools of
Ethiopia. You are requested to respond to the items; give your frank opinion. Your response
will be treated confidentially. There is no need to write your name down. The results are
intended to serve as a feedback to improve the practice of learner-centred methods in the
preparatory education in general and Geography education in particular.

I thank you in advance for your participation.

Part I: Participants’ Biographical Information

Name of District in code______________________________________________

Name of the School in code __________________Participants Code__________

Sex: Male_____ Female_____ Age ______

236
 Grade level: 11th_____12th______ Ethnicity_______

Part II: Items

Direction: A number of questions are listed below regarding the nature of Geography;
Geography syllabus, teaching methods, students’ activity, instructional media and other
resources. And five alternatives for responding to the statements are given. These are
explained as follows: 1=strongly disagree(SD); 2=disagree(D); 3= undecided(UD)
;4=agree(A) and 5= strongly agree(SA). Please, choose the one that applies to you and put an
“X” under the number in the column.

N ITEMS Rating scales

SD D UD A SA
O (1) (2) (3) (4) (5 )
Nature of Geography
1 Geography is unique for me from other
disciplines.
2 In my opinion, the concepts of the contents
of Geography textbook are clear and easily
understandable.
3 The language in my Geography textbook is
simple or easily understandable.
4 The contents of the text book are arranged
from simple to complex.
5 Geography text book has participatory
exercises/activities.
6 I think that the annual lesson will be
covered at a given time.
Teaching Methods practiced by teachers
7 My teacher gives me a chance to ask
questions or express my opinions while the
learning-teaching process is going on.
8 I have visited geographical areas relevant
to the classroom lesson.
9 My teacher practices different teaching
methods.
10 My teacher motivates my classroom
participation.
11 My teacher advises/encourages me to take
responsibilities on my own learning.
12 My teacher cooperates with me when I
encounter problems in learning
237
 Geography.
13 My teacher checks and gives feedback for
my day-to-day activities.

14 My teacher utilizes instructional materials

in the teaching-learning process.
15 I have experience/learning background in
teacher-centred methods.
16 My Geography teacher frequently practices
a lecture method of teaching.
17 My Geography teacher frequently practices
discussion method of teaching.
18 My Geography teacher frequently practices
inquiry method of teaching.
19 My Geography teacher frequently practices
role-play method of teaching.
20 My Geography teacher frequently practices
questioning method of teaching.
21 My Geography teacher frequently practices
simulation method of teaching.
22 My Geography teacher frequently practices
fieldwork method of teaching.
23 My Geography teacher frequently practices
map work method of teaching.
24 My Geography teacher frequently practices
activity method of teaching.
25 My Geography teacher frequently practices
project method of teaching.
26 My Geography teacher frequently practices
demonstration method of teaching.
Learners’ activity while learning-
teaching process is going on
27 I figure out things through teacher’s lecture
238
 while the learning-teaching process is
going on
28 I have active participation in a Geography
learning-teaching process.
29 I work without teacher supervision while
the learning-teaching process is going on.
30 I figure out things on my own while the
learning-teaching process is going on.
31 I work together in groups while the
learning-teaching process is going on.
32 I think while the learning-teaching process
is going on.

33 I have high interaction with my friends and

my teacher during classroom learning-
teaching process.
Availability of Resources in the school
34 There is Geography room/laboratory in my
school.

35 There are adequate Geography

instructional materials in my school.
36 The ratio of Geography textbooks to
students is 1:1

37 My lesson is supported with Geography

Information System.

38 My Geography lesson is supported with a

computer.

Part III Items

Direction: below are statements about the types of questions raised by Geography teachers in
the classroom, and measurement and evaluation techniques that they use. Five alternatives
for responding to the statements are given. These are: 1= not at all (N); 2= rarely(R); 3=
sometimes(S); 4= frequently (F) and 5= most frequently (MF). Please, choose the one that
applies to you and put an “X” in the relevant number of the column.

