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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
CHEMICAL AND PROCESS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEMESTER II SESSION 2011/2012
KKKR 4814 PROCESS PLANT DESIGN PROJECT

FINAL YEAR DESIGN REPORT
PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN AND METHANE
SUPERVISOR: PROF. DR ABDUL AMIR HASSAN KADHUM
GROUP 7 MEMBERS
Muhammad Hafiz Bin Abd Wahab A122618

Mow Jiun Wei A122616
Tan See Gin A122623
Fatin Syahida BT. Agusalim A122465
Soo Kok Hoe A122268
Pua Soh Hoon A122186
DUE DATE : 18th APRIL 2012

ii
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the work in this final year design project is our own except for
quotations and summaries which have been dully acknowledged.
18th APRIL 2012 MUHAMMAD HAFIZ BIN ABD WAHAB

A122618
FATIN SYAHIDA BT. AGUSALIM

A122465
MOW JIUN WEI

A122616
TAN SEE GIN

A122623
SOO KOK HOE

A122268
PUA SOON HOON

A122186
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Praise to Allah, the most gracious, the most merciful. Thank you for giving us the
strength and spirit to complete our design project within the time given.
First and foremost, we will like to thank our beloved supervisor, Prof. Dr Abdul
Amir Hassan Kadhum for his concern and guidance in completing this design process. A
million thank to our lecturers Prof Dr. Siti Kartom and Dr. Meor Zainal Bin Meor Talib
for giving us the opportunity to design a chemical plant and guiding us on how to use our
knowledge in this designing process. We also want to thank all the lecturers for helping
us in completing this project. Without the encouragement and patience, we believe that
we would hardly finish our tasks before the due date. Also, we would like to express our
highest gratitude to our parents for giving us all the moral support when we really need
one. Thank you very much and may god bless your help.
Last but not least, we would like express our gratitude to the members of the
group for giving their full corporation towards this project. Finally we would like to thank
to all who help us directly or indirectly. Without all of the help it is impossible for us to
complete this project. Your kindness and cooperation is highly appreciated. Just words
alone cannot illustrate how much we thank you all.
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ABSTRACT
The objective of this design project is to produce hydrogen and methane plant from
biomass. The biomass that is chosen as the feedstock is empty fruit bunch (EFB) from
palm oil tree. The process that is to produce the products is steam gasification. The
potential for hydrogen and methane production from biomass in Malaysia is attractive due
to the abundance of biomass especially in the form of agricultural residues. The main
usage of the products is mainly for the transportation inside UKM campus. The use of
these products as fuel as clean and sustainable fuel has recently attracted significant
attention due to the recent energy crisis and the tightening of environmental regulation.
This project consists of two phase. The first phase is the feasibility studies where things
that need to be included are ranging from economic analysis of the product, product
synthesis and preliminary economic study design and risk assessment. This chemical
plant was designed to operate at capacity of 138.72 tonne/year for hydrogen and 61.04
tonne/year for methane with both impurities at 99.99%. This plant was chosen to be
constructed at land beside transportation unit. EFB will be fed into packed bed reactor
after it being treated through grinding and drying process to remove the moisture in the
EFB. The whole process consists of 5 main reactions which are gasification, methanation,
boudard, methane reforming and water gas-shift. The operating temperature is 625oC and
300 kPa. After EFB react in the reactor, it will undergoes separation and purification
process that is important to get the purified hydrogen and methane. This process is
conducted at conversion of 50% due to the high potential economy at this level. Heat
integration analysis was carried out and the energy recovery for the design is 70%.
Process control equipment and piping calculation was carried out in the process and
piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) was produced for suitable pipe size in each
stream. On the other hand, detail process and mechanical design were performed for 6
main units which are gasifier, quencher, spray tower, PSA, cooler and furnace. Apart
from this, process of utility was designed which involved boiler system and cooling
tower. Waste treatment was designed to ensure the level of waste gas and water discharge
from plant. Detail discounted cash flow analysis was carried out to determine the
profitability of the plant operation. Finally, HAZOP analysis was carried out to improve
piping and instrumentation diagram in terms of safety of the operation.
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ABSTRAK
Projek yang dicadangkan adalah untuk mereka bentuk loji bagi penghasilan hidrogen dan
metana daripada biojisim. Biojisim yang dipilih untuk penghasilan produk ini adalah buah
tandan (Empty Fruit Bunch, EFB) yang didapati daripada pokok palma. Proses yang
digunakan untuk menghasilkan hidrogen dan metana adalah stim penggasan. Potensi
penghasilan hidrogen dan metana daripada biojisim adalah disebabkan longgokan
biojisim yang terdapat di Malaysia terutamanya dalam sektor pertanian. Kegunaan utama
penghasilan hidrogen dan metana adalah sebagai bahan api bagi pengangkutan di dalam
kampus UKM. Penggunaan bahan api daripada produk ini adalah disebabkan oleh ia
bersih dan menjadi tarikan ramai kerana ia dapat mengurangkan krisis ekonomi yang
melanda dan mengurangkan pencemaran di Malaysia. Projek ini mengandungi dua fasa.
Fasa pertama adalah kajian kebolehlaksanaan yang mengandungi maklumat seperti
analisis ekonomi, tindak balas kimia, dan anggaran risiko. Kapasiti bagi penghasilan
hidrogen adalah sebanyak 138.72 tan/tahun dan bagi metana adalah 61.04 tan/tahun
dengan ketulenan sebanyak 99.99%. Loji ini ditempatkan di sebelah unit kenderaan
UKM. EFB akan dimasukkan ke dalam reaktor setelah ia dirawat melalui proses
pengeringan dan pengisaran untuk membuang lembapan pada input. Tindak balas utama
yang berlaku di dalam reaktor terdiri daripada lima tindak balas kimia iaitu penggasan,
metanasi, boudard, penghasilan metana dan penukaran air-udara. Proses ini bertindak
balas pada suhu 625oC dan pada 300 kPa,. Setelah EFB bertindak balas untuk
menghasilkan produk yang diinginkan, ia akan digerakkan ke proses pemisahan dan
penulenan untuk mendapatkan hidrogen dan metana yang tulen. Proses ini dijalankan
pada penukaran sebanyak 50% kerana jumlah penukaran ini adalah jumlah yang didapati
pada potensi ekonomi yang tertinggi. Analisis penyepaduan tenaga dilakukan dan
penjimatan tenaga yang dicapai adalah sebanyak 70% dengan penambahan penukar haba
pada proses. Selain itu, strategi kawalan proses automatik telah dipertimbangkan dan
gambar rajah paip dan instrumentasi (P&ID) telah dihasilkan. Paip yang sesuai dari segi
saiz untuk setiap aliran juga ditentukan. Di samping itu, reka bentuk proses terperinci dan
reka bentuk mekanikal direka bagi setiap unit yang penting seperti reaktor, penyejuk,
pembakar, penggahar, PSA dan quencher. Selain itu, proses bagi utility untuk sistem
pembakar dan menara penyejuk direka. Rawatan sisa juga direka bentuk untuk
memastikan tahap gas dan jumlah air yang dibuang memenuhi syarat piawai yang
ditetapkan. Analisis aliran wang dilakukan untuk mengenal pasti jumlah keuntungan bagi
pelan operasi. Akhir sekali, analisis HAZOP dilakukan untuk membaik pulih sistem
pempaipan dan instrumentasi bagi memastikan keselamatan operasi yang dijalankan.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
ABSTRAK v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvi
CHAPTER 1 PRODUCT ANALYSIS

1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Hydrogen 1
1.1.2 Methane 2
1.2 Source Of Raw Material 3
1.3 Properties Of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 4
1.4 Product Usage 5
1.4.1 Hydrogen usage 5
1.4.1.1 Transportation 6
1.4.1.2 Electric power 7
1.4.1.3 Heating system 7
1.4.2 Methane usage 7
1.4.2.1 Central heating system 7
1.4.2.2 Cooking 8
1.4.2.3 Transportation 8
1.5 Demand Of Hydrogen 8
1.5.1 Malaysia hydrogen demand 11
1.6 Hydrogen Production And Consumption 12
1.7 Hydrogen Price 13
1.8 Future Marketing Potential Of Hydrogen 14
1.9 Demand Of Natural Gas 15
1.9.1 Malaysia natural gas demand 17
1.10 Natural Gas Production And Consumption 18
1.11 Methane Price 20
1.12 Natural Gas Producer 20
1.13 Future Marketing Potential Of Natural Gas 22
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CHAPTER II PROCESS DESIGN CONCEPT

2.1 Process Overview 23
2.2 Biomass Feedstock 24
2.3 Process Design Level 1 24
2.3.1 Chemical reaction 24
a Reaction stoichiometry 24
b Reaction condition 25
c Kinetic rate law 25
d Selectivity versus conversion 26
e Selectivity of hydrogen and methane 26
f Catalyst for reaction 34
2.3.2 Raw material and product 35
2.3.3 Design constraint 36
2.4 2.3.4 Physical Properties of Materials Involved 36
Process Design Level 2 42
2.4.1 Input-output structure 42
2.4.2 Process output destination 43
2.4.3 Design variables 44
2.4.4 Design capacity 44
2.4.5 Level 2 – economy potential analysis 44
2.5.1 Number of reactors 52
2.5.2 Reactor Selection 52
2.5.3 Number of recycle streams 53
2.5.4 Heat effect of reactor 53
2.5.5 Adiabatic temperature of reactor 53
2.5.6 Reactor sizing 57
2.5.7 Cost of reactor 60
2.6.1 Separation structure 64
2.6.2 Preliminary design of separation unit 65
2.6.2.1 Cyclone design calculation 65
2.6.2.2 Spray tower (V102 and V-103) 70
2.6.2.3 Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) 75
2.6.3 Economic potential analysis of level 4 81
2.7 Selection Suitable Of Conversion 82
2.8 Mass Balance 82
2.9 Manual And iCON Mass Balance Comparison 84
2.10 Energy Balance 85
2.11 Comparison Of Mass Balance By Manual Calculations 89
2.12 Detailed Process Description 89
CHAPTER III HEAT INTEGRATION

3.1 Introduction 91
3.1 Stream Selection 92
3.3 Determination Of Pinch Point 93
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3.4 Final Heat Integration 95

3.5 Total Heat Recovery 97
CHAPTER IV PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction 98
4.2 Control System Analysis 98
4.2.1 Type of instrument 99
4.2.2 Control strategies in unit operation 100
4.2.2.1 Furnace 101
4.2.2.2 Biomass dryer 101
4.2.2.3 Gasifier 102
4.2.2.4 Cooler 103
4.2.2.5 Quencher 104
4.2.2.6 Spray tower 106
4.2.2.7 Pressure swing absorption 107
4.3 Piping System 110
4.3.1 Piping system design 110
4.3.1.1 Liquid flow 110
4.3.2 Vapor flow 112
4.4 Valve Selection 114
4.5 Relief System 115
4.5.1 Introduction 116
4.5.2 Relief types 117
4.5.3 Relief valve – operated in vapour phase sizing 118
CHAPTER V DETAILED PROCESS DESIGN

5.1 Process Design of Furnace E-101 121
5.1.2 General construction of furnace 122
5.1.3 Process Design of furnace 123
5.1.4 Process condition 129
5.1.5 Summary of furnace process design 131
5.2 Process Design of Gasifier Reactor R-101 132
5.2.2 Dimension of gasifier reactor 133
5.2.3 Jacketed vessel 137
5.3 Process Design of Heat Exchanger E-104 137
5.3.2 Dimension of heat exchanger 138
5.3.3 Tube side coefficient 142
5.3.4 Shell side coefficient 143
5.3.5 Overall coefficient 145
5.2.6 Tube side pressure drop 145
5.3.7 Shell side pressure drop 146
5.3.8 Summary of the proposed heat exchanger design 146
5.4 Detailed Process Design of Spray Tower V-102 147
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5.4.2 Sizing the spray tower 149
5.5 Process Design of Quencher V-101 150
5.5.2 Sizing of Quencher 151
5.6 Pressure Swing Adsorption 154
CHAPTER VI MECHANICAL DESIGN

6.1 Mechanical Design of Reactor R-101 161
6.1.1 Material construction 162
6.1.2 Determination of wall thickness 163
6.1.2.1 Torispherical head (top) 163
6.1.2.2 Cylindrical shell 164
6.1.2.3 Torishperical head (bottom) 165
6.1.3 Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) 165
6.1.4 Combined loading 166
6.1.5 Allowable stress intensity 169
6.1.6 Support design 170
6.1.6.1 Skirt thickness 170
6.1.6.2 Base ring and anchor design 172
6.1.7 Flanged joints 173
6.1.8 Design Summary 176
6.2 Mechanical Design of Furnace 176
6.2.1 Furnace sizing 176
6.2.2 Refractories type 178
6.2.3 Insulating material 180
6.2.4 Furnace wall thickness calculation 181
6.2.5 Bolted flange joints design 182
6.3 Mechanical Design of Quencher V-101 184
6.3.2 Fabrication material selection 185
6.3.3 Design specification for quencher 185
6.3.4 Wall thickness of Absorber 187
6.3.4.1 Design pressure 187
6.3.4.2 Top ellipsoidal head 187
6.3.4.4 Bottom ellipsoidal head 189
6.3.5 Maximum allowable working pressure 190
6.3.6 Combined loading analysis 193
6.3.6.1 Longitudinal and circumferential stresses 193
6.3.6.2 Direct stresses 194
6.3.6.3 Bending stresses 195
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6.3.6.4 Torsional shear stresses 195

6.3.7 Analysis of primary stresses 196
6.3.8 Analysis of elastic stability 197
6.3.9 Vessel support analysis 198
6.3.9.2 Base ring and anchor design 201
6.3.10 Flanged joint design 203
6.3.11 Summary for mechanical design of quencher 206
6.4 Mechanical Design of Cooler E-104 206
6.4.2 Design pressure and thickness 207
a. Torispherical head 207
b. Cylindrical shell 208
6.4.3 Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) 210
6.4.4 Analysis of combined loading 211
a. Primary stresses 211
b. Principal stresses 213
c. Elastic stability 214
6.4.5 Design of vessel support 214
a. Bending moment and stress determination 215
6.4.6 Flange design 218
6.4.7 Summary 221
6.5 Mechanical Design of Spray Tower V-102 221
6.5.1 Process description 221
6.5.2 Material selection 222
a. Wall thickness of cylindrical shell 223
b. Wall thickness of torisphrical head 224
c. Minimum wall thickness of spray tower 226
6.5.4 Combined loading analysis 228
a. Dead load 228
b. Wind load 228
6.5.5 Vessel support 229
a. Skirt thickness 229
b. Base ring and anchor bolt design 231
c. Flange design 232
6.5.6 Design summary 233
6.6 Mechanical Design of PSA V-105 234
6.6.2 Material selection 234
6.6.3.1 Ellipsoidal head (top) 236
6.6.3.3 Ellipsoidal head (bottom) 237
6.6.4 Maximum allowable working pressure 238
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6.6.5 Analysis of combined loading 240
6.6.5.1 Primary stresses 240
6.6.5.2 Principal stresses 242
6.6.5.3 Maximum allowable stress intensity 242
6.6.5.4 Elastic stability 242
6.6.6 Vessel support analysis 243
6.6.6.2 base ring and anchor bolt design 246
6.6.6.3 Flanged joint design 248
6.6.8 Summary of design on PSA 251
CHAPTER VII UTILITY DESIGN

7.1 Cooling Tower Design 252
7.1.1 Cooling water requirement 254
7.1.2 Water makeup 257
7.1.2.1 Evaporation loss 257
7.1.2.2 Drift loss 258
7.1.2.3 Blowdown 258
7.1.3 Summary of cooling tower design 259
7.2 Boiler System (E-101) 260
7.2.2 Steam requirement 260
7.2.3 Boiler specification 261
CHAPTER VIII POLLUTION AND CLEANER PRODUCTION

8.1 Introduction 263
8.2 Wastewater Characteristic 264
8.3 Wastewater Treatment Plant Unit Operation 265
8.3.1 Equalization tank 266
8.3.2 Flocculation 266
8.3.3 Primary sedimentation 266
8.3.4 Aeration tank 267
8.3.5 Sludge treatment 267
8.3.6 Chlorine contact number 268
8.4 Design Criteria 268
8.4.1 Equalization tank 268
8.4.2 Flocculation tank 269
8.4.3 Primary sedimention tank 270
8.4.4 Aeration tank 271
8.4.5 Settling tank 272
8.4.6 Chlorine contact number 272
8.5 Sludge Treatment 273
8.5.1 Aeration digestion 273
8.5.2 Elutriation 274
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8.5.3 Chemical conditioning 274

8.5.4 Vacuum Filtration 274
8.6 Design Summary 275
8.7 Waste Gas Management 275
8.7.2 Flue gas stack design 276
CHAPTER IX ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

9.1 Total Capital Investment 279
9.2.1 Fixed capital investment, CFC 280
a Purchased equipment cost 280
b Direct cost 281
c Indirect cost 282
9.2.2 Working capital, CW 283
9.3 Total Product Cost 283
9.3.1 Manufacturing costs (COM) 284
a Direct manufacturing cost 284
b Fixed manufacturing cost 286
c Plant overhead (PO) 286
9.3.2 General expenses (GE) 287
9.3.3 Total product cost (TPC) 288
9.4 Depreciation 288
9.5 Break Even Analysis And Capacity 288
9.6 Process Profitability Analysis 289
9.6.1 Methods that do not consider time value of money 290
a Return on investment, ROI 290
b Payback period 291
9.6.2 Methods that consider time value of money 294
a Net present value, NPV 294
b Discounted cash flow rate of return, DCFRR 296
9.6.3 Result of profitability analysis 299
CHAPTER X SAFETY, RISK ASSESSMENT AND LOST

PREVENTION
10.2 Legal Requirements 301
10.2.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974 301
10.2.2 Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 302
10.2.3 Factory and Machinery Act 1967 304
10.3 Hazardous Material Inventory And Properties 306
10.4 Hazardous Material 307
10.4.1 Hydrogen 307
10.4.1.1 Flammability hazard 307
10.4.1.2 Potential health effect 309
10.4.1.3 Environmental aspects 310
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10.4.2 Methane 310

10.4.3 Carbon Monoxide 313
10.4.4 Carbon Dioxide 315
10.5 Concept Hazard Analysis Initial Review (CHAIR) 317
10.5.1 Gasifier 318
10.5.2 Superheater steam generator 319
10.5.3 Cyclone 320
10.5.4 Quencher 322
10.5.5 Spray tower V-102 323
10.5.6 Spray tower V-103 324
10.5.7 PSA V-105 325
10.6 Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) 326
10.7 Qualitative Risk Assessments 334
10.8 Hazard Identification, Riask Assesment & Risk Control 342
(HIRAC)
10.9 HAZOP 346
CHAPTER XI PLANT LOCATION

11.2 Land Beside UKM Transportation Unit 360
11.2.1 Location with respect to marketing area 360
11.2.2 Raw material supply 361
11.2.3 Transport facilities 361
11.2.4 Availability of labour 361
11.2.5 Availability of utilities 363
11.2.5.1 Water supply 363
11.2.5.2 Electric supply 363
11.2.5.3 Sewerage system 364
11.2.5.4 Environmental impact and waste disposal 365
11.2.5.5 Local community consideration 365
11.3 Taman Pantun UKM 366
11.3.1 Location with respect to marketing area 367
11.3.2 Transport Facilities 367
11.3.3 Local community consideration 368
11.4 Selection Of Suitable Plant Location 368
11.5 Plant Layout 370
xiv
REFERENCES 371
APPENDICES
A Material Safety Data Sheet
i MSDS for Hydrogen
ii MSDS for Methane
iii MSDS for Carbon Monoxide
iv MDSS for Carbon Dioxide
B iCON Simulation Report
i iCON Simulation Before Heat integration
ii iCON Simulation After Heat integration
C Process Flow Diagram
i Process Flow Diagram Before Heat integration
ii Process Flow Diagram After Heat integration
D Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
i Piping and Instrumentation Diagram Before Heat integration
ii Piping and Instrumentation Diagram After Heat integration
E Mechanical Drawings
i Reactor R-101
ii Furnace E-101
iii Quencher V-101
iv Cooler E-104
v Spray Tower V-102
vi PSA V-105
F Wastewater Treatment Plant
G Plant Layout
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LIST OF TABLE
Table No. Page

1.1 Physical Properties of Hydrogen 2
1.2 Physical properties of Methane 3
1.3 World Producer of Palm Oil 4
1.4 Properties of EFB 5
1.5 Comparison of Energy of Fuels 9
1.6 World Hydrogen Demand 10
1.7 Parameter uses to calculate H2 Demand 11
1.8 Total Demand of Hydrogen in Peninsular Malaysia 11
1.9 Methane Price 20
2.1 POLYMATH Polynomial Regression Migration Document 33
2.2 Elemental Analysis of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 36
2.3 Physical Properties of Cellulose 37
2.4 Physical Properties of Water 37
2.5 Physical Properties of Hydrogen 38
2.6 Physical Properties of Methane 38
2.7 Physical Properties of Carbon Monoxide 39
2.8 Physical Properties of Carbon Dioxide 39
2.9 Vapour Pressure of Chemical Involved 40
2.10 Heat Capacity of Gas 40
2.11 Heat Capacity of Solid 41
2.12 Heat Capacity of Liquid 41
2.13 Heat of Formation of Solid 41
2.14 Heat of Formation of Ideal Gas 41
2.15 Enthalpy of Vaporization 42
2.16 Destination of products for the steam gasification production 43
process
2.17 Product/reactant flow for process gasification 49
2.18 Cost of component Involved in Hydrogen Plant 50
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2.19 Data for Economy Potential Design Level 2 51

2.20 Cp value for each component at T= 900K 55
2.21 Value of parameter of adiabatic temperature 56
2.22 Volume of reactor with respect to conversion 60
2.23 Fm value of Material 61
2.24 Fp value at Different Pressure 61
2.25 Marshall and Swift index 62
2.26 Annual Cost of Reactor, Krt with respect to the conversion of 62
EFB
2.27 Data for potential economy of process design level 3 63
2.28 Geometries, Euler and Stokes numbers for two common types 67
of cyclones
2.29 Installation Cost of Cyclone (T-102) 69
2.30 Design Data of Spray Tower, V-102 and V-103 71
2.31 Scrubbing Media Properties 71
2.32 Preliminary Design for V-102 74
2.33 Preliminary Design for V-103 74
2.34 Preliminary Design for PSA 80
2.35 Data for Economy Potential of Level 4 81
2.36 (a) Summarize process flow diagram mass balance for the whole 83
process
2.36 (b) Summarize process flow diagram mass balance for the whole 83
process
2.36 (c) Summarize process flow diagram mass balance for the whole 84
process
2.37 Percentage error of mass balance calculation 84
2.38 Energy balance for the Whole Process 85
3.1 Potential Streams 92
3.2 Stream Specifications 92
3.3 Average values for ΔTmin given by Linnhoff 93
3.4 Table of Temperature Interval 93
3.5 Temperature Ranking Table 94
3.6 Heat Cascade 94
3.7 Result of Pinch Analysis 95
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4.1 Letter code for instrument symbols (based on ISA-5-1984 99

(R1992))
4.2 Type of controller and its objective 100
4.3 Summary of control strategy for furnace 101
4.4 Summary of control strategy for furnace 102
4.5 Summary of control strategy for gasifier 103
4.6 Summary of control strategy for cooler 104
4.7 Summary of control strategy of quencher 105
4.8 Summary of control strategy of spray tower V-102 and V-103 106
4.9 Optimum piping size for liquid flow 111
4.10 Optimum piping size for vapor flow 113
4.11 Non-return valve 115
4.12 Isolation valve 115
4.13 Pressure relief valve 115
4.14 Drain valve 115
4.15 Location, type, and application of relief valve 117
4.16 Relief valve calculation 120
5.1 Properties of catalyst dolomite 133
5.2 Volume of reactor with respect to conversion 136
5.3 Composition of materials in process fluid 139
5.4 Physical properties of water and process fluid 139
5.5 Summary of proposed Heat Exchanger E-104 design 146
5.6 Properties of Streams entering and leaving Spray tower 149
5.7 Volumetric flow rate of each component at the inlet stream of 151
quencher
5.8 Properties of PSA 155
6.1 Typical design stresses 162
6.2 Parameter-parameter used for wall thickness determination 163
6.3 MAWPpart for each part of gasifier reactor,R-101 166
6.4 Important parameters for skirt support 170
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6.5 shows the optimum piping size for stream S2 and stream S7 175
6.6 The welding neck flanges dimension (all in mm) at for 175
connection and nozzle for reactor
6.7 Design Concept Parameter 176
6.8 Summary of mechanical Design 176
6.9 Classification of refractories according to the chemical 178
composition
6.10 Properties of typical fireclay bricks 179
6.11 Dimensions of welding-neck flange 183
6.12 Continue dimensions of welding-neck flange 183
6.13 Typical Chemical Compound of Carbon Steel SA- 516 Grade 185
70
6.14 Design pressure for each part of the quencher 189
6.15 Nominal thickness of carbon steel SA-516 Grade 70 190
6.16 Internal pressure and MAWPvessel for each part of the 192
absorber
6.17 Nominal diameter for flange opening of quencher V-101 204
6.18 Dimension of a welding-neck flange, Class 150 for quencher, 205
V-101
6.19 Dimension of blind flange 205
6.20 Summary of mechanical design parameters of quench chamber, 206
Q-101
6.21 Design data for heat exchanger E-104 207
6.22 MAWPpart for each part of E-104 210
6.23 Standard Dimension of Saddle Support for Vessel up to 1.2 m 217
6.24 Computation of pipe size for stream 1a 219
6.25 Computation of pipe size for stream 1b 219
6.26 Computation of pipe size for stream 13 220
6.27 Computation of pipe size for stream 13a 220
6.28 Standard flange dimensions of welding-neck flanges 220
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6.29 Summary table of mechanical design of heat exchanger, E-104 221

6.30 Design data for spray tower 223
6.31 Wall Thickness Calculated for Spray tower V-102 226
6.32 MAWP for Spray Tower V-102 227
6.33 Design Specification of Skirt Support 229
6.34 Pipe Size Connected to Vessel V-102 232
6.35 Specification of Spray Tower V-102 233
6.36 Vessel Support Specification 233
6.37 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Specification 233
6.38 Flange Specification 234
6.39 Importance Parameters for Wall Thickness 235
6.40 Dimensions of the Vessel 236
6.41 Design Pressure and Wall Thickness of The Vessel 238
6.42 MAWP of The Vessel 239
6.43 Primary Stress 242
6.44 Dimension Lap Joint Flange 249
6.45 Nominal Size Flange Design 249
6.46 Dimension Piping System for PSA 250
6.47 Summary of design of PSA 251
7.1 Value of cooling tower requirements 255
7.2 Summary of Cooling Tower Design 259
8.1 Parameter Limit of Effluent 264
8.2 Comparison between wastewater characteristic and standard B 265
8.3 Design summary for each operating units in wastewater 275
treatment plant
8.4 Fuel Gas Composition 276
9.1 Purchase costs for equipment 281
9.2 Manufacturing fixed capital investment/ direct cost 282
9.3 Non-manufacturing fixed capital investment/ indirect cost 282
9.4 Estimation of cost of raw materials 284
9.5 Labours (operators) per shift 285
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9.6 Estimation of utility cost 285

9.7 Estimation of direct manufacturing costs 286
9.8 Estimation of fixed manufacturing costs 286
9.9 Estimation of general expenses 287
9.10 Suggested values for risk and minimum acceptable return on 291
investment
9.11 Summary of project investment 291
9.12 Summary Calculation of ROI and PBP 293
9.13 Summary Calculation of NPV 295
9.14 Summary Calculation of DCFRR 297
9.15 Summary of Profitability Analysis 299
10.1 Classification of legal requirement at each stage in project life 301
cycle
10.2 Parameter limits of industrial effluent of Standard A and B 302
10.3 Hazardous materials contains in the equipments 306
10.4 Hazardous material data 307
10.5 Symptoms of hydrogen exposure and first aid measured 309
10.6 Symptoms of methane exposure and first aid measured 312
10.7 Physical properties of carbon monoxide 313
10.8 Symptoms of carbon monoxide exposure and first aid measured 314
10.9 Symptoms of carbon dioxide exposure and first aid measured 316
10.10 CHAIR for Gasifier R-101 318
10.11 CHAIR for Superheater Steam Generator E-101 319
10.12 CHAIR for Cyclone T-102 320
10.13 CHAIR for Quencher V-101 322
10.14 CHAIR for Spray Tower V-102 323
10.15 CHAIR for Spray Tower V-103 324
10.16 CHAIR for PSA V-105 325
10.17 FMEA analysis for hydrogen and methane plant 327
10.18 Definition for Failure Mode Effect Analysis Severity Score 335
xxi
10.19 Definition for Failure Mode Effect Analysis Frequency Score 335
10.20 FMEA Critical Analysis (FMEACA) 336
10.21 HIRARC Analysis 343
10.22 HAZOP for Reactor R-101 347
10.23 HAZOP for Furnace 348
10.24 HAZOP for Quencher V-101 350
10.25 HAZOP for Heat Exchanger E-104 352
10.26 HAZOP for Spray Tower V-102 353
10.27 HAZOP for Spray Tower V-103 354
10.28 HAZOP for PSA – V105 355
10.29 HAZOP for Pump P-101 357
11.1 List of Institutions near Bangi 362
11.2 Basic Labour Grade and Salary 362
11.3 Water Tariff in Selangor 363
11.4 Electricity Industrial Tariff 364
11.5 Sewerage Rates 365
11.6 Weighted Scale for Plant Location Evaluation 368
11.7 Comparison of Plant Location 369
xxii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATION
Figure No. Page

1.1 Methane 3
1.2 World Hydrogen Demand 10
1.3 World consumption of hydrogen 2009 12
1.4 Hydrogen demand as fuel 13
1.5 World Consumption of Natural Gas at 2010 15
1.6 Expected Growing Market for Natural Gas 16
1.7 Natural Gas Demand Outlook by Sector 16
1.8 Top 5 Asia-Pacific natural Gas Reserve Holder, 2010 17
1.9 Top World LNG Exporters, 2009 18
1.10 Malaysia Gas Production vs Consumption 19
1.11 World Consumption of Natural Gas, 2010 19
2.1 Equations entered on Polymath 30
2.2 Polymath results 31
2.3 Mole Flow Rate of each component as a function of 32
conversion of EFB
2.4 Selectivity versus conversion of empty fruit bunch (EFB) 34
2.5 Input-output structure for production of hydrogen 43
2.6 Input-output structure for production of hydrogen 48
2.7 Potential Economy Curve of Process Design Level 2 50
2.8 Structure of design process of level 3 52
2.9 57
Adiabatic temperatures for EFB steam gasification
2.10 Graph of Reactor Volume vs Conversion of EFB from 59
Polymath
2.11 Potential economy curve for process design level 3 64
2.12 Separation Structure for Hydrogen Plant 65
2.13 Cyclone Design Geometries 67
2.14 Vertical Water Scrubber 70
xxiii
2.15 Cycles of Adsorber Vessels in PSA Unit 75

