HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY ASSIGNMENT 01

Q1. Define an action potential and draw a properly labeled diagram showing the nerve
action potential and associated changes in sodium and potassium conductance in a
skeletal muscle.

 An action potential is a rapid rise and subsequent fall in voltage or membrane

potential across a cellular membrane with a characteristic pattern. An action
potential occurs when the membrane potential of a specific axon location rapidly
rises and falls.
 1. Stimulus starts the rapid change in voltage or action potential l. In patch-clamp
mode sufficient current must be administered to the cell order to raise the voltage
above the threshold voltage to start membrane depolarization.

2. Depolarization is caused by a rapid rise in membrane potential opening of sodium

channels in the cellular membrane, resulting in a large influx of sodium ions.

3. iii) Membrane repolarization results from rapid sodium channel inactivation as well
as a large efflux of potassium ions resulting from activated potassium channels.

4. IV) Hyperpolarization is a lowered membrane potential caused by the efflux of

potassium ions and closing of the potassium channels.

5. v) Resting state is when membrane potential occurs to the resting voltage that
occurred before the stimulus occurred.

Q2. Properly discuss the action potential in cardiac muscle with the aid of a properly
labeled diagram.

 The cardiac action potential is a brief change in voltage (membrane potential) across
the cell membrane of heart cells. This is caused by the movement of charged atoms
between the inside and outside of the cell, through proteins called ion channels.
There are five cardiac action potential phases, numbered 0 through 4 (scientists get strange
ideas sometimes).

 Phase 0: is depolarization of the membrane and the opening of "fast" (i.e., high-flow)
sodium channels. Potassium flow also decreases.
 Phase 1: is partial repolarization of the membrane thanks to a rapid decrease in
sodium-ion passage as the fast sodium channels close.

 Phase 2: is the plateau phase, in which the movement of calcium ions out of the cell
maintains depolarization.  Unlike the case in phase 4, however, this occurs in the
phase of counterbalancing factors. The first of these consists of inward-flowing
sodium (the influx which has not quite tapered to zero after the rapid influx in phase
0) and inward-flowing calcium; the other includes three types of outward rectifier
currents (slow, intermediate and fast), all of which feature potassium movement.
This rectifier current is what is ultimately responsible for the contraction of cardiac
muscle, as this potassium efflux initiates a cascade in which calcium ions bind to
active sites on cellular contractile proteins (e.g., actin, troponin) and cajole them into
action. Phase 2 ends when the inward flows of calcium and sodium cease while the
outward flow of potassium (the rectifier current) continues, pushing the cell toward
repolarization.

 Phase 3 is repolarization, as sodium and calcium channels close and membrane
potential returns to its baseline level.

 Phase 4: Phase 4 of the cardiac muscle cell potential is called the diastolic interval,
because this period corresponds to diastole, or the interval between contractions of
heart muscle. Every time you hear or feel the thump of your heartbeat, this is the
end of the heart contracting, which has called systole. The faster your heart beats,
the higher a fraction of its contraction-relaxation cycle it spends in systole, but even
when you are exercising all-out and pushing your pulse rate into the 200 range, your
heart is still in diastole most of the time, making phase 4 the longest phase of the
cardiac action potential, which in total lasts about 300 milliseconds (three-tenths of a
second). Sees the membrane at its so-called resting potential of −90 millivolts (mV) as
a result of the work of the Na+/K+ ion pump. The value is negative because the
potential inside the cell is negative compared to the potential outside of it, and the
latter is treated as the zero frame of reference. This is because three sodium ions are
pumped out of the cell for every two potassium ions pumped into the cell; recall that
these ions have an equivalent charge of +1, so this system results in a net efflux, or
outflow, of positive charge.
Q3. What is refractory period?

Refractory period is a period of time during which an organ or cell is incapable of repeating a
particular action, or (more precisely) the amount of time it takes for an excitable membrane
to be ready for a second stimulus once it returns to its resting state following an excitation.

Q4. Discuss the absolute refractory period

 Absolute refractory period: Is the period of time during which a second action
potential cannot be initiated, no matter how large the applied stimulus is .Absolute
refractory period corresponds to depolarization and repolarization.

The absolute refractory period is responsible for setting the upper limit on the
maximum number of action potentials that can be generated during any given time period.
In other words, the absolute refractory period determines the maximum frequency of action
potentials that can be generated at any point along the axon plasma membrane. This action
potential frequency, in turn, has important physiological implications for how the nervous
system can respond to high-frequency stimuli, and also for the ability of the nervous system
to send high-frequency signals to effector organs when needed.

During the absolute refractory period, a second stimulus (no matter how strong) will not
excite the neuron, during the relative refractory period, a stronger than normal stimulus is
needed to elicit neuronal excitation.
Q5. Discuss the relative refractory period.