No Items Rating of raising questions

Assessment Techniques N(1) R(2) S(3) F(4) MF(5)
239
39 My Geography teacher
raises Yes or No questions
while the learning-
teaching activities are
going on.
40 My Geography teacher
raises True or False
questions while the
learning-teaching activities
are going on.

41 My geography teacher
raises multiple choice
questions while the
learning-teaching activities
are going on.
42 My Geography teacher
raises short answer
questions while the
learning-teaching activities
are going on.
43 My Geography teacher
raises essay questions
while the learning-teaching
activities are going on.
44 My Geography teacher
raises matching questions
while the learning-teaching
activities are going on.

45 To assess my performance
my Geography teacher uses
240
 homework.
46 To assess my performance
my Geography teacher uses
project work/assignment.
47 To assess my performance
my Geography teacher uses
class participation.
48 To assess my performance
my Geography teacher uses
tests.
49 To assess my performance
my Geography teacher uses
quiz.
50 To assess my performance
my Geography teacher
uses class work
51 To assess my performance
my Geography teacher uses
examination.

Part V Items

Please, answer the following questions:

52. List the teaching methods that you prefer in learning Geography.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________

53. what are the factors that affect your participation in Geography learning-teaching
process_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

241
___________________________________________________________________________
___________

54. If you have additional comments and suggestions regarding Geography learning-teaching
strategies, please write them in the space provided.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

Appendix II Interview for Teachers

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education
Interviews for Geography Teachers

Dear Participants,

The main purpose of the interview is to gather pertinent data regarding the practice and
problems of Geography learning-teaching in the higher education preparatory secondary
school of Ethiopia, and indicate appropriate solution to improve the quality of preparatory
education in general and the practice of learner-centred methods in Geography education in
particular. Your response is extensively valuable to complete this investigation. Please, give
your frank opinion. Your response will be treated confidentially in the sense that your name
will not be revealed; in fact, you need not indicate your name.

I thank you so much in advance!

I. Participants’ Biographical information

Sex: Male ___________, Female_________ Code____________

Age: ≤ 20 ______ 21-30______ 31-40______ 41-50______ ≥51 ______

Name of the district in code ______________________________________

Name of the school in code _______________________________________

Field of qualification: ___________________________________________

242
Level of qualification: Diploma ______1stDegree_____ MA_____ PhD_____

Experience/service as a teacher: _______________________________________

Experience/service in other sectors: _____________________________________

Total years of services: _______________________________________________

Grade level in which you teach: _________________________________________

Average class size/section you teach: ____________________________________

Teaching load in credit hours per week___________________________________

Part II: Questions

Direction: A number of opened-ended questions are listed below regarding to Geography

syllabus, teaching methods, learners’ learning styles, assessment tools, instructional media
and other resources. Please, answer each question according to each item types.

1. How do you experience the teaching of Geography in your school?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. How would you express the unique nature of Geography regarding teaching-learning
strategies?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

3. Mention the teaching strategies that are designed in Geography syllabus.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________
243
4. Mention some of the teaching methods that you use in teaching Geography.

Which of these methods do you regard as learner-centred methods?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

5. What is the value of learner-centred methods in the teaching of Geography?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________

6. Express your readiness to practice learner-centred methods of learning and teaching.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________

7. Mention your major role in the classroom and outside the class room in the

implementation of Geography syllabus.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________

8. Explain the main problems that you encounter in the practice of learner-centred methods in
your Geography teaching and learning process.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

244
9. Explain the availability of resources (material, Physical, financial and human) in your
school relevant to Geography contents.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

10. Explain the majority of learners’ activities while the learning and teaching process is
going on.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

11. Mention the types of teaching methods you practice frequently.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

12. Mention the dominant assessment techniques you practice to measure learners’ academic
achievement.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

13. In your opinion, what are the negative impacts of traditional methods of teaching on
learners’ academic achievement?

245
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

14. In your opinion, what are the challenging factors that affect the practice of learner-
centred methods in preparatory schools Geography education?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

15. Explain the problems you encounter while you implement the preparatory school
Geography syllabus.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

