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Sentence, clause, sentence/clause elements, word order

Sentence – a unit that makes sense, has complete meaning/thought, consists of (several) clauses
Clause – a group of words of a subject + finite verb (+ complement or object if necessary)which
make grammatical unit
Simple sentence – single independent clause – She fell.
Compound sentence – consists of at least two main clauses, these clauses are equally important and
usually connected by coordinating conjunction (and, or, but). Mr. Jones teaches French, and Ms.
Williams teaches English.
Complex sentence – consists of at least one main and one subordinate clause clause, at least one is
main clause and other clauses are subordinate clauses. Wherever she goes, she leaves a piece of
luggage behind.
Parts of speech (word classes): nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numbers, verbs, adverbs, prepositions,
conjunctions, interjections, determiners.

Word order
Usually SVOMPT.
Variations to basic WO:
- questions (yes/no, negative, tag, question-word),
- reporting verbs in indirect speech (inverted V + S - … said the judge),
- long subject – “Where is this train going?” asked the lady sitting beside me.
- Adverb particles – Back came the answer – no (back, here, there).
- Fronting – for special emphasis – A fine mess you’ve made of this!

Sentence
‐ A sentence can take any one of four forms:
- a statement The shops close/don t close at 7 tonight
- a question Do the shops close at 7 tonight?
- a command Shut the door!
- an exclamation What a slow tram this is!
‐ Simple sentence may be one of seven types/patterns (these types differ according to what (if
anything) follows the verb) :
o 1. SV The sun is shining.
o 2. SVO The lecture bored me.
o 3. SVC Your dinner seems ready.
o 4. SVA My office is in the building.
o 5. SVOO I must send my parents a card. (koho co – Od, komu čemu – Oi)
o 6. SVOC Most students have found her reasonably helpful.
o 7. SVOA You can put the dish on the table.
‐ the V element in a simple sentence is always a finite verb phrase

Clause
There are many different kinds and functions of clauses:
- relative clauses (post-modification)
- restrictive / defining relative clause
- non-restrictive / non-defining relative clause
- nominal clauses (used instead of clause elements expressed by noun phrases)
- nominal THAT clause
- nominal relative clause
- nominal WH- interrogative clause
- nominal YES/NO interrogative clause
- nominal exclamatory clause
- adverbial clauses (used instead of clause elements expressed by adverbial phrases)
- appositive clauses (post-modification of abstract noun phrases)
 - time, place, manner, reason, condition, concession/contrast, purpose, result,
comparison
- comment clauses
- wish clauses

Sentence / Clause elements (are functions of parts of speech):

‐ Subject – A subject is normally a noun, a pronoun or a noun phrase, it usually goes before the
verb. The verb must 'agree' with the subject, so the subject dictates the form of the verb (e. g. wait /
John waits / I am / you are / I have / the new edition has). This 'agreement' between subject and verb
is often called concord.
‐ Verb – always realized by a verb phrase;
Verb categories:
– Intensive (linking / copular)
Copular verbs are followed by a subject complement or an adverbial, and occur in
types SVC and SVA
The most common copular verbs are: (current) appear, be, feel, look, seem, smell,
sound, taste; (resulting) become, get, go, grow, prove, turn
He is nice. SVC
He is in London. SVA
He lay on the bed. SVA
– Extensive
- Intransitive
– are followed by an optional element, and occur in the SV type
– She arrived. SV
– She arrived home. SV(Ao)
- Monotransitive
– has 1 object, 2 direct objects make a monotransitive clause as well
– She helped me. SVO
- Ditransitive
– She showed me my room. SVOiOd
– pokud chceme udělat pasivní větu, pak vezmeme Od aktivní věty a ten se stane
subjektem pasivní věty – The room was shown to me. – druhou možností je – She
showed me my room.
– z pravých ditransitive verbs jdou udělat vždy dva pasivy (show and offer are
examples of true ditransitive verbs)
- Complex transitive
– She called me a fool. SVOC
– She put it on the table. SVOA
“transitive” means that it needs an object
In English, we need the whole sentence to recognize the verb correctly
‐ Object – An object is normally a noun, pronoun or noun phrase, it usually goes after the verb in
the active. It can become the subject of a verb in the passive. Objects can be direct and indirect. A
direct object refers to the person or thing affected by the action of the verb. It comes immediately
after a transitive verb (Please, don’t annoy me.) An indirect object usually refers to the person who
'benefits' from the action expressed in the verb; someone you give something to, or buy something
for. It comes immediately after a verb (Throw me the ball.).
‐ Complement – typically a noun phrase or an adjective phrase. A complement follows the verb be
and verbs related to be, such as seem, which cannot be followed by an object. A complement (e.g.
adjective, noun, pronoun) completes the sense of an utterance by telling us something about the
subject (Frank is clever. Frank is an architect.).
‐ Adverbial – normally an adverbial phrase, prepositional phrase, noun phrase or a clause; may be
optional - except for adverbials in the SVA (He is in London) and SVOA (He put it on the table)
clause types

Word order
In English the word order is essential to the meaning of the sentence. We have to carefully
distinguish between the subject-group and the verb-group (also called predicate). The predicate is
what is said about the subject, i.e. it is all the words in a sentence except the subject. – The dog
(subject group) bit the man. (predicate) – A change in word order brings with it a fundamental
change in meaning. – The man (subject group) bit the dog. (predicate) – This means that English is
far less flexible in its word order than many inflected languages.
Changes in the word order may not only change the meaning of a sentence, but also its type:
- The matter is urgent. – Is the matter urgent?
- What experience has he had? – What experience he has had!
Další příklady změn významu změnou slovosledu:
- palm oil – oil palm
- I found a suitable solution. – I found the solution suitable.
- Mostly children read books. (většina dětí) – Children mostly read books. (děti
většinou)
Basic word order – Although variations are possible, the basic word order in a sentence that is not a
question or a command is usually : Subject / Verb / Object / Adverbials or Complement
Some common variations to the word order :
- questions
Did you take your car in for a service?
When did you take your car in for a service?
- reporting verbs in direct speech
You ve eaten the lot' cried Frank.
- certain conditional sentences
Should you see him please give him my regards.
- time references requiring special emphasis
Last night we went to the cinema.
- -ly adverbs of manner/indefinite time.
The whole building suddenly began to shake.
Suddenly the whole building began to shake.
- adverbs of indefinite frequency
We often played dangerous games when we were children.
- adverb phrases
Inside the parcel (there) was a letter
- adverb particles (e. g. back) and here there
Back came the answer - no'
Here/There is your coat.
Here/There it is.
- negative adverbs
Never in world history has there been such a conflict
- 'fronting'
- Items in a sentence can be put at the front for special emphasis.
A fine mess you’ve made of this!
- the items fronted may be the one contextually most demanded
Wilson his name is.
- fronted items provide direct linkage with what has preceded. End focus falls
on the most important part of the message.
To this list may be added other items of importance.
- fronting also echoes what has been previously contextually given
- with adverbials in front position we often find SUBJECT – VERB
inversion
Here comes the milkman. – inversion
Here he comes. – no inversion; subject is a pronoun
- where a phrase of negative form or meaning is fronted we find
SUBJECT OPERATOR inversion
I little expected such enthusiasm.
Little did I expect such enthusiasm. – operator inversion
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Statements, questions, commands, exclamations, negation
Statements / Declaratives
Declaratives are sentences in which it is normal for the subject to be present and to precede the verb
Normal SVOA word order applies to statements

Questions
- Questions can be divided into three major classes according to the type of reply they expect:
1) Those that expect affirmation or negation are YES-NO Questions
2) Those that typically expect a reply from an open range of replies are WH-Questions
3) Those that expect as the reply one of two or more options mentioned in the question, as in ‘Would
you like to go for a walk or stay at home?’, are ALTERNATIVE Questions

YES-NO Questions
- Form of yes-no questions
- Yes-no questions are usually formed by placing the operator before the subject and
giving the sentence a rising intonation:
The boat has left. ~ Has the boat left?
- if there is no item in the verb phrase that can function as an operator, do is
introduce, as with negation:
They live in Sydney. ~ Do they live in Sydney?
- the main verb be functions as an operator; in BrE the main verb have often acts as
an operator
Patrick was late. ~ Was Patrick late?
She has a cold. ~ Has she (got) a cold? (BrE) / Does she have a cold? (AmE)
- Positive yes-no questions
- yes-no questions may contain non-assertive items such as any and ever; such questions are
neutral
Someone called last night. ~ Did anyone call last night?
- but questions may also indicate that the speaker expects a certain answer (a positive
one for example); such questions are not neutral, and has to be created thus by using
assertive forms
Did someone call last night? [‘Is it true that someone called last night?’]
- Negative yes-no questions
- negative questions are always conducive (tzn. vždy očekávají jistý druh odpovědi)
- negative orientation is found in questions which contain a negative form of some
kind; negative orientation is complicated by an element of surprise or disbelief; this
means that the speaker expects a positive answer first, but new evidence suggests that
the answer will be negative
Hasn’t he told you what to do? [=’Surely he has told you what to do, hasn’t
he? I would have thought that he had told you.’]

- if a negative question has assertive items, it’s positively oriented:

Didn’t someone call last night? [‘I expect that someone did.’]
- such questions are similar in effect to tag questions

- Tag questions
- maximum conduciveness is expressed by a tag question appended to a statement (in
the form of a declarative):
Joan recognized you, didn’t she? [‘Surely Joan recognized you.’]
- for the most common types of tag questions, the tag question is negative if the
statement is positive and vice versa; the tag question has the form of a yes-no
question consisting of merely an operator and a subject pronoun
- Declarative questions
 - declarative questions have the form of a declarative, except for the final rising
intonation:
You’ve got the tickets?
You realize what the risks are?
- declarative questions are conducive; positive questions have positive orientation and
can accept only assertive items:
He wants something to eat?
- negative questions have negative orientation, and nonassertive forms may be used
following the negative:
You didn’t get anything to eat?
- Yes-no questions with modal auxiliaries
- modal verbs of permission (may, can) and of obligation (must, have to)
A: May / Can I leave now? [‘Will you permit me…’]
B: Yes, you may / can. [‘I will permit you …’]
- in the possibility sense, can or could are used rather than may:
A: Can / Could they have missed the bus?
B: Yes, they may / might have.
- the past forms might (permission), would (volition), and could (volition) are
regularly used for politeness in place of the present forms:
Might I call you by your first name?

WH-Questions
- Form of wh-questions
- wh-questions are formed with the aid of one of the following simple interrogative
words:
Who / whom / whose, what, which, when, where, how, why
- unlike yes-no questions thay generally have falling intonation
- the wh-element (i.e. the clause element containing the wh-word) comes first in the
sentence, the wh-word itself takes the first position in the wh-element (the main
exception to this is the situation when the wh-word is within a prepositional
complement ~ ať už to znamená cokoli)
On what did you base your prediction? (formal; preposition precedes the
complement)
What did you base your prediction on? (non-formal; complement comes first)
- in other words, in non-formal style the wh-word comes first, but in formal style the
wh-element as a whole comes first
- Function of wh-element
- wh-elements may function as subjects, objects, complements, or adverbials
Who is coming to the party? [wh-element: Subject]
What did you buy for your sister? [wh-element: Object direct]
How wide did they make the bookcase? [wh-element: Object complement]
When will you be promoted? [wh-element: Adverbial]
How often do you vidit New York? [wh-element: Adverbial]
- the normal statement order of elements is in wh-questions altered not only by the
initial placing of the wh-element, but by the inversion of subject and operator in
all cases except when the wh-element is subject
- subject-operator inversion is the same as in yes-no questions; if there is no operator,
do is introduced; the main verb be and have both act as operators

ALTERNATIVE Questions
- there are two types of alternative questions, first resembles the yes-no questions, the
other the wh-questions
Would you like chocolate, vanilla, or strawberry ice-cream? [1]
Which ice-cream would you like? Chocolate, vanilla, or strawberry? [2]
- any yes-no question can be converted into an alternative question

Minor types of questions

 - Exclamatory questions
- the exclamatory question is interrogative in structure, but has the force of an
exclamatory assertion; typically it is a negative yes-no question with a final falling
instead of rising tone:
Hasn’t he grown!
Wasn’t it a marvelous concert!
- Rhetorical questions
- the rhetorical question is interrogative in structure, but has the force of a strong
assertion (tvrzení);
- The speaker does not expect an answer
Can anyone doubt the wisdom of this action? [‘Surely no one can doubt it.’]
Isn’t the answer obvious? [‘Surely the answer is obvious.’]
- unlike the exclamatory questions, rhetorical questions have the normal rising
intonation of yes-no questions
- there are also rhetorical wh-questions
What difference does it make? [‘It makes no difference.’]
- Echo questions
- echo questions repeat part or all of what has been said
A: I’ll pay for it. B: You’ll what?
A: He’s missed the bus. B: Who’s missed the bus?

Commands / Directives
- Directives typically take the form of an imperative sentence, which differs from a
declarative sentence in that:
- it generally has no subject
- it generally has a verb in the base form
- Otherwise, the imperative sentence show the same ordering of sentence elements as
declaratives
(S)V Jump!
(S)VC Be reasonable!
(S)VOC Consider yourself lucky!
- The imperative verb lacks tense distinction and does not allow modal auxiliaries
- Passive with be occur in negative directives, where they generally mean “Don’t allow
yourself to be...”
Don’t be deceived by his looks.

- Directives with a subject

- although the subject is usually omitted in directives (since the meaning of directives
implies that the subject is usually the 2nd person pronoun you), there is a type of
directive in which the stressed subject you is added. You may be non-contrastive or
admonitory (káravý):
You mind your own business and leave this to me!
- it frequently expresses strong irritation
- the non-contrastive you may be persuasive:
You show me what you can do.
- you may be also contrastive in the sense of singling out one person or one set of
persons:
Don’t tell me to be quiet. You be quiet!

- Directives with let

- first person imperatives can be formed by preposing the verb let followed by a
notional subject in object case:
Let us work hard. [‘We must work hard.’]
- the same applies to the 3rd person:
Let no one think that teacher’s life is easy. [‘No one must think...’]
- except for let me / let us (let’s) these are generally rather archaic
 - Negative imperative
- to negate imperatives, one simply adds and initial Don’t or Do not:
Don’t open the door.
Don’t let me disturb you.