 Relative refractory period: Is the interval immediately following the Absolute

Refractory Period during which initiation of a second action potential is INHIBITED,
but not impossible. As voltage-gated potassium channels open to terminate the
action potential by repolarizing the membrane, the potassium conductance of the
membrane increases and the K+ ions move out of the cell and bring the membrane
potential closer to the equilibrium potential for potassium and this can lead to
membrane hyperpolarization. As voltage-gated potassium channels open to
terminate the action potential by repolarizing the membrane, the potassium
conductance of the membrane increases dramatically. K + ions moving out of the cell
bring the membrane potential closer to the equilibrium potential for potassium. This
causes brief hyperpolarization of the membrane, that is, the membrane potential
becomes transiently more negative than the normal resting potential. Until the
potassium conductance returns to the resting value, a greater stimulus will be
required to reach the initiation threshold for a second depolarization. The return to
the equilibrium resting potential marks the end of the relative refractory period.
Q6. Define a neural transmitter.

A Neurotransmitter is an endogenous chemical that enable neurotransmission. It is a type

of chemical messenger which transmits signals across a chemical synapse, such as a
neuromuscular junction, from one neuron to another "target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland
cell.

Q7. Give examples of excitatory neural transmitters and inhibitory neural transmitters.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters: These neurotransmitters increase the rate or likelihood of a

neuron firing by depolarizing the neuron. Neurotransmitters binds to an ion channel that is
permissive to positively-charged sodium (Na+, and sometimes calcium Ca2+), which are
located outside the cell, when the channel opens the positive charge floods into the cell
which excites the neuron. The main examples of excitatory neurotransmitters are:

 Glutamate, which acts via the glutamatergic AMPA, NMDA, and kainite channels.
Aspartate can also activate these same channels.

 Acetylcholine, which acts via the nicotinic acetylcholine channels.

 Norepinephrine.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: These neurotransmitters decrease the rate or likelihood

of a neuron firing by hyperpolarizing the neuron. As with the excitatory neurotransmitters,
the inhibitory molecule binds to an ion channel, but these channels are permissive to
negatively-charged chloride (Cl-) ions located outside the cell when the channel opens, the
negative charge floods into the cell, which inhibits the neuron. The main examples of
inhibitory neurotransmitters are:

 GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) is the dominant inhibitory neurotransmitter in

the higher brain areas. It acts via the GABAergic receptor GABAA.

 Glycine, which is the dominant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brainstem and

spinal cord. It acts via the glycine receptor. The molecule D-Serine can also activate
these same channels.

 Dopamine.
Q8. Describe end plate potential in the post -synaptic nerve.

End plate potentials (EPPs) are the depolarization of skeletal muscle fibers caused by
neurotransmitters binding to the postsynaptic membrane in the neuromuscular junction.
They are called "end plates" because the postsynaptic terminals of muscle fibers have a
large, saucer-like appearance. When an action potential reaches the axon terminal of a

Motor neuron, vesicles carrying neurotransmitters (mostly acetylcholine) are exocytose and
the contents are released into the neuromuscular junction. These neurotransmitters bind to
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and lead to its depolarization. In the absence of an
action potential, acetylcholine vesicles spontaneously leak into the neuromuscular junction
and cause very small depolarization in the postsynaptic membrane.

Q9. Differentiate between spatial and temporal summation.

The main difference between temporal and spatial summation is that temporal
summation occurs when one presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters over a period
of time to fire an action potential whereas spatial summation occurs when multiple
presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters together to fire an action potential in the
postsynaptic neuron.

Furthermore, the temporal summation is a type of high–frequency stimulation while spatial

summation is a type of simultaneous stimulation.

TEMPORAL SUMMATION SPATIAL SUMMATION

Sensory summation that involves the Sensory summation that involves stimulation
addition of single stimuli over a short period of several spatially separated neurons at the
of time same time
A single presynaptic neuron is responsible Multiple presynaptic neurons are
for generating the action potential responsible for generating action potential

One presynaptic neuron generates sub Multiple presynaptic neurons generate sub
thresholds over a certain period of time thresholds

A less efficient process as it take time to More efficient

generate an action potential
Q10. Define a connective tissue and give examples.

A connective tissue is a tissue that connects, supports, binds, or separates other

tissues or organs, typically having relatively few cells embedded in an amorphous matrix,
often with collagen or other fibers, and including cartilaginous, fatty, and elastic tissues.

Examples:

 Fibrous tissue.

 Elastic tissue.

 Blood tissue.

 Lymphatic or Hematopoietic tissue.

 Adipose tissue.

 Bone tissue.

 Cartilage tissue.