16. Mention the main problems that affect the quality of Geography education in general and
preparatory Geography education in particular.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

246
247
Appendix III Interview for Departmental Heads

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education
Interviews for Geography Department Heads

Dear Participants,

The following set of interview items will be addressed to you. The main purpose of the interview
is to gather pertinent data regarding the practice and problems of Geography teaching-learning in
the higher education preparatory secondary school of Ethiopia. Thus, there is no doubt that your
response is extensively valuable to complete the investigation. Hence, you are kindly requested
to give me your frank opinion cooperatively on the bases of the following questions. Your
response will be treated confidentially. Your name will not be explained while you are
responding to these interview questions

I am very much indebted to your kind help!

I. Informants’ Biographical Information

Sex: Male_____ Female_____ Participants’ code

Age: ≤ 20 ______ 21-30______ 31-40______ 41-50______ ≥51 ______

Name of the district in code ___________

Name of school in code _______________

Field of qualification __________________________________________________

Level of qualification: Diploma_____1st Degree_____ MA/MSC_____ PhD_____

Position ___________________________________________________________

Years of Service as a teacher:1-5____6-10_____11-15_____16-20___21-25___>25

Years of Service as Department head:1-5__6-10__11-15__16-20___21-25__ >25___

Service in other areas: 1-5______6-10______11-15______16-20______>20______

Total years of experience: 1-5____6-10_____11-15_____16-20___21-25___>25___

248
Part II.

Direction: A number of opened-ended questions are listed below regarding to Geography

syllabus, teaching methods, learners’ learning styles, assessment tools, instructional media
and other resources. Please, answer each question according to each item types.

1. How would you explain the relevancy of Preparatory school Geography syllabus with
Ethiopian education policy?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

2. How would you express the unique nature of Geography comparing with other discipline?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. How would you explain the feasibility of Geography syllabus?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

4. How would you express teachers’ readiness to practice learner-centred methods of

teaching?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
249
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

5. What is teachers’ major role in the classroom and outside the class room in the
implementation of Geography syllabus?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

6. How would you explain the availability of resources (material, Physical, financial and
human) in your school relevant to Geography contents?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

7. How do Geography teachers in your school teach frequently?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

8. How do Geography teachers assess learners’ academic achievement frequently?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

9. Explain the majority of learners’ activities while the learning and teaching process is
going on.
250
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

10. Mention your roles as a Geography Department Head?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

11. Mention teachers’ attitude towards the teaching profession in general and Geography
teaching in particular.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

12. Mention the type of questions Geography teachers raise frequently while they

are teaching.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

13. In your opinion, what are the negative impacts of traditional methods of teaching

in learners’ academic achievement?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

251
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

14. For you, what makes quality of Geography teachers?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

15. In your opinion what are the major constraints that negatively affect the

Practice of learner-centred methods in preparatory schools Geography

education?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

16. In your opinion what are the constraints negatively affect the quality of

Geography education in general and preparatory Geography Education in

particular?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________

252
Appendix IV, A: Observation Check-list

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education
Observation check-list: Methods of teaching implemented by Geography teachers:

School in code_____________________ Teacher’s (code)__________________

Class______________________ Subject________________________

Date_______________________ Observer______________________

Lesson (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th) __________ Topic______________

Content_________________ Time__________________________

Methods in Lesson1 Lesson2 Lesson3 Lesson4 Lesson5

Geography
teaching:
Lecture
method
Discussion
method
Inquiry
method
Role-play
method
Questioning
method
Simulation
method
Fieldwork
method
Map work
method
Activity-
based
method
Project
method
others

253
Appendix IV, B

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education
Observation check-list B: The type of questions the teacher raises while he/she is
teaching (thick-mark).