- Do with positive imperatives

- a positive imperative can be made more persuasive or insistent by adding do before
the verb:
Do have some more tea.
Do let’s go for a walk.
- this use of do applies only when a subject is absent or when let’s is present

Exclamations
- Exclamatives, as a formal category of sentences, are restricted to the type of exclamatory
utterance introduced by what or how. The wh-word indicates an extreme position on some
scale of value, and therefore can only appear at points where an expression of degree is possible.
- What functions as a predeterminer in a noun phrase
What a time we’ve had today!
- How functions as intensifier of an adjective or adverb, or as a degree adverbial
How delightful her manners are!
How quickly you eat!
How I used to hate geography!
- The wh-element is fronted, but in contrast to wh-questions there is no subject-operator
inversion
- Sometimes, the meaning can be ambiguous, and so we have to look at the context
What a time we’ve had today! – can mean a very good time, but also a very bad time

Negation
Clause negation
- Clause negation through verb negation
- a positive clause can be negated by inserting not between the operator and
the predication:
I have finished. ~I have not finished.
- if no operator is present, the dummy operator do is introduced:
She works hard. ~ She does not work hard.
- we do not use the contracted form of not (n’t) in formal English

- Syntactic features of clause negation

- negative clauses differ syntactically from positive clauses
- they can’t typically be followed by positive tag question
They aren’t ready, are they?
- they can be followed by negative tag clauses with additive meaning
They aren’t ready, and neither are you.
- they can be followed by negative agreement responses
A: He doesn’t know Russian. B: No, he doesn’t.
- they can be followed by non-assertive items
He won’t notice any change in you, either.
- Other kinds of clause negation
- Words negative in form and meaning
- we sometimes have a choice between verb negation and negation of
some other element:
An honest man would not lie. ~ No honest man would lie.
I won’t make this mistake again. ~ I will never make this
mistake again.
- the scope of negation is frequently different though
 Many people did not come. [absence of many people]
Not many people came. [presence of few people]
- Words negative in meaning but not in form
- several words are negative in meaning, but not in form, for example:
Seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, little, few (in contrast to the
positive a little and a few)
- such words can effect clause negation, including the characteristic
syntactic features of clause negation:
They scarcely seem to care, do they?
I seldom get any sleep, either.
- when positioned initially, the adverbs normally cause subject-
operator inversion
Little did I expect such enthusiasm.
- verbs, adjectives, and prepositions with negative meaning may be
followed by non-assertive items:
He denies I ever told him.

- Non-assertive items
- clause negation is frequently followed by one or more non-assertive
items
- in many instances, the negative particle and the non-assertive form
can combine to produce a negative form (not ever ~ never) or can be
replaced by a negative form (not anywhere ~ nowhere)
Assertive Non-assertive
We’ve had some lunch. We haven’t had any lunch.
I was speaking to somebody. I wasn’t speaking to anybody.
He’s still at school. He’s not at school any longer.
They’ll finish it somehow. They won’t finish it at all.
Scope of negation
- the scope of negation normally extends from the negative item itself to the end of
the clause; there is thus contrast between these two sentences:
She definitely didn’t speak to him. [‘it’s definite that she didn’t’]
She didn’t definitely speak to him. [‘it’s not definite that she didn’t’]
- if an assertive form is used, it must lie outside of the scope of negation
I didn’t listen to some of the speakers. [‘I listened to some’]
I didn’t listen to any of the speakers. [‘I listened to none’]
- the scope of negation can sometimes extend into a subordinate clause

Focus of negation ??
- we need to identify not only the scope, but also the focus of a negation; the focus is
signalled in speech by stress; different placement of focus distinguishes the following
sentences:
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. ~ I forgot to do so
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. ~ it was Mary
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. ~ just to see
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. ~ I took her to the seaside
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. ~ it was yesterday
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. ~ it was my brother
- scope must include the focus; one way of signalling the extend of the scope is by position
of the focus:
I didn’t leave home, because I was afraid of my father.
[= ‘Because I was afraid of my father, I didn’t leave home.’]
I didn’t leave home, because I was afraid of my father.
[= ‘I left home, but it wasn’t because I was afraid of my father.’]
- intonation may be also crucial in marking the focus of negation:
All the children didn’t sleep. [‘All the children failed to sleep.’]
All the children didn’t sleep. [‘Not all the children slept.’]
Local negation
- local negation negates a word or phrase, without making the clause negative; it
involves the combination of not and a morphologically negated gradable adjective or
noun
- the negative particle not cancels out the negative prefix only partly, meaning it’s not
totally positive in the end
She’s not unintelligent woman. [= ‘She’s a fairly intelligent woman.’]
I visit them not infrequently. [= ‘I visit them rather frequently.’]
- other types of local negation:
I saw a not too sympathetic report about you. [=’rather unsympathetic’]
- if local negation is moved to the initial position, it does not cause subject-operator
inversion
Not long ago I saw David mowing his lawn.
Negation of modal auxiliaries
- the scope of negation may or may not include the meaning of the modal auxiliaries;
we therefore distinguish between auxiliary negation and main verb negation:
You may not smoke here. [‘You are not allowed to smoke here.’]
You may not like the party. [‘It’s possible that you won’t like the party.’]
- auxiliary negation
- may not [= ‘permission’]
You may not go swimming. [‘You are not allowed to...’]
- cannot, can’t [= ‘possibility, permission, ability’]
You can’t be serious. [‘it’s not possible that...’]
You can’t go swimming. [‘you are not allowed to...’]
You can’t ride a bicycle. [‘you are unable to...’]
- need not, needn’t [= ’necessity, obligation’]
You needn’t pay that fine. [‘you are not obliged to...’]
It needn’t always be my fault. [‘it’s not necessarily...’]
- dare not, daren’t [= ‘courage’]
I daren’t quarrel with him. [‘I haven’t got the courage to...’]
- main verb negation
- may not [= ‘possibility’]
They may not bother to come if it’s wet. [‘It’s possible that they won’t
bother...’]
- shall not, shan’t
Don’t worry. You shan’t lose your reward. [‘I’ll make sure that you
won’t lose it.’]
I shan’t know you when you return. [‘I predict that I will not know
you...’]
- must not, mustn’t [= ‘obligation’]
You mustn’t keep us waiting. [‘It’s essential that you don’t keep us
waiting.’]
- ought not, oughtn’t [= ‘obligation, tentative inference’]
You oughtn’t to keep us waiting. [‘obligation’]
He ought not to be long. [‘tentative inference’]

- there is no distinction between auxiliary and main verb negation for will in all its
senses
- in the necessity sense, the auxiliary negation of must is usually achieved through
can’t
They must be telling lies. ~ They can’t be telling lies.
 3
Compound sentence – coordination
Compound sentence
A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no dependent clauses.

Conjunctions Meaning Conjunctive adverb

And Addition moreover, furthermore
Or Exclusion otherwise
But, Yet Contrast however, still, nevertheless
So Result therefore, thus
For Cause -

And, Or, But

restricted to initial position in the second clause
tendency NOT TO REPEAT in the second clause an operator of the first clause
So
restricted to the initial position in the second clause (coordinating conjunction)
ellipsis of a subject is possible
They were tired, SO they left early.

For ( neboť )
restricted to the initial position in the second clause (coordinating conjunction)
ellipsis of a subject is impossible (subordinating conjunction)
doesn't allow another conjunction to precede it (coordinating conjunction)
We rarely stay in hotels, FOR we can't afford it.

- We often need to join ideas. One way we can do this is to link simple sentences to form compound
sentences. This linking is achieved by any of the following:
- a semi-colon:
We fished all day; we didn’t catch a thing.
- a semi-colon, followed by a connecting adverb:
We fished all day; however, we didn't catch a thing
- a co-ordinating conjunction (e.g. and, but, so yet) often preceded by a comma:
We fished all day, but (we) didn’t catch a thing.
- In a compound sentence, there is no single main clause with subordinate clauses depending on it:
all the clauses are of equal importance and can stand on their own, though of course they follow a
logical order as required by the context. We often refer to clauses in a compound sentence as co-
ordinated main clauses.

Coordination
- We distinguish between syndetic (or linked) coordination and asyndetic (or unlinked)
coordination.
- In syndetic coordination, the more usual form, the units are linked by a coordinating
conjunction (or more simply, coordinator) – and, or, but:
Slowly and stealthily, he crept towards his victim.
- In asyndetic coordination, coordinators are not present, but could be inserted:
Slowly, stealthily, he crept towards his victim.
- When more than two units are linked by and or or, it is usual to insert the coordinator once
only – between the last two units:
The wind roared, the lightning flashed, and the clouds raced across the sky.
- In polysyndetic coordination, however, the coordinator is repeated between each pair of
units:
The wind roared, and the lightning flashed, and the clouds raced across the sky.
Coordinative apposition – each of the units have the same reference.
His brother and subsequent editor of his colleted papers WAS/WERE with him – WAS=the brother
and editor are the same person, WERE=different people

Quasi Coordination – most of the quasi-cooridinators are related to comparative forms: as well as, as
much as, rather than, more than. She publishes as well as prints her own books.

Correlatives (paired conjunctions)

Either - Or Either the boss or his secretary IS in the office.

Both - And Both the boss and his secretary ARE in the office.
Neither - Nor (the negative of Both - And)
Neither Peter nor his wife wants/want....
Not only - but (also) Not only Peter, but also Paul IS absent.
They not only broke into his office, but also tore up his manuscripts.
Not only did they break into his office, (but) they... - inversion
No sooner - than I had no sooner closed the door than somebody knocked.
No sooner had I closed the door than ... (formal)
We no sooner sat in the train than I felt sick.
No sooner did we sit down in the train than ... (formal)

Coordination and Subordination

- Both coordination and subordination involve the linking of units; but in coordination the
unitsare on the same syntactic level, whereas in subordination one of the units is a constituent of a
superordinate unit. For example the two clauses linked by the coordinator but, bellow, are
main clauses, each of which could be an independent sentence:
They are my neighbours, but I don’t know them well.
- In the second sentence, the subordinate where-clause is the direct object of the sentence:
I don’t know where they are staying.

Coordinators
- Three conjunctions are clearly coordinators: and, or, but. And and or are central
coordinators, and but differs from them in certain respects. On the gradient between ‘pure’
coordinators and ‘pure’ subordinators are for and so that (in the meaning ‘with the result that’).
- Coordinative adverbs can have the same function as coordinating conjunctions. A
semicolon and a comma are used together when a conjunctive adverb separates two main
clauses:
I wanted to go; however, I was too busy.
- A list of common conjunctive adverbs:
- accordingly, as a result, consequently, therefore - showing result
- however - showing general contrasts
- in contrast, on the other hand - showing direct contrasts
- in addition, also, besides, similarly - showing additional information
- furthermore, moreover - adding stronger information
- nevertheless, nonetheless, still - showing unexpected results
- otherwise - if not
- Coordinators, subordinators, and conjuncts are all linkers.
- Clause coordinators are restricted to clause-initial position
- And, or, and but are restricted to initial position in the second clause; this is
generally true of both the coordinators and subordinators, but is not true of most
conjuncts
- Coordinated clauses are sequentially fixed
 - Clauses beginning with and, or, and but are sequentially fixed in relation to the
previous clause, and therefore cannot be transposed without producing unacceptable
sentences, or at least changing the relationship between the clauses:
They are living in England, or they are spending a vacation there.
*Or they are spending a vacation there, they are living in England.
- Coordinated are not preceded by a conjunction
- Coordinators can link clause constituents
- And, or, and but may link constituents smaller than a clause, for example predicates:
I may see you tomorrow or may phone you late in the day.
- This feature does not apply to most other linkers. The exceptions are the conjunct
yet and the conjunct so and the time adverb then.
- Coordinators can link subordinate clauses
- As well as linking two main clauses and, or, and but can link subordinate clauses.
- Coordinators can link more than two clauses
- And and or can link more than two clauses, and the construction may then be called
one of multiple coordination. All but the final instance of these two conjunctions can
be omitted. In this respect, and and or differ from subordinators and conjuncts. They
differ even from but, since but semantically speaking can only link two units at the
same level.

The uses of coordinators

- The uses of and
- And indicates that there is some relation between the contents of the linked clauses.
The relation can generally be made explicit by the addition of an adverbial.
a) the event in the second clause is chronologically sequent to that in the first
I washed the dishes and (then) I dried them.
b) the event in the second clause is a consequence or result of the event in the first
He heard and explosion and he (therefore) phoned the police.
c) the second clause introduces a contrast
Peter is secretive and (in contrast) David is open.
d) the first clause has concessive force
She tried hard and (yet) she failed.
e) the first clause is a condition of the first
Give me some money and (then) I’ll do the shopping.
f) the second clause makes a point similar to the first
g) the second clause is a ‘pure’ addition to the first
h) the second clause adds and appended comment on, or explanation of, the first
They dislike John – and that’s not surprising in view of his behaviour.
There’s only one thing to do now – and that’s to apologize.
- The uses of or
a) typically or is exclusive; it excludes the possibility that the contents of both clauses
are true or are to be fulfilled
You can sleep here or you can go to a hotel.
Even when both alternatives are clearly possible, or is normally interpreted as
exclusive.
You can boil yourself and egg or (else) you can make some sandwiches.
The exclusive meaning can be strengthened by the conjunctions else or alternatively.
b) Sometimes or is inclusive. We can add a third clause that makes this inclusive
meaning explicitly:
You can boil an egg (or), you can make some sandwiches, or you can do both.
And can replace or in its inclusive meaning.
c) The alternative expressed by or may also be a restatement or a corrective to what is
said in the first conjoin:
They are enjoying themselves, or (at least)(rather) they appear to be enjoying
themselves.
d) In addition to introducing alternatives as indicated above, or may imply a negative
condition.
 Switch on the radio or we’ll miss the news.
The implication can be paraphrased by the negative condition clause:
Switch on the radio. If you don’t switch on the radio, we’ll miss the news.
- The uses of but
- But expresses contrast.
a) The content of the second clause is unexpected in view of the content of the first:
John is poor, but he is happy.
In this use, but can be replaced by and yet.
b) The second clause expresses in positive terms what the negation in the first clause
conveys:
I’m not objecting to his morals, but (rather) to his manners.
In this use, but can be emphasized by the conjuncts on the contrary or rather. It
normally does not link two clauses, but two lesser constituents.