2.16 and Values Against 78
2.17 Breakthrough Time versus Height 79
2.18 Potential Economy Curve for Process of Design Level 4 81
2.19 Process Simulation by iCON 87
2.20 iCON Stream Table 88
3.1 Grid Representation for Above and Below Pinch 96
3.2 The Network Design Above Pinch 97
3.3 The Network Design Below Pinch 97
4.1 Control configuration of furnace 101
4.2 Control configuration of dryer 102
4.3 Control configuration of gasifier 103
4.4 Control configuration of cooler 104
4.5 Control configuration of quencher 105
4.6 Spray tower control 106
4.7 Cycle on process of PSA 108
4.8 Automatic valve on PSA 109
5.1 Box-type furnace 122
5.2 Radiant section heat flux 125
5.3 Radiation due to carbon dioxide 126
5.4 Radiation due to water vapor 127
5.5 Overall heat-exchange factor in radiant sections 128
5.6 Graph of Reactor Volume vs Conversion of EFB from 135
Polymath
5.7 Heat Exchanger E-104 specifications 138
5.8 Counter-current flow in Heat Exchanger E-104 140
5.9 Typical countercurrent-flow spray tower 148
5.10 Quencher V-101 151
5.11 Counter-current flow in Quencher V-101 152
5.12 Pressure Swing Adsorption 154
xxiv
6.1 Radiation between a plane and one or more tube rows parallel 177
to the plane
6.2 Heat transfer in furnace wall 181
6.3 Welding-neck flange dimensions 183
6.4 Quencher, V-101 184
6.5 Shape and dimension of an absorber 186
6.6 Dimension of a welding-neck flange 204
6.7 Dimension of a blind flange 204
6.8 Saddle design 215
6.9 Bending moment diagram 215
6.10 Standard steel saddle notations 218
6.11 Welding-neck flanges schematic diagram 221
6.12 Dimension of Spray tower V-102 222
6.13 Dimensions of Pressure Vessel 235
6.14 Straight skirt support 244
6.15 Double plate with gusset 246
6.16 Lap joint flanged 248
7.1 Cooling Tower System 253
7.2 Induced Draft Cooling Tower 254
7.3 Nomograph of Cooling Tower Characteristic 255
7.4 Sizing Chart of Counter Flow Induced-Draft Cooling Tower 256
7.5 Cooling Tower Design 259
7.6 Component of steam generator 262
8.1 Waste generation from hydrogen and methane plant 265
8.2 Preliminary design of wastewater treatment plant 265
8.3 Block diagram for sludge treatment 273
8.4 Flue gas stack 277
9.1 Break even chart 289
9.2 Graph of DCFRR against year 298
9.3 Graph of cash flow and non-discounted cash flow against year 298
xxv
11.1 Land Beside UKM Transportation Unit 360

11.2 Taman Pantun UKM area 366
11.3 Taman Pantun Blueprint 367
CHAPTER I
PRODUCT ANALYSIS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the simplest element known to man. Each atom of hydrogen has only one
proton and one electron. It is also the most plentiful gas in the universe. It is the first
element found in the periodic table. In normal conditions it’s a colorless, odorless and
insipid gas, formed by diatomic molecules, H2. The hydrogen atom, symbol H, is
formed by a nucleus with one unit of positive charge and one electron. Its atomic
number is 1 and its atomic weight 1.007825 g/mole. It’s one of the main compounds
of water and of all organic matter, and it’s widely spread not only in The Earth but
also in the entire Universe. There are three hydrogen isotopes: protium, mass 1, found
in more than 99,985% of the natural element; deuterium, mass 2, found in nature in
0.015% approximately, and tritium, mass 3, which appears in small quantities in
nature, but can be artificially produced by various nuclear reactions.
Hydrogen has the highest energy content of any common fuel by weight, but
the lowest energy content by volume. It is the lightest element and a gas at normal
temperature and pressure. Since hydrogen doesn’t exist on Earth as a gas, we must
make it become one. We make hydrogen by separating it from water, biomass, or
natural gas which comes from domestic resources. Due to the environmental and price
issue of current energy crisis, scientist and technologist around the globe are
intensively searching for the new environmentally less-impact form of clean energy
that will reduce the high dependency on fossil fuel. Particularly, hydrogen can be
2
produced from biomass via thermo chemical processes including pyrolysis and
gasification due to the economic advantage. Biomass gasification is recently receiving
increasing attention as a renewable resource for the hydrogen production. The primary
of this project is to design a hydrogen and methane plant that use renewable sources as
the main feedstock. Important physical properties of hydrogen are shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Physical Properties of Hydrogen
Characteristics Properties
Chemical Formula H2
Physical State Colorless gas
Melting Point -259°C
Boiling Point -253°C
Critical Temperature -240°C
Molar Mass 1.007825 g/mole
Density 0.0899 x 10 -3 g/cm3 at 20 °C
Source: MSDS Hydrogen
Hydrogen is an energy carrier for the future. It is a clean fuel that can be used
in places where it’s hard to use electricity. It is also used as a fuel for transportation to
replace diesel and gasoline. Hydrogen can be burned in internal combustion engines.
Hydrogen fuel cells are being looked into as a way to provide power and research is
being conducted on hydrogen as a possible major future fuel. For instance it can be
converted to and from electricity from bio-fuels, from and into natural gas and diesel
fuel, theoretically with no emissions of either CO2 or toxic chemicals.
1.1.2 Methane
Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH4. It is the simplest
alkane, the principal component of natural gas, and probably the most abundant
organic compound on earth. The relative abundance of methane makes it an attractive
fuel. However, because it is a gas at normal conditions, methane is difficult to
transport from its source. At room temperature and standard pressure, methane is a
colorless, odorless gas. Below are the important physical properties of methane and
figure 1.1 shows the chemical structure of methane.
3
Figure 1.1: Methane
Table 1.2: Physical Properties of Methane
Characteristics Properties
Chemical Formula CH4
Physical State Colorless gas
Molar Mass 16.04 g/mole
Melting Point -187°C
Boiling Point -161°C
Solubility in water 35 mg/dm3 (at 17 °C)
Density 716 μg/cm3
Density 0.0899 x 10 -3 g/cm3 at 20 °C
Source: MSDS Methane
Methane is used in industrial chemical processes and may be transported as a

refrigerated liquid (liquefied natural gas, or LNG). Methane can be produced
simultaneously with hydrogen from gasification of biomass and the source of biomass
that is going to use in this design project is empty fruit bunch (EFB).
1.2 SOURCE OF RAW MATERIAL
Due to the energy crisis and environmental problems associated with the fossil fuel
usage, the utilization of hydrogen production as a clean and sustainable energy caries
is becoming attractive. Biomass gasification is one of the productive ways to produce
hydrogen and syngas. The use of pure steam as the gasification agent is more
economical than other conventional gasifying agents and pyrolysis. The potential of
using biomass as the feedstock is because there is abundance of biomass in Malaysia
especially in the form of agricultural residue such as empty oil palm fruit bunch
(EFB).
4
As Malaysia is the one of the largest exporter of palm oil, thus we produced
more than 17millions tons/year of EFB. Empty fruit bunches (EFB) is becoming a
popular source of fuel for renewable energy power generation. The rapid depletion of
fossil fuel and most developed nations are pursuing the development of biomass as an
alternative method of power generation. Malaysia has a ready source of biomass in
Empty fruit bunches (EFB) conveniently collected and available for exploitation in all
palm oil mills. When convert the energy in the most efficient manner, Malaysia is well
on the way to this most important sustainable source of energy for this century. The
main achievement of using biomass-based renewable energy power generation is the
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHG).
Due to EFB availability throughout the year, the EFB is a suitable feedstock
for the gasification process. Among the major palm oil producing countries, Indonesia
comes to number one, producing 20.25 million ton, and next comes Malaysia,
producing 17.76 million ton.
Table 1.3: World Producer of Palm Oil
Producer Capacity (000 tonnes)

Malaysia 15881
Indonesia 15900
Thailand 820
Nigeria 815
Columbia 711
Others 2718
Source: United States Department of Agriculture
1.3 PROPERTIES OF EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH (EFB)
Table 1.4 shows the properties of empty fruit bunch (EFB) that are going to used as
the raw materials in the production of hydrogen and methane. The molecular formula
for EFB is C3.4H4.1O3.3 which is based on 1kg of biomass with the molecular weight of
97.7 kg/kg mole.
5
Table 1.4: Properties of EFB
Component Proportion
Cellulose 59.7
Hemicelluloses 22.1
Lignin 18.1
Elemental Analysis
Carbon 48.9
Hydrogen 6.3
Nitrogen 0.7
Oxygen 36.7
Sulphur 0.2
Source: journal of Physical Science, Vol. 22(1), 1-24, 2011
1.4 PRODUCT USAGE
Hydrogen and methane is the product in this design project but the main product in
this study is the hydrogen. Both products have their own usage but in this design
project, the main usage of this product is within the campus environment.
1.4.1 Hydrogen Usage
Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be obtained from different sources which are
fossil fuels (natural gas reforming, coal gasification), renewable and nuclear energy
(biomass processes, photo-electrolysis, biological production, high temperature water
splitting) and electricity (water electrolysis). Hydrogen from biomass is the only direct
way to produce hydrogen from renewable energy without major technology
breakthroughs. Biomass can be converted into hydrogen via various processes
(pyrolysis, gasification, anaerobic digestion etc.). While R&D focuses on gasification,
synergies with other fuel production processes (bio fuels) could open the way to other
options and accelerate market uptake.
The major usage of hydrogen is as a fuel especially for transportation. Fuel

cells will be used in a wide range of products, ranging from very small fuel cells in
portable devices such as mobile phones and laptops, through mobile applications like
6
cars, delivery vehicles, buses and ships, to heat and power generators in stationary
applications in the domestic and industrial sector.
1.4.1.1 Transportation
The main usage of hydrogen is to transport bus in the campus. A fuel cell bus is a bus
that uses a hydrogen fuel cell as its power source for electrically driven wheels,
sometimes augmented in a hybrid fashion with batteries or a super capacitor. The
hydrogen fuel cell buses being introduced in London will use an electric motor, with
the hydrogen stored in tanks on the roof. The only emission from a fuel cell bus is
water, which forms a vapor cloud as it leaves the exhaust and enters the atmosphere.
Hydrogen can replace diesel and gasoline as the fuel and thus reducing the emission of
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as well as reducing the greenhouse effect. The
hydrogen produced will be used to power up 20 buses in the campus. Below are the
information for the amount of hydrogen needed in a day.
i) 20 buses will travel 4180.8 km per day

ii) 1 kg of hydrogen can travel for about 11.8 km
iii) Thus, 4180.8 km = 354.31 kg of hydrogen
1 kg of hydrogen has the same energy content with 3.2 kg of gasoline. Table
1.1 shows the comparison of energy between hydrogen, gasoline and diesel.
Table 1.5: Comparison of energy of fuels
Type of fuel Energy content per gallon (kW)

Hydrogen 1.905
Gasoline 31.94 – 36.63
Diesel 37.50 – 38.09
Source: U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program
In conclusion, hydrogen as fuel is considered as the best choice to replace diesel or

gasoline due to the less usage of energy needed and it also cause less emission of
carbon dioxide and thus can reduce the greenhouse effect in atmosphere
7
1.4.1.2 Electric Power
Every day, we use more energy, mostly coal, to make electricity. Electricity is a
secondary energy source. Secondary sources of energy which sometimes called
energy carriers can be store, move, and deliver energy to consumers. We convert
energy to electricity because it is easier for us to move and use. Electricity gives us
light, heat, hot water, cold food, TVs, and computers.
1.4.1.3 Heating System
In some regions (China, S. America, Europe) syngases are used for process heat,
heating buildings, and even cooking. Hydrogen is a component of these gases (up to
50%) that used as in heating system. Hydrogen emits absolutely zero toxic by-
products when burned and the main by-product (besides heat) is, of course, steam.
Although hydrogen is not the best fuel for baking (things come out a little soggy
without some simple oven modifications), hydrogen is totally unsurpassed for cooking
any type of steamed dish.
1.4.2 Methane Usage
Steam gasification of EFB will also produce some methane. Methane is a diversely
used organic compound. The uses of methane can be divided into four main
categories: home usage, industrial usage, energy production, and commercial
usage. Home usage includes use in stoves and other household appliances, whereas
industrial usage ranges from heating boilers to producing methanol. Energy
production is the use of methane to heat boilers which then, in turn, make generators
produce electricity.
1.4.2.1 Central Heating System
Central Heating Systems can actually use gas, oil or solid fuel. Gas heating is by far
the most efficient, as it gives automatic heat wherever and whenever it is needed. It
also supplies hot water, efficiently and economically, all year round.
8
1.4.2.2 Cooking
Cooking is probably the most common application of natural gas. Natural gas can be
used in the oven for roasting, baking and re-heating food in the grill for cooking,
browning and crisping and in the hob for heating food in saucepans, frying and
boiling. The main advantages of natural gas in this area are that it provides heat
virtually instantaneously and it is not necessary for rings or grills to 'warm up' before
usage. It also provides a moist environment in the oven since water vapor is one of the
products of combustion. This improves the appearance and color of cooked food as
well as reducing the weight loss in cooking meat.
1.4.2.3 Transportation
Currently there are over 70,000 NGV's (natural gas vehicles) in America, over 1
million world-wide and 1,300 fueling stations for NGV's. However, of those 1,300
stations, only half are available for public use. Forty manufacturers are currently
creating NGV's and 22% of all new bus orders are for those using natural gas
engines. This is due in part to the cheaper costs of natural gas, which is about 1/3 the
price of gasoline. It takes only 1.7 gallons of natural gas to equal the power of 1
gallon of gasoline. In addition, natural gas is also less polluting and has no
evaporative emissions during fueling, which is where 50% of gasoline pollution
comes from. Natural gas is also non-toxic and is not corrosive. It doesn't contaminate
ground water supplies and, with its higher ignition temperature of 1200ºF compared
to the 600ºF of gasoline, it is a safer fuel to use. Low emissions and economic
feasibility promise to make NGV's a major source for alternative fuel vehicles. As gas
prices rise alternative fuel vehicles will become more popular.
1.5 DEMAND OF HYDROGEN
Opportunities in hydrogen look strong during the forecast period (2009–2014).

Demand for distillate has been increasing steadily from refineries, which produce and
consume large volumes. Environmental regulations implemented in most
industrialized countries result in increased hydrogen requirements at refineries for
9
gasoline and diesel desulfurization because of increased demand for cleaner fuels and
tighter engine manufacturer specifications. At the same time, heavy sour crudes,
which are hydrogen-deficient compared with lighter crudes, are making up an
increasing proportion of refinery runs. Availability of by-product hydrogen at
refineries will decline while hydrogen requirements increase. With increased demand,
refineries must produce more hydrogen to meet their needs. Growing demand for
diesel fuel, trends in outsourcing production that has been captive, and demand in
emerging markets are drivers for the growth of hydrogen in refining. Technologies
used in such cases include membranes, adsorption and cryogenic recovery.
According to Freedonia’s research, Petroleum refineries are the largest

consumers of hydrogen, accounting for nearly 90% of global consumption in 2008.
Historically, most refinery consumption was captively produced during refining.
However, the production of newer low sulfur, clean-burning fuels requires massive
amounts of hydrogen for the hydrotreating of petroleum distillates, which is driving
demand for merchant supplies. Of the anticipated 73 billion cubic meters of increased
global hydrogen demand projected through 2013, just below 84% will be consumed
by refineries. Merchant suppliers will supply 55% of the increased hydrogen demand
by refineries.
Manufacturing and other (non-refining) hydrogen applications accounted for

11% of consumption in 2008, or 45 billion cubic meters. Chemical manufacturing
(exclusive of ammonia and methanol production) accounted for 6% of global
consumption, while the remaining 5% was accounted for by other manufacturing and
non-manufacturing applications. Hydrogen is used in the production of
semiconductors and glass, in the thermal treatment of metal components, and in the
hydrogenation of processed foods.
In 2008, North America led the world in hydrogen consumption which the
result of its huge economy and its stringent fuel-emission standards. The Asia Pacific
region was a close second. More rapid growth in the economies of China, India and
other Asia Pacific countries (excluding Japan, whose economy is already quite mature)
as they nurture their emerging industrial bases will make this region the global leader
10
in hydrogen consumption well before 2013. Western Europe is third among the
world’s hydrogen consumers. The other developing regions, Latin America, Eastern
Europe and the Africa/Middle East region, will also experience faster growth in
hydrogen demand than the more mature economies of North America and Western
Europe.
Table 1.6: World Hydrogen Demand
WORLD HYDROGEN ON DEMAND (billion cubic metres)

Country/Year 2003 2008 2013
North America 96.0 122.9 132.0
Western Europe 61.0 73.3 78.0
Asia/Pasific 87.2 119.6 157.0
Other Regions 62.8 86.5 108.0
Source: Freedonia Group 2010
World Hydrogen Demand

(billion cubic metres)
180
160
140
120
North America
100
Western Europe
80
Asia/Pasific
60
Other Regions
40
20
0
2003 2008 2013
Figure 1.2: World Hydrogen Demand
Source: Freedonia Group 2010

11
1.5.1 Malaysia Hydrogen Demand
Energy is the key element for economic development. Malaysia is among the
important country in world energy market with 75 trillion feet natural gas storage and
exporting about 300,000 barrel per day. There are four types of energy sources in
Malaysia which are, fuel, natural gas, electricity and coal. The first step in designing a
system to deliver hydrogen as one of the transportation fuel is by characterizing the
hydrogen demand to be served. The estimated total hydrogen demand in Peninsular
Malaysia is as a function of total vehicle numbers, average total distance traveled and
vehicle fuel economy. The estimated demand is assumed to supply fuel cell powered
vehicle including cars and taxies, buses and light good vehicles. Table 1.6 and 1.7
shows the parameter that is used to calculate hydrogen demand and total demand of
hydrogen in Peninsular Asia according to states respectively.
Table 1.7: Parameter uses to calculate H2 demand
Parameters Car/Taxi Light Good Vehicle Buses

No of vehicles 425128 19730 1205
Distance travelled (km/veh/yr) 1.53 X 104 3.80 X 104 5.51 X 104
Vehicle Fuel Efficiency 3.60 4.59 51.91
(scf/H2/mi)
Source: ICOSSSE 2008
Table 1.8: Total demand of hydrogen in Peninsular Malaysia
State Population Demand (kg/day)

Johor 3029300 234261
Kedah 1813100 140210
Kelantan 1479700 114428
Melaka 700100 54410
Negeri Sembilan 926600 71888
Pahang 1399500 108226
Perak 2225000 172063
Perlis 221200 17106
Pulau Pinang 1442800 111574
Selangor & Putrajaya 4613900 356801
Terengganu 990600 76605
W.Persekutuan 1529000 118240
Total 20373800 1575542
Source: ICOSSSE 2008

12
1.6 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
The largest volumes of intentionally produced or merchant hydrogen are consumed at

refineries, in ammonia production and in methanol production. Most of this hydrogen
is produced by the consumer at the site where it will be used. Nearly 96% of all
hydrogen is derived from fossil fuels, with natural gas being by far the most
frequently used source, with an estimated 49%, followed by liquid hydrocarbons at
29%, coal at 18%, and electrolysis and other by-product sources of hydrogen at about
4%. The following pie chart shows world consumption of hydrogen.
Figure 1.3: World consumption of hydrogen 2009
Source: Sri consulting 2010
Increasing attention has been given to hydrogen production for use in fuel cells
to provide energy for numerous applications, including transportation. Limited fossil
resources, rising energy prices and concern for the environment are prompting
increased attention on hydrogen as an alternative energy carrier.
More than 5,200 hydrogen fueling stations for cars, buses and forklifts will be
operational by 2020, up from just 200 stations in 2010, according to a report by Pike
Research. Demand for hydrogen as a fuel will rise from about 775,000 kg in 2010 to
418 million kg by 2020. Pike says that key direct hydrogen fuel cell applications
13
include light duty vehicles, forklifts, buses, stationary power, and scooters. Each of
these markets presents its own challenges.
The report says that forklifts will be the largest driver of hydrogen fuel
demand by 2020, representing 36% of the total market by that time. The other large
application categories include light duty vehicles, which will consume 33% of total
hydrogen, and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) for stationary power, which will
represent 27% of the total. Fuel cell buses and scooters will each represent only a
small percentage of total hydrogen demand.
Figure 1.4: Hydrogen demand as fuel
Source: Pike research 2011
1.7 HYDROGEN PRICE
The commercialization of H2 production and distribution systems is highly capital

intensive. Therefore, there is limited sensitivity to process efficiency and input energy
(feedstock) cost. We have estimated substantial reductions over time in virtually all of
our centralized production pathways. We have also estimated reductions in the
14
distributed production of H2, but there may be greater opportunities for cost reduction
in distributed production by using electrolysis than we have estimated.
The hydrogen price is depending on the consumption of the hydrogen. The

worldwide total hydrogen delivery device is estimated at $702 million in 2003 and is
expected to rise at an average annual growth rate (AAGR) of 15.8% to $1,462 million
in 2008. The stationary market is estimated to be about 66% of the total hydrogen
delivery device market. Rising at an AAGR of 15.8%, this market will continue to
dominate, reaching $975 million in 2008. Transportation will be 35% of the hydrogen
delivery device market in 2008, up from 28% in 2003. Portable fueling systems will
have a value of about $117 million in 2003, growing to $244 million in 2008 at an
AAGR of 15.7%. According to our production, the price of hydrogen can be estimated
RM 60/kg.
1.8 FUTURE MARKETING POTENTIAL OF HYDROGEN
We live in a time of synchronicity, as four seminal conditions are converging. The

world’s demand for energy is voracious and increasing. Our energy infrastructure is
aging and large chunks are at the end of their design life. People are becoming aware
that the primary energy resource, fossil fuels, is not limitless and the world has
realized that the environment is degrading. One solution being put forward is to
convert from the Carbon Economy which fuelled the Industrial Revolution to a
Hydrogen Economy. The ABS Energy Research believes that in 50 years the world
will not be a total hydrogen economy but may be a hybrid, using a composite of
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, beside other energy carriers, distributed generation, gas and
electricity, renewable energy and emission-free generation from hydrocarbons using
underground coal gasification, carbon capture and storage. The possibilities are
endless.
Global investments in building the hydrogen economy cost over $1.3 billion in
2006 and are expected to rise to nearly $1.7 billion in 2007 and $5.5 billion in 2012.
Hydrogen production technologies should increase their market share from 10.6% in
2006 to 14.3% in 2012.
15
1.9 DEMAND OF NATURAL GAS
Natural gas is a naturally occurring gas mixture consisting primarily of methane. As

world energy demand continues to increase and alternative forms of energy such as
water, wind and solar power fail to make significant enough inroads to ease emissions
from traditional fossil fuel–derived manufacturing, more countries are deferring to
readily available, cleaner-burning natural gas to meet domestic energy requirements.
Moreover, in recent years, with advances in horizontal drilling and hydraulic
fracturing, shale gas comes into play as a substantial current and future contributor to
the natural gas supply portfolio.
The EIA estimates that industrial energy demand will increase at an average
rate of 0.9% per year to 2035. This may seem like a low level of growth, however it
represents energy requirements for both energy-intensive manufacturing industries
(which are expected to decline), and non-energy-intensive manufacturing industries
(which are expected to grow). Industrial demand accounts for 27 percent of natural
gas demand.
Natural Gas Consumption by End-use

2010
9%
Electric Generation
13% 30%
Industrial
Residential
21% Commercial
Other
27%
Figure 1.5: World Consumption of Natural Gas at 2010
Source: EIA
16
According to EUROGAS (The European Union of the Natural Gas Industry),

natural gas is expected to reach 30% of the primary energy consumption. Because of
“its green properties” and highly efficient application technologies, natural gas will
remain the fuel of choice and will continue to make a growing contribution to energy
supply in the Figure 1.5. Natural gas can play an important role as a bridging fuel to a
sustainable energy future over the coming decades.
Expected Growing Market for Natural Gas

28.8% 29.7% 30.1%
26.0% 27.4%
24.1%
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Figure 1.6: Expected Growing Market for Natural Gas
Source: EUROGAS 2007
700
Natural Gas Demand Outlook by Sector
600 34
33
500 30 36
27
209 226 others
22 181 139
400 158 Power Generation
123
300 Industry
137 145 150 156
118 128 Residential & Commercial
200
100 175 180 187 191 193 194
0
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Figure 1.7: Natural Gas Demand Outlook by Sector
Source: EUROGAS 2007

17
1.9.1 Malaysia Natural Gas Demand
According to the Oil and Gas Journal, Malaysia held 83 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of
proven natural gas reserves as of January 2010. Most of the country’s natural gas
reserves are in its eastern areas, predominantly offshore Sarawak. As in the oil
sector, Malaysia’s state-owned Petronas dominates the natural gas sector. The
company has a monopoly on all upstream natural gas developments, and also plays a
leading role in downstream activities and the LNG (liquefied natural gas) trade. Most
natural gas production comes from production sharing agreements operated by foreign
companies in conjunction with Petronas.
Figure 1.8: Top 5 Asia-Pacific natural Gas Reserve Holder, 2010
Source: EIA
Malaysia was the second largest exporter of LNG in the world after Qatar in
2009, exporting over 1 Tcf of LNG, which accounted for 12 percent of total world
LNG exports. Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan were the 3 primary purchasers. LNG is
primarily transported by Malaysia International Shipping Corporation (MISC), which
owns and operates 27 LNG tankers, the single largest LNG tanker fleet in the world
by volume of LNG carried.
18
The Bintulu LNG complex on Sarawak is the main hub for Malaysia's natural
gas industry. Petronas owns majority interests in Malaysia's 3 LNG processing plants,
all located at Bintulu, which are supplied by the offshore natural gas fields at Sarawak.
The Bintulu facility is the largest LNG complex in the world, with 8 production trains
and a total liquefaction capacity of 1.1 Tcf per year. A further increment through
debottlenecking is expected by end-2010, raising overall capacity by 0.6 Tcf per year.
Japanese financing has been critical to the development of Malaysia's LNG facilities.
Figure 1.9: Top World LNG Exporters, 2009
Source: EIA
1.10 NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
Natural gas production has been rising steadily, reaching 2.1 Tcf in 2009, while
domestic natural gas consumption has also increased steadily, reaching 1.0 Tcf in
2009. There are several important ongoing projects that are expanding natural gas
production in Malaysiaover the near term. Exploration and development activities
in Malaysia continue to focus on offshore Sarawak and Sabah.
19
Figure 1.10: Malaysia Gas Production vs Consumption
Source: EIA 2009
Figure 1.11: World Consumption of Natural Gas, 2010
Source: Sri Consulting 2010
World natural gas consumption between 1990 and 2010 increased by 56%.
Natural gas consumption currently accounts for one-quarter of world energy demand.
In the United States, 25% of total primary energy consumption is in the form of
natural gas (oil and coal account for the majority of the rest). North America was the
largest natural gas–consuming region in 2010, with 25% of the world total, followed
20
closely by Central/Eastern Europe/CIS with 21% and Asia/Oceania with 17%,

surpassing Western Europe beginning in 2006. Consumption in Asia, Oceania and the
Middle East has grown significantly in the past decade and is forecast to continue
further development through 2015. In 2010, total world supply of natural gas slightly
outweighed total world demand.
1.11 METHANE PRICE
Natural Gas futures contracts declined 6.54 percent during the last 12 months. From
1990 until 2011 Natural Gas futures prices averaged 4.10dollars (RM12.88) reaching
an historical high of 15.38dollars (RM48.29) in December of 2005 and a record low of
1.05dollars (RM3.29) in January of 1992. The futures contract trades in units of
10,000 million British thermal units (mmBtu). The price is based on delivery at the
Henry Hub in Louisiana, the nexus of 16 intra- and interstate natural gas pipeline
systems that draw supplies from the region prolific gas deposits.
The average price of methane is show in Table 1.8 between years 2007-2011.
The prices change over time due to supply, demand and other factors.
Table 1.9: Methane Price
Price (RM/thousand cubic meter)

2006 916.56
2007 863.10
2008 1054.86
2009 500.45
2010 383.28
2011 240.48
Source: International Monetary Fund, 2011
1.12 NATURAL GAS PRODUCER
The major natural gas producer in the United States in the second quarter of 2009 is
XTO Energy. XTO Energy is the largest producer of natural gas, at 2.352 Bcf per
day. The company has a well-diversified domestic base of properties including
21
virtually every promising shale play in the U.S., where the company has 30% of its
daily production. BP Inc. which is number two and the only major integrated oil
company on the list. It produced 2.339 billion cubic feet (Bcf) of natural gas per day.
Anadarko Petroleum is third with production of 2.336 Bcf per day. Interestingly, the
company's main base of production is not the shale plays that its peers have decided to
focus on, but in the Rocky Mountains area, where it has acreage in several different
fields including the Powder River Basin and the Pinedale.
Chesapeake Energy is fourth with 2.245 Bcf per day of natural gas
production. Chesapeake Energy has been one of the leaders in developing the shale
plays in North America, with leading positions in the Haynesville, Marcellus, Barnett
and Fayetteville Shales. Devon Energy is fifth on the list with 2.129 Bcf per day of
production. Devon Energy dominates the core area of the Barnett Shale in the Fort
Worth Basin in Texas where it has a little more than half its total natural gas
production. The company has nearly 4100 producing wells here.
Despite its size, Exxon Mobil is ninth on the list, with production of 1.243 Bcf
per day in the second quarter of 2009. Exxon Mobil might have been better off
reducing its stock buybacks and putting some more money into its domestic capital
exploration program. One thing to mitigate this trailing position by Exxon Mobil, and
other integrated oil companies is that they have substantial international operations,
which might explain why they have not focused as much in the United States. Exxon
Mobil also has promising shale play in the Horn River Basin in Canada, which when
developed, might jumpstart its growth on the continent.
Malaysia is ranked 14th in the world in terms of its gas reserves. At the current
rate of production, Malaysia's gas reserves expected to last another 36 years. In 2007,
Malaysia's production of natural gas averaged 7.01 bscf per day. As at 31 March 2008,
Malaysia had 88 producing fields of which 61 were oil fields and 27 gas fields. About
50% of these producing fields are solely operated by PETRONAS's subsidiary,
PETRONAS Carigali.
22
1.13 FUTURE MARKETING POTENTIAL OF NATURAL GAS
Natural gas marketing is a relatively new addition to the natural gas industry,
beginning in the mid-1980's. Prior to the deregulation of the natural gas commodity
market and the introduction of open access for everyone to natural gas pipelines, there
was no role for natural gas marketers. Producers sold to pipelines, who sold to local
distribution companies and other large volume natural gas users. Local distribution
companies sold the natural gas purchased from the pipelines to retail end users,
including commercial and residential customers. Price regulation at all levels of this
supply chain left no place for others to buy and sell natural gas. However, with the
newly accessible competitive markets introduced gradually over the past fifteen years,
natural gas marketing has become an integral component of the natural gas industry.
In fact, the first marketers were a direct result of interstate pipelines attempting to
recoup losses associated with long term contracts entered into as a result of the
oversupply problems of the early 1980s.
Essentially, marketers are primarily concerned with selling natural gas, either
to resellers (other marketers and distribution companies), or end users. On average,
most natural gas can have three to four separate owners before it actually reaches the
end-user. In addition to the buying and selling of natural gas, marketers use their
expertise in financial instruments and markets to both reduce their exposure to risks
inherent to commodities, and earn money through speculating as to future market
movements.
CHAPTER II
PRODUCTION DESIGN CONCEPT
2.1 PROCESS OVERVIEW
There are many different process routes that can be used to produce hydrogen and
methane from biomass (Nath et al, 2003):
i. Thermochemical gasification coupled with water gas shift

ii. Fast pyrolysis followed by reforming of carbohydrate fractions of bio-oil
iii. Direct solar gasification
iv. Supercritical conversion of biomass
v. Microbial conversion of biomass
Among these few methods, method i and ii are the only commercial routes to
produce hydrogen and methane. For method iii, effective collector plates are required
for solar gasification of carbonaceous material to produce syngas quality intermediate
for production of hydrogen, which are expensive. Method iv involves high pressure
condition (22MPa) that can result in high investment and maintenance cost.
Production of hydrogen and methane from microbial conversion is less suitable
because it requires selection of suitable microorganism and the low conversion
efficiency. Therefore, either method i or ii will be chosen for this design project.
Between the two, Balat (2008) found that gasification offers lower production cost.
This is probably due to:
i. Thermochemical gasification is a one step reaction where hydrogen-rich gas can
be obtained directly after the gasification process
24
ii. Pyrolysis of biomass produce mainly bio-oil (70% yield) where further reforming
is required to produce hydrogen and methane
Therefore, method of thermochemical gasification will be used in this project.
2.2 BIOMASS FEEDSTOCK
The potential for hydrogen production from biomass in Malaysia is attractive due to
the abundance of biomass, especially in the form of agricultural residues such as
empty oil palm fruit bunch (EFB). Malaysia, as the largest exporter of palm oil, deals
with the production of empty fruit bunch (EFB) of more than 17 million tons/year.
It is also reported that the use of pure steam as the gasifying agent is more economical
and favour the production of hydrogen more than other conventional agents (Franco et
al., 2003).
2.3 PROCESS DESIGN LEVEL 1
Level 1 of the hierarchy of process design developed by Douglas (1988) is process

selection. The researches on information of the chemical reaction involved, raw
materials and products, operating conditions, design constraints, and physical and
chemical properties of materials have to be carried out in this level (Wan Ramli, 2002).
2.3.1 Chemical Reaction
There are 5 chemical reactions involved in the production of hydrogen and methane
from biomass (empty fruit bunch) gasification. The reactions involved are char
gasification, methanation, boudouard, methane reforming and water gas shift. As the
reaction happens, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are produced as side products.
a) Reaction Stoichiometry
The molecular formula of empty fruit bunch (EFB) can be represented by C3.4 H 4.1O3.3
and the stoichiometric equations of these reactions are (Ahmad et al, 2011):
25
Char gasification:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  0.1H 2O 
r1
2.15H 2  3.4CO (2.1)
Methanation:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  8.05H 2 
r2
3.4CH 4  3.3H 2O (2.2)
Boudouard:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  CO2 
r3
4.4CO  0.9H 2O  1.15H 2 (2.3)
Methane reforming:
CH 4  H 2O 
r4
CO  3H 2 (2.4)
Water gas shift:
CO  H 2O 
r5
CO2  H 2 (2.5)
For simplicity, a symbol will be given to address each component in the following
equations and calculations.
Empty fruit bunch = EFB
Steam = H2O
Hydrogen = H2
Carbon Monoxide = CO
Carbon Dioxide = CO2
Methane = CH4
b) Reaction Condition
Biomass, which is in solid form will be gasified under high temperature, normally
around 873-1273K at atmospheric pressure. Typical steam to biomass ratio will be 1-
4:1. The reaction will be catalysed by dolomite and the presence of sand in the reactor
will act as fluidising medium.
c) Kinetic Rate Law
According to the study of Ahmad et al (2011), the simplest first order model with
respect to the concentration of reacting species is selected as the reactions are assumed
26
to occur isothermally and reactor volume is constant. They derived the kinetic rate law
of each reaction involved which is given by:
For reaction (2.1):

r1  k1CEFB CH 2O  [2.0 105 exp( 6000 / T )]  CEFB  CH 2O kmol / m  s (2.6)
3
For reaction (2.2):

r2  k 2CEFB CH 2  [2.345 1011 exp( 13670 / T )]  CEFB  CH 2 kmol / m  s (2.7)
3
For reaction (2.3):

r3  k3CEFB CCO2  [1.19 10 3 exp( 16840 / T )]  CEFB  CCO2 kmol / m  s (2.8)
3
For reaction (2.4):

r4  k 4CCH 4CH 2O  [3.0 105 exp( 15000 / T )]  CCH 4  CH 2O kmol / m  s (2.9)
3
For reaction (2.5):