School in code___________________ Teacher in code_____________________

Class______________________ Subject_______________________

Date_______________________ Observer______________________

Topic________________________ Time ________________________

Content_________________

Teacher Lesson1 Lesson2 Lesson3 Lesson4 Lesson5

frequently
raise:
Yes or No
Trueor
False
M. choice
Short
answer
Matching
Essay/open
ended

254
Appendix IV, C
University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education

Observation check list-3: Learners’ learning styles / activities

School in code_____________________ Teacher (code)__________________

Class______________________ Subject________________________

Date_______________________ Observer______________________

Topic________________________ Time ________________________

Content_________________

5=all of them, 4= most of them, 3=half of them, 2= few of them, 1=none of them

Items Lesson1 Lesson2 Lesson3 Lesson4 Lesson5

5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1
They are
figuring out
things on
their own
They are
working
without
teacher
supervision
They are
working
together in
groups
They are
thinking
while
learning

255
Appendix IV, D

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies
School of Education
Observation check-list-4: Utilization of resources in the classroom
School in code_____________________ Lesson no_____________________
Class______________________ Subject_______________________
Date_______________________ observer______________________
Time__________________ Topic______________________________

Items Utilized Not Comment

utilized
Boards
Maps
Globes
Models
Real objects
Photographs
Illustrations
Tables
Films
TV & video
Time line
Graphs
Transparences
Computers
Charts
Atlas

Diagrams
Pictures
Meteorol Rain gauge
-ogical
instrume- Wind vane
nts Thermometer

256
 Anemometer

Barometer

Hygrometer

Printed Textbooks
media

Magazines

Periodical

Reports

News paper

Projected Slide projector

media
Overhead
projector

Opaque
projector

Computer
powerpoint or
LCD

257
Appendix IV, E

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education
Observation check-list-5: Availability of material resources in the school

School in code_____________________ Location_______________________

Class______________________ Subject_______________________

Date_______________________ observer______________________

Time__________________

Items Sufficiently Available Not

Available but not Available
sufficient at all
Boards
Maps
Globes
Models
Real objects
Photographs
Illustrations
Tables
Films
TV & video
Time line
Graphs
Transparences
Computers
Charts
Atlas

Diagrams
Pictures
Meteorological Rain gauge
instruments
Wind vane

258
 Thermometer

Anemometer

Barometer

Hygrometer

Printed media Textbooks

Geography
reference
books

Magazines

Periodical

Reports

News paper

Projected media Slide projector

Overhead
projector

Opaque
projector

Computer
powerpoint or
LCD

259
Appendix IV, F

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education
Observation check-list-6: Availability of physical resources with their facilities

School in code ___________________________________________________

Class______________________ Subject_______________________

Date_______________________ Observer______________________

Topic________________________ Time ________________________

Content_________________

Items sufficiently available but Un available at

Available not sufficient all
Geog, Department room
Library
Geography room
Geography laboratory
Weather Station
Geography Display room
Geography Display Field
Map-work room
Pedagogical centre
others

260
Appendix IV, G

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education
Observation check-list 7: Document analysis

Observation check-list 1: Tools of evaluation used by Geography teachers to

understand students’ performance:

School in code_____________________ Teacher /code__________________

Class______________________ Subject_______________________

Date_______________________ Observer_____________________

5= most frequently, 4= frequently, 3= sometimes, 2= rarely, 1=not at all

Tools of evaluation 5 4 3 2 1
Class work
Home work
Project
work/Assignment
Tests
Examination
Participation
Quiz

261
Appendix V, A

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education
Document Analysis check-list 1: Analysis of Grade 11 learners’ Geography result
(year___________)

School in code _____________________ Exam year_______________________

Class______________________ Subject_______________________

Date_______________________ Analyzer______________________

Grade Section year <50% 50-60% 61-70% 71-80% 81-90% 91-100% Total

11

Grand
Total

262
Appendix V, B

University of South Africa

Graduate Studies

School of Education
Document analysis check-list

Document analysis check-list-2 Analysis of Grade 12 Students’ Geography result

School in code _____________________ Exam year____________________

Class______________________ Subject_______________________

Date_______________________ Analyzer______________________

Grade Section year National examination result

<50 50-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 Total

12

Grand
total

263