Correlatives
- Either ... or, both ... and, neither ... nor
- The three pairs either ... or, both ... and, neither ... nor are correlatives. The first
word is an endorsing item and the second in a coordinator. They are used for emphasis.
- Either ... or emphasizes the exclusive meaning of or. The linked units may be
complete clauses or lesser constituents. We use the rule of proximity.
Either the boss or his secretary is lying to Berlin.
- Both ... and emphasizes the additive meaning of and.
Both the boss and his secretary are flying to Berlin.
- Neither ... nor is the negative counterpart of both ... and. It emphasizes that the
negation applies to both units.
David neither loves Joanna, nor wants to marry her.
Neither Peter nor his wife wants/want the responsibility. – we use plural, sing.
is too formal
- Unlike either ... or, both ... and and neither ... nor cannot link complete clauses.
- Not only ... but (also) – we use the rule of proximity
They not only broke into his office, but also tore his manuscripts.
- No sooner ... than (znamená „sotva něco, tak něco“)
I had no sooner closed the door than somebody knocked.
No sooner had I closed the door than somebody knocked. – subject operator
inversion

Simple coordination
- The usual kind of coordination is simple coordination, in which a single clause or clause
constituent is linked to others that are parallel in meaning, in function, and (generally) in
form.
- Coordination of clauses
- Complete independent clauses may be coordinated.
- Subordinate finite clauses may be coordinated, do long as they belong to the same
function class (the same clause type).
- Nonfinite clauses of the same type and also verbless clauses may be coordinated.
- Coordination of predicates and predications
- Coordination of predicates and coordination of predications are very common. In
both types of coordination the subject is shared. The most reduced form of the sentence
will be preffered.
Peter ate the fruit and drank the beer.
Are you working or on holiday?
- Coordination and the scope of adverbials
- The scope of the adverbials extends across the rest of the sentence.
The guests were [talking], [walking], and [drinking wine] in the garden.
- Coordination of noun phrases
- Two or more noun phrases may be conjoined to form a conjoint noun phrase.
Some of the staff and all of the students have voted for these changes.
 - Noun phrases linked by and may express combinatory or segregatory meaning.
When the meaning is segregatory, we can paraphrase it by clause coordination:
John and Mary know the answer. (John knows the answer, and Mary knows
the answer.)
- When the meaning is combinatory, we cannot do so:
John and Mary make a pleasant couple. (*John makes a pleasant couple, and
Mary makes...)
- Many conjoint noun phrases are in fact ambiguous between the two interpretations:
John and Mary won a prize.
- Coordination within noun phrases
- Coordinated noun heads
- When heads are coordinated, the usual interpretation is that the determiner,
premodifier, and postmodifier apply to each of the conjoins:
his wife and child (= his wife and his child)
old men and women (= old men and old women)
- It is also possible to interpret some of these phrases as coordinated noun
phrases:
old men and women (= women and old men)
- Coordinated modifiers
- Only the segregatory meaning is ordinarily possible when the coordinated
modifiers denote mutually exclusive properties:
old and new furniture (= old furniture and new furniture)
- Exceptions to this are colour adjectives (as in red, white, and blue flags)
which allow the combinatory sense ‘partly one colour, partly another’.
- Only the combinatory meaning is possible if the head is a singular count
noun:
A dishonest and lazy student (= a student who is both dishonest and
lazy)
- Coordination of other constituents
- All the main variations of constructions that were noted for clauses and noun
phrases are found in the coordination of other constituents (verb phrases, main verbs,
auxiliaries, adjective phrases, adjective heads, adverbs, prepositional phrases,
prepositions,...) as well.

Complex coordination
- Complex coordination is coordination in which the conjoins are combinations of units
rather than single units; such conjoins require strong parallelism (they have to have the same
meaning), which is even more reinforced
- It tends to be associated with the written style of English, rather than with informal
conversation
- In the first type of complex coordination, each of the conjoins consists of the same
elements and the conjoins are combined in the final position in the clause, for example:
a)Indirect object + direct object
We gave William a book on stamps and Mary a book on painting.
b) Object + object complement
Jack painted the kitchen white and the bathroom blue.
- In the second type of complex coordination, the conjoins are not in final position:
Gregory Peck always was | and always will be | her favourite Hollywood star.
- the second conjoin is separated by intonation in speech and by punctuation in writing
- Gapping
- Gapping is a kind of complex coordination in which a second or subsequent conjoin
contains a medial ellipsis, so that the elements in these conjoins are not repeated, for
example:
One girl had written a poem, and the other _ a short story.
Smith completed the course in thirty-five minutes and Johnson _ in thirty-
seven.
 - coordination with gapping is more difficult to understand than coordination without
gapping; nongapped interpretations are therefore more likely to be intended where
both are possible; the reading of [1] as [1a] is more likely than as [1b]:
Barbara gave Sue a magnolia and Ada a camellia. [1]
= Barbara gave Sue a magnolia and Barbara gave Ada a cameliia. [1a]
= Barbara gave Sue a magnolia and Ada gave Sue a camellia. [1b]
- Appended coordination
- appended coordination is characteristic for informal speech; it occurs when an
elliptical clause (containing one element or similar elements) is appended to a previous
clause:
John writes extremely well – and Sally, too.
My mother plays badminton, and sometimes even tennis.
- Pseudo-coordination
- there are several types of pseudo-coordination, mostly found in informal speech:
a) the coordination of two verbs that has an idiomatic function similar to that of a
catenative construction (pravděpodobně znamená řetězová konstrukce; catenoid =
řetězový):
I’ll try and come tomorrow. [= try to come]
They sat and talked about the old times. [= sat talking]
b) the coordination of two adjectives of which the first functions as an intensifier of
the first:
This room is nice and warm. [= comfortably warm]
His speech was nice and short.
c) the coordination of identical comparative forms of adjectives, adverbs and
determiners:
She felt more and more angry. [= increasingly angry]
d) the coordination of two identical nouns to indicate different kinds:
There are teachers and teachers. [“good and bad teachers”]
e) the coordination of three or more identical nouns to indicate a large number of
quantity:
There was nothing but rain, rain, rain from one week to the next.

- Quasi-coordination
- most of the quasi-coordinators are related to the comparative forms: as well as, as
much as, rather than, more than; they sometimes resemble coordinators in that they link a
variety of constituents:
She publishes as well as prints her own books.
- they may also have a prepositional or subordinating role in that the unit they
introduce is an adverbial and can be placed in initial or final position:
As well as printing the books, she publishes them.
- these quasi-coordinators are not fully coordinative, since in subject position they
do not cause plural concord if the first noun phrase is singular:
John, as much as his brothers, was responsible for the loss.

Coordination and coordinative apposition of noun phrases according to Mrs.

Malá
- When a subject consists of two or more noun phrases (or clauses) coordinated by AND, a
distinction has to be made between coordination and coordinative apposition

- Coordination with AND

- there are two noun phrases, each of them has its own reference – thus plural
Tom and Alice are now ready.
- Coordinative apposition
- there are two noun phrases, but they both have the same reference – thus singular
This temple and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected in the main
street.
- coordinative apposition may cause ambiguities
 His brother and subsequent editor of his books was / were with him.
- was – the brother and the editor is the same person
- were – they are two different people
- Coordination with OR
- the rule of proximity applies here
Either the mayor or his deputy is bound to come.
Either we or he has to leave.
- Coordinative apposition with OR
- the verb agrees in number with the first noun phrase
Metalanguage, or the words for describing language, is important for teachers.
Words for describing language, or metalanguage, are important for teachers.
- Quasi-coordination
- the verb agrees with the first noun phrase
The captain, as well as the other players, was tired.
 4
Complex sentences – subordination (částečně ve třetí otázce?)
Complex sentence
- a complex sentence is like a simple sentence in that it consists of only one main clause,
but unlike a simple sentence it has one or more subordinate clauses functioning as an element of
the sentence.
- Each main clause in a compound sentence may include one or more subordinate clauses,
each of which may in turn include subordinate clauses of their own
- subordinate clause can be subordinate to each other (therefore not only to MC)
- subordinate clauses are in function of an element of the sentence
- in syntax with Mrs. Mala we are looking only for finite clauses (it contains a verb),
but there are other types as well, of course (non-finite or verbless clauses)
- subordinate clauses can be coordinated as well as MCs, then they are subordinate to
the same superordinate clause
- example of a complex sentence:
He predicted that he would discover the tiny particle when he conducted his next
experiment.
MC
[He predicted] nominal that clause, functioning as an Od
[that he...discover] adverbial clause of time, func. as an Adverbial
[when he....experiment]
- when we are analyzing a sentence like this, we analyze it in terms of sentence elements,
defining finite clauses (their type) and their function
- a subordinate clause can also function as a post-modification of a noun phrase:
The school which my children attend is within walking distance.
- a sentence like this is not a complex sentence, because the only subordinate clause
functions as a post-modification of a noun phrase (it would be another case if there were
subordinate clauses functioning as a sentence elements)

Formal indicators of subordination

- subordination is generally marked by a signal in the subordinate clause. The signal may be
of various kinds: a subordinating conjunction, a wh-element, the item that, subject-operator
inversion in declarative clauses, or the absence of a finite verb (tohle nás ale nezajímá)

Subordinators
- subordinators, or subordinating conjunctions, are the most important formal device of
subordination; subordinators have a relating function
- subordinators usually consist of a single word; but there are also multi-word (even then
they function as a single conjunction though), or even correlative subordinators
- single word : after, although, as, because, before, if, ...
- multi-word : but that, in order that, for all (that), according as, as far as, in case, ...
- correlative subordinators : as … so, so ... that, the … the, less … than, …
- there are also other indicators of subordination:
- wh-elements are subordination indicators in interrogative clauses and subordinate
exclamatory clauses, in wh-relative clauses, and in conditional-concessive clauses
- relative pronoun that, which can often replace wh-element, is a subordination
marker in restrictive relative clauses
- subject-operator inversion is a marker of subordination in certain clauses,
particularly in conditional clauses : Were she here, she would support the defenestration of
English department.
- inversion of a different kind (the fronting of the whole or part of the predication)
may occur in concessive and reason clauses : Eloquent though she was, she couldn't
persuade them.
- The absence of a finite verb is itself an indicator of subordination, since non-finite
and verbless clauses are generally subordinate
 - There are three types of clauses where there is no clear indicator :
- nominal that-clause (if the subordinate clause has its own subject – that can be
omitted)
I suppose (that) I can use your phone.
− zero relative clause
I can’t find the note you sent me.
− some comment clauses :
I have no alternative, I suppose.

Verb Phrases in subordinate clauses

- The present tense in adverbial and nominal clauses
- the simple present is commonly used in preference to auxiliary will or shall in certain
types of adverbial clauses to express future meaning:
When she arrives, the band will play the National Anthem.
- nominal that- and wh-clauses tend to contain simple present when the matrix clause (as
well as the subordinate clause) refers to the future; but when the matrix clause refers to
the present, will is likely to be used in the subordinate clause:
In a few moments I’ll ask him what he wants tomorrow.
The question is what he will want tomorrow.
- there are exceptional verb constructions like hope, see (to it), take care, be careful, and
(both in imperative) suppose and assume, after which the simple is often or (for take care
and be careful) regularly used:
I hope that the parcel comes in time. [also will come]
Suppose he loses his way. [also will lose]
Take care that she doesn’t fall.
- The hypothetical past and hypothetical past perfect
- The verbs in hypothetical conditional clauses are backshifted; the past tense form being
used for present and future time reference and the past perfect form for past time
reference. When these forms have such hypothetical implications we term them
hypothetical past and hypothetical past perfect. The matrix clause always contains a
modal, usually would.
If she tried / were to try harder next time, she would pass the exam.
[future reference: ‘but I expect she won’t try harder’]
If they were alive, they would be moving around.
[present reference: ‘but I assume they are not alive’]
If they had invited him to the conference, he would have attended.
[past reference: ‘but they didn’t invite him’]
- Present and past subjunctive
- the present subjunctive is used in that-clauses (even if the matrix verb is in past) after
verbs, adjectives, or nouns that express a necessity, plan or intention for the future
Congress has voted that the present law be maintained.
- The present subjunctive is used in very formal language; in American language the
modal verb is omitted; in British a putative should with infinitive is used; that may be
omitted in clauses with pronoun subjects
The committee suggested (that) they be consulted.
- the past (or were-) subjunctive is used in formal style in hypothetical conditional
clauses and in other constructions with hypothetical meaning:
I wish she were married.
If only I were not so nervous.
- The perfect with temporal since-clauses
- a temporal since-clause generally requires the present perfect in the matrix clause when
the whole construction refers to a stretch of time up to (and potentially including) the
present:
I have lost ten pounds since I started swimming.
Since leaving home, Larry has written to his parents just once.
- When the whole construction refers to a stretch of time up to the present (potentially
including it), the verb in the since-clause may be the simple past or the present perfect.
 The simple past is used when the since-clause refers to a point of time marking the
beginning of the situation:
She has been talking since she was one year old.
Derek hasn’t stopped talking since he arrived.
- the present perfect is used in both clauses when the since-clause refers to a period of
time lasting to the present:
I’ve had a dog ever since I’ve owned a house.
Max has been tense since he’s been taking drugs.
- when the whole period is in the past, the past perfect or simple past is used in both
clauses

Syntactic functions of subordinate clauses

- Subordinate clauses may function as subject, object, complement, or adverbial in a
superordinate clause; in adition, subordinate clauses may function as postmodifiers in a noun
phrase, prepositional complement or adjectival complement
- We distinguish four major categories of subordinate clauses: nominal, adverbial, relative,
and comparative

Kinds of subordinate clauses

- Zajímají nás jen finite clausus, tudíž jsou zde jen ty
- A finite verb must normally have a subject and a tense
- There are many different kinds and functions of clauses:
- relative clauses (post-modification)
- restrictive / defining relative clause
- non-restrictive / non-defining relative clause
- nominal clauses (used instead of clause elements expressed by noun phrases)
- nominal THAT clause
- nominal relative clause
- nominal WH- interrogative clause
- nominal YES/NO interrogative clause
- nominal exclamatory clause
- adverbial clauses (used instead of clause elements expressed by adverbial phrases)
- appositive clauses (post-modification of abstract noun phrases)
- time, place, manner, reason, condition, concession/contrast, purpose, result,
comparison
- comment clauses
- wish clauses (těma si nejsem sakra jistej.. ale asi jsou taky subordinate:)

Direct and indirect speech

- direct speech gives us the exact words that had been said
Marcela told me after the exam, 'Well, you suck!'
- indirect speech conveys a report of what had been said or written, but does so in the words
of a subsequent reporter
Marcela told me after the exam that I sucked.
- the report may be a representation of unspoken mental activity
'Should I tell them now,' I thought to myself, 'or shall I wait?'
He asked himself whether he should tell them then or wait.
- when the reporting clause is positioned medially of finally, subject-verb inversion may
occur (if the verb is in the simple present or past)
'I wonder,' John said / he said / said John, 'whether I can borrow your bicycle'.
'The radio is too loud,' Elizabeth complained / she complained / complained
Elizabeth.