 C C   C C 
r5  k5  CCOCH 2O  CO2 H 2   106 exp( 6370 / T ) CCOCH 2O  CO2 H 2 
 Kw   Kw 
Where K w  520 exp( 7230 / T ) kmol / m  s (2.10)

3
d) Selectivity versus Conversion
For the reaction of gasification of empty fruit bunches (EFB) to produce hydrogen and
methane, trend of selectivity to produce hydrogen and methane and conversion of
EFB is investigated by using software like Polymath. It will be discuss in a more
detail manner in section below.
e) Selectivity of Hydrogen and Methane
The reaction condition can be summarized as follow:

a) Reaction temperature at 900K and pressure of 1 atm.
27
b) Two phase reaction, where solid biomass reacts with steam.

c) Ratio of steam to biomass feed is 3.5:1
From stoichiometric equation (2.1) to (2.5) and equation (2.6) to (2.10), the mole
balance of each component can be written as
1 dN EFB
Empty fruit bunch :  rEFB (2.11)
V dt
1 dN H 2O
Steam :  rH 2O (2.12)
V dt
1 dN H 2
Hydrogen :  rH 2 (2.13)
V dt
1 dN CO
Carbon Monoxide :  rCO (2.14)
V dt
1 dN CO2
Carbon Dioxide :  rCO2 (2.15)
V dt
1 dN CH 4
Methane :  rCH 4 (2.16)
V dt
Net rate laws:
rEFB  r1  r2  r3 (2.17)
rH 2O  0.1r1  3.3r2  0.9r3  r4  r5 (2.18)
rH 2  2.15r1  8.05r2  1.15r3  3r4  r5 (2.19)
rCO  3.4r1  4.4r3  r4  r5 (2.20)
rCH 4  3.4r2  r4 (2.21)
rCO2  r3  r5 (2.22)
Selectivity of hydrogen, S H 2
rH 2 N
SH 2    H2 (2.23)
 rEFB N EFB X EFB
Selectivity of methane, S CH 4
28
rCH 4 N
SCH 4    CH 4 (2.24)
Selectivity of carbon monoxide, S CO
rCO N
S CO    CO (2.25)
Selectivity of carbon dioxide, S CO2
rCO2 N
S CO2    CO2 (2.26)
Rewrite (3.11) by substituting N EFB into conversion by using formula


N EFB  N EFB (1  X EFB )

1 d [ N EFB (1  X EFB )]
 rEFB
V dt

N EFB d (1  X EFB )
 rEFB
V dt

N EFB dX EFB
  rEFB
V dt
1 dX EFB  rEFB
  (2.27)
V dt N EFB
Using chain rule, these differential equations can be written by setting conversion
X EFB as independent variable. Thus, time dt term can be removed.

dN H 2O N EFB rH 2O
(2.12) ÷(2.27):  (2.28)
dX EFB  rEFB
dN H 2 N r
(2.13) ÷(2.27):  EFB H 2 (2.29)
dX EFB  rEFB
dN CO N r
(2.14) ÷(2.27):  EFB CO (2.30)
dX EFB  rEFB
29

dN CO2 N EFB rCO2
(2.15) ÷(2.27):  (2.31)
dX EFB  rEFB

dN CH 4 N EFB rCH 4
(2.16) ÷(2.27):  (2.32)
dX EFB  rEFB

dN CaO N EFB rCaO
(2.17) ÷(2.27):  (2.33)
dX EFB  rEFB

dN CaCO3 N EFB rCaCO3
(2.18) ÷(2.27):  (2.34)
dX EFB  rEFB
Equations (2.28) to (2.34) are solved Polymath software using Runge-Kutta algorithm
(RKF45) with the following assumptions

N EFB  100 kmol / h
N H 2O  350 kmol / h
P  200 kPa
T  900 K
30
The result from Polymath is shown below:
Figure 2.1: Equations Entered on Polymath

31
Figure 2.2: Polymath Results

32
Figure 2.3: Mole Flow Rate of Each Component as a Function of Conversion of EFB
Table 2.1: POLYMATH Polynomial Regression Migration Document
X Nh2o Nco2 Nco Nch4 Nh2 Nefb Sh2 Sch4 Sco Sco2
0.010 350.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 100.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.054 349.522 0.088 14.707 0.046 9.334 95.635 1.740 0.009 2.741 0.016
0.101 348.897 0.391 30.407 0.200 19.393 90.883 1.917 0.020 3.006 0.039
0.149 348.147 0.926 45.770 0.459 29.366 86.131 1.975 0.031 3.078 0.062
0.204 347.085 1.867 63.243 0.894 40.924 80.587 2.005 0.044 3.098 0.091
0.252 345.990 2.971 77.812 1.378 50.793 75.835 2.018 0.055 3.092 0.118
0.307 344.458 4.642 94.297 2.071 62.303 70.291 2.029 0.067 3.071 0.151
0.347 343.170 6.115 105.708 2.652 70.547 66.331 2.035 0.076 3.049 0.176
0.402 341.050 8.613 121.126 3.585 82.167 60.787 2.043 0.089 3.012 0.214
0.450 338.889 11.211 133.773 4.497 92.245 56.035 2.051 0.100 2.975 0.249
0.505 335.887 14.857 147.778 5.696 104.215 50.491 2.063 0.113 2.926 0.294
0.561 332.257 19.282 160.855 7.044 116.514 44.947 2.079 0.126 2.870 0.344
0.600 329.196 23.006 169.535 8.103 125.575 40.987 2.092 0.135 2.825 0.383
0.656 324.094 29.178 180.587 9.728 138.791 35.443 2.117 0.148 2.755 0.445
0.703 318.768 35.565 188.822 11.264 150.787 30.691 2.145 0.160 2.686 0.506
0.759 311.067 44.689 196.570 13.241 165.900 25.147 2.187 0.175 2.591 0.589
0.806 302.698 54.460 201.079 15.118 180.256 20.395 2.236 0.188 2.495 0.676
0.854 291.911 66.850 202.767 17.197 196.628 15.643 2.304 0.201 2.376 0.783
0.901 277.205 83.415 200.026 19.530 216.408 10.891 2.402 0.217 2.220 0.926
0.957 249.614 113.646 185.449 22.725 248.974 5.347 2.603 0.238 1.939 1.188
0.964 243.760 119.940 181.330 23.244 255.415 4.555 2.648 0.241 1.880 1.244
0.980 228.922 135.728 169.819 24.352 271.283 2.971 2.767 0.248 1.732 1.385
1.000 196.314 169.727 140.931 25.942 304.753 1.000 3.048 0.259 1.409 1.697
33
34
By using the data from Table 2.1, the graph of selectivity versus conversion can be
plotted. The result is shown at Figure 2.4 below.
Selectivity vs Conversion
3.50
3.00
2.50
Selectivity
2.00 Sh2
1.50 Sch4
Sco
1.00
Sco2
0.50
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
Conversion of EFB
Figure 2.4: Selectivity versus Conversion of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB)
f) Catalyst for Reaction
One of the major issues in the biomass gasification process is how to deal with the tar
formed during the process. There are a large number of different catalysts that have been
used to eliminate the tars in the product gas from the gasification process. The two most
researched groups are Ni-based catalysts and dolomites. When Ni-based catalysts are
used, tar concentration in the product gas can be reduced significantly by means of
reforming but since this process is endothermic, a part of the chemically bound energy of
the gas has to be burned to sustain this process. This effect leads to a decreased efficiency
of the gasification process.
35
In contrast, when so called tar cracking catalysts such as dolomite are used, the
only thing that is reformed is the tar itself while low hydrocarbons e.g. methane, ethane
and propane are left intact. Hence, in this project, dolomite has been chosen as the
catalyst used in the gasification of biomass.
Dolomite is a calcium magnesium ore with the general chemical formula

CaMg(CO3)2 that contains about 30 wt. % CaO, 20 wt. % MgO and 45 wt. % CO2 with
other minor mineral impurities such as the trace minerals SiO 2, Fe2O3 and Al2O3. In order
for dolomite to become active for tar conversion, it has to be calcined. Calcination
involves decomposition of the carbonate mineral, eliminating CO2 to form MgO-CaO, at
high temperatures (usually 800-900°C) in inert atmosphere (N2) for at least 8 hours (Hu
et al, 2006).. The effective use of dolomite as a catalyst is restricted by relatively high
temperatures (Milne, 1998) and the partial pressure of CO2 (Simell, 1995).
The fact that dolomites are quite inexpensive and abundant materials makes them
very attractive as tar cracking catalysts. On the other hand, calcined dolomites are rather
soft and therefore erode quickly as a result of attrition phenomena in fluidized bed
reactors. As a result, they are often used in guard beds, in conjunction with highly active
and more expensive Ni-based catalysts (Dayton, 2002).
2.3.2 Raw Material and Product
The raw material used in the production of hydrogen and methane is biomass. The type of
biomass feedstock that has been selected for this project is empty fruit bunch (EFB). It
will be reacted with superheated steam at ratio of 1 to 3.5. This means the feed to reactor
will contain 78wt% of steam and 22wt% of EFB. The purity of hydrogen produced is
99.9 wt% in liquid form. The hydrogen will be stored in storage tank and transported in
barrels.
36
2.3.3 Design Constraint
It is important to identify the design constraint of a process and plant so that the designed
plant is safety and the environment is protected. In the production of hydrogen and
methane, the ratio of steam to EFB is limited to 1-4:1. According to Ahmad et al, 2011,
the lower the ratio of steam to EFB, the lower the hydrogen yield and hence more carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide will be produced. Inversely, if the ratio is set too high, this
would be not economically allowable because the step of heating water to superheated
steam requires high energy and thus high cost. Besides, the hydrogen gas produced
during the reaction can be corrosive to the vessels due to hydrogen embrittlement, thus
this problem has to be taken into account during the selection of material for fabrication
of vessels. As the effluent of reactor consists of mixtures of products, it is necessary to
carry out separation steps to eliminate the undesired products like oxides of carbon from
main product hydrogen and methane.
2.3.4 Physical Properties of Materials Involved
Production of hydrogen and methane involve gasification of empty fruit bunch (EFB) in
the presence of steam in the reaction. The chemical components percentage and ultimate
analysis of EFB are given in Table 2.2 below:
Table 2.2: Elemental Analysis of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB)
Component Unit Proportion / Value

Cellulose wt% 59.7
Hemicellulose wt% 22.1
Lignin wt% 18.1
Molecular formula - C3.4H4.1O3.3
Molecular mass g/mol 97.7
Appearance - Solid at room temperature and pressure
Source: Ahmad et al, 2011

37
From Table 2.2 above, it is shown that EFB mainly consists of cellulose. Hence,
the physical properties of cellulose will be used as an approximation in the subsequent
calculation work. Table 2.3 below shows the physical properties of cellulose:
Table 2.3: Physical Properties of Cellulose
Parameter Unit Value/ Properties

Molecular formula - (C6H10O5)n
Appearance - Solid, exist as a fibrous/white crystalline solid
Smell - Odourless
Taste - Tasteless
Melting point °C 500
Boiling point °C Decompose
Specific gravity at 0°C Water = 1 1.27 - 1.61
Vapour pressure Bar N/A
Critical pressure Bar 221
Critical temperature °C N/A
Solubility in water mg/l Insoluble
Source: Science Lab, 2005
There are 5 reactions happen in the gasifier where hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide and methane are produced. The physical properties of all the other
materials involved in the production process are shown as follow:
Table 2.4: Physical Properties of Water

Molecular formula - H2O
Molecular mass g/mole 18.015
Appearance - Liquid at room temperature and pressure
Continue…
Flammability - Non- Flammable
Melting point °C 0
Boiling point °C 99.98
Liquid density at 4°C kg/m3 1000
Vapour pressure at 20°C Bar 0.0214
Critical temperature °C 374
Continue…
38
…Continued
Viscosity at 20°C cP 1.002
Source: Water, Wikipedia; Planet Water
Table 2.5: Physical Properties of Hydrogen

Molecular formula - H2
Appearance - Gas at normal temperature and pressure
Flammability - Flammable
Melting point °C -259.2
Boiling point °C -252.8
Gas density kg/m3 0.08342
Specific gravity (Air = 1) 0.06960
Vapour pressure at 20°C Bar N/A
Critical pressure Bar 12.93
Critical temperature °C -240.18
Viscosity at STP cP N/A
Smell - Odourless
Colour - Colourless
Solubility in water mg/l Very slightly
Auto-ignition temperature °C 565.5
Flash point °C N/A
Source: Air Products, 1994; iSOC Technology 1995
Table 2.6: Physical Properties of Methane

Molecular formula - CH4
Appearance - Gas
Flammability - Highly flammable
Flammability limit vol % 5-15
Gas density (Air = 1) 0.0052
Specific gravity (Air = 1) 0.56
Viscosity at 0°C cP 0.0103
Continue…
39
…Continued
Smell - Odourless
Colour - Colourless
Solubility in water mg/l Negligible
Auto-ignition temperature °C 580
Flash point °C -188
Source: Science Lab, 2008; Gas Encyclopedia, Air Liquide
Table 2.7: Physical Properties of Carbon Monoxide

Molecular formula - CO
Flammability - Flammable
Melting point °C -205
Gas density at 15°C kg/m3 1.184
Specific gravity at 21°C (Air = 1) 0.968
Vapour pressure at -191°C Bar 1.013
Viscosity at STP cP 0.01662
Smell - Odourless
Colour - Colourless
Solubility in water at STP vol/vol 0.0352
Auto-ignition temperature °C 630
Flash point °C -191
Source: Air Products, 1994; Gas Encyclopedia, Air Liquide
Table 2.8: Physical Properties of Carbon Dioxide

Molecular formula - CO2
Flammability - Non- Flammable at STP
Melting point °C -78
Boiling point °C -57
Gas density at STP g/L 1.977
Continue…
40
…Continued
Specific gravity at 21°C (Air = 1) 1.521
Vapour pressure at 20°C Bar 57.2
Critical temperature °C 31
Viscosity at STP cP 0.01372
Smell - Odourless
Colour - Colourless
Solubility in water at STP vol/vol 1.7163
Auto-ignition temperature °C N/A
Flash point °C N/A
Source: Air Products, 1994; Carbon Dioxide, Wikipedia
The thermodynamic properties of the chemicals involved in the process are shown below:
Table 2.9: Vapour Pressure of Chemicals Involved
B
log P  A  , P  mmHg, T  C
Component (T  C )
Ai Bi Ci
Water 8.14019 1810.94 244.485
Hydrogen 6.41814 99.395 280.876
Methane 6.84566 435.621 271.361
Carbon Dioxide 7.58828 861.82 271.883
Carbon Monoxide 6.72527 295.228 268.243
Source: Yaws, 1999; NIST, 2011
Table 2.10: Heat Capacity of Gas
CP  A  BT  CT 2  DT 3  ET 4 ; J / mol  K
Component
Ai Bi Ci Di Ei
Water 33.933 -8.4186×10-3 2.9906×10-5 -1.7825×10-8 3.6934×10-12
Hydrogen 25.399 2.0178×10-2 -3.8549×10-5 3.1880×10-8 -8.7585×10-12
Methane 3.4942×101 -3.9957×10-2 1.9184×10-4 -1.530×10-7 3.9321×10-11
Carbon
2.7437×101 4.2315×10-2 -1.9555×10-5 3.997×10-9 -2.9872×10-13
Dioxide
Carbon
2.9556×101 -6.5807×10-3 2.0130×10-5 -1.223×10-8 2.2617×10-12
Monoxide
Source: Yaws, 1999

41
Table 2.11: Heat Capacity of Solid
Component Unit Value

Cellulose kJ/kg °C 1.3389
Source: Perry, 2008
Table 2.12: Heat Capacity of Liquid
CP  A  BT  CT 2  DT 3 ; J / mol  K
Component
Ai Bi Ci Di
Water 92.053 -3.9953×10-2 -2.1103×10-4 5.3469×10-7
Hydrogen 50.607 -6.1136 3.0930×10-1 -4.148×10-3
Methane -0.018 1.1982 -9.8722×10-3 3.1670×10-5
Carbon Dioxide -338.956 5.2796 -2.3279×10-2 3.5980×10-5
Carbon Monoxide -19.312 2.5072 -2.8970×10-2 1.2745×10-4
Source: Yaws, 1999
Table 2.13: Heat of Formation of Solid
Component Unit Value

Cellulose kJ/mol -1256.9
Source: Perry, 2008
Table 2.14: Heat of Formation of Ideal Gas
H f  A  BT  CT 2 ; kJ / mol
Component
Ai Bi Ci Tmin (K) Tmax (K)
Water -238.41 -1.2256×10-2 2.7656×10-6 298 1000
Methane -63.425 -4.3355×10-2 1.7220×10-5 298 1000
Carbon Dioxide -3.9388×102 1.9102×10-3 -2.1060×10-6 298 1000
Carbon Monoxide -1.1256×102 9.2553×10-3 -7.8431×10-6 298 1000
Source: Yaws, 1999

42
Table 2.15: Enthalpy of Vaporization

n
 T 
H vap  A
1  T 
 ;
kJ / mol
Component  c 
A Tc n Tmin Tmax TB
Water 542.053 647.13 0.321 273.16 647.13 373.15
Hydrogen 0.659 33.18 0.38 13.95 33.18 20.39
Methane 10.312 190.58 0.265 90.67 190.58 111.66
Carbon Dioxide 15.326 304.19 0.227 216.58 304.19 194.67
Carbon Monoxide 8.003 132.92 0.318 68.15 132.92 81.7
Source: Yaws, 1999
2.4 Process Design Level 2
According to the hierarchy of conceptual design,(Douglas 1988) level 2 in the design of

process includes process input-output structure and recycles steam which involves
transformation chemical or bio reaction from reactant to product known as synthesis
chemical or bio process transformation.
2.4.1 Input- Output Structure
Input and output structure always shows what raw materials are feed to the process and
what product and by-products are removed. Thus, this relationship can used as basic
indicator for gross profit. In the synthesis process, there is a rule of thumb of input-output
structure that is desirable to recover more than 90% of all valuable materials like reactant
and product. Since it is initial design calculations, it is assumed that all valuable raw
materials are completely recovered and then recycle. Thus, it can conclude that no
reactants leave the system.
43
Hydrogen
Methane
Biomass(Empty Fruit Brunch) Steam Water
Water
Gasification Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Figure 2.5: Input-Output Structure for Production of Hydrogen
From figure 2.5, the reactants in this process involve empty fruit bunch and water
where they will undergo steam gasification. The main product from this process is
hydrogen, with methane as side product. The water, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
are waste from steam gasification process.
2.4.2 Process Output Destination
From figure 2.5, the outputs of the production process are hydrogen, methane, water,
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. The destination of these outputs are decided based
on the price of these outputs, the physical properties of these output and the recovery of
these outputs. In the end of process, hydrogen is stored in compressed storage tank.
Table 2.16: Destination of Products for the Steam Gasification Production Process
Component Boiling Point( °C) Light/ Heavy Destination

Hydrogen -252.8 Light Fuel
Methane -161.4 Light Fuel
Water 100 Heavy Wastewater Plant
Carbon Dioxide -57 Light Waste
Carbon Monoxide -191.5 Light Waste
At the end process, hydrogen is stored in compressed storage tank. Then, methane
is separated out from carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide as by-product. In addition,
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are disposed as waste.
44
2.4.3 Design Variables
In steam gasification process of biomass to hydrogen, the main design variable is

temperature. It is due to pressure is remaining at atmosphere pressure in whole steam
gasification process except the separation process. An increasing in temperature will
increase the yield of hydrogen; however, reaction with too high temperature is dangerous.
Hence, a temperature is required to obtain the optimum selectivity and conversion of
hydrogen and off gas.
Ratio of steam provided into gasification process is also important design variable
that must be considered. It is due to steam will provided heat to breakdown the bond
between molecules inside the biomass. However, if the amount of steam provided is too
high, the process become not economic as heating water to become steam consumes a lot
of energy. Thus, the optimum ratio of steam provided for gasification process should be
determined.
2.4.4 Design Capacity
To determine the design capacity for steam gasification, amount of cars that serve in
University Kebangsaan Malaysia should be known. We are making assumption
University Kebangsaan Malaysia is a neighborhood size with more than 500 cars. Hence,
according Summary of Electrolytic Hydrogen Production by Johanna Ivy, hydrogen
required per year is greater than 100 000 kg. Thus, design capacity for our plant is 138
720kg per year.
2.4.5 Level 2 – Economy Potential Analysis
Steam Gasification of biomass, empty fruit bunch, will produce hydrogen and PSA off
gas. Hydrogen is treated as fuel for vehicles in University Kebangsaan Malaysia. From
section, the stoichiometry equations are following:
45
Char gasification:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  0.1H 2O 
r1
2.15H 2  3.4CO (2.1)
Methanation:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  8.05H 2 
r2
3.4CH 4  3.3H 2O (2.2)
Boudouard:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  CO2 
r3
4.4CO  0.9H 2O  1.15H 2 (2.3)
Methane reforming:
CH 4  H 2O 
r4
CO  3H 2 (2.4)
Water gas shift:
CO  H 2O 
r5
CO2  H 2 (2.5)
And n1, n2, n3, n4, n5, n6 are extent of reaction for reaction (2.1), (2.2), (2.3), (2.4), (2.5)
Let
Empty fruit bunch = EFB

Steam = H2O
Hydrogen = H2
Carbon Monoxide = CO
Carbon Dioxide = CO2
Methane = CH4
n1 = Degree of reaction 3.1

For empty fruit bunch:

(2.35)
46
For hydrogen:
(2.36)
For steam:
(2.37)
For carbon monoxide:
(2.38)
For carbon dioxide:
(2.39)
For methane:
(2.40)
Selectivity of hydrogen:
(2.41)
Selectivity of carbon monoxide:
(2.42)
Selectivity of carbon dioxide:
(2.43)
Selectivity of methane:
(2.44)
By adding (2.36) and (2.38)

(2.45)
Multiply (2.40) by four

(2.46)
By using (2.45) + (2.46), thus

(2.47)
47
(2.48)
(2.49)
(2.50)
Substitute (2.50) into (2.42)
(2.51)
Substitute t (2.50) into (2.44)
(2.52)
(2.53)
By doing (2.37) – (2.36),

(2.54)
Equation (2.53) – 2(2.40),

(2.55)
(2.56)
(2.57)
(2.58)
(2.59)
Substitute (2.41) into (2.50) and rearrange

48
By taking the production capacity of 138 720kg/year, the flow rate of hydrogen is
PH 2
PH 2
Hydrogen 3
1 Methane 4
Biomass(Empty Fruit Brunch) Steam

Carbon dioxide,
5
Water
2
Gasification Carbon monoxide
Water 6
Figure 2.6: Input-Output Structure for Production of Hydrogen
To estimate the economy potential of process design level 2, the economy potential level
2 is given by
(2.60)
Since , the function becomes
(2.61)
With Ci is the cost of material that involve in reaction in RM/kg.

With reference to figure 2.6, the flow of each stream of level 2 and cost are tabulated
down as table.
Table 2.17: Product/Reactant Flow for Process Gasification
Flow 1 2 3 4 5 6
C 3.4H 4.1O 3.3 0 0 0 0 0
H 2O 0 0 0 0
CH 4 0 0 0 0 0
H2 0 0 0 0 0
CO2 0 0 0 0 0
CO 0 0 0 0 0
49
50
Table 2.18: Cost of Component Involved in Hydrogen Plant
Component Price(RM/kg) Price(RM/kmol)

Empty fruit bunch 0.03 2.94
Water 0.002 0.036
Methane 0.36 5.77
Hydrogen 60 120
The flow rate and price for each component in table 2.16 and table 2.17 are substituted
into 2.60. Since the flow rate are written in terms of selectivity, while selectivity can
write in term of conversion, so the function of potential for level 2 can be written in terms
of conversion. The graph of versus conversion of empty fruit bunch is plotted and
show in figure 2.7.
9000000
8000000
Economy Potential RM/year
7000000
6000000
5000000
4000000
3000000
2000000
1000000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Conversion of Empty Fruit Bunch
Figure 2.7: Potential Economy Curve of Process Design Level 2

51
Table 2.19: Data for Economy Potential Design Level 2
Conversion FEFB(kmol/year) (kmol/year) (kmol/year) (RM/year)

0.054 25471.906 44321.116 229.247 5244969
0.101 28732.394 55080.000 574.648 6528442
0.149 30182.768 59610.966 935.666 7069977
0.204 31159.030 62473.854 1370.997 7413166
0.252 31700.183 63970.969 1743.510 7593378
0.307 32096.252 65123.295 2150.449 7732840
0.347 32305.543 65741.779 2455.221 7808202
0.402 32532.833 66464.578 2895.422 7896809
0.45 32640.000 66944.640 3264.000 7956228
0.505 32686.145 67431.517 3693.534 8016997
0.561 32624.647 67826.642 4110.706 8066999
0.6 32487.119 67963.054 4385.761 8085360
0.656 32215.513 68200.242 4767.896 8116826
0.703 31904.324 68434.775 5104.692 8147828
0.759 31398.823 68669.226 5494.794 8179700
0.806 30785.619 68836.644 5787.696 8203283
0.854 29896.552 68881.655 6009.207 8212576
0.901 28756.219 69072.438 6240.100 8240155
0.957 26584.898 69200.491 6327.206 8262407
0.964 26114.458 69151.084 6293.584 8257668
0.98 24985.591 69135.130 6196.427 8258511
1 22703.764 69201.074 5880.275 8271309
In this level, a more detailed reactor and recycle stream are going to be explained in order
to determine the best process with the best design. The reactor and recycle system are
going to be explained in more detailed and resulted in higher accuracy product
determination. The considered design variable include the number, type and design of the
reactor, excess reactant requirement of compressor and its design, heat management of
reactor and effect of any equilibrium reaction (Wan Ramli, 2002). Figure 2.8 show the
structure of reactor and recycle system in biomass gasification.
52
Empty Fruit
Separation and Hydrogen
Bunch, EFB Methane
Reactor System Purification Carbon monoxide
Water System Carbon dioxide
Wastewater
Figure 2.8: Structure of Design Process of Level 3
2.5.1 Number of Reactors
In the gasification of EFB process design, there are 5 simultaneous equation occur in the
gasifier. According to the selectivity versus conversion graph in figure 2.3, the conversion
of the biomass to hydrogen can achieve to as high as 90% at the operating condition of
627 oC temperature and 1 atm pressure. Therefore, only one reactor system is enough for
this process.
2.5.2 Reactor Selection
The gasification reaction use is the fluidized bed reactor (FBR). This reactor is chosen
because of the suitability of the process to the reactor. 1st thing that is considered when
choosing the reactor is the type of the reaction whether it is continuous or batch reaction.
The FBR is one type of continuous reactor that is suitable for heterogeneous reaction
(Ching et al. 1984). In the gasification case, it involves empty fruit bunch that is the solid
and steam as vapor phase. Fluidized bed reactor is good with fast process such as
gasification. However, for the ease of designing the reactor, we will assume the reactor
use is the plug flow reactor. The material chosen for the construction of the reactor is
stainless steel.
53
2.5.3 Number of Recycle Streams
From Figure 2.8, all the empty fruit bunch will be reacted and there will be no excess of
limiting reactant. Hence, there is no available recycle stream and resulted in no structure
of recycle stream for the process.
2.5.4 Heat Effect of Reactor
The biomass steam gasification that is the main reaction in our plant occurs in an
endothermic condition. So, the heat will be absorbed during the reaction. Knowing the
condition, the heat of reaction can be managed either adiabatically or isothermally. For
isothermal condition, heat will be added into the reactor in order to maintain the content
of the reactor at constant temperature while for adiabatic condition, no heat will be added
into the reactor during the reaction. In order to determine whether the reaction is suitable
to be carried out in adiabatic condition or isothermal condition, adiabatic temperature of
the reaction need to be calculated.
2.5.5 Adiabatic Temperature of Reactor
Energy balance in a reactor at adiabatic condition with the assumption that average
specific heat can be used and reference temperature is Tin is shown in equation 2.62:
N M K
 n j ΔH inrxnj   Pi C pi (Ta  Tin )   Fk C Pk (Tin  Tin )  0

j1 i 1 k 1
(2.62)
Where ΔH inrxnj = Heat of reaction at inlet temperature for reaction j
C Pi = Specific heat for each product i which includes reactants and impurities
Ta = Adiabatic temperature of reactor
C Pk = Specific heat of each feed component k which includes reactants, feed

impurities and recycled reactants
54
Rearranging equation (2.62), we will obtain:

M
 n ΔH
J 1
j
in
rxnj
Ta  Tin  M
(2.63)
P C
i 1
i Pi
By referring to equation (2.1), (2.2), (2.3), (2.4), (2.5) and (2.6), and also the heat of
reaction for each reaction from Table 2.13 and Table 2.14,
ΔH rxn1 = 2.15H fH 2  3.4H fCO  H fB  0.1H fH 2O
ΔH rxn1 = 0  3.4(110.5831)  (1256.9)  0.1(247.200)

ΔH rxn1 = 905.6374 kJ/mol (2.64)
ΔH rxn2 = 3.4H fCH 4  3.3H fH 2O  H fB  8.05H fH 2
ΔH rxn2 = 3.4(88.4963)  3.3(247.2003)  (1256.9)  0

ΔH rxn2 = 140.2517kJ/mol (2.65)
ΔH rxn3 = 4.4H fCO  0.9H fH O  1.15H fH  H fB  H fCO

2 2 2
ΔH rxn3 = 4.4(110.5831)  0.9(247.2003)  0  (1256.9)  (393.8667)
ΔH rxn3 = 941.7206 kJ/mol (2.66)
ΔH rxn4 = H fCO  3H fH 2  H fCH 4  H fH

2O
ΔH rxn4 =  110.5831  0  (88.4963)  (247.2003)

ΔH rxn4 = 225.1134 kJ/mol (2.67)
ΔH rxn5 = H fCO  H fH  H fCO  H fH O

2 2 2
ΔH rxn5 = 393.8667  0  (110.5831)  (247.2003)
ΔH rxn5 = -36.0833 kJ/mol (2.68)

55
From equation (2.63)
P C
i 1
i Pi = PH 2 C PH 2 + PCH4 C PCH4 + PCO2 C PCO2 + PCO C PCO
M PH 2 S CH4 PH 2 C PCH4
P C
i 1
i Pi =(
5.5  4S CH4  S CO
)S H 2 C PH 2 +
5.5  4S CH4  S CO
+
S CO2 S CO PH 2 C PCO2 S CO PH 2 C PCO

+
5.5  4S CH4  S CO 5.5  4S CH4  S CO
P C
i 1
i Pi = FB X BS H 2 C PH2 + FB X B S CH4 C PCH4 + FB X BSCOSCO2 C PCO2
+ FB X BSCO C PCO
P C
i 1
i Pi = FB X B {SH 2 C PH2  SCH4 C PCH4  SCOSCO2 C PCO2  SCO C PCO (2.69)
Specific heat capacity, C P for each component is shown in Table 2.20:
Table 2.20: Cp Value for Each Component at T= 900K
Component Cp value
H2O 4.00E+01
H2 2.98E+01
CH4 6.86E+01
CO 5.24E+01
CO2 3.25E+01
EFB 4.13E+02
56
 n ΔH
j1
j
in
rxnj = n 1ΔH inrxn1 + n 2 ΔH inrxn2 + n 3 ΔH inrxn3 + n 4 ΔH inrxn4 + n 5 ΔH inrxn5
PH 2 S H 2 ΔH inrxn1 PH 2 S CH4 ΔH inrxn2 PH 2 S H 2 ΔH inrxn3

= + +
5.5  4S CH4  S CO 5.5  4S CH4  S CO 5.5  4S CH4  S CO
PH 2 S H 2 ΔH inrxn4 PH 2 S H 2 ΔH inrxn5
+ +
5.5  4S CH4  S CO 5.5  4S CH4  S CO
 n ΔH
j1
j
in
rxnj = FB X B (SH 2 ΔHinrxn1  SCH4 ΔHinrxn2  S H 2 ΔHinrxn3  S H 2 ΔHinrxn4 ) (2.70)
Using equations (2.69) and (2.70) and substitute it into equation (2.63) together
with the used of heat of reaction of 5 reactions involves, the adiabatic temperature as a
function of conversion can be determine. Table 2.21 and Figure 2.9 show the result of the
analysis.
Table 2.21: Value of Parameter of Adiabatic Temperature
M M
Conversion XEFB FEFB (kmol/year)  n ΔH
j1
j
in
rxnj P C i Pi Ta
i 1
0.05 21676.39 3188322.42 177508.5 882.04

0.1 27282.12 10327170.5 579523.9 882.18
0.15 31425.91 19660958.6 1115025 882.37
0.2 33360.81 28552204.2 1635802 882.55
0.25 33508.32 35561416.7 2056487 882.71
0.3 32795.27 40949950.8 2387200 882.85
0.35 31962.31 45755905.4 2683912 882.95
0.4 31400.36 50997894.8 3003971 883.02
0.45 31247.43 57392195.4 3389691 883.07
0.5 31493.10 65296958.4 3864237 883.10
0.55 32029.75 74667352 4427498 883.14
0.6 32668.03 84978876.3 5049392 883.17
0.65 33150.65 95202992.6 5665699 883.20
0.7 33199.38 104005062 6186993 883.19
0.75 32608.90 110292167 6529146 883.11
0.8 31349.94 113969025 6657364 882.88
Continue…
57
…Continued
0.85 29606.22 116469354 6616892 882.40
0.9 27712.28 120791847 6532054 881.51
0.95 26052.65 131396085 6593519 880.07
1 25019.84 154874803 7088239 878.15
Adiabatic Temperatures for Steam

Gasification of EFB
884.00
Adiabatic Temperature, Ta (K)
883.00
882.00
881.00
880.00
879.00
878.00
877.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Conversion of EFB, XEFB
Figure 2.9: Adiabatic Temperatures for EFB Steam Gasification
It is proven that the reaction occur in adiabatic condition. This is because,

according to Wan Ramli in 2002, if a reaction occurs in endothermic condition, the heat
of reaction is positive and the temperature will decrease.
2.5.6 Reactor Sizing
For catalytic reaction, the design equation of PBR is:

dX EFB  rEFB
 o (2.71)
dV N EFB
58
To find the volume of reactor with respect to conversion, we rearrange the equation to:
dV No
 EFB (2.72)
dX EFB  rEFB
Equation (2.41) is inserted into polymath that is used for the selectivity vs
conversion of the process in level 1. The Polymath solved the differential equation and
gives the volume vs conversion of EFB. The polymath graph and data is shown in figure
2.10 and table 2.22 respectively.
Figure 2.10: Graph of Reactor Volume vs Conversion of EFB from Polymath
59
60
The dimension of reactor is estimated such that the ratio of length to diameter is
4:1. Table 2.22 shows the volume of reactor with respect to conversion. The diameter and
length are also shown in the table.
Table 2.22: Volume of Reactor With Respect to Conversion
Conversion XEFB Volume (m3) Diameter (m) Length (m)

0.05 0.042827 0.238594 0.95437526
0.1 0.103572 0.320604 1.2824153
0.15 0.173426 0.380763 1.5230515
0.2 0.253678 0.432226 1.72890393
0.25 0.345643 0.479173 1.91669349
0.3 0.451398 0.523765 2.09506109
0.35 0.573269 0.5672 2.26879993
0.4 0.713746 0.610189 2.44075697
0.45 0.876461 0.653423 2.61369049
0.5 1.066276 0.697547 2.7901867
0.55 1.289347 0.743145 2.97257815
0.6 1.552823 0.790662 3.16264685
0.65 1.869725 0.841155 3.36461915
0.7 2.256449 0.895554 3.58221703
0.75 2.740921 0.95554 3.82216008
0.8 3.363543 1.023016 4.09206361
0.85 4.211746 1.102649 4.41059752
0.9 5.465566 1.202712 4.81084928
0.95 7.709186 1.348817 5.39526609
1 15.23795 1.692748 6.77099067
2.5.7 Cost of Reactor
The estimation of annual cost of reactor is determined by the following equation:

I  7775.3  1.066 0.82
K rt   MSk  D L R 2.18  FM FP F1
 280  3 
  (2.73)
61
Where:
I MSk = Present Marshall and Swift index
D = Diameter of the reactor
L R = Length of the reactor
FM = Design material factor
FP = Pressure factor
F1 = Installation factor
The value of FM and Fp can be determine from the table 2.23 And 2.24 respectively.
Table 2.23: Fm Value of Material
Construction Carbon steel Stainless steel (chromium- Stainless steel

material molibdenum)
Fm 1.00 2.15 3.75
Source: Wan Ramli Wan Daud 2002
Table 2.24: Fp Value at Different Pressure
Pressure
(bar) 1.6 6.8 13.6 20.4 27.2 34.0 40.8 47.6 54.4 61.2 68.0
Fp 1.00 1.05 1.15 1.20 1.35 1.45 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.3 2.5
Source: Wan Ramli Wan Daud 2002
The material use for the construction of reactor is Carbon steel while its operating
pressure is 1 bar. So we can use the value of 1 for both Fm and Fp. The value of FI is
chosen to be 1.5. Table 2.25 Shows the Marshall and Swift equipment cost index with
respect to the year.
62
Table 2.25: Marshall and Swift Index
Year Marshall and Swift Index

2005 1244.5
2006 1302.3
2007 1373.3
2008 1449.3
2009 1468.6
2010 1457.4
2011 1512.5
Source: Che.com, 2011
Table 2.26 show the annual cost of reactor with respect to the conversion.
Table 2.26: Annual Cost of Reactor, Krt with Respect to the Conversion of EFB
Length Krt
Conversion, XEFB Volume (m3) Diameter (m)
(m) (RM/year)
0.05 0.04283 0.23859 0.9543753 13983.3
0.1 0.10357 0.3206 1.2824153 24362.1
0.15 0.17343 0.38076 1.5230515 33686.5
0.2 0.25368 0.43223 1.7289039 42785
0.25 0.34564 0.47917 1.9166935 51969.7
0.3 0.4514 0.52377 2.0950611 61465.7
0.35 0.57327 0.5672 2.2687999 71431.1
0.4 0.71375 0.61019 2.440757 81983.6
0.45 0.87646 0.65342 2.6136905 93281.8
0.5 1.06628 0.69755 2.7901867 105516
0.55 1.28935 0.74314 2.9725782 118901
0.6 1.55282 0.79066 3.1626468 133645
0.65 1.86972 0.84115 3.3646192 150195
0.7 2.25645 0.89555 3.582217 169039
0.75 2.74092 0.95554 3.8221601 191025
0.8 3.36354 1.02302 4.0920636 217260
0.85 4.21175 1.10265 4.4105975 250252
0.9 5.46557 1.20271 4.8108493 294799
0.95 7.70919 1.34882 5.3952661 365959
1 15.238 1.69275 6.7709907 561650
63
The economic potential for level 3 is given by:
f PE3 = f PE2  K rt (2.74)
Hence the economic potential for level 3 is shown in Table 2.27 and Figure 2.11.
Table 2.27: Data for Potential Economy of Process Design Level 3
Conversion, XEFB Krt (RM/year) fpe2 (RM/year) fpe3 (RM/year)

0.05 13983.3 5541000 5527016
0.1 24362.1 6870709 6846347
0.15 33686.5 7481222 7447536
0.2 42785 7813938 7771153
0.25 51969.7 8025905 7973936
0.3 61465.7 8164934 8103468
0.35 71431.1 8270452 8199021
0.4 81983.6 8357312 8275329
0.45 93281.8 8424513 8331231
0.5 105516 8483118 8377601
0.55 118901 8530605 8411705
0.6 133645 8558695 8425051
0.65 150195 8585155 8434960
0.7 169039 8614376 8445337
0.75 191025 8637159 8446134
0.8 217260 8653842 8436582
0.85 250252 8650446 8400194
0.9 294799 8655935 8361136
0.95 365959 8635014 8269056
1 561650 8541381 7979731
64
fpe3
9000000
8000000
Economy Potential RM/year 7000000
6000000
5000000
4000000
3000000
2000000
1000000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Conversion of Empty Fruit Bunch
Figure 2.11: Potential Economy Curve for Process Design Level 3
Product effluents from reactor need to be treating and purify in order to achieve the
product specification in the market. This separation stage is important to remove all the
impurities in the product, remove the poisonous chemical and to recycle back valuable
chemical. Separation technology is divided into two stages, according to the phase either
it is in gas form or liquid form. If the reactor effluent is in mixed phase, the outlet must
be separately out from the reactor.
2.6.1 Separation Structure
In production of hydrogen, the effluent from the reactor contains all compound including
product and also by-product. Hydrogen needs to be separate from ash impurities, tar and
also by-product carbon dioxide and other gases. Degree of separation is not 100% and
causes the impurities in the product. Separation of hydrogen contains one cyclones, two
scrubber, one knock out drum and one unit of PSA separate hydrogen out from by-
products and impurities.
65
Effluent from PHASE COMPONENT Hydrogen

SEPARATION SEPARATION
reactor
UNIT UNIT By-product
Figure 2.12: Separation Structure for Hydrogen Plant
Figure 2.12 shows separation structures in hydrogen plant which consists of two
main separation units that are phase separation unit and component separation unit. Phase
separation unit consists of cyclone which is used to separate the solid component from
gas component which are ash impurities and tar. The remaining gases from the cyclone
will undergo liquid separation unit (wet scrubber). Finally, the output of scrubber drum
will be treated in PSA unit to get purify hydrogen gases.
2.6.2 Preliminary Design of Separation Unit
2.6.2.1 Cyclone Design Calculation
The most important parameters of a cyclone as for any separating device are its collecting
efficiency and the pressure drop across the unit. Factors that contribute to cyclone
pressure drop (static pressure differential across the cyclone) includes gas expansion as it
enters the cyclone, formation of vortex, wall friction and regain of rotational kinetic
energy as pressure energy. Formula for pressure drop is:
1  (2.75)
P  Eu   f v 2 
2 
Where Eu : resistance coefficient, the Euler number

f : the gas density
 : Characteristic velocity.
66
Characteristic velocity can be calculated by the following formula:
v  4Q / D 2 
(2.76)
Where Q : gas flow rate

D : cyclone inside diameter.
In order to scale up a cyclone, we can apply the following formula:
x50  p
2 12
Stk 50 Eu 
18D Stk 50
The balance for particle weight in a cyclone can be written as:
M = Mf + Mc (2.77)
Where M : cyclone inlet particle mass flow rate

Mf : mass flow rate of fine particle flowing out with gas flow on the above
part of cyclone
Mc : mass flow rate of rough particle flowing out from pipe or orifice
discharge at the bottom part of cyclone
The efficiency of a cyclone, ET can be written as:
MC
ET  (2.78)
M
The following table shows geometries (dimension relative to diameter, D of a cyclone),

Euler and Stokes numbers for 2 common cyclones Stairmand, HE is refer as cyclone with
high efficiency whereas Stairmand, HR is refer as cyclone with high gas flow rate.
67
Table 2.28: Geometries, Euler and Stokes numbers for Two Common Types of Cyclones
Cyclone type Stairmand, HE Stairmand, HR

A 4.0 4.0
B 2.5 2.5
C 1.5 1.5
E 0.375 0.575
J 0.5 0.875
L 0.2 0.375
K 0.5 0.75
N 0.5 0.75
Eu 320 46
Stk50 1.4 x 10-4 6 x 10-3
Figure 2.13: Cyclone Design Geometries
Installation cost for the cyclone can be calculated using this formula:
68
( ) ( ) (2.79)
Where D : Diameter of cyclone (m)

L : Height of cyclone (m)
Fm : Construction factor
Fp : Pressure Factor
FI : Installation Factor in Malaysia ( = 1.5 )
Annual cost of distillation column in RM/year can be calculated as:
( ) ( ) (2.80)
Operating data given:

Latest plant cost index for distillation column, IMSk = 511.7
Malaysia’s installation column factor, FI = 1.5
Table 2.29 shows the preliminary design and annual cost for cyclone in this separation
process:
Table 2.29: Installation Cost of Cyclone T-102
Conversion, Diameter
X (m) A (m) B (m) C (m) E (m) J (m) L (m) K (m) N (m) kmt kmt per year
0.1 1.02 4.08 2.55 1.53 0.59 0.89 0.38 0.77 0.77 382835 127612
0.2 1.14 4.56 2.85 1.71 0.66 1.00 0.43 0.86 0.86 505898 168633
0.3 1.28 5.12 3.20 1.92 0.74 1.12 0.48 0.96 0.96 676281 225427
0.4 1.33 5.32 3.33 2.00 0.76 1.16 0.50 1.00 1.00 744443 248148
0.5 1.41 5.64 3.53 2.12 0.81 1.23 0.53 1.06 1.06 861792 287264
0.6 1.48 5.92 3.70 2.22 0.85 1.30 0.55 1.11 1.11 973050 324350
0.7 1.52 6.08 3.80 2.28 0.87 1.33 0.57 1.14 1.14 1040302 346767
0.8 1.56 6.24 3.90 2.34 0.90 1.37 0.58 1.17 1.17 1110272 370091
0.9 1.58 6.32 3.95 2.37 0.91 1.38 0.59 1.19 1.19 1146288 382096
1 1.59 6.36 3.98 2.39 0.91 1.39 0.59 1.19 1.19 1164556 388185
69
70
2.6.2.2 Spray Tower (V-102 and V-103)
A spray tower was used to remove and scrubbed carbon dioxide from the mixture of
gases. Water and NaOH are used as the absorbent to absorb CO2 and CO in the raw
biogas. The raw biogas will be compresses at a pressure 1atm so as to increase solubility
of CO2 in water and increase amount of hydrogen by reacting CO with water. Water and
NaOH at a pressure of 1.3MPa will be released to meet the incoming pressurized gas in
the column in a counter-current way. The process dissolves CO2 in water that is collected
at the bottom of the tower. The efficiency of this plant is assumed to be 90% and 95% of
CO2 will be scrubbed in water. The left CO2 and CO will be remove in the second
scrubber.
a. Determination of Orientation of Water Scrubber
The vertical water scrubber is used in this process. The vertical assembly is a counter-
flow design with contaminated gas flowing upwards and recirculating liquid spraying
downward into the packing media. Gaseous are absorbed by the liquid due to the
solubility levels. The vertical counter-flow design typically provides the best scrubbing
efficiency of vapors and is the most common design found in most industries. Thus,
vertical scrubber will be suitable in this design plant. Figure 2.14 below shows the
orientation of water scrubber in this process.
Figure 2.14: Vertical Water Scrubber

Source: Monroe Environmental Corp 2009
71
b. Sizing Spray Tower 1 and 2
The relevant properties and information for the packed column system is as follows:
Component to be scrubbed: CO and CO2
Table 2.30: Design Data of Spray Towers, V-102 and V-103
Scrubber Flow rate Pressure Temperature Molecular weight

V-102 2437.31 kg/hr 150 kPa 100oC 90 g/mol
V-103 145.164 kg/hr 140 kPa 75oC 90 g/mol
Table 2.31: Scrubbing Media properties
Scrubbing media Liquid density, ρ (kg/m3) Liquid viscosity,µ (Ns/m2)

Water 997.04 0.00036
NaOH 2130 0.00143
c. Design Calculation
To estimate the column diameter, the following steps should be done.
25mm (1 in) INTALOX saddles was selected for this scrubber and from the Figure 11.54
(Sinnott and Towler, 2009), Generalized Pressure Drop Correlation, the scrubber cross
sectional area can be estimated from equation 2.81,
0.5
L'  G 
FLV  '  
G  L  (2.81)
where FLV = flow factor
L’ = liquid mass flow rate per unit column cross-sectional area, kg/m2s
G’= gas mass flow rate per unit column cross-sectional area, kg/m2s
σG = density of gas, kg/m3

72
σL = density of liquid, kg/m3
Using the FLV value calclated and using a design gas pressure drop of 20 mm H2O per
meter packing, refer to Fig 11.54 (Sinnott and Towler, 2009) to obtain K4 and K4 at
flooding. The percentage of flooding is as follows:
K 4 at design pressure drop

Percentage Flooding 
K 4 at flooding
(2.82)
The gas mass flow rate, Vm can be calculated using the K4 value obtained.
K 4  V  L   V 
Vm 
13.1FP  L  L 
(2.83)
Where Fp = packing factor
µL = liquid viscosity, Ns/m2
The column area and diameter can be calculated as below:
Gas flow rate, V

Column area required , A c 
Gas mass flow rate, Vm (2.84)
4  Ac
Diameter 
 (2.85)
By using the above equations, the column diameter can be estimated and the height of
gas-phase transfer unit, HOG can be estimated by using Cornell’s Method (Sinnott and
Towler, 2009). The Cornell’s equations are as below:
1.11 0.33
0.5  Dc   Z 
H G  0.011 h Sc  v     L w f1f 2 f 3 0.5
 0.305   3.05  (2.86)
0.15
 Z 
H L  0.305 h Sc 
0.5
L K3 
 3.05  (2.87)
73
Where HG = height of a gas-phase transfer unit, m
HL = height of a liquid-phase transfer unit, m
(Sc)V = gas Schmidt number = (µv /σv Dv)
(Sc)L = liquid Schmidt number = (µL /σL DL)
Dc = column diameter
Z = column height
K3 = percentage flooding correction factor
Ψh = HG factor
Φh = HL factor
f1 = liquid viscosity correction factor
f2 = liquid density correction factor
f3 = surface tension correction factor
By obtaining HG and HL , the HOG can be calculated and finally the height vessel can be
calculated using equation 2.88
Z = HOG× NOG (2.88)
Column construction cost can be calculated by using the formula below:
Km 
I MSk
280
7775.3D1.066 L0.82 (2.18  Fm FP )FI  9987.6(A 0C.65  A 0R.65 )  (2.89)
where IMSk = latest plant cost index
D = diameter of column
L = height of column
Fm = construction material factor

74
Fp = pressure factor
FI = Malaysia’s installation column factor
Yearly column construction cost, Kmt:
I MSk  7775.3 1.066 0.82 

K mt   D L (2.18  Fm Fp )FI  3329.2(A 0c.65  A 0R.65 ) (2.90)
280  3 
Table 2.32 and table 2.33 show the preliminary design and annual cost for scrubber
(V-102 and V-103):
Table 2.32: Preliminary Design for V-102
Flowrate, Q Diameter, D Height, Z

X Km Kmt
(m3/s) (m) (m)
0.1 4.063 4.031 9.7E-01 861671 287224
0.2 2.668 3.267 1.22E+00 831563 277188
0.3 2.341 3.060 1.35E+00 843544 281181
0.4 2.180 2.953 1.42E+00 846688 282229
0.5 2.050 2.864 1.44E+00 828422 276141
0.6 1.946 2.790 1.62E+00 889559 296520
0.7 1.261 2.246 2.24E+00 920194 306731
0.8 1.831 2.706 2.60E+00 1266039 422013
0.9 1.769 2.660 2.78E+00 1316490 438830
Table 2.33: Preliminary Design for V-103
Flowrate, Q Diamter, D
X Height, H (m) Km Kmt
(m3/s) (m)
0.1 0.209 0.915 1.23E+00 215775 71925
Continue...
75
…Continued
0.2 0.143 0.757 1.29E+00 183367 61122.2
0.3 0.130 0.721 1.33E+00 178642 59547.3
0.4 0.123 0.702 1.37E+00 178015 59338.3
0.5 0.117 0.685 1.40E+00 176722 58907.4
0.6 0.113 0.672 1.51E+00 183799 61266.2
0.7 0.111 0.665 1.58E+00 188596 62865.4
0.8 0.110 0.662 1.67E+00 196277 65425.8
0.9 0.108 0.659 1.81E+00 208464 69488.1
2.6.2.3 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) is a technique which consists of four adsorber vessels
that contain adsorbent material such as zeolite, activated carbon and carbon molecular
sieves which adsorbs impurities such as methane, CO and CO2. This process is used to get
purified hydrogen and methane in the production plant. Thus, PSA are used in the plant.
In this process, we use activated carbon as the absorbent. Figure 2.15 below shows the
adsorbed vessel in PSA unit.
Figure 2.15: Cycles of Adsorber Vessels in PSA Unit
Source: Elsevier Science & Technology Books 1998

76
The four adsorber vessels each operate in an alternating cycle of adsorption,

regeneration and pressure build-up. During the adsorption phase, the biogas enters at the
bottom of one of the adsorption columns. CO2, CH4 and CO is then adsorbed by the
adsorption material which is activated carbon. The gas leaving at the top of the vessel
contains more than 99% H2. Just before the adsorption material is saturated with CO 2 and
other impurities, the adsorption column is stopped to regenerate the adsorption material.
Another adsorption column is then switched to the adsorption mode in order to obtain a
continuous operation. Regeneration of the adsorption material is achieved by a stepwise
depressurization of the column to atmospheric pressure and finally to near vacuum
conditions. During regeneration also significant amounts of H2 can be recovered which
were trapped in the voids of the adsorption material. The waste stream consists of very
small amount of CO2, CO and methane.
Due to the process involved in gases form, we need to purify it to get the main
product which is hydrogen. The purifier that is used in this design process is pressure
adsorption swing (PSA) and there is 4 parallel adsorber vessel used in this process. Each
vessel is normally 3-4 meter in height in the industry. Due to the height and the
arrangement of four vessels in parallel, these vessels are in vertical orientation.
Adsorbent that are mainly used in the process are activated carbon, silica, carbon
molecular sieves and zeolite. In equilibrium condition, adsorption isothermal curve can be
interpreted using Henry’s Law:
(2.91)
With q is the concentration of adsorption component and c is the concentration of
the gasses that is equilibrium with the adsorption component. Using below equation that
is proposes by Klikenberg 1948 & 1954, the height and diameter of the vessel can be
obtained.
* (√ √ )+ (2.92)
√ √
77
With cf is known as concentration of gas in the feed stream and :
( ) (2.93)
( ) (2.94)
To obtain the height of the vessel, equation (2.92) must be together with equation (2.95)
which is:
* + (2.95)
Both of this equation will form a simultaneous equation with the unknown variable ( )
and try and error solution will be use on to obtain the reasonable vessel height. To find
the diameter of the vessel, equation below will be use.
(2.96)
PSA (hydrogen purification)

Assumptions made:
1. c/cf = hydrogen recovery = 0.05
2. PSA is isothermal (T = 30oC)
3. Gas velocity ,u = 1ms-1
4. Porosity of adsorbent, = 0.5
5. Henry’s constant = 135.83
6. Mass transfer coefficient, k = 0.206
Using all the data, use equation (2.93) and (2.94) to get value of and by inserting these
data in excel. For the installation cost of separators, it can be approximated by below
equation: (Wan Ramli Wan Daud.2002)
( ) (2.97)
Where D: diameter of the vessel

L: height of the vessel
78
Fm : construction factor ; Stainless Steel=2.1)

Fp : pressure factor
IMSK :Marshall and Swift index = 1512.5
Fi: safety factor =1.5
The annual cost for separators can be computed as:

( ) (2.98)
Figure 2.16 and 2.17 shows the graph for and and breakthrough time and height
against 
1000
100
 and e
10 t
x
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0.1


Figure 2.16: and Values Against 

79
10000.0000 25.000
20.000
1000.0000
Breakthrough time (min)
15.000
100.0000
t (min)
10.000 z (m)
10.0000
5.000
1.0000 0.000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1



Figure 2.17: Breakthrough Time versus Height
Table 2.34 below shows the preliminary design of PSA and the annual calculation for this unit.
Table 2.34: Preliminary Design for PSA
X Flowrate, Q (m3/s) Diameter, D (m) Height, Z (m) Km Kmt

0.1 0.0470133 0.34600 2.036 159870 213159.98
0.2 0.0502371 0.35767 1.375 120018 160024.37
0.3 0.0541587 0.37137 1.278 117645 156859.86
0.4 0.0582706 0.38521 1.380 130329 173772.55
0.5 0.0617353 0.39649 1.669 157089 209452.31
0.6 0.0645736 0.40551 2.263 206517 275355.90
0.7 0.0675448 0.41473 3.557 306468 408623.75
0.8 0.0710648 0.42540 7.109 555576 740768.56
0.9 0.0736278 0.43300 24.444 1558604 2078138.37
80
81
2.6.3 Economic Potential Analysis of Level 4
Hence, the economy potential of level 4 is shown in table 2.35 and figure 2.18
Table 2.35: Data for Economy Potential of Level 4
Conversion fpe3 (RM/year) fpe4 (RM/year)

0.1 6846347 5924009
0.2 7771153 6843011
0.3 8103468 7073603
0.4 8275329 7188697
0.5 8377601 7196765
0.6 8425051 7096034
0.7 8445337 6936127
0.8 8436582 6441480
0.9 8361136 4989537
fpe4
8000000
Economy Potential (RM/year)
7000000
6000000
5000000
4000000
3000000
2000000
1000000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Conversion
Figure 2.18: Potential Economy Curve for Process of Design Level 4

82
2.7 SELECTION SUITABLE OF CONVERSION
The curve potential economy of level 4 (Figure 2.18) shows the highest potential;
economy can be achieved at conversion 0.5. Therefore, the process will be designed to
operate at conversion 0.5.
2.8 MASS BALANCE
A mass balance is a term used to compare the inputs and outputs of processes. It is an
application of the law of conservation of mass to analyze the physical system. The law of
conservation of mass state that the mass of a closed system will remain constant,
regardless of the processes acting inside the system. The mass that enters a system must,
by conservation of mass, either leave the system or accumulate within the system. By
accounting for material entering and leaving a system, mass flows can be identified
which might have been unknown, or difficult to measure without this technique. The
purpose for engineers to carry out the mass balance is to ensure that there is no mass loss
during the entire reaction.
Table 2.36: Summarize Process Flow Diagram Mass Balance for the Whole Process
(a)
Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EFB 0.00 0.00 818.73 818.73 0.00 818.73 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2O 5027.94 527.94 204.68 204.68 204.68 0.00 522.97 0.00 522.97 522.97
H2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.00 0.00 17.00 17.00
CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.49 0.00 7.49 7.49
CO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 334.41 0.00 334.41 334.41
CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 55.43 0.00 55.43 55.43
Ash & Particulate 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 388.90 388.90 0.00 0.00
Tar 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 20.47 0.00 20.47 20.47
(b)
Component 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
EFB 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00
H2O 1500.00 0.00 2022.97 2022.97 0.00 1500.00 0.00 101.15 1500.00 0.00
H2 0.00 0.00 17.00 17.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.00 0.00 0.00
CH4 0.00 0.00 7.49 7.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.49 0.00 0.00
CO 0.00 0.00 334.41 334.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 16.72 0.00 0.00
CO2 0.00 0.00 55.43 55.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.77 0.00 0.00
Ash & Particulate 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Tar 0.00 20.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Waste Water 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4292.17 0.00 0.00 2119.66
NaOH 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1000.00 500.00 0.00 0.00 500.00 500.00
83
84
(c)
Component 21 22 23 24 25
EFB 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2 0.00 17.00 17.00 17.00 0.00
CH4 0.00 7.49 7.49 0.01 7.48
CO 0.00 0.84 0.84 0.00 0.83
CO2 0.00 0.14 0.14 0.00 0.14
Ash & Particulate 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Tar 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Waste water 6411.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaOH 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2.9 MANUAL AND iCON MASS BALANCE COMPARISON
Table 2.37 shows the percentage error of manual calculation mass balance and
iCON value mass balance.
Table 2.37: Percentage Error of Mass Balance Calculation
Stream Total iCON %error