- Other changes in indirect speech

- the reference to persons in indirect speech must be appropriate to the situation at the
time of reporting; there may therefore be changes in pronouns or nouns
 - other changes may be also necessary to adjust the reference to time or place, for
example yesterday to to last Monday, now to then, etc.

- Indirect statements, questions, exclamations, directives

- all the main discourse types may be converted into indirect speech
indirect statement – subordinate that-clause
indirect question – subordinate wh-clause or if-clause
indirect exclamation – subordinate wh-clause
indirect directive – subordinate that clause or to-infinitive clause (without
subject)
- yes/no question :
'Are you ready yet?' asked Joan. - Joan asked me whether I was ready.
- Wh-question :
'When will the plane leave?' I wondered. - I wondered when the plane would
leave.
- Alternative question :
'Are you satisfied or not?' I asked her. - I asked her whether or not she was
satisfied.
- Exclamation :
'What a brave boy you are!' Margaret told him. - Margaret told him what a
brave boy he was.
- Directive :
'Tidy up the room at once!' I said to Tom. - I insisted that Tom ...
... tidy up the room at once. (AmE)
... should tidy up the room at once. (BrE)
- the modal auxiliaries in indirect speech
- if there is a change in time-reference, a modal auxiliary is backshifted from present
tense forms to past tense forms even if these do not normally indicate past time in direct
speech
- if a modal auxiliary in the direct speech is already in the past tense form, it remains the
same in the indirect speech
- several modal auxiliaries or marginal modals have only one form: must, ought to, need
and had better; that form remains in indirect speech; in its obligational sense, however,
the past of must may be replaced by had to in indirect speech

Backshifting
- often used to show social standing
Can you do it ? - Could you do it ? (more polite)
- used after verbs of wishing
- not all verb tenses have corresponding back-shifted forms
- also used in hypothetical conditions
- not compulsory in indirect speech
- eternal truths : He said that sun is shining every day.
- time :
Přítomnost

Přítomný čas prostý - Minulý čas prostý

"I like pizza." He said that he liked pizza.
"I am very happy." He said he was very happy.
"I get up at six." He said he got up at six.
"I don't like this." He said he didn't like it.
"I have to go." He said he had to go.

Přítomný čas průběhový - Minulý čas průběhový

"I'm waiting for you." He said that he was waiting for me.
"It's raining." He said that it was raining.
"They aren't listening." He said that they weren't listening.

Předpřítomný čas - Předminulý čas

"I've seen it twice." He said that he had seen it twice.
"She hasn't told me." He said that she hadn't told him.
"I've never been there." He said that he'd never been there.

Předpřítomný průběhový - Předminulý průběhový

"I've been waiting for 2 hours." He said that he had been waiting for 2 hours.
"She's been painting." He said that she had been painting.
"I haven't been listening to you." He said that he hadn't been listening to me.
Minulost
Minulý čas prostý - Předminulý čas prostý
"I liked pizza." He said that he had liked pizza.
"I was very happy." He said he had been very happy.
"I got up at six." He said he had got up at six.
"I didn't like it." He said he hadn't liked it.
"I had to go." He said he had had to go.

Minulý čas průběhový - Předminulý průběhový

"I was waiting for you." He said that he had been waiting for me.
"It was raining." He said that it had been raining.
"They weren't listening." He said that they hadn't been listening.

Předminulý čas - Nemění se!

"I had seen it twice." He said that he had seen it twice.
Budoucnost
Budoucnost s 'WILL' - WOULD
"I will help you." He said that he would help me.
"She'll pay for that!" He said that she would pay for that.
"I won't do it." He said he wouldn't do it.
"At 8, she'll be watching a movie." He said that she would be watching a movie at 8.
"It will have started by then." He said that it would have started by then.

BE GOING TO - WAS/WERE GOING TO

"I'm going to watch TV." He said that he was going to watch TV.
"I'm not going to study tonight." He said that he wasn't going to study that night.

adverbials
Příslovečná určení
NOW -THEN, AT THAT MOMENT
"I want to do it now." He said that he wanted to do it at that moment.
"I don't know it now." He said he didn't know it then.

TODAY, THIS MONTH... -THAT DAY, THAT MONTH

"I've seen her today." He said that he had seen her that day.
"I like the weather this year." He said that he liked the weather that year.

YESTERDAY, LAST YEAR -THE DAY BEFORE, THE PREVIOUS....

"I saw you yesterday." He said that he had seen me the day before.
"Last year was very bad." He said that the previous year had been very bad.

TOMORROW, NEXT MONTH -THE FOLLOWING DAY....

"I'll do it tomorrow." He said that he would do it the following day.
"I'll go there next summer." He said that he would go there the following summer.

AGO -BEFORE
"I finished it two days ago." He said that he had finished it two days before.

SINCE -FROM
"I have been waiting here since 2 o'clock."He said that he had been waiting there from 2 o'clock.

HERE -THERE
"There's nobody here." He said that there was nobody there.

-other changes :
- pronouns : you – him
- place reference : here – there
 5.
Noun clauses – direct, indirect speech (částečně ve 4), noun clauses after
wish, subjunctive, introductory It
Like noun phrases NOMINAL CLAUSES may function as subject, object, complement, appositive,
and prepositional complement. But the occurrence of nominal clauses is more limited than that of
noun phrases, because semantically the clauses are normally abstract; i.e. they refer to such
abstractions as events, facts, and ideas. The one exception is the nominal relative clause, which may
refer to persons and things and may in fact be alternatively analysed as a noun phrase. Since indirect
objects normally refer to persons, we can see why only the nominal relative clause can function as
indirect object.

Nominal clauses (clauses approximating in function to noun phrases) fall into five major categories:
1. Nominal THAT clauses I noticed that he spoke English with an Australian
accent.
2. Nominal Wh interrogative clauses I can’t imagine what they want with your address.
3. Nominal YES/NO interrogative clauses I can’t find out whether/if the flight has been
delayed.
4. Nominal exclamative clauses I remember what a good time I had at your party.
5. Nominal relative clauses I eat what I like. (the thing that)

Nominal THAT clause

- Nominal that-clauses may function as:
Subject: That the invading troops have been withdrawn has not affected our
government's trade sanctions.
Direct object: I noticed that he spoke English with an Australian accent.
Subject complement: My assumption is that interest rates will soon fall.
Appositive: Your criticism, that no account has been taken of psychological factors,
is fully justified.
Adjectival complementation: We are glad that you are able to join us on our wedding
anniversary.
- When that-clause is direct object, complement, or extraposed, the conjunction that is
frequently omitted except in formal use, leaving a zero that-clause:
It's a pity you don't know Russian.
- But that cannot be omitted in a subject clause or in a non-restrictive appositive clause, since
without the subordinate marker the clause would be initially misinterpreted as a main clause:
You don't know Russian is a pity.

Nominal WH-interrogative clauses

- Subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses occur in the whole range of functions available to the
nominal that-clause and in addition may function as prepositional complement
Subject: How the book will sell depends on the reviewers.
Direct object: I can't imagine what they want with your address.
Subject complement: The problem is who will water my plants when I am away.
Appositive: Your original question, why he did not report it to the police earlier, has
not yet been answered.
Adjectival complementation: I'm not sure which she prefers.
Prepositional complement: They did not consult us on whose names should be put
forward.

Nominal YES/NO interrogative clauses

- Subordinate yes-no interrogative clauses occur in the whole range of functions available to
subordinate
- Wh-interrogative clauses, and may include infinitive clauses, the yes-no clause is
introduced by the subordinators whether or if:
Do you know whether/if the banks are open?
 Nominal exclamative clauses
- Subordinate exclamative clauses generally function as extraposed subject, direct object, or
prepositional complement:
Extraposed subject: It's incredible how fast she can run. ['It's incredible that she can
run so fast.']
Direct object: I remember what a good time I had at your party. ('I remember that I
had such a good time at your party.']
Prepositional complement: Tread an account of what an impression you had made. ('I
read an account that you had made an excellent
(or a terrible) impression.']

Nominal relative clauses

- Resemble WH-interrogative clauses – introduced by a WH-element (what, when, where,
how, which, why, -ever)
- Nominal relative clauses resemble Wh-interrogative clauses in that they are also introduced
by a Wh-element. In some respects they are more like noun phrases, since they can refer to
concrete entities as well as abstract. They can be analysed as noun phrases modified by
relative clauses, except that Wh-element is merged with its antecedent.
- They can be analysed as noun phrases modified by relative clauses – instead of a noun
phrase and relative clause there is only a WH-element. (I took what they offered me. ……. the
thing(s) that they gave me.)
- We can paraphrase them by noun phrases containing a noun head with general reference
that is modified by a relative clause
- Nominal relative clauses have the same range of functions as noun phrases:
Subject: What I want is a cup of hot cocoa.
Direct object: You should see whoever deals with complaints.
Indirect object: He gave whoever asked for it a copy of his latest paper.
Subject complement: April is when the lilacs bloom.
Object complement: You can call me what (ever) you like.

Direct / Indirect speech

- Direct speech purports to give the exact words that someone utters or has uttered in speech
or writing. Indirect speech, on the other hand, conveys a report of what has been said or written,
but does so in the words of a subsequent reporter.
- We use direct speech whenever we speak. We use the term direct speech to describe the
way we represent the spoken word in writing.
- We use indirect speech (sometimes called 'reported speech') when we are telling someone
what another person says or said. The reporting verb (e.g. say, tell) may be in the present or past
(most often in the past) and the tenses of the reported statement are often (but not always)
affected by this.
- Backshift in indirect speech
- Several changes are usually made in converting direct speech to indirect speech. If
the time of reporting is expressed as later than the time of the utterance, there is generally
a change of verb forms. The change is termed BACKSHIFT, and the resulting
relationship of verb forms in the reporting and reported clauses is known as the
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. Below we assume an exact correspondence for the
reporting of direct and indirect speech in illustrating the changes.
DIRECT SPEECH BACKSHIFTED INDIRECT SPEECH
Present Past
Past Past or past perfect
Present perfect Past perfect
Past perfect Past perfect
 - Eternal truth -> not backshifted
- The reference to persons in indirect speech must be appropriate to the
situation at the time of reporting. There may therefore be changes in pronouns
or nouns.
- Other changes may be necessary to adjust the references to time or place. For
example, yesterday to last Monday, now to then, here to there or at college.
- The modal auxiliaries in indirect speech
- If there is a change in time-reference, a modal auxiliary is back shifted from
present tense forms to past tense forms even if these do not normally indicate past
time in direct speech:
'You may be able to answer this question,' he told her. ~ He told her
that she might be able to answer that question, 'I won't pay another
penny,' I said, ~ I said that I wouldn't pay another penny.
- If a modal auxiliary in the direct speech is already in the past tense form,
then the same form remains in the indirect speech:
'You shouldn't smoke in the bedroom,' he told them. ~ He told them
that theyshouldn’t smoke in the bedroom.
- Several modal auxiliaries or marginal modals have only one form: must,
ought to, need, and had belter. That form remains in indirect speech:
'You must be hungry,' he said. ~ He said that they must be hungry.
'You had better not say anything about this,' he warned me. ~ He
warned me that I had better not say anything about that.
- In its obligational sense, however, the past of must may be replaced by had
to in indirect speech:
'You must be in by ten tonight,' his parents told him. ~ His parents told
him that he must/had to be in by ten that night

Wish clauses
When it refers to:
Present -> Past
I wish I had black hair. (Kéž bych měla černé vlasy)
I wish I had a camera. (Kéž bych měla fotoaparát)
Past -> Past perfect
I wish I had brought a camera. (Kéž bych přinesla fotoaparát)
Future -> would/could
I wish he would stop smoking. (Kéž by přestal kouřit)
I wish I could stop smoking. (Kéž bych přestal kouřit)
I wish it was/were (past subjunctive) warmer. It is friendlier to use past tense
instead of past subjunctive (more formal).
Výtah z české stránky, která to vše pěkně vysvětluje ☺
Přítomná přání
- První skupinou přacích vět jsou přítomná přání. Jsou to např. věty typu: "Kéž bych
měl více peněz, kéž bys tu byl, kdybych tak nemusel do školy". V angličtině
použijeme minulý čas.
I wish I had more money. - přání pro přítomnost, přeji si, abych teď měl více
peněz => minulý čas (I HAD).
I wish you were here. - přání pro přítomnost, přeji si, aby tu dotyčný nyní byl
=> minulý čas ( YOU WERE ).
- Přací věty mohou také začínat na IF ONLY (kdyby tak….) If only I had more time.
- V běžných anglických přacích větách nepoužíváme podmiňovací způsob!!! (I wish I
would have more money.)

- Podmiňovací způsob za I WISH lze použít pouze tehdy, pokud někomu něco
vyčítáme, nebo vyjadřujeme naše rozhořčení nad něčím a touhu po tom, aby se
daná situace změnila. Důrazně tak žádáme nápravu, změnu. Např. pokud chceme,
aby někdo odešel, protože nám jeho přítomnost vadí, můžeme říci:
I wish you would leave! - Kdybys tak už odešel!
 I wish they would stop shouting! - strašně nám jejich křik vadí
- Nikdy se podmiňovací způsob neobjeví v první osobě množného ani jednotného
čísla (I wish I would pass the test. - I wish I passed the test.).
- Další zvláštností je to, že sloveso být se v těchto přacích větách může objevit ve
tvaru WERE ve všech osobách (tedy i v první a třetí osobě jednotného čísla):
I wish I were taller. - V první osobě se jinak používá tvar WAS, zde je však
možné použít jak WAS, tak i WERE.
If only she were here with me. - opět by zde mohl být tvar WAS i WERE.
- V těchto případech (I WERE, SHE WERE apod.) se vlastně nejedná o minulý čas,
ale o tzv. subjunctive, což je slovesný tvar, který se dnes užívá už jen zřídka, a to
především v ustálených spojeních. Podobně se používá např. v nereálných
podmínkových větách (kdybych, tak bych - If I were you, I would…)
Minulá přání
- Vyjádřit však můžeme i přání, které se týká minulosti, např. Kéž bych se býval více
učil. V těchto větách používáme za I WISH předminulý čas:
I wish I had studied more. - neučil jsem se, lituju toho, a přeji si, aby to bývalo
bylo jinak
If only he had told me where he was going. - Neřekl mi, kam jde, a já si přeji,
aby to bývalo bylo jinak.