1 5027.94 5027.94 0.00
2 527.94 527.94 0.00
3 1023.41 818.73 25.00
4 1023.41 818.73 25.00
5 204.68 - -
6 818.73 818.73 0.00
7 1346.67 1346.67 0.00
8 388.90 388.90 0.00
9 957.77 957.77 0.00
10 957.77 957.77 0.00
11 1500.00 1500.00 0.00
12 20.47 20.47 0.00
13 2437.31 2437.30 0.00
14 2437.31 2437.30 0.00
Continue…
85
Continued…
15 1000.00 1000.00 0.00
16 2000.00 2000.00 0.00
17 4292.17 4292.17 0.00
18 145.13 145.09 0.03
19 2000.00 2000.00 0.00
20 2119.66 2119.63 0.00
21 6411.84 6411.84 0.00
22 25.47 25.46 0.00
23 25.47 25.46 0.00
24 17.01 17.01 0.00
25 8.45 8.45 0.00
2.10 ENERGY BALANCE
Table 2.38 shows the energy balance obtained from iCON that is according to
iCON pfd in next page.
Table 2.38: Energy balance for the Whole Process
Stream energy (W)

1 -280816.91
2 259441.00
3 -222781.48
4 -149296.54
5 23826
6 525871.54
7 681525.35
8 439192.90
9 254539.67
10 228351.04
11 355723.75
12 -2812.22
13 553677.52
14 453656.52
Continue…
86
Continued…
15 -45043.57
16 -702716.13
17 -1569840.0
18 -280816.91
19 -720444.06
20 -764497.27
21 -840411.93
22 20923.27
23 20910
24 19518.11
25 1403.75
Figure 2.19: Process Simulation by iCON
87
Figure 2.20: iCON Stream Table
88
89
2.11 COMPARISON OF MASS BALANCE BY MANUAL

CALCULATIONS
Comparisons of mass balance can be made between the calculations done

manually (table 2.36) and the results simulated by iCON (figure 2.20).
Comparisons based on these tables are made and summarize in table 2.37. From
this table 2.37, there are only minor differences between flow rates calculated by
both methods.
These show that calculation manually can be accepted. The differences

occur because iCON software uses more accurate method to solve the
mathematical equations. While doing manual calculations, several assumptions
had been made for possible calculations. In addition, rounding errors are reasons
to cause difference.
2.12 DETAILED PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Biomass which is empty fruit bunch is feed into crusher (T-101) to crush the feed
empty fruit bunch into small particle and dry the biomass inside dryer (E-102). It
is important to ensure empty fruit bunch before enter gasifier into a dry condition.
Screw conveyor is used as the medium to transfer the empty fruit bunch from one
vessel to another vessel. While another stream which consist of water is heated in
superheated steam generator until 625°C.
The small particle size of empty fruit bunch and steam are feed into
gasifier vessel(R-101) for gasifier reaction. The stoichiometry equations of the
reactions are shown at reaction (2.1), (2.2), (2.3), (2.4) and (2.5). The gas product
from steam gasifier vessel is sent to cyclone (T-102). The main purpose of this
process is separate out ash and solid particle from the product stream. After the
separation process, the gas stream is cooled down to 225°C in a heat exchanger
90
(E-103). The stream is then sent to quencher (V-101) to further cool down the
stream to 200°C that is the dew point of tar. The tar will settle down at the bottom
of the quencher and the gas will continue to flow in the product stream.
After the quenching process, the stream is further cooled down to

temperature of 100°C in a heat exchanger (E-104). Then, the gas stream will go
through 2 series of spray tower (V-102), (V-103) to ensure that there will be no
CO and CO2 presence. Water and NaOH is feed into the spray tower as a medium
to absorb the carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide from the stream. Water and
NaOH come out from spray tower are treated as wastewater and will go for
further treatment.
After that, the product stream will sent to a compressor (C-101) to

increase the pressure of the stream as it enter the Pressure Swing Absorber PSA
(V-105) for the separation of hydrogen and methane. In the end, hydrogen is our
main product with the purity of more than 99.99% while methane comes out as
by-product.
CHAPTER III
HEAT INTEGRATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
For chemical processes plant, the heating and cooling cost of streams contributes to the
total production cost significantly. In a system, stream that needs to be heated is called
cold stream while stream that needs to be cooled is called hot stream. Therefore, in the
industry, we come out with the idea of using hot stream to heat up cool stream so that the
utility costs can be reduced and this is named heat exchanger networks.
Industrial heat exchanger networks (HENs) are designed because of their

particular importance in recovering energy of processes. HENs can be designed with
combination of heat exchangers using different methods. The advantage of HENs is the
recycling of energy. One of the basic postulates is making a combination of energy
streams to reach maximum energy using of energy waste streams, as well as minimization
of cooling duty.
Heat integration or pinch analysis is a simple method for systematically analysing

chemical processes and the surrounding utilities with the aid of first and second laws of
thermodynamics. It can minimize the energy consumption of chemical processes by
calculating thermodynamically feasible energy targets and achieving them by optimizing
heat recovery systems and process operating conditions.
92
The main task of using pinch technology is to optimize the number of heat
exchangers, heat exchange area, to minimize capital costs, production costs, utility costs,
and using present energy streams with high or low energy content. With that kind of
optimization, HENs can increase profits in the production plant in the future. The method
of Pinch Technology developed by Linnhoff with his professor John Flower and later
with his coworker Hindmarsh is widely used in HENs synthesis, which is derived through
thermodynamic analysis.
3.2 STREAM SELECTION
There are three streams that have potential to be integrated. Out of these three streams,
there are one hot stream (S1) and two cold streams (S9 and S13). The potential streams
are shown in Table 3.1 below.
Table 3.1: Potential streams
Stream Type of Source temperature, Target temperature,

Number stream Ts (°C) Tt(°C)
S1 Cold 30 625
S9 Hot 620 225
S13 Hot 200 100
There is a phase change occur in stream S1, hence stream S1 is separate into two
part which are stream S1 and stream S1b in order to consider the phase change in the heat
integration. Table 3.2 shows the specifications of each stream.
Table 3.2: Stream Specifications
Stream Stream Molar Specific Source Target CP, Enthalphy

No. type flow, heat, Temp. Temp. kW/K change, kW
kmol/hr kJ/kmol.K
S1 Cold 29.33 76.026 30 100 0.6194 43.3581
S1b Cold 29.33 40.034 100 625 0.3262 171.237
S9 Hot 51.43 39.4 620 225 0.5629 -222.33
S13 Hot 134.559 36.993 200 100 1.3827 -138.27
93
3.3 DETERMINATION OF PINCH POINT
To start with system design one must determine the initial minimum force of heat
exchange (ΔTmin). Linnhoff (1994) determined that the ΔTmin depends on the industrial
process, so he finds average values which are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Average values for ΔTmin given by Linnhoff
Industry Experience ΔTmin /⁰C

Oil refinery 20 – 40
Petrochemistry 10 – 20
Chemical industry 10 – 20
Low temperatures processes 3 -5
For hydrogen and methane manufacture plant, let ΔTmin= 20 ⁰C. This is a viable
option since range of target temperature and source temperature are big and interval
temperature can be quite high. Then, the temperature interval below are generated :
Table 3.4: Table of Temperature Interval
Stream Actual Temperature Interval Temperature

S1 30 100 40 110
S1b 100 625 110 635
S9 620 225 610 215
S13 200 100 190 90
From table 3.4, we can get the temperature interval and thus perform calculations
to check whether there is deficit or surplus in each temperature interval as in table 3.5.
Heat cascade was performed in table 3.6.
94
Table 3.5: Temperature Ranking Table
Rank interval, i temperature Heat Capacity of Heat Surplus

difference Interval, CPi =ΣCPC Balance, ΔHi or
of interval - ƩCPH(kW/°C) =CPiΔTi(kW) Deficit
635
610 1 25 0.3262 8.1541 Deficit
215 2 395 -0.2367 -93.4992 Surplus
190 3 25 0.3262 8.1541 Deficit
110 4 80 -1.0565 -84.5232 Surplus
90 5 20 -0.7633 -15.2661 Surplus
40 6 50 0.6194 30.9700 Deficit
Table 3.6: Heat Cascade
Rank ΔH Cascade
635 0 8.1541
610 8.1541 -8.1541 0
215 -93.4992 85.3451 93.4992
190 8.1541 77.1909 85.3451
110 -84.5232 161.714 169.868
90 -15.2661 176.98 185.134
40 30.9700 146.01 154.164
From Table 3.6 above, pinch point occur at 610°C. Thus, at the pinch hot streams
will be at:
610 + 10 = 620⁰C
And the cold at:
610 - 10 = 600⁰C
As a summary,
95
Table 3.7: Result of pinch analysis
Minimum Heat Required for hot ultilities process, QH min 8.1541 kW

Minimum Heat Released from cold ultilities process, QC min 154.164 kW
ΔTmin 20 °C
Pinch temperature (interval) 147.4 610°C
Pinch temperature of hot stream 620°C
Pinch temperature of cold stream 600°C
3.4 FINAL HEAT INTERGRATION
Based on the Pinch Design Method of Linnhoff and Hindmarsh (1983), for design at
pinch, all matches between process streams must fulfill the CP criteria as below:
Above the pinch, CP hot ≤ CP cold

Below the pinch, CP hot≥ CP cold
The CPs for the process streams were carefully chosen such that these criteria
would be met. In addition to the CP feasibility criterion, where above pinch,
N hot≤ N cold
where N hot = number of hot stream branches at the pinch,
N cold = number of cold stream branches at the pinch.
Likewise, the additional criterion of below the pinch is N hot≥ N cold (Kemp, 2007).
After consider these criterions, a heat exchange networks (HENs) has been done. The
result of the HENs is as shown in figure 3.1.
96
ΔH above pinch Pinch ΔH below pinch CP
610⁰ 215⁰
0 S9 C C 222.33 0.5629
620⁰
190⁰ 90⁰
C
0 S13 C C 138.27 1.3827
110⁰ 40⁰
0 C C S1 43.36 0.6194
635⁰ 600⁰ 110⁰

11.42 C C C S1b 159.84 0.3262
Figure 3.1: Grid Representation for Above and Below pinch
For network design above the pinch, the left hand side of the pinch point of Figure
3.1 is extracted. The condition that CPH≤ CPC for network design above pinch must be
fulfilled so that the streams can be matched. Only hot utilities are allowed for this design.
Since there is only one stream at network above pinch, we need one heater to heat up the
stream. The network design above pinch is shown in figure 5.2.
For network design below the pinch, the right hand side of the pinch point of
Figure 3.1 is extracted. The condition that CPH≥ CPC for network design below pinch
point must be met. Only cold utilities are allowed for this design. The network design
below pinch is shown in figure 3.3.
97
ΔH above pinch Pinch CP
635⁰ 600⁰
11.42 C H C S1b 0.3262
Figure 3.2: The network design above pinch
CP Pinch ΔH below pinch

157.40kW
0.5629 610⁰ S9 C 215⁰ 222.33

C C
1.3827 190⁰ S13 90⁰ 138.27

C C
0.6194 110⁰ S1 40⁰ 43.36

C kW
43.36 C
0.3262 600⁰ S1b 110⁰ C 159.84

C 94.91kW
64.93kW
Figure 3.3: The network design below pinch
3.5 TOTAL HEAT RECOVERY
Finally, the total heat recovery is calculated.

Total energy requirement before network design = 575.22 kW
Total energy requirement after network design = 168.82 kW
Total energy recovery = 70.65%
CHAPTER IV
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION ANALYSIS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Piping and instrumentation diagram (P & ID) is a drawing that shows the instrumentation
and piping details for plant equipment. It includes valves and fitting, their arrangement
and also the control instruments. In chapter iv, we are going to introduce basic
instrumentation and control system suitable for aur plant that is the hydrogen plant. The
significant of introduction of this section is to ensure that all the units and operations are
working well and smooth under automated condition.
4.2 CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS
Suitable instruments are needed to monitor the key process variables during plant
operation. It could be used with automatic control loops or used for the manual
monitoring of the process operation. Chemical engineers are the one who will design the
synthesis of control systems. In this step that is designing the control systems synthesis
they will select the control objectives, manipulated variables, measured outputs as well as
the control structure connecting manipulations and measurements.
This is to ensure the operation to be control within a safe limit. If the operation is
not maintained and controlled well, deviation might occur and causing the process to be
dangerous. With the good control system, the deviation can be detected immediately and
corrective actions can be taken automatically.
99
4.2.1 Type of Instrument
Monitoring the key process variables during any plant operation are done by the
instruments installed on the equipment or units. To identify the type of instrument-
controller used in P & ID, letter code in a circle is use. The first letter indicated the
measured property for example flow, temperature and level. The second letter indicates
its function such as transmitter, recorder or controller.
Table 4.1: Letter code for instrument symbols (based on ISA-5-1984(R1992))
Controllers Final
Control
Measured First Indicatin Recordi Indicati Blin Transmitte Elemen
Variable Letter g Only ng ng d rs t
Analysis-
Composition A AI ARC AIC AC AT AV
Flow Rate F FI FRC FIC FC FT FV
Flow Ratio FF FFI FFRC FFIC FFC FFT FFV
Power J JI JRC JIC JT JV
Level L LI LRC LIC LC LT LV
Pressure-
Vacuum P PI PRC PIC PC PT PV
Pressure PD
Differential PD PID PDRC PDIC C PDT PDV
Quantity Q QI QRC QIC QT QZ
Radiation R RI RRC RIC RC RT RZ
Temperature T TI TRC TIC TC TT TV
Temperature TD
Differential TD TDI TDRC TDIC C TDT TDV
Weight W WI WRC WIC WC WT WZ
Source: Sinnot, 2009
As we can see from table 4.1, there are a lot of measured variable to be check. But in our
hydrogen plant, only several of the measure variables is going to be taken into account
based on its importance. Summarize of the measured variables and the controllers are
shown in table 4.2 below.
100
Table 4.2: Type of controller and its objective
Instrumentations Objectives
FT To detect and send signal of deviations in the flow to controller
LT To detect and send signals of deviations in the level in unit
operation to control
PT To detect and send signals of deviations in the pressure to controller
TT To detect and send signals of deviations in the temperature in pipe
of unit operation to controller
FIC To indicate and control the flow rate inside a pipeline
LIC To indicate and control the liquid level of the unit operation such as
pressure vessel by regulating the input or output liquid flow rate
PIC To indicate and control the pressure of the pipeline or pressure
vessel
TIC To indicate and control the pressure of the main stream by
regulating the flow rate of the utility line
4.2.2 Control Strategies on Unit Operations
In our process plant, each of the unit operations will be installed with the suitable control
instruments. Each of it have at least 1 control objective. Sinnot (2009) have stated several
general primary objectives when specifying the control schemes that is:
i. Safe plant operation:
a. To ensure the process variables within known safe operating limits.
b. To detect any dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms
and automatic shutdown systems.
c. To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating
procedures.
ii. To achieve the designed production rate.
iii. To maintain the product quality at specified standards.
iv. To operate at efficient low cost and commensurate with the other objectives.
v. To maintain the steady operation with minimal operator intervention.
In the following section, we are going to discuss the control strategies of every type of
unit operations.
101
4.2.2.1 Furnace
Furnace basically works as a steam generator at the desired temperature. It uses fuel gas
(methane) to heat up the preheated steam. Here, temperature of the steam produce is
controlled by the amount of the fuel gas flow into the furnace. Figure 4.1 show the control
system of the furnace.
Steam
Figure 4.1: Control configuration of furnace
Table 4.3: Summary of control strategy for furnace
Controlled Manipulated Control Control Actions

Variable Variable Objective
Temperature Fuel flow rate To control the Temperature transmitter detect the
of the steam temperature of temperature at the outlet stream of
produce the steam the furnace and sending signal to
produce to be at the gas flow controller to
the desired determine the fluid flow set point.
temperature Any deviation of the temperature
of the product stream from the set
point will make the valve fuel to
be regulated.
4.2.2.2 Biomass Dryer
Biomass dryer are used to ensure that the efb that is going to enter the gasifier is
completely dry. To achieve this objective, the temperature in the dryer must be control by
102
controlling the amount of fuel gas flow in. Figure below show the control configuration
of the dryer.
E-102
Fuel
TT
TRC
Figure 4.2: Control configuration of dryer
Table 4.4: Summary of control strategy for furnace
Controlled Manipulated Control Control Actions

Temperature Fuel flow rate To control the Temperature transmitter detects
inside the temperature the temperature inside the dryer
dryer inside the dryer and sending signal to the
to be at 100oC temperature controller to
determine the fluid flow set point
based on the desired temperature.
Any deviation of the temperature
from the set point will make the
valve fuel to be regulated.
4.2.2.3 Gasifier
There are 5 chemical reactions involved in the production of hydrogen and methane from
biomass (empty fruit bunch) gasification reactor. As the reaction happens, carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide are produced as side products.
103
PRC
PT
TT 7
TRC
S-5
Heat
R-101
S-6
RT
RRC
Figure 4.3: Control configuration of gasifier
Table 4.5: Summary of control strategy for gasifier
Controlled Manipulated Control Objective Control Action

Variable Variable
Vessel Flow rate of To control the The vessel pressure is
pressure vapour product pressure measured (PT1) and the
of the vessel pressure is controlled
(PIC1) by manipulating the
flow rate of vapour product
Reactant’s Flow rate of To control the ratio of The reactants flow rate are
flow ratio biomass and the reactant measured (TT1) and the
stream ratio of stream flow inside
the gasifier reactor is
controlled by manipulating
by the flow rate of stream
inside the gasifier reactor.
4.2.2.4 Cooler
The main purpose of a cooler is to cool down the process fluid. Generally, they are heat
exchangers that provide a sufficient surface area for the process fluid to exchange heat
104
with service fluid. So, the main objective of the two coolers in the hydrogen plant is to
decrease the temperature of process fluid to desired temperature for the purpose of
downstream processes. In this case, the outlet temperature of process fluid is the
controlled variable while flow rate of service fluid is the manipulated variable. Figure 4.4
shows the control configuration of a cooler.
Service fluid stream
TRC
TT
Process fluid
Figure 4.4: Control configuration of cooler
Table 4.6: Summary of control strategy for cooler
Controlled Manipulated Control Control Action

Process Flow rate of To control the Any deviation in temperature of
fluid outlet service fluid outlet temperature process fluid at heat exchanger
temperature of process fluid at outlet will be detected. Signal will
desired be transmitted to TRC which will
temperature. send signal to regulate the valve
opening at service fluid stream to
manipulate the flow rate of service
fluid.
4.2.2.5 Quencher
The main function of quencher in this hydrogen and methane production plant is used for
gas conditioning cooling and removal of ash and its particulate. In quencher, the main
105
control objective is to maintain the temperature drop. The most important parameters are
temperature; it must be controlled at optimum value by manipulating the flow rate of
cooling water. Besides, the ash flow rate must be controlled as it will affect the liquid
level in the quencher.
Cooling water
stream
TRC
TT
Vapour inlet
LT
LRC
Figure 4.5 Control configuration of quencher
Table 4.7 Summary of control strategy of quencher
Controlled Manipulated Control Control Action

Vessel Flow rate of To control the Any deviation in temperature of
temperature inlet cooling outlet temperature fluid at quencher outlet will be
water of process fluid atdetected. Signal will be
desired transmitted to TRC which will
temperature. send signal to regulate the valve
opening at service fluid stream to
manipulate the flow rate of service
fluid.
Liquid level Flow rate of To control the Any variation in liquid level of
in vessel liquid product liquid level inside quencher will be detected and
the vessel in the signal will be transmitted to LRC.
optimum value. Then, a signal will be sent to
regulate the bottom product valve
opening to manipulate the bottom
product flow rate.
106
4.2.2.6 Spray Tower
The main function of spray tower in this hydrogen and methane production plant is to
dissolve the reaction by product, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide from the product.
In scrubber, the efficiency can be controlled by manipulating the flow rate of product and
flow rate of water. There are two phases in the scrubber, vapour phase and liquid phase.
PT 1 PIC 1
LT 1
V-102
LIC 1
Figure 4.6: Spray tower control
Table 4.8: Summary of control strategy of spray tower V-102 and V-103
Controlled Manipulated Control Objective Control Action

Variable Variable
Vessel pressure Flow rate of To control the The vessel pressure is
vapour product pressure measured (PT1) and the
of the scrubber pressure is controlled
(PIC1) by manipulating
the flow rate of vapour
product
Liquid level in Flow rate of To control the liquid The liquid level is
vessel liquid product level to prevent measured (LT1) and
overflow or low controlled (LIC1) by
liquid level manipulating the flow
rate of liquid product
4.2.2.7 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
From an operational point of view PSA is an intrinsic dynamic process operating in a

cycle manner with each bed undergoing the same sequence of steps. A typical process of
107
PSA for hydrogen purification consists of a sequence of stages involving high pressure
adsorption and low pressure desorption at a determine temperature. The cycles of the
process involved are:
a. Pressurization: the gas needed to pressurize the column from P0 to P (P>P0)

enters the column instantaneously and pressurize the column.
b. Adsorption: the column sections are assumed to be isolated from each other and
adsorption occurs in each section for finite time step Dt. This results in decrease in
pressure in different sections. Another pressurization event then occurs and so on. Thus
the cycle of pressurization and adsorption continues till the completion of pressurization
step. Sequential steps in an algorithm for pressurization step are listed below.
Step 1: carry out pressurization for the entire bed comprising of several discrete lengths
Step 2: carry out adsorption step in each section of the column for a finite time
Step 3: if the time equals the pressurization time, terminate pressurization step. Otherwise
return to step 1
The countercurrent depressurization step is similar to the pressurization step,

except that the flow direction is reversed. The countercurrent depressurization is modeled
as comprising of recurring sequence of two discrete events.
1. Instantaneous Bulk Phase Depressurization (IBPD)

2. Desorption.
3. Blow down
4. Purging
The controlled variable of the process is the vessel pressure. Since the process
plant is not in a big scale, the pressure is controlled in the control room by setting up the
operating pressure for pressurization and depressurization in the control room. If the
pressure is above the setting point, the relief valve will automatically open but if the
108
pressure is below the set point, the valve will be open from the control room using
programming that have been written in the system.
Figure 4.7: Cycle on process of PSA

Automatic
Relieve valve
valve
109
Figure 4.8: Automatic valve on PSA
110
4.3 PIPING SYSTEM
4.3.1 Piping System Design
Piping system forms a major part of most of the chemical process industries. In these
industries, the pipes are used to convey solids or fluids from one place to another.
Industrial piping can be manufactured from various types of materials, such as fiberglass,
steel, aluminium, plastics and so on. Besides selecting the right piping material, pipe
diameter is also an important aspect in designing the piping system. Suitable pipe
diameter for every single stream needs to be determined to ensure optimum and safe plant
operations. Optimum diameter of pipe can be estimated based on type of fluid flowing
inside the pipe, flow rate, and operating material qualities. Normally, the size of all pipes
is identified by nominal pipe size rather than the calculated true optimum diameter of the
pipe. Carbon steel is chosen as the fabrication material for the pipes due to its nature of
good resistance on chemical materials, ease of fabrication, and economic benefits. The
pipe size is chosen based on the American Standard ASME and British Standard 1600.
4.3.1.1 Liquid Flow
For carbon steel pipes, the following equation can be used to estimate the economic pipe
diameter for any particular equation (Sinnott, 2006).
Doptimum  0.366G 0.53 0.33  0.37 (4.1)
Where
Doptimum = optimum diameter, m
G = flow rate, kg/s

ρ = density, kg/m3
μ = viscosity, Pa.s
Table 4.9 shows the result of optimum pipe diameter for every liquid stream in hydrogen
production plant using equation (4.1).
Table 4.9: Optimum piping size for liquid flow
Wall
G ρ µ Nominal Outside D
Stream G (kg/h) Dopt (in) Schedule Thickness Material
(kg/s) (kg/m3) (mPa.s) Size(in) (mm)
(mm)
1 5027.94 1.397 996.2474 0.89 0.1317 0.250 40 13.72 2.235 Carbon
Steel
1a 527.94 0.147 996.2474 0.89 0.0399 0.125 40 10.29 1.727 Carbon
Steel
1b 527.94 0.147 958.7831 0.28 0.0277 0.125 40 10.29 1.727 Carbon
Steel
11 1500.00 0.417 996.2474 0.89 0.0694 0.125 40 10.29 1.727 Carbon
Steel
12 20.47 0.006 0.0463 23.67 0.8431 1.000 40 33.40 3.378 Carbon
Steel
15 1000.00 0.278 2130.00 1.43 0.0494 0.125 40 10.29 1.727 Carbon
Steel
16 2000.00 0.556 1109.89 2.31 0.1064 0.125 40 10.29 1.727 Carbon
Steel
17 4292.17 1.192 1009.65 0.87 0.1197 0.125 40 10.29 1.727 Carbon
Steel
19 2000.00 0.556 1130.58 7.29 0.1543 0.250 40 13.72 2.235 Carbon
Steel
20 2119.67 0.589 117.63 7.05 0.3635 0.375 40 17.15 2.311 Carbon
Steel
21 6411.84 1.781 12.6639 1.33 0.8601 1.000 40 33.40 3.378 Carbon
Steel
111
112
4.3.2 Vapor Flow
For long size pipe, the vapour velocity is near with the sonic velocity or velocity of sound
(Crowl & Louvar 2002). The velocity of sound is determined using the thermodynamic
relationship
1
  P   2
a   g c    (4.2)
    s 
Assuming an ideal gas, equation (4.2) is equivalent to

1
 g c R g T  2
a  (4.3)
 M 
Where  = 1.40 for diatomic gas
gc = 32.174 ft.lbm/s2. lbf
Rg = 1545 ft.lbf/lbmol. °R
T = 1.8(T°C+273.15), °R
M = Molecular mass, lbmol
Given the flow rate of gas, Qm  UA (kg / s)
Where  = density of fluid, kg/m3

U = sonic velocity = a, m/s
A = cross sectional area of pipe, m2
Therefore, the diameter of pipe, D can be calculated from the following relation:
4A
D (4.4)

Using equation (4.2) to (4.4), the diameter of pipe for vapour stream can be determined.
The diameter is then compared to the standards based on ASME/ANSI B 36.10/19 to
determine the nominal pipe dimensions. Table 4.10 shows the result obtained.
Table 4.10: Optimum piping size for vapor flow
Qm Nominal Outside Wall Thickness

Stream ρ(kg/m3) A (m2) D(m) D(in) Schedule Material
(kg/s) Size (in) D(mm) (mm)
1c 0.147 0.3312 6.76×10-4 0.0293 1.16 1.50 40S 42.16 3.683 Stainless Steel
1d 0.147 0.2546 7.71×10-4 0.0313 1.23 1.50 40S 42.16 3.683 Stainless Steel
2 0.147 0.244 7.89×10-4 0.0317 1.25 1.50 40S 42.16 3.683 Stainless Steel
5 0.057 958.4 0.10×10-5 0.0004 0.02 0.125 40 10.29 1.727 Carbon Steel
9a 0.266 0.2924 1.31×10-3 0.0408 1.61 2.0 40S 60.33 3.912 Stainless Steel
10 0.266 0.0213 2.24×10-2 0.1690 6.65 8.0 40 219.1 8.179 Carbon Steel
13 0.677 9.451 1.30×10-4 0.0129 0.51 0.75 40 26.67 2.870 Carbon Steel
13a 0.677 4.863 2.62×10-4 0.0183 0.72 0.75 40 26.67 2.870 Carbon Steel
14 0.677 0.5963 2.32×10-3 0.0544 2.14 2.50 40 73.03 5.156 Carbon Steel
18 0.040 0.344 1.80×10-4 0.0151 0.60 0.75 40 26.67 2.870 Carbon Steel
22 0.007 0.115 0.55×10-4 0.0084 0.33 0.375 40 17.15 2.311 Carbon Steel
23 0.007 0.281 0.36×10-4 0.0068 0.27 0.375 40 17.15 2.311 Carbon Steel
24 0.005 0.081 0.44×10-4 0.0075 0.30 0.375 40 17.15 2.311 Carbon Steel
25 0.002 0.682 0.8×10-5 0.0031 0.12 0.125 40 10.29 1.727 Carbon Steel
113
114
4.4 VALVE SELECTION
There are two types of valves used for a chemical plant such as:
1. Shut-off valves (block valves or isolation valves)
Usage: to close off flow
2. Control valves (manual or automatic)
Usage: to regulate flow
The main types of valves used are:

1. Gate valve
2. Plug valve
3. Ball valve
4. Globe valve
5. Diaphragm valve
6. Butterfly valve
For shut off or close off the flow, several valves such as gate, plug and ball
valves are normally being used. Gate valves are available in wide range of size and
can be operated manually or by motor. It has a straight-through flow channel and low
pressure drop when open. Several turns of the valve handle are usually required to
close the valve, so they are best used when operated infrequently. This type of valve
should not be operated partially open, as the seals can become deformed, causing the
valve not to seal properly. Plug and ball valves is used when there is a requirement to
quarter turn to open or close.
If flow control is required, the valve such as globe or diaphragm valve usually
used in order to smooth control over the full range of flow, from fully opened to
closed. Butterfly valve is often used to control gas or vapour flow. Non-return valves
are used to prevent back-flow of fluid in stream line.
In hydrogen production plant, the valves being used are non-return valve,
isolation valve and drain valve. Table 4.11, 4.12, 4.13 and 4.14 gives the type of valve
being used.
115
Table 4.11: Non-return valve
Stream Symbol
Stream 10 CV-V101-1
Stream 13 CV-V101-2
Stream 14 CV-V102
Stream 18 CV-V103
Stream 23 CV-V105
Table 4.12: Isolation valve
Stream Symbol
Stream 1 XV-P101-1
Stream 1 XV-P101-2
Table 4.13: Pressure relief valve
Equipment Symbol
E-101 PSV-E101
R-101 PSV-R101
V-101 PSV-V101
V-102 PSV-V102
V-103 PSV-V103
V-105 PSV-V105-V1/V2/V3/V4
PSV-V105-1/2
Table 4.14 Drain valve
Equipment Symbol
V-101 DV-V101
V-102 DV-V102
V-103 DV-V103
4.5 RELIEF SYSTEM
4.5.1 Introduction
Although many safety precautions within a chemical plant have been considered,
equipment failures or operator errors may cause an increase in process pressure
beyond the safe level. The result of such increase in pressure may be rupture of
vessels, release of toxic or flammable chemicals, and so on.
116
There are, of course, several lines of defense against these types of accident.
One of them is to install relief systems to relief liquids or gases before excessive
pressures are developed. The relief system is composed of the relief device and the
associated downstream process equipment to safely handle the material ejected.
Pressure relief devices provide a mechanical means of ensuring that the

pressure inside a vessel cannot rise to an unsafe level. The first step in the method
used for the safe installation of pressure relief devices is to specify the location where
the devices must be installed. Next, suitable type of relief device must be selected.
The selection of pressure relief device depends mostly on the nature of the material
relieved and the relief characteristics required.
Then scenarios are developed that describe the various ways in which a relief
can occur. Generally, pressure relief systems are needed in a plant because
i. It can protect the equipment from damage.

ii. It can protect the plant personnel from the danger of equipment’s
overpressure.
iii. It minimizes the loss of chemicals during pressure upsets.
iv. It prevents the damage of adjoining property.
v. The governmental regulations must be complied.
Some rules of thumb when specifying the location of relief positions are
(Crowl & Louvar 1990):
i. Reliefs are needed for all vessels, including reactors, towers, storage
tanks, and drums.
ii. Reliefs are needed for cool liquid-filled lines that are exposed to heat or
refrigeration.
iii. Reliefs are needed for pumps, compressors, and turbines on discharge side.
iv. Reliefs are needed for vessels’ jackets to prevent excessive steam pressure.
117
4.5.2 Relief Types
Generally, there are two categories of relief devices, they are spring-operated valve
and rupture discs. Spring-operated valve can be divided into conventional type and
balance-bellows.
For a conventional spring-operated relief, the valve opening is based on the

pressure drop across the valve. Therefore, if the backpressure at downstream of the
valve increases, the set pressure will increase and the valve may not open at the right
pressure. On the other hand, the flow through the conventional spring-operated relief
valve will be reduced as the backpressure increases. The design of balanced-bellows
valve is different from conventional type in which it has the bellows on the backside
of the valve seat to ensure that the pressure on that side of the seat is always
atmospheric. Therefore, balance-bellow valve can always open at the desired set
pressure. Again, the flow through the balance-bellow valve is also reduced as the
backpressure increases.
Rupture discs is a non-reclosing pressure relief device that protects a vessel or

equipment from overpressure or potentially damaging vacuum condition. It ruptures at
a predetermined differential pressure. They usually consist of a membrane that is
made out of metal or any other suitable materials, including exotic corrosion-resistant
materials. The advantages of rupture discs compared to pressure relief valves include
leak tightness and cost. Table 4.15 shows the location, type, and application for relief
valve.
Table 4.15: Location, type, and application of relief valve
Location Type of Symbol Phase Application Destination

valve
Furnace, Spring relief PSV-E101 Vapour To avoid the To flare
E-101 valve damage of
furnace due to
overpressure.
Continue…
118
…Continued
Gasifier , Spring relief PSV-R101 Vapour To avoid the To flare

R-101 valve damage of
reactor due to
overpressure.
Quencher, Spring relief PSV-V101 Vapour To avoid the To flare
V-101 valve damage of
vessel due to
overpressure.
Spray Spring relief PSV-V102 Vapour To avoid the To flare
Tower, valve damage of
V-102 vessel due to
overpressure.
Spray Spring relief PSV-V103 Vapour To avoid the To flare
Tower, valve damage of
V-103 vessel due to
overpressure.
PSA,V- Spring relief PSV- Vapour To avoid the To flare
105 valve V105-V1 damage of
(vessel) PSV- vessel due to
V105-V2 overpressure.
PSV-
V105-V3
PSV-
V105-V4
PSA,V- Spring relief PSV- Vapour To avoid the To flare
105 valve V105-1 damage of
(pipeline) PSV- pipeline due to
V105-2 overpressure.
4.5.3 Relief Valve - Operated in Vapor Phase Sizing
According to (Sinnott 2009), for critical flow, the required relief valve area can be
calculated using the equation below:
13160w TZ
A
C o XP1 K b M (4.5)
Where,
A = area of the relief vent (mm2)
w = the effective discharge flow (kg/h)
Co = Effective coefficient of discharge
119
: 0.975 when a pressure relief valve is installed with/without a rupture disk in

combination,
: 0.62 when a pressure relief valve is not installed and sizing is for a rupture
disk in accordance with pressure relief valve.
Kb = the backpressure coefficient. It applies for balanced bellows valves only, for
the conventional and pilot operated valves, use a value for Kb equal to 1.0.
Kc =combination correction factor
P = the maximum absolute discharge pressure, is the set pressure plus the
allowable overpressure plus atmospheric pressure, kPa
T = relieving temperature, K
Z = compressibility factor at the inlet condition
The constant X can get by the equation below. It is conveniently calculated using the
following fixed unit expressions.
( 1)(  1)
 2 
X  520   
   1 (4.6)
  C p Cv
Finally the diameter can be calculated by using the equation below:

4A
d
 (4.4)
Table 4.16 shows the conventional spring-operated reliefs in vapour.

Table 4.16: Relief valve calculation
P w M
Valve T (K) (kPa) (kg/h) (g/mol) Co Kb X γ Z A (mm2) d (mm)
PSV-E101 898 350 527.94 18.02 0.975 1.0 565.24 1.310 0.9994 254.19 17.99
PSV-R101 898 300 1346.67 24.34 0.975 1.0 565.48 1.343 0.9813 664.69 28.66
PSV-V101 373 260 2437.3 18.14 0.975 1.0 565.43 1.322 0.9346 980.97 35.35
PSV-V102 348 240 145.13 9.56 0.975 1.0 565.50 1.331 0.9980 86.99 10.53
PSV-V103 303 230 25.47 2.85 0.975 1.0 564.90 1.373 1.0002 27.29 5.90
PSV-V105-V1/V2/V3/V4 303 1013 25.47 2.85 0.975 1.0 564.83 1.375 1.0020 6.20 2.81
PSV-V105-1/2 303 1013 25.47 2.85 0.975 1.0 564.83 1.375 1.0020 6.20 2.81
120
CHAPTER V
DETAILED PROCESS DESIGN
5.1 PROCESS DESIGN OF FURNACE E-101

(Design by: Muhammad Hafiz bin Abd Wahab, A122618)
5.1.1 Introduction
In Hydrogen production, furnace is very essential as it is the only unit used to create a
perfect steam of the temperature of 650 oC. This traditional heating/burning unit chosen is
because we need to convert water at room temperature that is in liquid phase to a steam at
650oC. This fired heater usually used use for a process with large amount of heat needed
and high flow rate involved. To make the save cost, the methane gas produced by the
process is utilized to be the fuel for the fired heater.
From iCON simulation, the total heat required for the water to be a steam at the
tempearature of 650 oC is 247 kW. The lower heating value (LHV) of the methane gas is
6311.87W. LHV is the amount of heat released by combusting a specified quantity
(initially at 25 oC or other reference state) and returning the temperature of
the combustion products to its initial temperature that is 25 °C. With the value of methane
LHV, we can see that the heat that can be released when the methane is burnt is higher
than the required heat. From this observation and information, the furnace to be design to
122
heat the steam to 650oC is possible. Hence, using all the information we have, trial and
error calculation is performed to calculate the heat duty of the furnace.
5.1.2 General Construction of Furnace
Basically, there are two types of furnace widely used in industry that is steam-generating
boilers and petroleum refinery furnaces. For the ease of design, I have chosen petroleum-
refinery furnaces. This furnace is widely employed in various heating, treating and
vaporizing services. Furnace thermal efficiency is around 75 to 80 percent. This is the
advantage of furnace but despite of that, furnace has the advantage of utilizing the greater
percentage of the product produce that is methane as a fuel.
As in boilers, refinery furnaces usually contain both radiant and convection-heat-

transfer surface. Only, radiant surface is used for very low-capacity furnaces with duties
up to 5 000 000 Btu/hr. Usually, the steam is air preheated to certain degree before
heating using the oil. This can make the furnace to be economical.
The type of furnace that I going to design is the box-type furnace fired from the
end walls of the radiant section. The cross section of the furnace is show in figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Box-type furnace
Source: Kern 1983

123
Box-type furnace might have the capacities ranging from 25,000,000 to 100,000,000
Btu/hr heat input to the oil. Radiant tubes cover the side wall, roof and bridge-wall
surface that is the partition between radiant and convection section.
Oil is preheated in the bottom and top rows of the convection bank, then passes
through the radiant tubes. After reaching the elevated temperature (????? oC), it is passed
through a large number of convection-section tubes where the temperature is maintained
at a high temperature for sufficient time to achieve the wanted degree of cracking. These
tubes are called the soaking section. Recirculation of flue-gas is employed in this furnace
as it will increase the convection-section duty and decrease the radiant section duty.
5.1.3 Process Design of Furnace
In designing furnace, there are several common methods in calculating heat absorption in
furnace radiant sections. One of the methods is method of Lobo and Evans. This method
makes use of overall exchange factor and a Stefan-Boltzman type equation and it have a
good theoretical basis and is used extensively in refinery-furnace design work. The
average deviation between the predicted and observed heat of absorption is 5.3 percent.
The equation use for radiant-heat transfer to the cold surface is:
 T  4  T  4 
Q  0.173 f  G    S    Acp (5.1)
 100   100  
In furnace, we also need to consider the heat transferred by convection that is:
hc A(TG  TS ) (5.2)
124
Total heat transfer to the cold surface is:
 TG 4  TS 4 
 Q  0.173 f  100    100    Acp  hc A TG  TS  (5.3)
 
Where
A = Total tube surface,ft2
Acp = Equivalent cold plane surface, ft2
f = Overall exchange factor, dimensionless
hc = Convection coefficient, Btu/hr.ft2.°F
ΣQ = Total hourly heat transfer to the cold surface, Btu/hr
TG = Temperature of flue gas leaving the radiant section, °R
TC = Tube surface temperature, °R
α = Factor by which Acp must be reduced to obtain effective cold surface,
dimensionless
In simplifying the calculation on convection term, we can assume that h c = 2.0 and that
for this term alone A is approximately 2.0αAcp. Since it is desired to divide all the term by
f, a value of 0.57 will be used instead when the convection term is considered.
Considering all that, we obtained:
Q  T  4  T  4 
 0.173  G    S    7 TG  TS  (5.4)
 Acp f  100   100  
The relationship for equation (5.4) above can be seen in figure 5.2 below.
125
Figure 5.2: Radiant section heat flux
(Kern, 1983)
Figure 5.2 and 5.3 are used in determining the radiation due to water vapor and carbon
dioxide. Figure 5.4 used in determining the overall heat-exchange factor in radiant
sections.
126
Figure 5.3: Radiation due to carbon dioxide
(Kern,1983)
127
Figure 5.4: Radiation due to water vapor
(Kern, 1983)
128
Figure 5.5: Overall heat-exchange factor in radiant sections
In addition to equation 5.x, a heat balance is needed for the solutions to the heat
absorption problem. The heat balance is as follows:
Q  QF  QA  QR  QS  QW  QG (5.5)
Where
Q = Total radiant section duty, Btu/hr
QA = Sensible heat above 60 °F in combustion air, Btu/hr
QF = Heat liberated by fuel, Btu/hr (lower heat value)
QG = Heat leaving the furnace radiant sections in the flue gases, Btu/hr
QR = Sensible heat above 60 °F in a recirculated flue gases, Btu/hr
QS = Sensible heat above 60 °F in steam used for fuel atomization, Btu/hr
QW = Heat loss through furnace walls, Btu/hr (1 to 10 per cent of Q F depending
upon the size, temperature and construction of the furnace)
129
As a further simplification, QS can be neglected and the net heat liberation is

QF  QA  QR  QW  Qnet (5.6)
The heat leaving in the flue gases at the exit temperature T G is

QG  W 1  G ' Cav TG  520  (5.7)
Where
W = Fuel rate, lb/hr
1+G’ = Ratio of flue gas leaving the radiant section to fuel fired, dimensionless
G’ = Ratio of air to fuel, dimensionless
Cav = Average specific heat of flue gases between T G and 520 °R, Btu/hr.ft2.°F
5.1.4 Process condition
Total heat duty, Btu/hr = 759500

Design radiant flux, Btu/hr.ft2 = 5000
Design efficiency = 0.80
Fuel type = Methane gas
Lower Heating Value for fuel, = 21537
Btu/lb
Steam for atomizing fuel = 0.3 lb/lb of gas
Excess air, % = 25 (corresponding to 17.44 lb air/lb fuel)
Preheated temperature, °F = 390
Tube wall temperature, °F = 1150
Tubes outer diameter, in = 5
Tubes spacing, in = 8
Exposed tube length, ft = 5
Tube arrangement = Single row arrangement
130
We start the calculation by assuming:

Q
 2  5000  10000Btu / hr. ft 2
Acp f
The overall heat exchanger, f is 0.57
Q 10000
  17543.86 Btu / hr. ft 2
Acp f 0.57
From figure 5.2, with tube temperature 1150 °F, an exit gas temperature of 1450°F will
be required to effect such a flux.
Q 759500
Heat liberated by fuel,   949375Btu / hr
Acp f 0.8
949375
Fuel quantity   44.08lb / hr
21537
Air required  44.08 17.44  768.77lb / hr
Steam for atomizing  44.08  0.3  13.224lb / hr
Q A  768.77  82  63039.14Btu / hr
QS  negligible
QW  2% of QF  18987.5Btu / hr
QnettA  QF  Q A  QW  993427 Btu / hr
Heat out in gases at 2000 °F, 25 % excess air, 476 Btu/lb of flue gas
QG  476(44.08  63039.14  13.224  393214Btu / hr
Q  Qnett  QG  993427  393214  600212.9Btu / hr
To obtained the partial pressure of water, H2O and carbon dioxide, CO2. We need to refer
to the analysis of the fuel. From the analysis of the fuel, the steam quantity and with the
assumption that the humidity of air is 50 percent of saturation at 60 °F, with 25% excess
air, the partial pressure of CO2 and H2O in the combustion gases are:
PCO2  0.1084 , PH2O  0.1248 , PCO2 L  0.1084  2.61  0.2829 , PH 2O L  0.3351
From figure 19.12 and 19.13 (Kern 1983), the emissivity of the gas can be evaluated.
131
PCO2 0.1084
% correction at =   0.465
PCO2  PH 2O 0.1248
PH 2O L  PCO2 L  0.6180
% correction = 5.5 %
(q co2 atPCO2  q H 2O atPH 2O ) TG  (q co2 atPCO2  q H 2O atPH 2O ) T2 100  %
G [ ]
(q b ) TG  (q b ) TS 100
(2500  4300) TG  (1125  2300) T2 100  5.5
G [ ]
60000  50000 100
 G  0.36
Overall exchange factor, f at  G  0.36
f  0.44 from figure 5.x4
Now, we check on the gas temperature required to effect assumed duty on assumed tube
surface:
Q 
600213
 28354.73Btu / hr. ft 2
Acp f 58.8  0.44
TG required is 1400 °F compared with Ts 1150 °F. Since the difference value for TG and
Ts is quite small, hence the design is possible.
5.1.5 Summary of furnace process design
Heat duty = 759500 Btu/hr (222 kW)

Pipe OD = 5 in (127 mm)
Spacing = 8 in (203.2 mm)
Fuel quantity = 44.08 lb/hr (20 kg/hr)
Air required = 768.77 lb/hr (349 kg/hr)
Steam for atomizing = 13.22 lb/hr (6 kg/hr)
Tube arrangement = Single row arrangement
Tube temperature, Ts = 1150 °F (1038 °C)
Flue gas temperature, TG = 1400 °F (1093 °C)
Number of tubes = 18
132
5.2 PROCESS DESIGN OF GASIFIER REACTOR R-101

(Prepared by: Soo Kok Hoe, A122268)
5.2.1 Introduction
There are 5 chemical reactions involved in the production of hydrogen and methane from
biomass (empty fruit bunch) gasification. The reactions involved are char gasification,
methanation, boudouard, methane reforming and water gas shift. As the reaction happens,
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are produced as side products. Inside the reactor,
biomass, which is in solid form will be gasified under high temperature, normally around
873-1273K at atmospheric pressure. Typical steam to biomass ratio will be 1-4:1. The
reaction will be catalyzed by dolomite and the presence of sand in the reactor will act as
fluidizing medium. Type of reactor in this process is adiabatic reactor and the reaction
takes place in gases phase. The stoichiometry reactions are shown as following:
Char gasification:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  0.1H 2O 
r1
2.15H 2  3.4CO (5.8)
Methanation:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  8.05H 2 
r2
3.4CH 4  3.3H 2O (5.9)
Boudouard:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  CO2 
r3
4.4CO  0.9H 2O  1.15H 2 (5.10)
Methane reforming:
CH 4  H 2O 
r4
CO  3H 2 (5.11)
Water gas shift:
CO  H 2O 
r5
CO2  H 2 (5.12)
133
5.2.2 Dimension of Gasifier Reactor R-101
Gasifier of empty fruit brunch, EFB can take place in fluidized bed reactor, a type of
reactor that can be used to carry out a multiple chemical reactions. In this reactor, stream
will force go through the fluidized medium, sand and catalyst, dolomite and react with
empty fruit brunch. Table 7.1 shows the properties of catalyst.
Table 5.1: Properties of catalyst dolomite
Type of catalyst Dolomite
Bulk Density of catalyst, 740
True Density of catalyst, 2899

Porosity of catalyst, 0.50
Rate Law for these reactions as following:

For reaction (5.8):
r1  k1CEFB CH 2O  [2.0 105 exp( 6000 / T )]  CEFB  CH 2O kmol / m  s  (5.13)
3
For reaction (5.9):

r2  k 2CEFB CH 2  [2.345 1011 exp( 13670 / T )]  CEFB  CH 2 kmol / m  s  (5.14)
3
For reaction (5.10):

r3  k3CEFB CCO2  [1.19 10 3 exp( 16840 / T )]  CEFB  CCO2 kmol / m  s  (5.15)
3

r4  k 4CCH 4CH 2O  [3.0 105 exp( 15000 / T )]  CCH 4  CH 2O kmol / m  s  (5.16)
3

 C C   C C 
r5  k5  CCOCH 2O  CO2 H 2   106 exp( 6370 / T ) CCOCH 2O  CO2 H 2 
 Kw   Kw 
where K w  520 exp( 7230 / T ) kmol / m  s  (5.17)

3
While the mole balance for each reaction:

1 dN EFB
Empty fruit bunch :  rEFB (5.18)
V dt
134
1 dN H 2O
Steam :  rH 2O (5.19)
V dt
1 dN H 2
Hydrogen :  rH 2 (5.20)
V dt
1 dN CO
Carbon Monoxide :  rCO (5.21)
V dt
1 dN CO2
Carbon Dioxide :  rCO2 (5.22)
V dt
1 dN CH 4
Methane :  rCH 4 (5.23)
V dt
Therefore, the net rate laws:

rEFB  r1  r2  r3 (5.24)
rH 2O  0.1r1  3.3r2  0.9r3  r4  r5 (5.25)
rH 2  2.15r1  8.05r2  1.15r3  3r4  r5 (5.26)
rCO  3.4r1  4.4r3  r4  r5 (5.27)
rCH 4  3.4r2  r4 (5.28)
rCO2  r3  r5 (5.29)
For catalytic reaction, the design equation of reactor is:

dX EFB  rEFB
 o (5.30)
dV FEFB
To find the volume of reactor with respect to conversion, we rearrange the equation to:
dV Fo
 EFB (5.31)
dX EFB  rEFB
Equation (5.31) is inserted into polymath and solved the differential equation and gives
the volume vs conversion of EFB.
Figure 5.6: Graph of Reactor Volume vs Conversion of EFB from Polymath
135
136
The dimension of reactor is estimated such that the ratio of length to diameter is 4:1.
Table 5.2 shows the volume of reactor with respect to conversion. The diameter and
length are also shown in the table.
Table 5.2 Volume of reactor with respect to conversion

Conversion XEFB Volume (m3) Diameter (m) Length (m)
0.05 0.042827 0.238594 0.95437526
0.1 0.103572 0.320604 1.2824153
0.15 0.173426 0.380763 1.5230515
0.2 0.253678 0.432226 1.72890393
0.25 0.345643 0.479173 1.91669349
0.3 0.451398 0.523765 2.09506109
0.35 0.573269 0.5672 2.26879993
0.4 0.713746 0.610189 2.44075697
0.45 0.876461 0.653423 2.61369049
0.5 1.066276 0.697547 2.7901867
0.55 1.289347 0.743145 2.97257815
0.6 1.552823 0.790662 3.16264685
0.65 1.869725 0.841155 3.36461915
0.7 2.256449 0.895554 3.58221703
0.75 2.740921 0.95554 3.82216008
0.8 3.363543 1.023016 4.09206361
0.85 4.211746 1.102649 4.41059752
0.9 5.465566 1.202712 4.81084928
0.95 7.709186 1.348817 5.39526609
1 15.23795 1.692748 6.77099067
137
5.2.3 Jacketed Vessel
Since the reactor is adiabatic, thus heat is required to provide along the reactor to
maintain the temperature for optimum conversion. Therefore, half pipe jackets is
designed for maintain the temperature inside the reactor in 625°C.
It is essential to maintain the reactor in high temperature, thus oil is choose as our
heating medium and stored inside the spacing between the jacket and vessel walls. A
heating coil is immersed inside the heating medium and controlled by resistance for the
electricity power supply.
The jacket is fitted to cylindrical section only and extends to a height of 2m. The
spacing between the jacket and vessel walls is 100 mm. The jacket is fitted with a spiral
battle and the pitch between the spirals is 200 mm. While, the number of spirals should
be 10 and the length of channel is 62.83 m.
5.3 PROCESS DESIGN FOR HEAT EXCHANGER E-104

(PREPARED BY: MOW JIUN WEI A122616)
5.3.1 Introduction
In this Hydrogen plant, we used shell and tube type heat exchanger for heat exchanger E-
104. This type of heat exchanger gives large surface area in a small volume. It can be
constructed of wide range of materials to accommodate corrosion and other concerns.
Furthermore, cleaning and repair are relatively straightforward for shell and tube heat
exchanger as it can be dismantled.
We are using the simplest common pull through bundle for the floating head
design of the heat exchanger. For this type of floating head, one of the tube sheets is
made small enough that it and its gasketed bonnet may be pulled completely through the
138
shell for shell side inspection and cleaning. The tube side may be cleaned and individual
tubes may be replaced without removing the bundle from the shell.
Heat exchanger E-104 is used to exchange the heat between the hot vapor product
stream from quencher V-101 and the water stream (1a), before the steam is sent into the
reactor for gasification purpose. The temperature of the hot vapor stream is to reach
100°C from 200°C, while the cold water (available at 30°C) is used as the cooling agent
and is assigned in the tube- side because it has higher tendency to foul the heat transfer
surface and it is also more corrosive compared to the process fluid. This will give better
control over the design fluid velocity and reduce the fouling. Also the tubes will be easier
to clean. The more corrosive fluid is allocated to the tube side so that the cost of
expensive alloy or clay component could be reduced. On the other hand, the process fluid
is assigned in shell-side. Lastly, the shell and tube heat exchanger is of countercurrent
flow pattern.
5.3.2 Dimension of Heat Exchanger E-104
t1 = 30°C
1a
13 13a
T1 = 200°C T2 = 168.6°C
m=0.677 kg/s
m = 4.4387 Q=42.7618 kW
1b
kg/s
t2 = 100°C
Figure 5.7: Heat Exchanger E-104 specifications

139
Table 5.3: Composition of materials in process fluid
Composition Mass Flow (kg/h) Mass Fraction

Water 2022.97 0.83
H2 17.00 0.01
Methane 7.49 0.00
CO 334.41 0.14
CO2 55.43 0.02
Total 2437.30 1.00
Kern’s method is used in designing this shell and tube heat exchanger. The average
values for the physical properties of cooling water and the process fluid are taken from
iCON. Data for cooling water is taken at mean temperature of 65°C while for the process
fluid is at 184.3°C. The following table summarizes the physical properties obtained from
iCON.
Table 5.4: Physical properties of water and process fluid
Water (in tube) Process fluid (in shell)

Inlet Outlet Mean Inlet Outlet Mean
Temperature (°C) 30 100 65 200 168.6 184.3
Heat Capacity, Cp (kJ/kg.°C) 4.2592 2.0115
Thermal Conductivity, k (W/m.°C) 0.6474 0.0513
Density, (kg/m3) 976.74 7.157
Viscosity, (Pa.s) 5.40×10-4 1.72×10-5
Fouling Resistance, hod (W/m2.°C) 5000 3000
Cooling water flow rate,

Q 42.7618
m   0.147 kg / s
C P  T 4.2592  (100  30)
140
T1 = 200°C
t2 = 100°C
T2 = 168.6°C
t1 = 30°C
Figure 5.8: Counter-current flow in Heat Exchanger E-104
Log mean temperature,

(T1  t 2 )  (T2  t1 ) (200  100)  (168.6  30)
Tm    118.25 C
(T1  t 2 ) (200  100)
ln ln
(T2  t1 ) (168.6  30)
The correction factor is a function of the tube shell and tube fluid temperatures, and the
number of tube and shell passes. It is normally correlated as a function of two
dimensionless temperature ratios.
T1  T2 200  168.6
R   0.4486
t 2  t1 100  30
t 2  t1 100  30
S   0.4118
T1  t1 200  30
For the shell design of this heat exchanger, the most common shell type TEMA (Tubular
Exchangers Manufacturers Association) “E” is chosen. A TEMA E shell is a single-pass
shell where the shell side fluid enters at one end and leaves through the other end.
For the calculation, one shell passes and 2 tube passes has been chosen. By referring the
values of R and S that has calculated above, the temperature correction factor, Ft is 0.97.
It is acceptable since normally an economic exchanger design cannot be achieved if the
correction factor Ft falls below than 0.75.
Mean Temperature,
Tm  Ft  Tlm  0.97  118.25  114.7 C
141
From Figure 12.1 (Sinnott R.K. 2009), we assume the overall coefficient U = 170
W/m2.°C
Provisional area,
Q 42.7618  10 3
A   2.19m 2
U  Tm 170  114.7
We choose dimension of tube to be 32mm for outside diameter, 27.8mm for inside
diameter and 1.83m for length of tube. The type of tube is Cupro-nickel, which gives the
Area of one tube, At    do  l

  (0.032)(1.83)
 0.1839m 2
A
Number of tubes, Nt 
At
2.19

0.1839
 11.93 ~ 12
Use triangular pitch, for one shell pass and two tube passes, K1= 0.249 and n = 2.207.
Estimation of bundle diameter,

1 1
 N n  12  2.207
Db  d o  t   32   0.1847m
 1
K  0.249 
Using pull-through floating head, from Figure 12.10 (Sinnott), clearance is 87mm.
Shell diameter, Ds  Db  Clearance
 0.1847  0.087
 0.2717
142
The ratio of tube length to shell diameter will be 6.74 which means it falls within the
range of 5 to 10 for the optimum tube length.
5.3.3 Tube Side Coefficient

  di 2
Tube cross sectional area, A 
4
  (0.0278) 2

4
 6.07  10 4 m 2
Nt
Tubes per pass, N 
Np
11.93

2
 5.96 ~ 6
Nt
Total flow area, Af  A
Np
 6  6.07  10 4
 0.0036m 2
m
Fluid mass velocity, G 
Af
0.147

0.0036
 40.42 kg / m 2 s
G
Linear velocity, ut 

40.42

976.74
 0.041m / s
u i d i
Reynold’s number, Re 

143
976.74  0.041  0.0278


5.40  10 4
 2083
Cp
Prandtl number, Pr 
kf
4.2592  10 3  5.40  10 4

0.6474
 3.55
L 1.83
  65.8
d i 0.0278
From Figure 12.23 (Sinnott R. K. 2009), j h = 0.0045
1
Nusselt number, Nu  j h Re Pr 3
1
 (0.0045)(2083)(3.55) 3
 14.3
Nu  k f
Inside coefficient, hi 
de
14.3  0.6474

0.0278
 332.97W / m 2 C
5.3.4 Shell Side Coefficient
Ds 0.27
Baffle spacing, l B    0.136m
2 2
-3
Tube pitch, Pt ) = 0.04 m
144
( Pt  d o ) Ds l B
Cross flow area, As  0.5 
Pt
(0.04  0.032)  0.27  0.136

 0.5 
0.04
 0.0037m 2
m
Mass velocity, Gs 
As
0.677

0.0037
 183.41kg / m 2 s
Equivalent diameter, de 
1.10 2
do

Pt  0.917d o
2


1.10
0.032

0.04 2  0.917  0.032 2 
 0.023m
Gs d e
Reynold’s number, Re 

183.41  0.023

1.72  10 5
 242650
Cp
Prandtl number, Pr 
kf
2.0115  10 3  1.71  10 5

0.0513
 0.673
Choose 35 per cent baffle cut, from Figure 12.29 (Sinnott R. K. 2009), jh = 0.0012
145
0.14
kf    1
Hence, shell coefficient, hs  j h Re Pr   3
de  w 
By neglecting the viscosity correction term,
0.0513 1
hs  (0.0012)(242650)(0.673) 3  576W / m 2 C
0.0227
5.3.5 Overall Coefficient
kw of cupro-nickel alloys = 45 W/m °C

Fouling factors from table 12.2 (Sinnott R. K. 2009):
Process liquid, hod = 3000 W/m2 °C
Cooling water, hid = 5000 W/m2 °C
do
d o ln
1 1 1 di do  1 1
      
U o hod hs 2K w di  hid hi 
32
(0.032) ln
1

1

1
 27.8  32  1  1 
 
U o 3000 576 2  45 27.8  5000 332.97 
1
 0.0058
Uo
U o  172W / m 2 C Well above assumed value of 170 W/m2°C
5.3.6 Tube Side Pressure Drop
From Figure 12.24 (Sinnott R. K. 2009), jf = 0.0075

  l   
m
 u 2
t  N P 8 j f     2.5 t
  di   w   2
  1.83   976.74  (0.0414) 2

 38  0.0075     2.5
  0.0278   2
 22.89 kPa
146
5.3.7 Shell Side Pressure Drop
Gs
Linear velocity, us 

183.4

7.16
 25.63 m / s
From Figure 12.30 (Sinnott R. K. 2009), jf = 0.025
D  l  u s 
2
 8 j f  s   
s
 
 de  l B  2 
 0.272  1.83  7.16  25.63 

2
 8  0.025    
 
 0.0227  0.136  2 
 25.5 kPa
5.3.8 Summary of the Proposed Heat Exchanger E-104 Design
Table 5.5: Summary of proposed Heat Exchanger E-104 design
Parameter Value
Triangular pitch
Cupro-nickel, kW (W/m.°C) = 45
Fix-tube
Shell Pass =1
Tube pass =2
Number of Tubes, Nt = 12
Outer diameter, do(mm) = 32
Inner diameter, di(mm) = 27.8
Length of tube, L(m) = 1.83
Pitch, Pt (mm) = 40
Heat Transfer area, A (m2) = 2.19
Shell inside diameter, Ds (mm) = 271.7
Continue…
147
…Continued
Baffle spacing, lB (mm) = 135.9
Baffle Cut = 0.35
Tube side coefficient, hi (W/m2.oC) = 332.97
Shell side coefficient, hs(W/m2.oC) = 576.23
Overall coefficient, Uo (W/m2.oC) = 172.24
Tube pressure drop, ΔPt (kPa) = 22.89
Shell pressure drop, ΔPs (kPa) = 25.50
5.4 Detailed Process Design Spray tower (V-102)

(Prepared by: Tan See Gin, A122623)
5.4.1 Introduction
Spray tower (also known as spray chambers) is a form of pollution control technology.
The tower consists of empty cylindrical vessel made of steel or plastic and nozzles that
spray liquid into the vessel. The inlet gas stream usually enters the bottom of the tower
and moves upward, while liquid is sprayed downward from one or more levels. This flow
of inlet gas and liquid in the opposite direction is called countercurrent flow. Figure 5.9
below shows a typical countercurrent-flow spray tower. This type of technology is a part
of the group of air pollution controls collectively referred to as wet scrubbers.
148
Figure 5.9: Typical countercurrent-flow spray tower
(Source: Wikipedia, 2012)
Spray towers can be used for gas absorption, but they are not as effective as
packed or plate towers. Spray towers can be very effective in removing pollutants if the
pollutants are highly soluble or if a chemical reagent is added to the liquid. In a spray
tower, absorption can be increased by decreasing the size of the liquid droplets and/or
increasing the liquid-to-gas ratio (L/G). However, to accomplish either of these, an
increase in both power consumed and operating cost is required. In addition, the physical
size of the spray tower will limit the amount of liquid and the size of droplets that can be
used.
149
5.4.2 Sizing the spray tower
Table 5.10 below show the detail properties of the stream enter the spray tower
Table 5.6: Properties of Streams entering and leaving Spray tower
Properties S14 S15 S16 S17