Subjunctive
- Use in formal language, written language
- The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It is used after certain
expressions.
- This is formal and has the effect of making a wish more doubtful.
- Use only after certain verbs and adjectives of urgency (advisable, desirable,
essential, good, better, best, imperative, important, mandatory, necessary, requisite,
urgent, and vital)
- Form: basic form of a verb BE/NOT BE
Her employer demand that she come to work.
- The subjunctive (rare in English) refers to what could or should happen in
hypothetical situations. In the present, the base form of the verb remains the same in
all persons: If I/you/he be; It is important that you/he go
- The past subjunctive of be is ‘were’: If I/you/he were; I wish I/he were.

Introductory It
- Postponement which involves the replacement of the postponed element by a
substitute form is termed EXTRAPOSITION. It operates almost exclusively on
subordinate nominal clauses. The most important type of extraposition is that of a subject
realized by a finite or non-finite clause. - The subject is moved to the end of the
sentence, and the normal subject position is filled by the anticipatory pronoun it. The
resulting sentence thus contains two subjects, which we may identify as the
POSTPONED SUBJECT (the one which is notionally the subject of the sentence) and the
ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT (it). Thus in place of [1] we have [2]:
[1] To hear him say that surprised me.
[2] It surprised me to hear him say that.
- The pattern of [2] is in fact far more usual than that of [1]. Examples in terms of the
major clause types:
Type SVC: It is a pleasure to teach her.
Type SVA: It was on the news that income tax is to be lowered.
Type SV: It doesn't matter what you do.
Type SVO: It surprised me to hear him say that.
Type SVOC: It makes her happy to see others enjoying themselves.
Type SVpass: It is said that she wanted to go into politics.
Type SVpassC: It was considered impossible for anyone to escape.
 - Tendency in English is to put longer parts of a sentence towards the end – giving
them end- weight. IT construction often more acceptable that the corresponding normal
WO construction.
- The subject is moved to the end of the sentence, and the normal subject position is
filled by the Introductory It.
- The resulting sentence – 2 subjects - postponed subject – notional
- Common when the notional subject is INFINITIVE, - ING CLAUSE, NOMINAL
CLAUSE
To teach her is a pleasure. It is a pleasure to teach her.
Getting the equipment was easy. It was easy getting the equipment.
That Tom isn´t here is a shame. It is a shame that Tom isn´t here.
- IT combines with:
Adjectives: difficult, easy, important.....
Nouns: fun, pleasure..........
Verbs: appears, happen, seem, look, follow …. NO possible normal word
order equivalent!!!
 6.
Relative clause
Two kinds of relative clauses
- defining – classify and identify;
- non-defining – tell us more about thing or person which is already identified.
Punctuation – non-defining normally separated by commas, pauses and intonation
Use of that – common in defining clauses, not usual in non-defining clauses
Who and whom – The woman who I marry… X The woman whom I marry… (formal)
Leaving out pronouns
- In def. RC we often leave out object pronouns, especially in informal style.
- In non-def. RC this is not possible. I feel sorry for the man she married.
Position of prepositions – before relative pronoun (formal) or at the end of the sentence
(more informal). This is the room in which I was born. X This is the room (that) I was born in.
Reduced relative clauses – a participle can be often used instead of a relative pronoun and
full verb. Who is the girl (who is) dancing with you? Half of the people (who were) invited to
the party did not come.

- A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun phrase, most commonly a
noun.
- Modification can be restrictive or non-restrictive. That is, the head can be viewed as a
member of a class which can be linguistically identified only through the modification that has
been supplied (restrictive). Or the head can be viewed as unique or as a member of a class that
has been independently identified (for example, in a preceding sentence); any modification
given to such a head is additional information which is not essential for identifying the head,
and we call it non-restrictive
- RELATIVE CLAUSES generally function as restrictive or non-restrictive modifiers of
noun phrases and are therefore functionally parallel to attributive adjectives. Compare:
A man who is lonely ~ a lonely man
- But they are positioned like post modifying prepositional phrases:
Tourists who come from Italy – tourists from Italy

1) Defining/restrictive
- Though most of the examples in 17.5ffhave been of restrictive clauses, it is in the non-
restrictive relative clauses that the most explicit forms of relative pronoun are typically used. In
restrictive clauses, frequent use is made of a general pronoun that which is independent of the
personal or nonpersonal character of the antecedent and also of the function of the pronoun in
the relative clause:
The boy that is playing the piano ... (or who) [1]
The table that stands in the corner ... (or which) [2]
The boy that we met ... (or who (m)) [3]
The table that we admire ... (or which) [4]
The boy that the dog barked at ... (or at whom) [5]
The table that the boy crawled under ... (or under which) [6]

- Provided the relative pronoun is not the subject of the relative clauses as in [1] and [2], a
further option exists in relative clause structure of having no relative pronoun at all: the
clause with 'zero' (0) relative pronoun. The examples [3-6] could take this form:
The boy we met ... (who (m), that)
The table we admire ... (which, that)
The boy the dog barked at ... (at whom, who (m)/that ... at)
The table the boy crawled under ... (under which, which/that ...under)
 - Some choice exists in placing a preposition which has a Wh-pronoun as its complement
(17.6); there is no such choice with that and zero, where the preposition must be postponed.

- Just as that and zero are available when the relative pronoun is dominated by a preposition,
so they can be used when the relative pronoun is part of a place, time, or cause adjunct. With
place adjuncts, the preposition must usually be expressed:
This is the garden (that) he sunbathes in.
This is the university (that) she works at.

- With the time adjuncts, however, omission of the preposition is usual whether the pronoun
is that or zero:
This is the time (that) she normally arrives (at).
Monday was the day (that) he left (on).

- But when (less frequently and more formally) the pronoun is which, the preposition must be
expressed in these instances and It would be usual to make it precede the pronoun:
This is the time at which she normally arrives.
Monday was the day on which he left.

- With cause and manner adjuncts, the usual pronoun is that or zero, and there is no
preposition:
This is the reason (that) she came.
This is the way (that) he did it.

- Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative
clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses
are not put in commas.

- Relative pronoun SUBJECT of a relative clause

He paid the man WHO/THAT had done the work.
This is the photo WHICH/THAT shows my house.

- Relative pronoun OBJECT of a relative clause

The doctor (WHO/WHOM/THAT) they had called was delayed because of a traffic
accident.
This is the photo (WHICH/THAT) she showed us yesterday.

- Relative pronoun object of a preposition

The doctor TO WHOM she sent him is a specialist.

WHO/M TO, THAT TO, - TO

THAT – used for persons and things ONLY in defining relative clauses
- The relative pronoun may be omitted ONLY in defining clauses

2) Non-defining/non-restrictive
- The loose non-restrictive relationship is often semantically indistinguishable from
coordination (with or without conjunction) or adverbial subordination, as we indicate by paraphrases
in the examples below. - The repertoire of pronouns is limited to the Wh-Items:
Then he met Barbara, who invited him to a party (and she invited him to a party).
He got lost on Snowdon, which was enveloped in fog (when it was enveloped in fog).
He got lost on Snowdon, which he was exploring (while he was exploring it).
- Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive
relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining
relative clauses are put in commas.

- Relative pronoun SUBJECT of a relative clause

 Mr Jenkins, WHO has written several books, spoke at the meeting last night.

- Relative pronoun OBJECT of a relative clause

Peter Novák, WHO/M the manager sacked last week, has become chairman.

- Relative pronoun object of a preposition

Mr Jones, FOR WHOM I work, got married yesterday.
WHOM FOR, WHO FOR

- Other Wh- words – WHEN, WHERE, WHY

That‘s the woman WHOSE son won the competition.

This is the house WHERE the windows were broken.
WHOSE windows
The windows OF WHICH
OF WHICH the windows
I need to know the exact time WHEN you expect to arrive.
Do you know the hotel WHERE we are staying?
He shops over in Oxford, WHERE his sister lives.

THAT after ALL,

EVERYTHING,
….SUPERLATIVES
All that remains for me to do is to say goodbye.
Everything that can be done has been done.
I’ll do everything (that) I can.
7.
Adverbial clauses – time, place, reason, condition, concession, purpose,
result, comparison
- Adverbial clauses function mainly as adjuncts or disjuncts. In those functions they are like adverb
phrases, but in their potentiality for greater explicitness, they are more often like prepositional
phrases:
We left after the speeches ended.
We left after the end of the speeches
- Adverbial clauses function mainly as adjuncts and disjuncts. Semantic analysis of adverbial clauses
is complicated by the fact that many subordinators introduce clauses with different meanings: for
example a since-clause may be temporal or clausal.

kind of
usual conjunction function example
clause

These clauses are used to say when something

when, before, after,
time clauses happens by referring to a period of time or to Her father died when she was young.
since, while, as, until
another event.

conditional These clauses are used to talk about a possible If they lose weight during an illness,
if, unless
clauses situation and its consequences. they soon regain it afterwards.

They had to take some of his land so

purpose in order to, so that, These clauses are used to indicate the purpose
that they could extend the
clauses in order that of an action.
churchyard.

reason These clauses are used to indicate the reason I couldn't feel anger against him
because, since, as
clauses for something. because I liked him too much.

result clauses so that These clauses are used to indicate the result My suitcase had become damaged on
of something. the journey home, so that the lid
 would not stay closed.

These clauses are used to make two

concessive although, though, I used to read a lot although I don't
statements, one of which contrasts with the
clauses while get much time for books now.
other or makes it seem surprising.

These clauses are used to talk about the

place clauses where, wherever He said he was happy where he was.
location or position of something.

These clauses are used to talk about

clauses of I was never allowed to do things the
as, like, the way someone's behaviour or the way something is
manner way I wanted to do them.
done.

Clauses of time
- Finite adverbial clauses of time are introduced by such subordinators as after, as, once,
since, until, when, while:
Buy your ticket as soon as you reach the station.
My family, once they saw the mood I was in, left me completely alone.
Drop by whenever you get the chance.
We came in just as it started to rain.
Wait until you're called.
- The –ing clauses are introduced by once, till, until, when, whenever, while, and (esp. BrE)
whilst. The -ed and verbless clauses are introduced by as soon as, once, till, until, when, whenever,
while, and (esp. BrE) whilst:
Once having made a promise, you should keep it.
The dog stayed at the entrance until told to come in.
Complete your work as soon as possible.
- To-infinitive clauses without a subordinator or a subject may have temporal function,
expressing the outcome of the situation:
I rushed to the door, only to discover that it was locked and barred.
I awoke one morning to find the house in Gil uproar.
- With durative verbs in the matrix clause, the construction expresses duration of time
together with outcome:
She lived to be 100. ['She reached 100 years of age.']
You'll live to regret it. ['You'll eventually regret it.']

Clauses of place
- Adverbial clauses of place are introduced mainly by where, wherever or anywhere.
Where is specific and wherever nonspecific. The clause may indicate position [1] or direction
[2]:
Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but blackened ruins. [1]
They went wherever they could find work.['to any place where'] [2]
You can´t camp where/wherever/anywhere you like these days.
- Several temporal subordinators may have primarily a place meaning in descriptions of
scenes, when the scenes are described dynamically in terms of movement from one place to
another:
Take the right fork when the road splits into two.
The river continues winding until it reaches a large lake.
The building becomes narrower as it rises higher.
The road stops just after it goes under a bridge.
Once the mountains rise above the snow line, vegetation is sparse.

Clauses of comparison
- For both similarity clauses and comparison clauses, there is a semantic blend with manner
if the verb is dynamic. Clauses of similarity are introduced by as and (esp. informal AmE) like.
These subordinators are commonly premodified by just and exactly:
Please do (exactly) as I said. [1]
 It was (just) like I imagined it would be (esp. informal AmE) [2]
- Clauses of comparison are introduced by as if, as though, and (esp. informal AmE) like:
She looks as if she is getting better. [3]
- There are prescriptive objections to the use of like as a subordinator. It is more acceptable
when it expresses pure similarity, as in [2], since that is the meaning expressed by the
preposition like, than when it expresses manner or comparison. Hence like would be less acceptable
if it replaced as in [1] or [3].
- The subordinators as, as if, and as though can introduce non-finite and verbless clauses:
Fill in the application form as instructed.
You should discuss the company with him as though unaware that you were being
considered for a job.
- As if and as though may also introduce to-infinitive clauses:
She winked at me as if to say that I shouldn't say anything.
- As + adj + as
He is as stupid as he is lazy.
- As + adv. + as
He ate as fast as he drank.
- Not so/as + as
It wasn’t as good as I expected.
- -er/more/less + than
He eats faster than he drinks.

Clauses of proportion
- Proportional clauses involve a kind of comparison. They express a proportionality or
equivalence of tendency or degree between two situations. They may be introduced by as, with or
without correlative so (formal), or by the fronted correlative /he ... the followed by
comparative forms:
As he grew disheartened, (so) his work deteriorated.
As the lane got narrower, (so) the overhanging branches made it more difficult for us
to keep sight of our quarry.
The more she thought about it, the less she liked it.
- Noncorrelative the is also used in the same sense:
She liked it less, the more she thought about it.
- The - the
The sooner you come the better place you will get.
The more you have the more you want.
The earlier we leave, the sooner we will arrive.
The more electricity you use, the higher your bill will be.

Result clauses
- Result clauses are introduced by the subordinators so that and so:
We paid him immediately, so (that) he left contented.
I took no notice of him, so (that) he flew into a rage.
- So + adj + that
The film was so beautiful that we decided to see it once more.
- So + adv + that
He drove so carefully that we weren’t afraid at all.
- Such (a) + noun
It was such an ugly chair that I’m going to give it away.

Purpose clauses
(For what purpose?)
- So that, in order that, lest + modal verb
- Purpose clauses are usually infinitival, and may be introduced by in order to (formal) and
so as to:
Students should take notes (so as) to make revision easier.
 The committee agreed to adjourn (in order) to reconsider the matter when fuller
information became available.
They left the door open (in order) for me to hear the baby.
- Finite clauses of purpose are introduced by so that or (less commonly and more informally)
by so, and (more formally) by in order that:
The school closes earlier so (that) the children can get home before dark.
The jury and the witnesses were removed from the court in order that they might not
hear the arguments of the lawyers on the prosecution's motion for an
adjournment.
- These finite clauses, which are putative, require a modal auxiliary.
Negative purpose is expressed in the infinitive clauses by so as not to and in order not to,
and in finite clauses by in order that...not: for fear (that), in case (BrE), or lest (archaic and very
formal) convey an implied negative purpose:
Turn the volume down so as not to wake the baby.
They left early for fear (that) they would meet him,
They evacuated the building in case the wall collapsed. (BrE)
We have arrived early so that we may/can/will get good tickets. (Reference to the
present)
We arrived early in order that we should/could/might/would get good tickets. (Ref. to
the past)
I am here so early to get good tickets.
I am here so early in order to get good tickets. the infinitive of purpose
I am here so early so as to get good tickets
I bought a new car for my wife to learn to drive. (For+object+infinitive)
I bought a new car so that my wife could learn to drive.
We waited several minutes afraid to talk lest we be overheard. (present subjunctive)
*Lest = aby ne, abychom nebyli ……

Reason clauses
- In general, reason clauses convey a direct relationship with the matrix clause. The
relationship may be that of cause and effect (the perception of an inherent objective connection,
as in [1]), reason and consequence (the speaker's inference of a connection, as in [2]), motivation
and result (the intention of an animate being that has a subsequent result, as in [3]), or
circumstance and consequence (a combination of reason with a condition that is assumed to be
filled or about to be filled, as in [4]):
He's thin because he hasn't eaten enough. [1]
She watered the flowers because they were dry. [2]
You'll help me because you're my friend. [3]
Since the weather has improved, the game will be held as planned. [4J
- Reason clauses are most commonly introduced by the subordinators because and since.
Other subordinators include as, for <somewhat formal>, and (with circumstantial clauses) seeing
(that):
I lent him the money because he needed it.
As Jane was the eldest, she looked after the others.
Since we live near the sea, we often go sailing.
Much has been written about psychic phenomena, for they pose fascinating problems
that have yet to be resolved.
Seeing that it is about to rain, we had better leave now.
- A for-clause must be in final position.
- Reason clauses may express an INDIRECT REASON. The reason is not related to the
situation in the matrix clause but is a motivation for the implicit speech act of the utterance:
As you're in charge, where are the files on the new project? ['As you're in charge, I'm
asking you ...?']
Vanessa is your favourite aunt, because your parent told me so. ['Since your parents
told me so, I can say that Vanessa is your favourite aunt.']
As long as you're here, why don't we discuss our plans?
Since you seem to know them, why don't you introduce me to them?
 - When as is a circumstantial subordinator, the predication may optionally be fronted:
Writing hurriedly as she was, she didn't notice the spelling errors.
Tired as they were, they stayed up for the late news.
- That may be a circumstantial subordinator, when the subject complement is obligatory
fronted:
Clumsy idiot that he was, Michael completely ruined the dinner.
- As, since, because
He studied hard because he needed a good grade.
As it’s raining, we have decided to stay at home. (the subordinate clause here comes
first, the reason is known)
Since you can’t do it, you have to ask us.

Clauses of manner – How?

- These clauses are used to talk about someone's behaviour or the way something is done.
Usually ends the sentence
- As, as if, like, as though, how, the way
He finished the work as she requested.
She is acting like she really doesn’t like him.
Didn’t they talk as if they had read the book?
Type it as I showed you.
The steak is cooked the way I like it.
The steak is cooked how I like it.
The steak is cooked as I like it.
It sounds as if the situation will get worse.
It sounds as though the situation will get worse.
She acted as if she were mad. (verbs describing behaviour – past subjunctive)
She was shaking as if she had seen a ghost. (time sequence)

Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast

- There is considerable overlap in adverbial clauses that express condition, concession, and
contrast. - The overlap between the three roles is highlighted by the overlapping use of
subordinators: for example, if introduces all three types of clauses and whereas both contrast
and concessive clauses. - Furthermore, even if expresses both the contingent dependence of
one situation upon another and the unexpected nature of this dependence:
Even if they offered to pay, I wouldn't accept any money from them.
- All three types of clauses tend to assume initial position in the superordinate clause.

Concessive clauses
- Concessive clauses are introduced chiefly by although or its more informal variant though.
Other subordinators include subordinators include while, whereas <formal>, and even if:
Although he had just joined, he was treated exactly like all the others.
No goals were scored, though it was an exciting game.
While I don't want to make a fuss, I feel I must protest at your interference.
Whereas the amendment is enthusiastically supported by a large majority in the
Senate, its fate is doubtful in the House.
- Except for whereas, these subordinators may introduce -ing, -ed, and verbless clauses, e.g.:
Though well over eighty, she can walk faster than I can.
- Although, though, even though, even if, while, ....ever (whenever, wherever …), no
matter …. (no matter where, no matter how...)
Although I felt sorry for him, he deserved it.
Though she fell down, she still won the race.
Will he remember even though we haven’t reminded him?
However expensive it may be, I intend to buy it.
No matter what she buys, I’m gonna buy it too.
Unlikely as it sounds, it is true.
Clauses of contrast
- Clauses of contrast are introduced by several of the subordinators that introduce concessive
clauses: whereas, while, and (esp. BrE) whilst. Indeed, there is often a mixture of contrast
and concession. The contrastive meaning may be emphasized by correlative antithetic conjuncts
such as in contrast and by contrast when the contrastive clause is initial:
Mr Larson teaches physics, while Mr Corby teaches chemistry.
I ignore them, whereas my husband is always worried about what they think of us.

Conditional clauses
- In general, conditional clauses convey a DIRECT CONDITION in that the situation in the
matrix clause is directly contingent on the situation in the conditional clause. For example, in
uttering [1] the speaker intends the hearer to understand that the truth of the prediction 'she'll
scream' depends on the fulfilment of the condition of 'your putting the baby down':
If you put the baby down, she'll scream. [1]
- The most common subordinators for conditional clauses are if and unless, which are also
used with non-finite and verbless clauses. Other conditional subordinators are restricted to finite
clauses; for example: given (that) (formal), on condition (that), provided (that), providing
(that), supposing (that). Here are other examples of conditional clauses:
Unless the strike has been called off, there will be no trains tomorrow.
He doesn't mind inconveniencing others just so he's comfortable. (informal)
- Some conditional clauses express an INDIRECT CONDITION, in that the condition is not
related to the situation in the matrix clause.
His style is florid, if that's the right word.
If you remember your history lessons, the war was started by the other side.
- Non-finite and verbless clauses with or without as subordinator may express a conditional
relationship:
Without me to supplement you income, you wouldn't be able to manage.
With them on our side, we are secure.
- Open and hypothetical condition
- A direct condition may be either an OPEN CONDITION or a HYPOTHETICAL
CONDITION. Open conditions are neutral: they leave unresolved the question
of the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of the condition, and hence also the truth of the
proposition expressed by the matrix clause:
If Colin is in London, he is undoubtedly staying at the Hilton.
- The sentence leaves unresolved whether Colin is in London, and hence it leaves
unresolved whether he is staying at the Hilton.
- A hypothetical condition, on the other hand, conveys the speaker's belief that the
condition will not be fulfilled (for future conditions), is not fulfilled (for present
conditions), or was not fulfilled (for past conditions) and hence the probable or certain
falsity of the proposition expressed by the matrix clause:
If he changed his options, he'd be a more likeable person. [1]
They would be here with us if they had the time. [2]
If you had listened to me, you wouldn't have made so many mistakes. [3]
- The conditional clauses in these sentences convey the following implications:
He very probably won't change his opinions. [1a]
They presumably don't have the time. [2a]
You certainly didn't listen to me. [3a]
- Rhetorical conditional clauses
- Rhetorical conditional clauses give the appearance of expressing an open condition,
but (like rhetorical questions) they actually make a strong assertion. There are two
types:
(a) If the proposition in the matrix clause is patently absurd, the proposition in
the conditional clause is shown to be false:
If they're Irish, I'm the Pope. ['Since I'm obviously not the Pope,
they're certainly not Irish.']
If you believe that, you'll believe anything. ['You certainly can't believe
that.']
 (b) If the proposition in the conditional clause (which contains measure
expressions) is patently true, the proposition in the matrix clause is shown to be
true. The if-c1ause is positioned finally:
He's ninety if he's a day. ['If you'll agree, that he's at least a day old,
perhaps you'll take my word that he's ninety.']
The package weighed ten pounds if it weighed an ounce. ['The
package certainly weighed ten pounds.']
- Alternative conditional--concessive clauses
- The correlative sequence whether...or (whether) combines the conditional meaning
of if with the disjunctive meaning of either... or. If the second unit is a full finite
clause, whether may be repeated:
Whether Martin pays for the broken vase or (whether) he replaces it with a
new vase, I'm not inviting him again.
He's getting married, whether or not he finds a job.
Whether trained or not, Marilyn is doing an excellent job.
Whether right or wrong, your son needs all the support you can give him.
- The concessive meaning comes from the implication that it is unexpected for the
same situation to apply under two contrasting conditions.
It doesn't matter whether and the more informal No matter whether can also
introduce alternative conditional-eoncessive clauses and universal
conditional concessive clauses:
It doesn't matter/ No matter whether you want to or not, you will have to face
the publicity
- Universal conditional--concessive clauses
- The universal conditional--concessive clause indicates a free choice from any
number of conditions. It is introduced by the wh-words that combine with -ever:
Whatever I say to them, I can't keep them quiet. [1]
Stand perfectly still, wherever you are.
However much advice you give him, he does exactly what he wants.
Don't let them in, whoever they are.
- The concessive implication in [1] comes through the inference that I can't keep them
quiet even if I choose to say something to them from any possible choices.
The verb be can be omitted from a universal clause if the subject of an SVC clause is
an abstract noun phrase:
Whatever your problems (are/may be), they can't be worse than mine.
However great the pitfalls (are/may be), we must do our best to succeed.

- If not – unless
- Interchangeable – actions
Unless you refund my money, I shall take legal action
Only IF NOT - feelings, states which result from something not happening
Alex will be upset if you don´t come to the party.
I will be surprised if it doesn´t rain.
- When an unreal condition comes first
The horse fell. If it had not fallen, it would have won the race.
Only UNLESS – afterthought
The horse won easily. No one could have overtaken him – unless it had fallen.

Conditional
First Conditional
- Often called the "real" conditional, because it is used for real - or possible - situations.
These situations take place if a certain condition is met.
- In the conditional 1 we often use unless which means 'if ... not'. In other words, '...unless
he hurries up.' could also be written, '...if he doesn't hurry up.’
If the weather clears, we’ll go for a walk.
If it rains, we will stay at home.
He will arrive late unless he hurries up.
 Peter will buy a new car, if he gets his raise.
- Conditional 1 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if-clause followed by a
comma will verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first
without using a comma between the clauses.
If he finishes on time, we will go to the movies. OR We will go to the movies if he
finishes on time.
Second Conditional
- Often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or
improbable - situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation.
- The verb 'to be', when used in the 2nd conditional, is always conjugated as 'were'.
If he studied more, he would pass the exam.
I would lower taxes if I were the President.
They would buy a new house if they had more money.
- Conditional 2 is formed by the use of the past simple in the if-clause followed by a comma
would verb (base form) in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without
using a comma between the clauses.
If they had more money, they would buy a new house. OR They would buy a new
house if they had more money.
Third Conditional
- Often referred to as the "past" conditional because it concerns only past situations with
hypothetical results. Used to express a hypothetical result to a past given situation.
If he had known that, he would have decided differently.
Jane would have found a new job if she had stayed in Boston.
If he had worked harder at school, he would have got a better job.- Conditional 3 is
formed by the use of the past perfect in the if-clause followed by a comma would have
past participle in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first without using a
comma between the clauses.
If Alice had won the competition, life would have changed OR Life would have
changed if Alice had won the competition
Zero Conditional
- Situations those are always true if something happens. This use is similar to, and can
usually be replaced by, a time clause using 'when' (example: When I am late, my
father takes me to school.)
If I am late, my father takes me to school. (She doesn't worry if Jack stays out after
school.)
- Conditional 0 is formed by the use of the present simple in the if- clause followed by a
comma the present simple in the result clause. You can also put the result clause first
without using a comma between the clauses.
If he comes to town, we have dinner. OR We have dinner if he comes to town.
When you boil water, it turns into steam.
Mixed Conditionals
- Sometimes Unreal Conditional sentences are mixed. This means that the time in the if-
clause is not the same as the time in the result. Depends on the reality and conditionals are back-
shifted
If the boy had listened to his parents (3rd), he wouldn’t be in trouble now. (2nd)
(reality = He didn’t listen, he is on trouble).
 8.
Appositive clauses/ Comment clauses/ Sentential relative clauses

Appositive clauses

APPOSITION
- Two or more noun phrases are in apposition when they have identity of reference.
The appositives may be:
Juxtaposed: A professional singer, someone trained in Paris, had been engaged for the concert.
Separated: His birthday present lay on the table, a book of ethics, the work of his professor.
Without formal expression of their relationship:
My husband, and [my] co-author is dissatisfied with the last chapter.
Indicated by a conjunction:
Linguistics or the study of language attracts many students.
Indicated by forms such as “that is”, namely:
The outcome, that is her re-election, was a complete surprise.
Appositions can be also expressed by:
that- clauses, nonfinite clauses, prepositional phrases
Apposition can be:
1) Restrictive: He was examined by James Kelly, the doctor.
2) Non-restrictive: He was examined by James Kelly, a doctor.
Titles and designations can be regarded as a special form of restrictive apposition:
Doctor James Kelly, Lake Michigan

- The appositive clause resembles the relative clause in being capable of introduction by that, and in
distinguishing between restrictive and non-restrictive, It differs in that the particle that is not an
element in the clause structure (subject, object, etc) as it must be in a relative clause. It differs also in
that the head of the noun phrase must be an abstract noun such as fact, proposition, reply, remark,
answer, and the like. For example:
The belief that no one is infallible is well-founded.
I agree with the old saying that absence makes the heart grow fonder.
- As with apposition generally, we can link the apposed units with be (where the copula typically has
nuclear prominence):
The belief is that no one is infallible. (... is ...)
The old saying is that absence makes the heart grow fonder.
- Or we may replace deverbal nouns like belief by the corresponding verb plus object clause:
He believes that no one is infallible.
- It will be noticed that these restrictive examples have the definite article before the head noun: this
is normal but by no means invariable (except with a few nouns referring to certainty, especially
fact):
A message that he would be late arrived by special delivery.
- Plural heads are also rare with appositive post modification and are regarded as unacceptable, for
example with believe, fact, possibility.
- Non-restrictive appositive clauses can less easily resemble relative clauses since irrespective of
non-restrictiveness they still involve the particle that, in sharp contrast with non-restrictive relative
clauses:
This fact, that that is obligatory, should be easy to remember

Comment clauses

Comment clause
They play superior role to sentence elements, superordinate to the rest of the sentence. Offer
speaker's comment on what is being said.
 They may occur initially, finally, or medially - have a separate tone unit.
Comment clause can be:
(1.-6.) + 7. Idiomatic, cliché expressions – you see, as I say, what’s more to the point, to be fair,
generally speaking, put bluntly.