Flowrate
2437.31 2000.00 3792.17 145.14
(kg/hr)
Density
870.384 997 924.713 759.451
(kg/m3)
Settling velocity of spray tower can be determined by using the below equation.
ut = 0.07 (pL – pv)/pv1/2
Where ut = settling velocity, m/s

pL = liquid density, kg/m3
pv = vapour density, kg/m3
Therefore, from calculation, ut = 0.30 m/s
Minimum allowable diameter for spray tower can be calculated by:

4VV
Dv 
u s
Where Dv = minimum vessel diameter, m
Vv = gas or vapour volumetric flow rate, m3/s
us = ut , if a demister pad is used, and 0.15ut for a separator without a demister pad
As the separation of condensate from steam table is unlikely to be critical, a

demister pad will not be specified.
150
Thus, us = 0.15 x 0.30 = 0.045 m/s

Vapour volumetric flow rate = 2437.31 / (3600 x 870.384) = 7.78 x 10-4 m3/s
Dv = [(4 x 7.78 x 10-4) / (п x 0.045)]^0.5
= 0.148 m, smaller than minimum value, thus choose 1m (minimum value)
Liquid volumetric flow rate = 1500 / (3600 x 997) = 4.17 x 10-4 m3/s
Allow a minimum of 10 min hold up.
Volume held in vessel = 4.17 x 10-4 x (10 x 60) = 0.25 m
Liquid depth required, hv = volume held-up / vessel cross sectional area
= 0.25 / (п x 1²/4)
= 0.32 m
Increase to 0.6 m to allow space for positioning the level controller.
Since the operating pressure is between 0 – 20 bar, the height to diameter ratio for
spray tower is 3. Therefore, the height for spray tower = 3 m.
5.5 PROCESS DESIGN OF QUENCHER V-101

(Designed by: Pua Soh Hoon, A122186)
5.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Spray towers are inexpensive control devices primarily used for gas conditioning cooling
or for first-stage particle or gas removal. They are also being used in many flue-gas
desulfurization systems to reduce plugging and scale build up by pollutants. Many
scrubbing systems use sprays either prior to or in the bottom of the primary scrubber to
remove large particles that could plug it. Spray towers have been used effectively to
remove large particles and highly soluble gases.
Quencher also named as spray tower. Quencher is the equipment used for cooling
purposes in this empty fruit bunch gasification process. Then separate the ash and
particulate from synthesis gas. Basically, cooling water is used as the service fluid in
151
coolers and condensers help to remove the heat. Water is chosen as coolant because it is
cheap, plentiful, readily available, easy to handle and has a large heat capacity. Besides, it
does not expand or compress significantly within the normal temperature ranges. In this
quencher, ash and particulate are removed and vapour will cool down from 225oC to
200oC. This quencher operate at temperature of 225 oC and pressure at 1.78 atm. Figure
5.10 shows the molar flow rates for all the components in quencher.
Figure 5.10: Quencher V-101
5.5.2 Sizing of Quencher
Table 5.11 shows the volumetric flow rate of each component at the inlet stream of
absorber.
Table 5.7: Volumetric flow rate of each component at the inlet stream of quencher
Component Mass flow rate (kg/hr) Density Volumetric flow

(kg/m3) rate (m3/hr)
H2O (liq) 1500 1000 1.500
H2O (gas) 522.97 0.804 650.46
H2 (gas) 17.00 0.0834 203.83
Continue…
152
Continued…
CH4 (gas) 7.49 0.0052 1440.38
CO (gas) 334.41 1.184 282.44
CO2 (gas) 55.43 1.977 28.04
Ash (gas) 20.47 1200 0.017
Total 2457.77 2606.63
From Sinnott 2009, the general equation for heat transfer across a surface is
Q  UATm
Where Q = heat transfer per unit time, W
U = the overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m 2oC
A = heat transfer area, m2
∆Tm = the mean temperature different, the temperature driving force, oC
From section 3.10, the energy balance, Q for stream 13 is 553677.5W. From Figure 12.10,
Sinnot, the overall coefficient U for cooling water and heavy organic is 580 W/m 2oC.
∆Tm can calculate by using this formula.
ΔTm  Ft ΔTlm
Where Ft = temperature correction factor
∆Tlm = log mean temperature
Figure 5.11 Counter-current flow in Quencher V-101

153
(T 1  t 2)  (T 2  t1)
Tlm 
(T 1  t 2)
ln
(T 2  t1)
(225  200)  (200  30)

(225  200)
ln
(200  30)
 75.64 o C
Let the Ft=1
ΔTm  Ft ΔTlm  (1)(75.64)

 75.64 o C
Q  UATm
553677.5  (580) A(75.64)
A  12.62m2
Assume that the height: diameter ratio of quencher is 3:1

D 2 H
Thus, volume of absorber =
4
D 2 (3D)
12.62 
4
D  1.75m  5.74 ft
H  3(1.75)
 5.25m  17.22 ft
D 2 H
V
4
 (1.75) 2 (5.25)
  12.63m 3
4
154
5.6 PRESSURE SWING ADSORPTION

(Designed by: Fatin Syahida bt Agusalim A122465)
5.6.1 Introduction
Figure 5.12: Pressure Swing Adsorption
Source: International journal of hydrogen energy 34 (2009)

155
Table 5.8: Properties of PSA
Properties Value
Feed Flow rate (kg/hr) 30.2304
Product Flow rate (kg/hr) 17.03
Operating Temperature (oC) 30
Composition (%mass)
Hydrogen 0.5623
Methane 0.409
CO 0.0144
CO2 0.0143
Adsorbent
Type Activated Carbon
Form Granular
Bulk density (kg/m3) 343.12
Internal porosity (%) 0.37
Adsorbent density (kg/m3) 544.64
Grain size (m) 0.00149
Design Calculation:
Flow rate of feed: 30.2304 kg/hr
Flow rate product (leaving gas) = 17.03 kg/hr
Flow rate of adsorbed impurities = Flow rate of feed - Flow rate product
= 30.2304 – 17.03
= 13.2075 kg/hr
From Perry’s Handbook 7th Edition p.16-9, Table 16-6 , physical properties of adsorbent :
Adsorbent type: Activated Carbon
Internal porosity (%) = 35-50
Bulk dry density (kg/L) = 0.5-0.7
Sorptive Capacity kg adsorbate/kg adsorbent (dry) = 0.5 - 0.2
From International journal of hydrogen energy 34 (2009)

For Activated Corbon:
Grain size (m) = 0.002
156
From material balance:

Total amount of impurities adsorbed: (Madsorbate) = 13.2075 kg
Amount of adsorbent:
madsorbent= sorptive capacity
From the given data: sorptive capacity = 0.5 – 0.2 = 0.35 (average)
madsorbent =
madsorbent = 37.736 kg adsorbent/hr
Design equation for steady state bed adsorber (Isothermal Condition)

from Mass Transfer Operation by Robert E. Treybal , 3rd ed., pages 614-616
Z=(NtOG)(HtOG) (5.32)
(5.33)
(5.34)
where:
(5.35)
(5.36)
(5.37)
Nomenclature:
Z = Active bed height
NtOG = Number of transfer units
HtOG = Height of transfer units
KyaP = overall gas mass transfer coefficient
Gs = solute free mass fluid velocity ( )
Ss = adsorbent mass velocity ( )
Y1 = mass fraction of adsorbate in solid (initially)

157
Y2 = mass fraction of adsorbate adsorbed in the solid

X1 = mass fraction of adsorbate in entering gas
X2 = mass fraction of adsorbate in the living gas
To solve for the Height of adsorbent bed:
Y2 = 0.0001 (99.99% H2 purity)

X2 ≈ Y2* = 0 (pure adsorbent)
Density of entering gas = 0.4911 kg/m3

To solve for slope at equilibrium constant for ideal solution (m):
Where: m = slope at equilibrium constant for ideal solution

P gas = Pressure of entering gas (1 bar)
P t = Pressure of Adsorber (10 bar)
Y1* ≈ X1
Y1* = mX1 = (0.1)(0.2593) =0.002593
From equation 5.36:
Superficial Velocity:
( )
* +
158
Where: (m/s)
ε = porosity of adsorbent
μ = viscosity of gas (kg/ m-s)
ρgas = density of gas (kg/m3)
bulk ρadsorbent = density of adsorbent (kg/m3)
g = gravitational constant (m/s2)
Dp = grain size diameter (m)
From Unit operation by McCabe and Smith (estimation of viscosity of gas)

∑
≈ 9.66147 E-06 kg/ m-s
From given and calculated data: Perry’s Handbook 7th Edition p.16-9, Table 16-6
ε = 0.37
μ = 9.66147 E-06 kg/ m-s
ρgas = 0.1146 kg/m3
bulk ρadsorbent = 544.64 kg/m3
g = 9.8 m/s2
Dp = 0.00149 m
( )( )
[ ]
159
Superficial mass velocity:

G= ρ
G = (0.659 m/s) (0.4911 kg/m3) = 0.076 kg/m2 . s
Where: G = superficial mass velocity (kg/m2 –s)
(m/s)
ρgas = density of entering gas (0.1146 kg/m2)
Reynold’s Number
Re’ = Dp G / µ
= (0.00149 m) (0.076kg/m2 . s) / 9.662 X 10-6 kg/m.s
= 11.64
Where: Re’ = Reynold’s number
G = superficial mass velocity (kg/m2 –s)
Dp = grain size diameter
μ = viscosity of gas
From Table 3.3 Mass Transfer for simple situation

( p. 74 Mass Transfer Opt. by Treybal)
For Re’ = 5-1500;
Mass transfer coefficient = Kyap = jD = (0.250/ε) Re’ (-0.31)
Kyap = (0.250/0.37) (11.64) (-0.31)
Kyap = 0.32
From equation 5.33:
Height of adsorbent:
From equation 5.32:
Z = NZOG *HZOG
160
Z = 1.0623 (1.05m)
Height of bed (Z) = 1.12 m
Thus, height of vessel H = 1.12(1.5)
= 1.67 m
Area of Bed:
Where: Vfeed = Volumetric flow rate of gaseous feed (m3/s)

Vs = superficial velocity (m/s)
From the calculated data: Vs = 0.659 m/s
Diameter of activated in vessel is equal to the diameter of the vessel since carbon
molecular sieve is inside the vessel.
dbed = dvessel
dbed = 0.44 m
CHAPTER VI
MECHANICAL DESIGN
6.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REACTOR R-101

(Prepared by: Soo Kok Hoe A122268)
The type of reactor used for production of hydrogen and methane is fluidized bed reactor.
There are six reactions occur in this fluidized bed reactor as following:
Char gasification:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  0.1H 2O 
r1
2.15H 2  3.4CO (6.1)
Methanation:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  8.05H 2 
r2
3.4CH 4  3.3H 2O (6.2)
Boudouard:
C3.4 H 4.1O3.3  CO2 
r3
4.4CO  0.9H 2O  1.15H 2 (6.3)
Methane reforming:
CH 4  H 2O 
r4
CO  3H 2 (6.4)
Water gas shift:
CO  H 2O 
r5
CO2  H 2 (6.5)
Those reactions are irreversible and endothermic and the reaction condition for the
production of hydrogen and methane is shown as following:
162
Catalyst : Dolomite
Operating temperature : 625 °C
Operating Pressure : 200 kPa
Phase of reaction : Vapour phase
6.1.1 Material of Construction
Selection of construction material must takes into account the ease of fabrication and
suitability to the process condition. Several factors need to consider as following:
1. Operating temperature
2. Mechanical Strength
3. Ease of fabrication
4. Cost
5. Resistance to corrosive
According to Ray and Gavin 2009, the material that suitable for construct the gasifier
is stainless steel type 304 due to the high temperature of the reaction inside the gasifier.
Table 6.1 shown the type maximum allowable stress for stainless steel 304 based on
ASME BPV code
Table 6.1 Typical design stresses
Material Grade Min. Tensile Min. Yield Maximum Maximum Allowable

Strength(ksi) Strength(ksi) Temperature Stress at
(°C) Temperature °C
(ksi = 1000 psi)
371.4 482.2 625
Stainless 304 75 30 815 11.7 10.8 8.74
steel
The strength of a welded joint will depend on type of joint and the quality of the
welding. The type of joint used for fabrication is double-welded butt joint or equivalent
with the joint efficiency is 1.
163
Since those reactions occur in high temperature, there is high possibility to have
high temperature corrosion. Due to this reason, corrosion allowance is needed is 4.0 mm.
6.1.2 Determination of Wall Thickness
Table 6.2 below shows the parameter-parameter being used in determine the wall
thickness of shell.
Table 6.2 Parameter-parameter used for wall thickness determination
Parameter Value
Diameter, D 0.790 m
Length, L 3.163 m
Operating temperature 625 °C
Operating pressure (abs) 200 kPa
Operating pressure (gauge) 98.25 kPa
Design stress, S at 625 °C 8.74 ksi
Joint Efficiency, E 1
6.1.2.1 Torispherical Head (Top)
Choose klopper head type for torispherical head, where

L= inside crown radius = diameter of cylinder =790 mm = 31.1 inch
r = inside knuckle radius =0.1 x diameter of cylinder = 79 mm = 3.11 inch
From table 1-4.2 of ASME code, at L/r = 10, M =1.54
Thus,
h= √( )( )
= 7. 83 inch (0.6525 ft)

= 0.199 m
PD = PO + PH
= 14.25 psi + 0.28 psi
= 14.53 psi
Take 10% safety factor,
164
Design pressure, PJ = 1.1 (PD)

= 15.98 psi
For minimum thickness, t =
= 0.044 inch
6.1.2.2 Cylindrical Shell
R=
= 15.55 inch
Heigh at cylindrical shell, h = 124.527- 7.83
= 116.697 inch
= 9.72 ft
PD = PO + PH
= 14.25 psi + 4.21 psi
= 18.46 psi
= 20.31 psi
PR
i. Circumferential stress, t 
SE  0.6 P
(20.31)(15.55)

(8740)(1)  0.6(20.31)
 0.0362 in
 0.9195 mm
PR
ii. Longitudinal Stress, t 
2SE  0.4 P
(20.31)(15.55)

2(8740)(1)  0.4(20.31)
 0.0181inch
165
6.1.2.3 Torispherical Head (Bottom)
h = 3.163 m
PD = PO + PH
= 14.25 psi + 4.50 psi
= 18.75 psi

= 20.63 psi
For minimum thickness, t =
= 0.057 inch
= 1.4478 mm
For the uniformity of thickness, we will choose the largest values of the minimum
thickness. Thus, the largest value of minimum thickness is 1.4478 mm (0.057 inch).
Choose corrosion allowance, CA = 2 mm
tdesign = 1.4478 + 2
= 3.4478 mm
According to Tianjin Tiangang Guanye Co. Ltd, the nominal thickness available for the
pressure vessel is 6 mm. Thus, 6 mm of thickness will be chosen.
tmin = 6 mm - 2mm
= 4 mm
Thus, the minimum thickness is 4 mm before the corrosion allowance is added.
6.1.3 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP)
By using the minimum thickness, t min = 4 mm, for each part can be calculated. Table 6.3
shows the result for each MAWPpart for reactor.
166
Table 6.3 MAWPpart for each part of gasifier reactor,R-101
Hydrostatic MAWPpart
MAWPpart
Part pressure, PH after subtract PH
(kPa)
(kPa) (kPa)
Torispherical Head(Top) 1.931 396.118 394.187
Cylindrical Shell
(a) Circumferential stress 29.026 606.400 577.374
(b) Longitudinal stress 29.026 1225.667 1196.641
Torispherical
31.026 396.118 365.092
Head(Bottom)
Thus, the minimum MAWPpart will be chosen as the maximum allowable

working pressure for vessel, MAWP vessel is the maximum pressure, permissible at the top
of the vessel in its normal operating position. MAWP vessel is the least of the value found
maximum allowable working pressure for any of the essential parts of the vessel and
adjusted for any different in static head that may be exist between the part consider and
the top of the vessel (ASME UG- 98(a)). Therefore, maximum allowable working
pressure for vessel, MAWPvessel for gasifier reactor, R-101 is 365,092 kPa.
6.1.4 Combined Loading
Pressure vessels are designed in order to the worst combination of loading without failure.
It is not practical to give an explicit relationship for the vessel thickness to resist
combined loads.
a. Weight loads
i. Weight of vessel
Dead weight of vessel can calculated from the equation as shown below,
( )
By assume CV =1.08 since vessel only with few internal fittings.
Mean diameter of the vessel, DM = Di + (t x 10-3)
167
= 0.790 + (6 x 103)
= 0.796 m
Height between tangent lines, Hv = 3.69 m
Therefore, dead weight of vessel, WV = 8.929 kN
ii. Weight of catalyst

Mass of catalyst, m = 10 kg
Weight of catalyst, Wcat = 10 X9.81kg
=0.0981 kN
iii. Weight of contest of the vessel

Overall density of the contest of the vessel, = 0.433kg/m3
Volume of vessel, V =
= 1.55 m3
Weight of contest, Wc =
= 6.58 kN
Total weight load, W = 15.607 kN
b. Wind loading
Wind loading will only be important on tall columns installed in open. Columns usually
free standing, mounted on free skirt supports and not attached to structural steel work. For
uniformly loaded cantilever, the bending moment at any plane is given as below,
Where x is the distance measured from the free end and W is the load per unit length. In
this case, the wind velocity of 160km/h is used and the dynamic pressure, Pw is 1280
N/m2.
Loading diameter unit length, W = PwDeff
= 1018.88N/m
Thus, the bending moment at the bottom line, Mx is 6936.59 Nm.
168
c. Primary stress
For a cylindrical vessel, primary stresses required to achieve static equilibrium are due to
following source:
i. Longitudinal and circumferential stress due to pressure.

Longitudinal stress,
= 4.69 N/mm2
Circumferential stress,
= 9.37 N/mm2
ii. Direct stress

Basically, the direct stress is due to the weight of the vessel, its content and any
attachment and dead weight stress.
Direct stress, ( )
= 10.27 N/mm2
The stress is compressive for the points above the supports.
iii. Bending stress
Since there is no earthquake in Malaysia, the seismic loads and eccentric load is not
considered in calculation.
Second moment, Iv = ( )
= 5.875 X1010 mm4

Bending stress, ( )
= 4.73 x10-3 N/mm2
iv Principal Stress
Total longitudinal stress,
( )
169
( )
Assume that torsional shear stress is neglected,
( √( )
=
= 9.37 N/mm2
( √( )
=
=
The radical stress is usually negligible for thin wall vessels, approximation can be taken
as equal to one-half the pressure loading
= 4.91 x 10-5 N/mm2
6.1.5 Allowable Stress Intensity
The maximum intensity of stress allowed will depend on the particular theory of failure
adopted in the design method. The maximum shear-stress theory is normally used for
pressure vessel design. Using the criterion the maximum stress intensity at any point is
taken for design purposes as the numerically greatest value as below:
For upwind:
For downwind:
170
After perform the calculation, it shows that the maximum allowable stresses intensity
is 14.96 N/mm2 which is less than the design stress for material construction.
Therefore, the wall thickness is sufficient for the design of the reactor.
6.1.6 Support Design
Support design is designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents and any
superimposed loads such as wind load. Our reactor design is vertical column and it shows
that skirt support will preferred as they do not impose concentrated loads on the vessel
shell and particularly suitable use for tall column subject to wind load. Besides that, skirt-
support is designed to be welded flush with the shell.
Table 6.4 Important parameters for skirt support
Parameter Value
Material of construction Plain carbon steel
Type of skirt Straight skirt support
Base angle of skirt 90°C
Young’s modules 200,00 N/mm2 (ambient temperature)
Height of skirt support 0.5 m
Diameter of skirt support, Ds 0.802 m
Height of the reactor, Hv 3.69 m
Design stress, fs 124.2 N/mm2
Weld joint factor, J 1
6.1.6.1 Skirt Thickness
Skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the vessel. The maximum dead weight load on the skirt
will occur when the vessel is full of water.
Approximate weight, Ws =
Ws =18.286 kN
Weight of the vessel, Wv = 8.929 kN
Total weight, Wt = 27.215 kN
171
Bending moment at the base of skirt,

x = Hv + height of the skirt support
= 3.69 + 0.5
= 4.19 m
Ms =
= 8.94 kNm
Let assume the skirt thickness same with thickness of vessel which is 6 mm.
Bending stress in the skirt, ( )
= 2.93 N/mm2
Dead weight stress in the skirt, ( ) ( )
= 1.2 N/mm2
Dead weight stress in the skirt, ( ) ( )
= 5.79 N/mm2
The test condition is with the vessel full of water for the hydraulic test. In
estimating total weight, the weight of liquid has been counted twice. The weight has not
been adjusted to allow for this as error is small, and on the safe side
Maximum (compressive) = ( )
= 4.13 N/mm2
Maximum (tensile) = ( )
= -2.86 N/mm2
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and
dead weight loading the following design criteria are not exceeded:
Maximum (compressive) ( )
Maximum (tensile)
Maximum (tensile)
172
Since both criteria are satisfied, it showed that t = 6 mm is accepted and feasible.
By adding 2 mm for corrosion allowance, the design thickness of the skirt support
is 8 mm.
6.1.6.2 Base ring and Anchor Bolt Design
The loads carried by the skirt are transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base ring
(bearing plate). The moment produced by wind and other lateral loads will tend to
overturn the vessel and this will be opposed by the couple set up by the weight of the
vessel and the tensile load in the anchor bolts. In the reactor design, a single plate with
gusset is used to avoid the overturn of vessel.
Approximate pitch circle diameter, Db = 1.0 m
Circumference of bolt circle =
= 3141.59 mm
Number of bolt required, Nb = 5.24 with minimum recommended bolt spacing
Closest multiple of 4, Nb = 8
The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally and the bolt area
required is given by:
Bolt area required, Ab = ( )
Where Ab – Area of one bolt at the root of the thread (mm2)

Nb – Number of bolts
Fb – Maximum allowable bolt stress (N/mm2) typical taken as 125 N/mm2
Ms – Bending moment at the base (Nm)
W – Weight of the vessel (N)
Db – Bolt circle diameter (m)
Thus, bolt area required, Ab = 26.831 mm2
Bolt root diameter, Db =√
= 5.844 mm
173
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit lengt, Fb
( )
= 21. 24 k N/m
Taking the maximum allowable bearing pressure on the foundation pad, fc = 5 N/mm2
Width of the base ring, Lb =
= 4.25 mm
Use M24 bolts with the root area = 353 mm2
From Figure 13.30, (Sinnott R.K. 2005), value B, the distance from the edge of the skirt
to the outer edge of the ring, Lr = 76 mm
Actual width required, Ls = Lr+ ts+ 50 mm
= 134 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation, fc’ =
= 0.158 N/mm2
Taking the typical value for allowable design stress in the ring material, fr = 140
N/mm2
Minimum base ring thickness, tb = √
= 4.42 mm
Therefore, the thickness of the base ring is 4.42 mm with 16 bolts size of M 24.
6.1.7 Flanged Joints
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manholes
covers, and for removable heads when ease of access is required. Flanges also are used on
vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for transport and
maintenance. For our case, welding-neck flanges is selected because suitable for extreme
service conditions. Furthermore, blind flanges is used as cover as manhole.
Since the inlet and outlet for reactor are gases, which is stream 2 and stream 7, the
computation of minimum pipe size for a vapor flow is given by Crowl & Louvar (2002).
The velocity of vapor is as following:
174
1
 g c R g T  2
a 
 M 
Where  = 1.40 for diatomic gas
gc = 32.174 ft.lbm/s2. lbf
Rg = 1545 ft.lbf/lbmol. °R
T = 1.8(T°C+273.15), °R
M = Molecular mass, lbmol
Where  = density of fluid, kg/m3

U = sonic velocity = a, m/s
A = cross sectional area of pipe, m2
4A
D

Therefore, Table 6.5 shows the optimum piping size for stream S2 and stream S7
Table 6.5 The Optimum piping size
Wall
Qm Nominal Outside
Stream ρ(kg/m3) A (m2) D(m) D(in) Schedule Thickness Material
(kg/s) Size (in) D(mm)
(mm)
Table 6.6 The welding neck flanges dimension (all in mm) at for connection and nozzle for reactor
Nominal Outside Thickness Diameter Diameter Beginning Length Through Bore

pipe Diameter of Flange of Hub of Chamfer Hub
Stream 2 50.8 165.10 20.57 84.07 60.45 69.34 52.58
Stream 7 25.4 123.95 15.75 53.85 33.53 60.45 26.67
Source: ASME B16.5 Annex F
175
176
6.1.8 Design Summary
The following table show the design summary for Reactor R-101
Table 6.7 Design Concept Parameter
Parameter Value
Diameter of reactor 0.790 m
Length of reactor 3.163 m
Height between tangent line 3.69 m
Table 6.8 Summary of mechanical Design
Specification Value
Thickness 6 mm
Diameter of skirt support 0. 802 m
Height of skirt support 0.5 m
Thickness of skirt support 8 mm
Type of bolt M24
Number of bolt 16
Thickness of bolt 4.42 mm
Type of flanges for connection Welding neck flanges
Type of flanges for manhole Blind flanges
6.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF FURNACE E-101

(Prepared by Muhammad Hafiz bin Abd Wahab A122618)
From Chapter 5, we have chosen the box type furnace to produce 650 oC superheated
steam. The burning fuel used to supply heat required in this furnace is methane gas. The
efficiency of the furnace is to be expected at 80%. The outer diameter OD of the tubes
used in the furnace is 5 inches on 7 inches spacing in a single row arrangement and the
total exposed length is around 5 ft. Average flux of the radiant section is 5000 Btu/hr.ft 2.
6.2.1 Furnace sizing
Continue from Chapter 5, Q  667386.2 Btu/hr

177
0.5
The surface/tube, A  9     1.178 ft 2
12
667386.2
The estimated number of tubes, N t   113.3 ft 2
5000  1.178
Use 114 tubes.
Equivalent cold plane surface, Acp:
Center to center distance = 1.25 in
1.25
Acp per tube  9  0.9375 ft 2
12
Figure 6.1 show the radiation between the planes that is going to be use in this
calculation.
Figure 6.1 Radiation between a plane and one or more tube rows parallel to the plane
Source: Kern.1983
178
Total α to a single row, refractory backed, From figure 6.1.

1.25
Ratio of center to center/OD   2.5
0.5
  0.79
Acp
 0.79  0.9375  0.7406 ft 2
tube
Acp  0.7406  114  84.43 ft 2
Refractory surface:
Assuming dimension ratio L:W:H=2:1:1
L=10 ft, W= 5 ft, H= 5 ft, Bridge Wall=4 ft
End walls  2  5  5  50 ft 2
Side walls  5  5  45 ft 2
Bridge walls  5  4  36 ft 2
Floor and arch  2  5  9  90 ft 2
AT  50  45  36  90  221 ft 2
AR  AT  Acp  221  84.43  136.57 ft 2
AR 136.57
  3.22
Acp 84.43
6.2.2 Refractories type
The choice of refractories is based on several factors. The most important factor is to
select the refractories based on the basis of chemical composition. Table 6.9 shows the
classification of refractories.
Table 6.9 Classification of refractories according to the chemical composition
Chemical composition Types of refractories

ACID, which readily combines with bases - Silica, Semisilica, Aluminosilicate
. Continue…
179
…Continued
BASIC, which consists mainly of metallic - Magnesite, Chrome-magnesite,
oxides that resist the action of bases. Magnesite-chromite, Dolomite
NEUTRAL, which does not combine with - Fireclay bricks, Chrome, Pure
acids nor bases Alumina
Source: Kern 1983
From Table 6.9, we can see that fireclay brick is suitable for the furnace refractory
material. The fireclay refractories such as firebricks, siliceous fireclays and aluminous
clay refractories consist of aluminium silicates with varying silica (SiO 2) content of up to
78 percent. The other content are consist of Al 2O3 that consist of up to 44 percent and
impurities. Table 6.10 shows the properties of typical fireclay brick.
Table 6.10: Properties of typical fireclay bricks
Percentage
Percentage Percentage
Brick type other PCE °C
SiO2 Al2O3
constituents
Super Duty 49-53 40-44 5-7 1745-1760
High Duty 50-80 35-40 5-9 1690-1745
Intermediate 60-70 26-36 5-9 1640-1680
High Duty 65-80 18-30 3-8 1620-1680
(Siliceous)
Low Duty 60-70 23-33 6-10 1520-1595
Source: Kern 1983
From the table, we can see that the melting point PCE of fireclay brick decrease with
increasing of impurity and decreasing Al 2O3. Low duty brick type is selected to be the
material for our furnace as the furnace will be operating at 650 oC. The selection of
firebrick material is also because of the availability of the material and the economical
factor. The firebrick is relatively inexpensive.
180
6.2.3 Insulating materials
One method of reducing heat loses through walls, insulating material are use. Insulation is
achieved by providing a layer of material with low heat conductivity between the internal
hot surfaces of the furnace to the external surface with ambient temperature. This will
keep the temperature of the external surface low. Some of the classifications of insulating
materials are:
1. Insulating bricks
2. Insulating castables
3. Ceramic fiber
4. Calcium silicate
5. Ceramic coating
The choice of insulating material must be based on its ability to resist heat
conductivity and on the highest temperature it will withstand. One of the most suitable
and efficient insulation is by using ceramic fiber. Ceramic fiber is a low thermal mass
insulation material, which has transformed furnace design lining systems. It is
manufactured by blending and melting alumina dan silica at a temperature of 1800-
2000oC, and breaking the molten stream by blowing compressed air or dropping the
molten stream on a spinning disc to form loose or bulk ceramic fiber.
Some of the advantages of ceramic fiber properties are:
a) Lower thermal conductivity.
Because of low thermal conductivity (0.1163 W/m.K at 600 oC for a blanket with
128 kg/m3 density), a thinner linings of insulation can be constructed to have a
same furnace thermal efficiency. This resulted in a thinner lining and higher
furnace volume. It is 40 percent more effective than normal insulation brick.
b) Light weight.
Ceramic fiber has an average density of 96 kg/m3. It is one tenth lighter than the
weight of insulating brick and one third of the weight of asbestos.
c) Lower heat storage
This material absorbs less heat because of their lower density. This way, furnace
can be heated and cooled at faster rates. Typically, the heat stored in a ceramic
181
fiber lining system is in the range of 2700-4500 kCal/m2 (1000-1500 Btu/ft2) as

compare to the conventionally lined systems that range is 54200-493900 kCal/m2
(20000-250000 Btu.ft2).
6.2.4 Furnace wall thickness calculation
Considering the heat form from the burning of methane gas, some possible amount of
heat would be released to the surrounding without a good insulator. In this section
calculation on the thickness of brick wall and the insulator lining are performed. Figure
6.2 shows the heat transfer process in furnace wall.
INSULATOR LINING
BRICK WALL
FURNACE
AMBIENT
Heat
Figure 6.2 Heat transfer in furnace wall
Brick thermal conductivity, Watt/m.K = 1.03