- Comment clauses are parenthetical disjuncts. They may occur initially, finally, or
medially, and thus generally have a separate tone unit:
Kingston, /as you probably know/, is the capital of Jamaica.

- We distinguish the following types:

(1) Like the matrix of a main clause:
There were no other applicants. I believe, for that job.
(2) An adverbial finite clause (introduced by as):
I'm working the night shift, as you know.
(3) A nominal relative clause:
What was more upsetting, we lost all our luggage.
(4) to-infinitive clause as style disjunct:
I'm not sure what to do, to be hones! ( -non-finite cl.)
(5) -ing clause as style disjunct:
I doubt, speaking as a layman, whether television is the right medium for that
story.
(6) -ed clause as style disjunct:
Stated bluntly, he had no chance of winning.
!! I believe / Youe know - may be a main clause or a comment clause - it depends
on the context (see later)

- In each category, there are idiomatic or cliché expressions: you see, as I say, what's more to
the point, to be fair, generally speaking, put bluntly. Similarly, in each category there is at
least some freedom to coin new expressions. Comment clauses, many of which are
characteristic of spoken English, are generally marked prosodically by increased speed and
lowered prominence.

- Type (1) comment clauses, which are the most important, generally contain a transitive
verb or an adjective which elsewhere requires a nominal that-clause as complementation.
We can therefore see a correspondence between sentences containing such clauses and
sentences containing indirect statements:
There were no other applicants, I believe, for that job.
I believe that there were no other applicants for that job.
- Since the that of an object that-clause is normally deletable, only the intonation (reflected
by comma separation in writing) distinguishes an initial comment clause from an initial
matrix clause:
You know, I think you are wrong.

Sentential relative clauses

He walks for an hour each morning, WHICH would bore me.
Things then improved, WHICH surprises me.
Closely related to comment clauses of type (2) (as you know) and type (3) (what's more surprising)
are Sentential relative clauses. Unlike adnominal relative clauses, which have a noun phrase as
antecedent. The sentential relative clause refers back to the predicate or predication of a clause ([1]
and [2]), or to a whole clause or sentence, ([3] and [4]), or even to a series of sentences ([5]):
They say he plays truant, which he doesn't. [1]
He walks for an hour each morning, which would bore me. [2]
Things then improved, which surprises me. [3]
Colin married my sister and I married his brother, which makes Colin and me double in-
laws. [4]
- Which is how the kangaroo came to have a pouch [said at the end of a story] [5]
Sentential relative clauses parallel non-restrictive post modifying clauses in noun phrases in that
they are separated by intonation or punctuation from their antecedent. They are commonly
introduced by the relative pronoun ll'hich, but which may also be a relative determiner of abstract
nouns, as in [6] and [7]:
The plane may be several hours late, in which case there '.I' no point in our waiting. [6]
They were under water for several hours from which experience they emerged unharmed. [7]
 9.
Non-finite clauses – participial constructions, gerund phrases,
infinitive phrases, dangling participle, absolute participle construction
Non-finite structures: no tense, no subject can be recognized, used for condensation
(compression)
Finite, nonfinite, and verbless clauses
We recognize three main structural classes of clauses:
FINITE CLAUSE: a clause whose verb element is finite (such as takes, took, can work, has
worked, is writing, was written; eg:
I can’t go out with you because I am studying this evening.
NONFINITE CLAUSE: a clause whose verb element is nonfinite (such as to work, having
worked, taken; eg:
Knowing my temper, I didn’t reply.
VERBLESS CLAUSE: a clause that does not have a verb element, eg:
Although always helpful, he was not much liked. If in troubles, call Ferda Mravenec.

Nonfinite clauses
The classes of nonfinite verb phrase serve to distinguish four structural subclasses of nonfinite verb
clauses:
(i) TO INFINITIVE:
Without subject: The best thing would be to tell everybody.
With subject: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.

(ii) BARE INFINITIVE:

Without subject: All I did was hit him on the head.
With subject: Rather than you do the job, I’d prefer to finish it
myself.

(iii) -ING PARTICIPLE:

Without subject: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
With subject: Her aunt having left the room, I asked Ann for some
personal help.

(iv) -ED PARTICIPLE:

Without subject: Covered with confusion, they apologized abjectly.
With subject: The discussion completed, the chairman adjourned
the meeting for half and hour.

PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS
Present Perfect Past
FORMS OF Active finding having found –
PARTICIPLES being having been
Passive found
found found

Avoid AMBIGUITY > same subjects necessary (but the structure OBJECT + PARTICIPLE is also
possible, esp. after verbs of perception and some more: I found him lying on the floor.).

PRESENT PARTICIPLES IN PLACES OF CLAUSES

• COORDINATION: She lay awake all night, recalling the previous lesson.
• CL. OF TIME: While waiting, I read about non-finite clauses.
• CL. OF REASON: Loving Konrad, I've bought ten bottles.
• CONDITIONALS: If travelling north, you must change in Frydlant.
• CL. OF CONCESSION: Although feeling ill, I went to school.
 • RELATIVE CL.: The man standing at the corner wants to kill me.
PERFECT PARTICIPLES
can be used instead of clauses in present perfect, past perfect and simple past. The action
described in the perfect participle construction has always taken place before the action
described in the main clause.
Having been made redundant, I'm going abroad.
Having drunk ten bottles of Konrad I feel under the weather.
PAST PARTICIPLES (their use is rather formal) IN PLACES OF
• PASSIVE (no conjunction needed): Viewed from distance, the island looked like a cloud.
• ADVERBIAL CLAUSES: e.g. If accepted for this post, you'll be informed by May.
! after, before, since, on, in require being + past participle: After being informed, we left.
• RELATIVE CLAUSES: The system used in the English department is terrible.

PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTIONS
Co-ordinate clauses
She lay awake all night and recalled the events of the day.
recalling
Clauses of time
When she (had) finished all her housework, she sat down to watch television.
Having finished all her housework, ………
When I was walking along Prague Street, I met Paul.
(When/while) walking along Prague Street, I met Paul.
Present participles can be used after the time conjunctions AFTER, BEFORE, SINCE,
WHEN, WHILE. ON, IN can be used to mean WHEN, WHILE.
When I found the front door open, I became suspicious.
On finding the front door open, I ….
While I was trying to open the can, I cut my hand.
In/while trying to open the can, I cut my hand.
When it was viewed from the distance, it looked picturesque.
When viewed from the distance it looked ………..
After we were informed about the delay, we made other arrangements.
After being informed about the delay, we made other arrangements.
AFTER, BEFORE, SINCE, ON, IN cannot be followed directly by a past participle. They
require being plus past participle.

Clauses of reason
As I was anxious to please him, I bought him a nice present.
Being anxious to please him, I ……..
Since he had worked hard all his life, he decided to take a long vacation.
Having worked hard all his life, he decided ………..
Because I have been made redundant, I am going abroad.
Having been made redundant, I am going abroad.

Clauses of condition
Unless you pay by credit card, please pay in cash.
Unless paying by credit card, please pay in cash.
If you are accepted for this post, you will be informed in 14 days.
If accepted, you will ……….

Clauses of concession
While he admitted that he had received the stolen lewellery, he denied his
participation in the robbery.
While admitting that ……………….
Although it was built before the war, the engine is still in perfect order.
 Although built before the war, the engine ………………..

Relative clauses
The woman who is washing the dishes is our new cook.
washing
Anyone who violates this law will be punished.
violating
Doctors often recommend rabies shots for anyone who is bitten by a strange dog.
bitten
Those houses which are being pulled down were built 50 years ago.
being pulled down
The orchestra members, who had been practicing all day, were very tired.
having been practising
Mr. Richards, who had been wounded in the last war, was receiving a pension from the
government.
having been wounded

Punctuation – the same as in relative clauses.

A student hoping to finish college in 3 years must work very hard.
Robert, hoping to finish college in 3 years, must work very hard.

GERUND PHRASES
According to Alexander: "The -ing form is called a gerund when it behaves like a noun and a
participle when it behaves like an adjective. However, there is some overlap..."
AFTER SOME ADJECTIVES: It's worth, no good...
SOME ADJECTIVES FOLLOWED BY -ING or TO INF: bad, better, cheap, expensive, easy, happy, kind,
nice, useful, useless...
AFTER ADJECTIVES + PREPOSITIONS: afraid of, sorry for/about, interested in, good at...
AFTER PREPOSITIONS: He left without saying good-bye. She insisted on being paid.
AFTER SOME NOUNS: It's a nightmare, catastrophe, pleasure, luck, tragedy attending school.
VERB + OBJECT + -ING FORM: I can't imagine him studying. Did you see her talking to the
postman?

GERUND PHRASES

Gerund forms:
General form: offering /X / passiv: offered / being offered
Perfect form: having offered / having been offering / passiv: having been offered / X

Perform the same functions as nouns.

Subject : Her watering the plants every day is not necessary.

Object: Her mother appreciates her watering the plants………
Object of preposition: Her mother insists on her watering …….
The boy was fired for not coming to work on time.
These old people are counting on being helped financially.
I seem to remember doing this exercise before.
having done
Non-finite subordinate clauses after prepositions:
Before answering, think twice.
He apologized for having been rude.
You can’t get well without following the doctor’s advice.
He studied with the intention of becoming a doctor.
Forms of expressed subject in a gerund phrase
Who told you of John’s being there? Formal
John informal
Excuse my being late. Formal
me informal
If the gerund phrase is the subject of the sentence, the possessive form is obligatory.
His understanding such a difficult task is fantastic.

The reading of books

Reading books
Having shopped all day, she was glad to get home.
After she had shopped ………….
After shopping …………
After having shopped ………
Playing golf in the heat, he suffered a sunstroke.
While he was playing golf ……….
While playing golf …….
After – preposition, conjunction
While – only a conjunction

INFINITIVE PHRASES (most of the time, they replace noun clauses)

INFINITIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE: I bought ten bottles of Konrad for my little son to learn to drink
beer. Bring a chair to sit on. I went there to study.
FIXED PHRASES: to be honest, to tell you the truth...
VERB + TO-INF or THAT-CLAUSE: after agree, choose, decide, expect, hope, learn, plan, wish...
VERB + OBJECT + TO-INF or THAT-CLAUSE: I consider him to be a good runner. He is thought to have
been killed. + assume, believe, find, know, suppose, understand...
VERB + WH element (NOT WHY!) + TO-INF or CLAUSE: I don't know what to expect. /I don't
know what I shall expect. OR (+ OBJECT): He told us how to run away.
AFTER SOME ADJECTIVES: able, angry, eager, important, possible...
AFTER SOME NOUNS: ability, idea, aim...

TO - Infinitive phrases
Kinds of infinitives:
Present (general) form : to offer / to be offering / to be offered - Passiv
Perfect form: to have offer / to have been offering / to have been offered - Passiv

Funktions:
Subject: To be neutral in this conflict is out of the question.
Object: He likes to relax.
Subject complement: The best excuse is to say that you have an exam tomorrow.
Appositive: Your ambition, to become a farmer, requires a lot of energy. (your am.=tobecome a f.)
Adjectival complementation: I’m very eager to meet him.

Subject
Introductory IT - gram. subject (it) + sem. subject (to ...)
To leave early would be impolite. It would be impolite to leave early.
To play with him was great fun. It was great fun to play with him.
To reach an agreement (O) proved impossible. It proved impossible to reach an agreement.
 - An agreement (S)proved impossible to reach. (Subject-object transposition - typically English)
To write for your journal (O of a prep.) is a pleasure. It is a pleasure to write for your journal.
- Your journal (S) is a pleasure to write for. (typically English)

If a TO-infinitive clause has a subject – FOR

It was impossible FOR me (S of the inf.) to refuse.
It was difficult FOR him (S of the inf.) to pass the test.
The test was difficult FOR him to pass. (typically English)

Object
A
He refused to cooperate. - object = non-finite clause
I want to buy a new coat. - object = non-finite clause
Infinitive - OBJECT direct
the SUBJECT of the main verb is the SUBJECT of the INFINITIVE
I can’t decide whether to go or not.
I don’t know what to choose.
B
I want you to help me.
The DOER of the INFINITIVE action is NOT the OBJECT of the main verb.
C
I told him to wait. (- told= ditransitive verb →two objects)
She advised you to buy a new coat.
Infinitive - OBJECT direct after OBJECT indirect (ditransitive verbs)
The DOER of the INFINITIVE action is the OBJECT of the main verb.
(Common to both predications.)
D
I authorized my bank to pay her 3,000 pounds (= object complement). (-authorized = com-trans. verb)
Infinitive – COMPLEMENT after OBJECT direct
The DOER of the INFINITIVE action is the OBJECT of the main verb.
(Common to both predications.)
E
I saw him come.
I saw him coming.
The DOER (SUBJECT) of the INFINITIVE action is NOT the OBJECT of the main verb.
The DOER (SUBJECT) of the INFINITIVE action is the OBJECT of the main verb.
(Common to both predications.)

Adjectival complementation
I’m sorry to have caused a delay. (that I have caused a delay.)
John is eager to please. (John je celý horlivý zavděčit se)
John is easy to please. (to please John is easy→ It is easy to please John)
- serface structure = same, deep structure = different
Jane was difficult to train. (Je těžké trénovat Janu)
He is not eager FOR me to become his successor.

TO infinitive phrases and relative/adverbial clauses

He phoned me so as/ in order to confirm the date. - infinite of purpose = adverbial
He opened the door for her to go out. - infinite of purpose = adverbial
I shudder to think about it. - time adverbial
He was the first guest to arrive. - postmodification
I have two important phone calls to make. - postmodification
The best time to see him is in the morning. - postmodification
I have no idea how to achieve it. - postmodification

DANGLING – UNATTACHED - UNRELATED PARTICIPLE

The subject of the participle is different from the subject of the finite verb, but is not expressed.
FIXED PHRASES
Broadly/generally/…. speaking, taking everything into account ………………………
Generally speaking, women are better drivers than men. (- indefinite subject (=we,people)
ACCEPTABLE (scientific writing)
Nitrogen was determined in milk, using the Kjeldahl method.
by means of
- adverbial clause with an indefinite or general subject
or passive voice
UNACCEPTABLE
Reading the evening paper, a dog started barking

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION
– is a participle clause that HAS its own SUBJECT: Nobody having any more to say the meeting
was closed. Sometimes can start with “with”: WITH he working in Visnova, and she teaching in
Cernousy most of the time, the house seems pretty empty.

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH PARTICIPLES

Normally the subject of a participle clause is the same as the subject of the main clause in a
sentence.
Using a participle clause which has its own subject.
As nobody had any more to say, the meeting was closed.
Nobody having any more to say, the meeting was closed.

Since all the money had been spent, we started looking for work.
All the money having been spent, we …………………..
 10.
The Complexity of noun phrases
Premodification - HEAD - postmodification
The black - DOG - running through the garden is nice.
(premod. head posmodif. - nonfinite clause/-ing participle)
The girl in the corner nearest the door.
in the corner - postmodification to GIRL
nearest the door - postmodification to CORNER
The girl standing in the corner who became angry because you waved to her is Angela Hunt.
S V C
N postm. -ing postm. - fin.cl./AC time ?
P partic.
V A fin.cl./RCdef
S V C S V O

PREMODIFICATION (i.e. before the head)

1) Adjective – I visited [his delightful cottage]. his really quite unbelievably delightful cottage…
2) Participle – I visited [his crumbling cottage]. I visited [his completed cottage].
3) -s genitive – I visited [his fisherman’s cottage]. (belongs/ed to a fisherman? resembles a
fisherman’s cottage?)
4) Noun – I visited [his country cottage].
5) Adverb – I visited [his far-away cottage].
6) Clause - I visited [his pop-down-for-the-week-end cottage].

POSTMODIFICATION (i.e. after the head)

1) Relative clauses, both finite and non-finite
[The girl who spoke to him] is my best friend. / [The girl speaking to him] is my best friend.
2) Prepositional phrases (common postmodifiers!)
the road to London, a man of courage, the key to a prolonged recovery, his life after the war
3) Adverb phrases
[The road back] was dense with traffic.
4) Adjective phrases
[Anyone keen on modern jazz] should not miss this opportunity.

premodification – HEAD - postmodification

Premodification Postmodification
A determiners a relative pronoun  adverbial
B adjective b defining relative clause
C -ing participle c non-defining relative clause
D ed- participle  non-finite clause:
E noun d –ing participle
F adverbial e –ed participle clause
G genitive f infinitive clause
H sentence g appositive clause
h prepositional phrase
 11. Cleft / pseudo cleft sentences
Cleft sentences – the pattern with IT
IT + BE + phrase + subordinate clause
The emphasis comes after BE. (It was England who won the World Cup in 1966.)
WHO, WHICH, THAT with SUBJECT
THAT with OBJECT and ADVERBIAL
Pronoun as an OBJECT
It is THEY WHO (very formal)
It is THEM THAT (very informal)
It is THEM WHO
It cleft deviates from the unmarked division of communicative dynamism.
(high amount of CD → low amount of CD)
Pseudo-cleft sentences - The pattern with WHAT
What clause + BE + phrase / Phrase + BE + What clause
The emphasis comes after BE.
What you need is a personal organiser.
A personal organiser is what you need.
Wh cleft conforms to the basic distribution of communicative dynamism (The principle of end-
focus.)
IT cleft – wh cleft - interchangeable - inanimate NPs
We need a rest.
It is a rest that we need. (cleft) What we need is a rest. (pseudo-cleft)
Predicate (emphasis on an action) - only Wh clefts – special construction
ALL/WHAT + SUBJECT + DO + BE + ACTION (verb, (to) infinitive)
The guests played mini-golf after tea.
What the guests did after tea was played/play/to play mini-golf.
It is possible to emphasize different parts of the sentence.
What the guests played after tea was mini-golf.
What happened after tea was that the guests played mini-golf.
Other Wh words
1966 was (the year) WHEN England won the World Cup.
The sports hall is (the place) WHERE the students do the examination.

Cleft sentences
The pattern with IT
IT + BE + phrase + subordinate clause
The emphasis comes after be
England won the World Cup in 1966.
Subject: It was England who won the World Cup in 1966.
Object: It was the World Cup (that) England won in 1966.
Adverbial: It was in 1966 (that) England won the World Cup.

WHO, WHICH, THAT with SUBJECT

THAT with OBJECT and ADVERBIAL

Pronoun as an OBJECT
It is THEY WHO (very formal)
I tis THEM THAT (very informal)
It is THEM WHO

John wore his best suit at the dance last night.

 S  V  Od A(place) A (time)
S: It was John (who, that) wore his best suit at the dance last night.
Od: It was his best suit that John wore at the dance last night.
A (place) It was at the dance that John wore his best suit last night.
A (time): It was last night that John wore his best suit at the dance.

It cleft deviates from the unmarked division of communicative dynamism.

(high amount of CD → low amount of CD)

AMBIGUITY:
It is the dog that scared me.
a) Postrašil mě pes. cleft sentence
b) To je ten pes, který mě postrašil. SVC (postmodification)
It is the country that she likes best.
It is an advantage that the team is afraid to lose.

Pseudo-cleft sentences
The pattern with WHAT
What clause + BE + phrase
Phrase + BE + What clause
S  V C
The emphasis comes after be
What you need is a personal organiser.
A personal organiser is what you need.
Wh cleft conforms to the basic distribution of communicative dynamism (The principle of end-focus.)

IT cleft – wh cleft - interchangeable - inanimate NPs

We need a rest.
It is a rest that we need. What we need is a rest.

Predicate (emphasis on an action) - only Wh clefts – special construction

ALL/WHAT + SUBJECT + DO + BE + ACTION (verb, (to) infinitive)

The guests played mini-golf after tea.

What the guests did after tea was played/play/to play mini-golf.

It is possible to emphasise different parts of the sentence.

What the guests played after tea was mini-golf.
What happened after tea was that the guests played mini-golf.

WHO, WHOSE, WHY, HOW do not easily enter into the pseudo-cleft sentence construction. To compensate
for these restrictions - numerous paraphrases of pseudo-cleft constructions are used.
The person who spoke to you must have been the manager.
Somebody whose writing I admire is Jill.

Other Wh words
1966 was (the year) WHEN England won the World Cup.
The sports hall is (the place) WHERE the students do the examination.
 12.
Pro-froms
Syntactic devices for abbreviating constructions to avoid redundancy. In order that constructions
with pro-forms should be interpreted correctly, the full form must be rocoverable.
Three types of recoverability:
1) Textual recoverability – the full form is recoverable from the neighbouring part of the text, 2 types
– Anaphoric and cataphoric use of pronoun (the poor girl – she, she – the poor girl).
2) Situational recoverability – the full form is recoverable from extralinguistic situation
3) Structural recoverability – the full form is recoverable from knowledge of grammatical structure.
She might sing today, but I do not thing she will do so.
For noun phrases:
- 3rd person pronouns and determiners
o Cindy was the best speaker, so everyone expected that she would win.
o Any, all, each,…
- Demonstratives
o I read his first novel, and that was boring too.
- The same
o Can I have a cup of tea, please?
o Give me the same, please.
- One (plural some or ones)
o Can you give me a few nails? I need one. X I will get you some soon.
o I wish I had bought a few jars of honey. Did you notice the ones they were selling?
For clauses:

- Do
o Martin drives a car, and his sister does, too.
- Do so – formal
o They planned to reach the top of the mountain, but nobody knows if they did (so).
- Do it, do that, do so
For adverbials – here, there = place, then = time
o If you will look into the drawer, you will probably find it there.
o One day the captain invited us to the bridge. He told us then about his orders.
For complement – So
o If he is a criminal, it is his parents who have made him so. – after be is better to use
like that or elipse
o Will Oxford win again? I hope so. X I hope not.
- Form of predication
o You asked him to leave, and so he did.
- Subject operator inversion (SO)
You asked him to leave and so did I = I asked him to leave, too.
 13.
Ellipsis
Ellipsis is most commonly used to avoid repetition. It is omission without a change of meaning or
grammatical structure. There are lots of types of ellipsis:
1) According to the place in a sentence:
Initial – (I) hope he’s there.
Medial – Jill owns a Volvo and Fred (owns) a BMW.
Final – We haven’t done it yet, but we will (do it).
2) According to dependence on …
Situational ellipsis
– it is dependent on situation, on the extralinguistic context. Both the speaker and the listener can share
some information which we don’t know and which cannot be restored from the linguistic context.
e.g. Get it = Did you get it? (the letter) or (do you understand?)
Situational ellipsis is usually initial, elipted words are mainly that have weak stress.
(I) told you so. (I’m) Sorry, I could’t be there. (It’s) Good to see you.
Structural ellipsis
- depends on knowledge of grammatical structure.
I believe (that) you are mistaken. We are staying there (for) another three weeks.
Textual ellipsis
- The interpretation depends on what is said or written in the linguistic context. We distinguish two kinds of
ellipsis according to the relative positions of the ellipsis and its antecedent:
a) Anaphoric ellipsis – I’m happy if you are (HAPPY).
b) Cataphoric ellipsis - Those who prefer (TO STAY INDOORS) can stay indoors.
According to relationship to linguistic context – it is necessary to take account of the larger construction in
which the antecedent construction and elliptical construction participate.
We therefore distinguish:
General ellipsis – does not depend on previous text, it is independent
Special ellipsis – refers to longer texts, it is dependent
 14.
Theme - focus, the division of communicative dynamism
THEME - FOCUS
When shall we know what Mary is going to do?
She will decide next week.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
amount of communicative dynamism
Linear presentation: LOW – HIGH
The principle of END FOCUS
The first part of the sentence - THEME UNMARKED - low amount of communicative dynamism
MARKED - high amount of communicative dynamism
e.g. BILL gave it to me.
The relation between FOCUS and NEW INFORMATION
What´s on today? WE ARE GOING TO THE RACES.
What are we doing today? We´re GOING TO THE RACES.
Where are we going today. We´re going TO THE RACES.
I AM PAINTING MY LIVING ROOM BLUE
M ARKED UNMARKED
Marked focus is used when special emphasis is required.
Marked theme – for any such fronted item, whether or not it carries => used for emphasis
1. FRONTING - moving into initial position an item which is otherwise unusual there.
Reasons:
- to echo thematically what has been contextually given.
“You should take up swimming for relaxation. Relaxation you call it.”
- the item fronted may be the one contextually most demanded: “Wilson his name is.”
- fronted item provides direct linkage with what has preceded:
“To this list may be added other items of importance.”
2. With adverbials in front position we often find SUBJECT - VERB INVERSION
Here comes the milkman. Here he comes.
3. Where a phrase of negative form or meaning is fronted we find SUBJECT OPERATOR INVERSION
I little expected such enthusiasm. Little did I expect such enthusiasm.
Passive
Tento román napsal můj strýc. The novel was written by my uncle.
O-S transposition - tough movement
Bylo hezké ji poslouchat. It was a pleasure to listen to her.
She was a pleasure to listen to.
Existential construction
V knize chybí několik stránek. Some pages are missing in the book.
The book has some pages missing.
There are some pages missing in the book.
Verbo-nominal predication
Vykonal jsem u něj návštěvu. I visited him. I paid him a visit.
Cleft + Pseudocleft
 15.
Scope of negation
The scope of the negation normally extends from the negative item itself to the end of the clause.
There is thus a contrast between these two sentences:
She definitely didn't speak to him. ['It's definite that she didn't.']
She didn't definitely speak to him. ['It's not definite that she did.']
When an adjunct is final, it may or may not lie outside the scope:
I wasn't LISTENING all the TIME. [ie I listened none of the time.]
I wasn't listening all the TIME. [ie I listened some of the time.]
If an assertive form is used, it must lie outside the scope:
I didn't listen to some of the speakers. [ie I listened to some.]
I didn't listen to any of the speakers. [ie I listened to none.]
The scope can sometimes extend into a subordinate clause: I wouldn 't like to disturb anyone.
Focus of negation
- We need to identify not only the scope, but also the FOCUS of a negation. The focus is signalled in speech
by the placement of nuclear stress, which indicates that the contrast of meaning implicit in the negation is
located at that spot while the rest of the clause can be understood in a positive sense.
- The focus can precede the negative item, and hence we must allow for discontinuous scope.
Different placements of the focus distinguish the following sentences. The parts that are not within the
scope are understood positively:
I didn't take Joan to swim in the POOL today. – I forgot to do so.
I didn't take JOAN, to swim in the pool today. – It was Mary.
I didn't take Joan to SWIM, in the pool today. – Just to see it.
I didn't take Joan to swim in the POOL, today. – I took her to the seaside.
I didn't take Joan to swim in the pool TODAY. – It was last week that I did so.
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. – It was my brother who took her.
Local negation
Local negation negates a word or phrase, without making the clause negative. One common type involves
the combination of not with a morphologically negated gradable adjective or adverb:
She's a not unintelligent woman. ['She's a fairly intelligent woman.']
I visit them not infrequently. ['I visit them rather frequently.']