Insulator thermal conductivity, Watt/m.K = 0.1163
Inner furnace wall temperature, °C = 790
Outer insulator wall temperature, °C = 50
Total furnace inner area, m2 = 20.53 (221ft2)
Heat transfer through conduction:

kAT
Q (6.6)
x
Where
182
k = Thermal conductivity, W/m.K

A = Heat transfer area, m2
∆T = Temperature difference across materials, °C
x = Material thickness, m
Since the furnace walls is plane wall in series with the insulator lining, heat conducted
through several walls in contact can be expressed as
T1  Tn
Q (6.7)
x1 x
 2
k1 A k2 A
Where
T1 = Temperature of furnace internal wall, °C
Tn = Temperature of furnace outer wall, °C
Since the furnace efficiency is 0.8, hence the assumed heat released to atmosphere:
 0.2 1055625  211125Btu / hr  61.87kW
Area of the heat transfer = At = 221ft2 – floor = 221-45 = 176ft2 = 16.35 m2

Brick thickness is 10 cm,
790  50
Q  61870W
0.1 t

(1.03)16.35 (0.1163)16.35
t  0.011m  11mm
Hence, the thickness of the insulator lining needed is 11mm.
6.2.5 Bolted Flanged Joints Design
In connecting pipes flange joints are used. It is also used in connecting instruments to
vessels, for manhole covers, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is
required. Flanged joints are also used to connect pipes to other equipment, such as pumps
and valves. Different type of flange is used for various applications according to the
suitability of the flanges.
183
Welding-neck flanges are used in my furnace design in connecting the inlet pipe
to the internal tube of the furnace. This is for the maintenance ease where the pipe can be
disconnected to the furnace tube. The temperature inside the furnace are high, so welding-
neck flanges that are suitable for extreme service conditions, where the flange is likely to
be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads is suitable to this application.
According to the pipe size determine for each stream in Chapter 4, we will use the
flange of class 150 in ASME B16.5. The nominal size of the flange is 1.5 in. Figure 6.3
show the dimensions of welding neck. Table 6.11 and 6.12 below show the dimension of
the flange joint. All the dimensions are in inches.
Figure 6.3 Welding-neck flange dimensions
Table 6.11 Dimensions of welding-neck flange
Common Dimensions
Nominal Size Raised Face
OD, O Thk, C Fillet Radius, r
Dia, R
1.5 5.00 0.69 2.88 0.25
Table 6.12 Continue dimensions of welding-neck flange
Length Thru Hub, Dia Hub at Bevel,

Bore, B1 Hub Dia, X Dia. Holes
Y1 A
1.5 2.44 1.9 2.56 0.62
184
6.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF QUENCHER V-101

(Prepared by Pua Soh Hoon A122186)
6.3.1 Introduction
Quencher, V-101is an equipment used for cooling purposes in this empty fruit bunch
gasification process. Then separate the ash and particulate from synthesis gas. The
working principle is to spray large amount of water into the vessel to cool down the
process, liquid water will absorb heat and temperature rises from 30˚C to 200˚C.
Therefore heat will be absorbed in the process. At pressure 1.78atm, the temperature of
the inlet has been successfully cool down from 225˚C to 200˚C in this process. Materials
being cooled down are water, hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ash
and particulate. Ash and particulate vapour has been cooled down and condensed to solid
and liquid. Figure 6.4 shows the molar flow rates for the inlet and outlet streams of
quencher, V-101.
Figure 6.4 Quencher, V-101

185
6.3.2 Fabrication Material Selection
Selection of material is very important before the fabrication of the equipment. Aspects
that are taken into account during the selection process include the corrosiveness or
erosive qualities associated with the fluid, operating and design pressure, rate of heat
transfer, extreme swings in pressure or temperature that may appear as well as
contaminants that may appear in the fluid.
Since the quench chamber involves fluid which is relatively clean and free of
corrosiveness and erosivity, thus the material selected for the fabrication of the quench
chamber is carbon steel with low carbon content, SA-516 Grade 70. It is most commonly
used engineering material. It is available in a wide range of standard forms and sizes,
easily worked and welded, has good tensile strength and ductility. Low carbon steel
contains 0.16–0.29% carbon. It is the most common form of steel as its price is relatively
low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. The
material is easily fabricated and can withstand expansion or contraction when temperature
changes. Table below shows the typical chemical composition of carbon steel SA-516
Grade 70 (Masteel 2011).
Table 6.13 Typical Chemical Compound of Carbon Steel SA- 516 Grade 70
C Si Mn P S Al Cr Cu Ni Mo Nb Ti V
0.10/0.22 0.6 1/1.6 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.08 0.01 0.03 0.02
Source: Masteel 2009
6.3.3 Design Specification for Quencher
The shell side of quencher is in cylindrical shape. The ends of the quencher cylindrical
vessel can be closed by heads of various shapes such as hemispherical heads, ellipsoidal
heads or torispherical heads. In this design, ellipsoidal heads are chosen as the closure of
186
reactor end. This is because this type of head is suitable for use in the case of operating
pressure less than 15bar (Sinnott, 2008). By referring to section Chapter 5, volume of
quench chamber is 12.63m3 with height 5.25m and diameter 1.75 m. Figure 6.5 shows
the shape of the vessel and its dimension.
ho
h/3
Di
hs
h/3
ho
Figure 6.5 Shape and dimension of an absorber
Operating pressure, Po = 25.108 psia (1.78 atm)

Temperature, T = 437 oF (225 oC)
Corrosion allowance, CA = 4 mm
Layout = vertical
Top head = ellipsoidal with a ratio of 2:1
Shell = cylindrical
Bottom head = ellipsoidal with a radio of 2:1
Internal diameter, Di = 5.74 ft = 68.88 in = 1.75 m
Vessel height, H = 17.22 ft = 206.64 in = 5.25 m
Other dimensions can be determined from the given Di and H:
For the ellipsoidal height with a ratio of 2:1(major axis : minor axis), D i  2  2h e
D i 68.88 in
For top ellipsoidal height, h e    17.22 in  1.435ft  0.437 m
4 4
D i 68.88 in
For bottom ellipsoidal height, h e    17.22 in  1.435ft  0.437 m
4 4
For the cylindrical shell height,
187
h c  H  h hs - h e  206.64 in  17.22 in -17.22 in  172.2 in  14.35ft  4.3744 m

Effective length,
he he 17.22 in 17.22 in
L  hc    172.2 in    183.68 in  15.301ft  4.664m
3 3 3 3
6.3.4 Wall Thickness Of Absorber
The wall thickness, t for each part of the pressure vessel has to be calculated in order to
get the minimum wall thickness, t min. Since the operating pressure is greater than
atmospheric pressure, hence tmin is calculated under internal pressure.
6.3.4.1 Design pressure
From ASME Code Sec II Part D Table 1A, maximum allowable stress, S for carbon steel
is 20000 psi which is 137.89 N/mm²while the joint efficiency, E is 1.0 and the type of
joint is welding neck flanges.
Di=5.74ft =68.88in R=68.88/2=34.44in

Operating pressure = 1.78 atm = 26.108 psia
Operating pressure, Po,g = Po - Patm
= 26.108 – 14.696
= 11.412 psi
6.3.4.2 Top Ellipsoidal Head
h=1.435ft
Design pressure, PD = Po + PH
= 11.412 + 0.621
= 12.033 psi
188
Thickness for top ellipsoidal head can be calculated by using this formula.
PD
t
2SE  0.2P
(12.033)(68.88)

2(20000)(1.0)  0.2(12.033)
 0.0207in
6.3.4.3 Cylindrical shell
h=1.435+14.35=15.785ft
= 11.412 + 6.835
= 18.247 psi
i. Circumferential stress ((Longitudinal joints)
Thickness for circumferential stress for cylindrical shell can be calculated by using this
formula.
PR
t
SE  0.6P
(18.247)(34.44)

(20000)(1.0)  0.6(18.247)
 0.0314in
ii. Longitudinal stress (Circumferential joints)
Thickness for circumferential stress for cylindrical shell can be calculated by using this
formula.
PR
t
2SE  0.4P
189
(18.247)(34.44)

2(20000)(1.0)  0.4(18.247)
 0.0157in
6.3.4.4 Bottom ellipsoidal head
h=1.435+14.35+1.435=17.22ft
= 11.412 + 7.456
= 18.868 psi
Thickness for bottom ellipsoidal head can be calculate by using this formula.
PD
t
2SE  0.2P
(18.868)(68.88)

2(20000)(1.0)  0.2(18.868)
 0.0325in
The design pressure and minimum wall thickness for each part of the quencher is shown
in the Table 6.14 below.
Table 6.14 Design pressure for each part of the quencher
Part of the absorber Static head, Design pressure, Minimum thickness,

PH(psi) PD(psi) tcalc (in)
Top ellipsoidal head 0.621 12.033 0.0207
Cylindrical shell 6.835 18.247 0.0314 (bigger value)
Bottom ellipsoidal head 7.456 18.868 0.0325
By choosing the biggest value, tcalc = 0.0325in = 0.826mm

By considering corrosion allowance, CA of 4mm,
190
tuser = tcalc + CA
= 0.826mm + 4mm
= 4.826mm
The nominal thickness of carbon steel SA-516 Grade 70 is shown as Table 6.15
Table 6.15 Nominal thickness of carbon steel SA-516 Grade 70
Gauge ( Inches) Width( Inches) Length ( Inches)

0.1875 96 240/480
0.2500 96/120 240/480
0.3125 96/120 240/480
Source: Chapel Steel 2012
From Table 6.15, the nominal thickness of carbon steel SA-516 Grade 70 is 0.25 inches
(6.35mm), tnominal is 6.35mm.
tmin = tnominal – CA
= 6.35mm – 4mm
= 2.35mm
= 0.0925in
6.3.5 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure
The maximum allowable working pressure of pressure vessel, MAWP is determined by

calculating part by part under internal pressure. We can get the formula of internal design
pressure for each part of the absorber from ASME Code UG-32 part (D) and UG-27 part
(c).By using tmin, we can calculate the MAWPvessel.
6.3.5.1 Top Ellipsoidal Head
Internal pressure ,
2SEt
P
D  0.2t
191
2(20000)(1.0)(0.0925)

68.88  0.2(0.0925)
 53.702psi
Static head PH = 0.621psi
MAWPvessel = internal pressure – static head
= 53.702 – 0.621
= 53.081psi
6.3.5.2 Cylindrical Shell
i. Circumferential stress ((Longitudinal joints)
Internal pressure,
SEt
P
R  0.6t
(20000)(1)(0.0925)

34.44  0.6(0.0925)
 53.630psi
Static head PH = 6.835 psi
= 53.630 – 6.835
= 46.795psi
ii. Longitudinal stress (Circumferential joints)
Internal pressure,
2SEt
P
R  0.4t
(2)(20000)(1)(0.0925)

34.44  0.4(0.0925)
 107.549psi
192
Static head PH = 6.835 psi

= 107.549 – 6.835
= 100.714psi
6.3.5.3 Bottom Ellipsoidal Head
Internal pressure ,
2SEt
P
D  0.2t
2(20000)(1.0)(0.0925)

68.88  0.2(0.0925)
 53.702psi
Static head PH = 7.456psi
= 53.702 – 7.456
= 46.246psi
The value for internal pressure and MAWPvessel is calculated and the result is shown in the
table below.
Table 6.16 Internal pressure and MAWPvessel for each part of the absorber.
Part of the absorber MAWPpart, (psi) Static head, MAWPvessel,

PH(psi) (psi)
Cylindrical shell 53.630 (smaller value) 6.835 46.795
Bottom ellipsoidal head 53.702 7.456 46.246
By choosing the smallest value, the MAWPvessel is 46.246psi.

193
6.3.6 Combined Loading Analysis
Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads in addition to pressure and must be designed
to withstand the worst combination of loading without failure. A trial thickness must be
assumed (based on that calculated for pressure alone) and the resultant stress from all
loads determined to ensure that the maximum allowable stress intensity is not exceeded at
any point. Main sources of major load are design pressure including any significant static
head of liquid, dead weight of vessel and contents under operating and hydraulic test
conditions, wind loads, earthquake (seismic) loads, external loads imposed by piping and
attachment equipment.
For a cylindrical vessel, primary stresses (required to achieve static equilibrium) are
due to the following sources are longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure,
direct stresses, bending stresses, torsional shear stresses.
6.3.6.1 Longitudinal ( σ L ) and Circumferential Stresses ( σ h )
From above, operating pressure, P = MAWPvessel

= 46.246 psig
= 318.855 kPa
= 0.3188 N/mm2
Internal diameter, Di = 1.75 m = 1750 mm
Minimum wall thickness, tmin = 2.35mm
Determination of longitudinal ( σ L ) and circumferential ( σ h ) stresses are as below:

P  Di 0.3188  1750
σL    59.35N/mm 2
4t 4  2.35
P  Di 0.3188  1750
σh    118.70 N/mm 2
2t 2  2.35
194
6.3.6.2 Direct stresses ( σ w )
Direct stress ( σ w ) can be determined using the below formula:
W
σw  with W = total weight of the shell
πD i  t t
For a steel vessel, Wv  240C v D m H v  0.8D m t
For vessel with several manholes and plates, Cv = 1.15

Dm = Di + t = 1.75 m + 0.00235m = 1.75235 m
Hv= L = 4.664 m
Thus, Wv  240 1.15 1.75235  4.664  0.8 1.752352.35  6894.32 N
Assume that the vessel has an insulator made of mineral wool with 30 mm thick
Mineral wool density = 130 kg/m3
Approximate volume of insulator = πDi Lt insulator = π  1.75  4.664  0.03  0.7964m3
Weight of insulator = ρVg = 130 x 0.7964 x 9.81 = 1015.65 N
The vessel has five water distributed plate, (assuming 5 inlets for the water)
Plate area = πD i2 / 4 = π(1.75) 2 / 4 = 2.4056 m2
From Chemical Engineering Design, Sinnott, R.K. (2009), weight of one contacting plate
 1.2 x plate area kN
= 1.2 x 2.4056 = 2.8867 kN
Thus, weight of one water distributed plate = 2.8867 kN = 2886.7 N
Hence, total weight, W = Wv + insulator weight + plate weight
= 6894.32 + 1015.65 + 5(2886.7) = 22343.47 N
22343.47
σw 
π1750  2.352.35
 1.7269 N/mm 2
195
The value of direct stress will be a negative value (compressive stress) due to the points is
above the supports.
6.3.6.3 Bending stresses ( σ b )
Bending stresses ( σ b ) can be determined using the below formula:
M  Di 
σb     t
Iv  2 
with M = total bending moment
I = second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending
Wx 2
M
2
x  H v  4.664 m
M ean diameter D eff  D i  2(t  t insulator)  1.75  20.00235  0.030  1.8147 m
D o  D i  2(t )  1.75  2(0.00235)  1.7547m
Pw  1280N/m 2
W  Pw D eff  1280 1.8147  2322.816 N/m
2322.816  4.664 
2
M   25263.99Nm
2
Iv 
64

π 4

D o  Di4 
π
64
 
1.7447 4 - 1.754  0.004966 m 4
25263.99  1.75 
 σb     0.00235   4463423.61N/m 2  4.4634 N/mm 2
0.004966  2 
6.3.6.4 Torsional shear stresses ( τ )
The torsional shear stresses can be neglected in preliminary vessel design because these
loads will normally be small.   0
196
6.3.7 Analysis of primary stresses
Principal stresses are:
 σ h  σ z   σ h  σ z 2  4τ 
1
σ1
2   
1
σ2  σ h  σ z   σ h  σ z 2  4τ 
2   
σ3  0.5P
With torsional shear stresses = 0

σ1 h
σ2 z
For thin wall vessel, σ 3 can be neglected
Total longitudinal stresses for upwind and downwind

σ z upwind  σL  σw  σb  59.35  1.7269  4.4634  62.0865 N/mm 2
σ z downwind  σ L  σ w  σ b  59.35  1.7269  4.4634  53.1597 N/mm 2
For upwind, σ1 - σ 2  σ h - σ z  118.70 - 62.0865  56.6135 N/mm 2
For downwind, σ1 - σ 2  σ h - σ z  118.70 - 53.1597  65.5403 N/mm 2
Maximum allowable stress intensity,  max is at the downwind, 65.5403 N/mm2.
According to Masteel.Inc. (2011), maximum allowable stress for carbon steel SA-516
Grade 70 at temperature 225oC, S = 20,000 psi = 137.89 N/mm2
 Δσmax  S
Hence, the design is safe.

197
6.3.8 Analysis of Elastic Stability
E  t 
Critical buckling stress, σ c   
 2 R
3 1 v  p 

 t 
By taking Poisson’s ratio, v = 0.30, critical buckling stress, σ c  0.6E  where
R 
 p 
E = Modulus of elasticity
Rp = radius of curvature
t = wall thickness
From the applicable material chart in Subpart 3 of Section II, Part D of ASME code,
Figure CS-2, modulus of elasticity, E = 29790000 N/mm2
Rp = Do/2 = [1.75 + (2× 0.00235)] / 2 = 0.87735m
t = 0.00235 m
By taking a safety factor of 12,
1  t 
σc   0.6E 
12 R 
 p 
1  0.00235 
σc   0.6(29790000) 
12  0.87735 
σ c  3989.6564N/mm 2
 σ compressive
 σ w  σb  1.7269  4.46343  6.1903 N/mm 2
  σ max  σ c
From the analysis of combined loading, the material we chose has fulfilled both
requirements of maximum stress intensity and elastic stability:
Δσmax  S and  σ
max
 σc
Therefore, the design is safe.

198
6.3.9 Vessel Support Analysis
For the designation of quencher, we choose straight cylindrical skirt of plain carbon steel
as the vessel support. The skirt support is welded to the bottom head of the vessel.
6.3.9.1 Skirt thickness
The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moment imposed on it by the vessel and it will not be below the vessel pressure.
The resultant stresses in the skirt are:
σ s tensile  σ bs  σ ws
σ s compressive  σ bs  σ ws
4M s
where σ bs = bending stress in the skirt 
πD s  t sk t sk D s
Wv
and σ ws = dead weight stress in the skirt 
πD s  t sk t sk
where Ms = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt

Wv= total weight of the vessel and contents
Ds = inside diameter of skirt, at the base
tsk= skirt thickness
The skirt thickness under the worst combination of wind and dead weight loading should
follow the below design criteria:
t 
σ s tensile  f s Jsinθ and σ s compressive   0.125E sk sinθ
 Ds 
where fs = maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material, normally taken at
ambient temperature, 20oC
J = welded-joint efficiency, if applicable
θ s = base angle of a conical skirt, normally 80o to 90o
E = Young modulus
199
Assume skirt support height, hsk = 1.2m

Assume skirt thickness, tsk = 10mm
x = H + hsk = 5.25 + 1.2 = 6.45 m
Ds = Di = 1.75 m = 1750 mm
W = 2322.816 N/m
Bending moment at the base of skirt,
Wx 2
Ms = 2
2322.816  6.452

2
= 48317.48 N/m
Approximate weight of contents, Ws
 Vρ g
 (π Di2 L)/4  ρg
 (π 1.752  4.664 )/4  1000  9.81
= 110065.15 N
From section Chapter4, weight of the vessel, Wv= 22343.47 N

Thus, total weight, Wt = 110065.15 + 22343.47 = 132408.62 N
In estimating total weight, the weight of liquid on the plates has been counted twice. This
weight has not been adjusted to allow for this as the error is small, and on the ‘safe side’.
For the bending stress in the skirt, σ bs
4M s
σ bs 
πD s  t sk t sk D s
4  48317.48

π1.75  0.010.011.75
 1997134.76 N/m 2
 1.9971 N/mm 2
200
For the dead weight stress in the skirt, σ ws
Wt
σ ws (test) 
132408.62

π1.75  0.010.01
 2394403.90 N/m 2
 2.3944 N/mm 2
Wv
σ ws (operating) 
22343.47

π1.75  0.010.01
 404046.89 N/m 2
 0.40404 N/mm 2
Therefore, resultant stresses

σs tensile  σ bs  σ ws (operating)  1.9971  0.40404  1.5931N/mm 2
σs compressive  σ bs  σ ws (test)  1.9971  2.3944  4.3915 N/mm 2
Assume : welded- joint efficiency, J = 1.0

: base angle, θ s  90 o
: maximum allowable design stress, f s  89 N/mm 2
: Young’s modulus, E  200000 N/mm 2 (ASME code)
f s Jsinθ s  89 1.0  sin90 o  89 N/mm 2
t   0.010 
0.125E sk sinθ s  0.125  200000   sin90  142.86 N/mm
o 2
 Ds   1.750 
 σs tensile  f s Jsinθ  1.5409 N/mm 2  89 N/mm 2

201
t 
 σ s compressive  0.125E sk sinθ  4.3915 N/mm 2  142.86 N/mm 2
 Ds 
Since both criteria are satisfied, the assumed value of angle 90 0, skirt thickness, tsk = 0.01
is acceptable. With corrosion allowance of 4mm, the design skirt thickness,
t sk  0.014 m  14 mm
6.3.9.2 Base ring and anchor bolt design
We use single plate with gusset as the base ring design of the skirt support. The anchor
bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt area required is
given by:
1  4M s 
Ab    W
Nbf b  Db 
with Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread(mm2)
Nb = number of bolts
fb = maximum allowable bolt stress (N/mm2) = 125 N/mm2
Ms = bending moment at the base (Nm)
W = weight of the vessel (N)
Db = bolt circle diameter (m)
Assume : Db  1900 mm  1.90 m
Circumference of bolt diameter = πDb = π × 1900 = 5969.8 mm

Number of bolts required, at bolt spacing 800mm,
5969.8
Nb   7.4622
800
Closest multiple of 4 = 8 bolts, N b  8
Ms = 48317.48 N/m
Wv = 22343.47 N
202
1  4  48317.48 
 Ab    22343.47   85.03 mm 2
8  125  1.8 
85.03  4
The bolt’s diameter is   10.40 mm
π
From Figure 13.30 (Sinnott, R. 2005), we will choose to use M24 bolts (BS 4190:1967)
root area = 353mm2
The base ring must be sufficiently wide to distribute the load to the foundation. The total
compressive load on the base ring is determined
 4M s W   4  48317.48 22343.47 
Fb        24149.02 N/m
 πDs
2
πDs   π  1.75
2
π  1.75 
Fb 1
The minimum width of the base ring, L b   3
f c 10
with maximum allowable bearing pressure, f c  3.5 N/mm 2
24149.02 1
Lb   3  6.90 mm
3.5 10
This is the minimum width required; actual width will depend on the chair design.
From Figure 13.30, (Sinnott 2005), based on the value of root area, value B, the distance
from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring, Lr = 76 mm.
Actual width required based on Figure 13.30 (Sinnott 2005) will be:
Ls = Lr + ts + 50mm
Ls = 76mm + 14mm + 50mm
Ls = 140 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:

203
Fb
f c' 
Ls
24149.02
f c' 
140  103
f c'  0.172 N/mm 2
Taking the typical value for allowable design stress in the ring material f r = 140N/mm2,
minimum base thickness
3f c'
t b  Lr
fr
30.172
t b  76
140
t b  4.61 mm (round off to 5 mm)
Hence, the thickness of the base ring is 5mm with 8 bolts with size of M24.
6.3.10 Flange Joint Design
The industrial applications of flange joints are wide. Flange joints are used for connect
pipes to other equipment such as pumps and valves, divide the vessel into sections for
transport or maintenance on the vessel body, connect pipes and instruments to vessels,
manhole covers, removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Several
different types of flange are available in the market for various applications such as
welding-neck flanges, slip-on flanges, hub and plate types, lap-joint flanges, blank, or
blind flanges and screwed flanges.
In this case, we will choose welding-neck flanges. Four flanges must be designed
because there are four main streams which are involved in the designation of quencher,
V-101. Stream 10 and 13 is in vapour phase while stream 11 and 12 is liquid phase. The
optimum diameter of flanges opening for streams 10 and 13, the flanges size for streams
204
11 and 12 can get from Chapter 4 shows the optimum diameter of flange opening for the
quencher V-101.
Table 6.17 Nominal diameter for flange opening of quencher V-101
Stream Optimum Optimum Nominal diameter Nominal diameter

diameter (in) Diameter (mm) (in) (mm)
10 6.6500 168.91 8.00 203.20
11 0.0694 1.7627 0.50 12.70
12 0.8431 21.4147 1.00 25.40
13 0.5100 12.954 0.75 19.05
Figure 6.6 and Table 6.17 show the dimension of welding-neck flanges for connections
and nozzles for quencher V-101.
Figure 6.6: Dimension of a welding-neck flange
A manhole is installed at the upside of the pressure vessel for servicing and
maintenance work. The nominal diameter of the manhole is set around 500 mm, which is
suitable for cleaning and internal inspection. A blind flange joint is used which can as
cover for manhole.
Figure 6.7 Dimension of a blind flange

Table 6.18 Dimension of a welding-neck flange, Class 150 for quencher, V-101
Stream Nominal Outside Thick. Diam. Diam. Diam. Length No. Diam. Diam. Diam. Approx.
size (in) diam. Of Of Of Of hub Of hub through of of of of bolt weight
flange flange raised at base at point hub holes holes bolts circle (kg)
face of
welding
O C R X A Y
10 8.00 342.9 28.4 269.7 246.1 219.2 101.6 8 22.4 19.1 298.5 18
11 0.50 88.9 11.2 35.1 30.2 21.3 47.8 4 15.7 12.7 60.5 1
12 1.00 108.0 14.2 50.8 49.3 33.5 55.6 4 15.7 12.7 79.2 1
13 0.75 98.6 12.7 42.9 38.1 26.7 52.3 4 15.7 12.7 69.9 1
Source: Lynco 2008
Table 6.19 Dimension of blind flange
Stream Nominal Diameter Flange Bolting Drilling

Size (mm) Gmax D C4 Size No L K
manhole 500 475 730 52 M33 20 330 660
Source: British Standard EN-1092:1-2007
205
206
6.3.11 Summary For Mechanical Design Of Quencher V-101
Table 6.20 below shows the result from the detailed mechanical design of quench
chamber, Q-101.
Table 6.20 Summary of mechanical design parameters of quench chamber, Q-101
Parameter Value
Internal diameter of quench chamber 1.75m
Outside diameter of quench chamber 1.8227m
Height of quench chamber 5.25m
Material of construction of vessel wall Carbon Steel SA- 516, Grade 70
Thickness of quench chamber, t 6.35mm
Body
 Type Cylindrical shell
 Material of construction Carbon Steel SA- 516, Grade 70
Top head
 Type Ellipsoidal head
Bottom head
 Type Ellipsoidal head
Support
 Type Straight skirt support
 Material of construction Plain carbon steel
 Height of support 1.2m
 Thickness of support 14mm
Base ring and anchor belt
 Type of bolt M 24
 Root area 353mm²
 Number of bolts 8
 Thickness of base ring 5mm
6.4 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF COOLER E-104

(Prepared by Mow Jiun Wei A122616)
6.4.1 Introduction
In this heat exchanger E-104 design, carbon steel SA 516 (grade 70) is used as the
material of construction. The choices of this material are based on the types of process
207
fluid inside the shell and the working pressure of the process. Since our process fluid is
not corrosive and the working pressure is low, this material is quite suitable and the price
is also cheaper than other steel. It is made from carbon-manganese steel and suitable for
fabrication of welded pressure vessels designed for moderate and lower-temperature
service requiring excellent notch toughness. Before start, the design data for heat
exchanger should be known and it can get from previous process design calculation.
Table 6.21 Design data for heat exchanger E-104
Parameter English Unit SI unit

Absolute Pressure, Pabs 3.51bar 50.91psi 351kPa
Temperature, T 392°F 473.15K 200°C
Shell diameter, Ds 10.71in. 0.892ft 0.272m
Inside Radius of Cylindrical Shell, R 5.35in. 136mm
Length of Shell, L 72.03in. 6.00ft 1.83m
Design Stress for SA 516 1378.6bar 20000psi 137858kPa
Corrosion Allowance 0.0787in. 0.0066ft 2mm
Safety Factor 10% (1.10PD)
Joint Efficiency, E For double-welded, full RT, E=1.0
6.4.2 Design Pressure and Thickness
Po  Pabs  Patm  351  101  250kPa  36.26 psia
Since Po > Patm, therefore internal pressure procedure must be followed.
a. Torispherical Head
Choose Klopper head type for torispherical head,

Where L= inside crown radius = diameter of cylinder = 136 mm = 10.7059 in
r = inside knuckle radius = 0.1 x diameter of cylinder = 13.6 mm = 1.0706 in
From Table 1-4.2 of ASME Code, At L/r = 10, M =1.54
208
To calculate the height of torispherical head,
h  L  ( D  L)(2r  D  L)
2 2
 10.7059  (5.353  10.7059)(2  1.0706  5.353  10.7059)

 2.0745 in
 0.1729 ft (0.0527m)
PD  Po  PH
 36.26  (0.433)(0.1729)
 36.33 psia (250.49 kPa)
Design Pressure, PJ  1.1  PD

 1.1 36.33
 39.97 psia
PLM
For minimum thickness, t 
2SE  0.2 P
39.97(10.7059)(1.54)

2(20000)(1)  0.2(39.97)
 0.01648 in
 0.4185 mm
b. Cylindrical Shell
D
R 
2
10.7059

2
 5.3530 in
Height at cylindrical shell, h  72.0288  2.0745
209
 69.9543in
 5.8295 ft (1.7768m)
PD  Po  PH
 36.26  (0.433)(5.8295)
 38.78 psia (267.38 kPa)

Design Pressure, PJ  1.1  PD
 1.1 38.78
 42.66 psia
PR
Circumferential stress, t 
SE  0.6 P
(42.66)(5.3530)

(20000)(1)  0.6(42.66)
 0.01143 in
 0.2904 mm
PR
Longitudinal Stress, t 
2SE  0.4 P
(42.66)(5.3530)

2(20000)(1)  0.4(42.66)
 0.00571in
 0.145 mm
For the uniformity of thickness, we will choose the largest values of the minimum
thickness. Thus, the largest value of minimum thickness is 0.4185 mm (0.01648 in).
Choose corrosion allowance, CA = 2 mm
tdesign = 0.4185 + 2
210
= 2.4185 mm
According to Tianjin Tiangang Guanye Co. Ltd, the nominal thickness available for the
pressure vessel is 4 mm. Thus, 4 mm of thickness will be chosen.
tmin = 4 mm - 2mm
= 2 mm
Therefore, the minimum thickness is 2 mm (before adding 2 mm allowance).
By using the minimum thickness, tmin = 2 mm, for each part can be calculated. Table 6.22
shows the result for each MAWPpart for reactor.
Table 6.22 MAWPpart for each part of E-104
Hydrostatic MAWPpart
MAWPpart
Part pressure, PH after subtract
(kPa)
(kPa) PH (kPa)
Torispherical Head 0.5161 1145.03 1144.51
Cylindrical Shell
(c) Circumferential stress 17.404 2010.64 1993.24
(d) Longitudinal stress 17.404 4080.79 4063.39
Thus, the minimum MAWPpart will be chosen as the maximum allowable

working pressure for vessel, MAWP vessel is the maximum pressure, permissible at the top
of the vessel in its normal operating position. MAWP vessel is the least of the value found
maximum allowable working pressure for any of the essential parts of the vessel and
adjusted for any different in static head that may be exist between the part consider and
the top of the vessel (ASME UG- 98(a)). Therefore, maximum allowable working
pressure for vessel, MAWPvessel for heat exchanger E-104 is 1144.51 kPa.
211
6.4.4 Analysis of Combined Loading
a. Primary stresses
For a cylindrical vessel, primary stresses (required to achieve static equilibrium) are due
to following sources;
i. Longitudinal and circumferential stresses
Circumferential:
PDm 0.25  (0.276  10 3 )
h    8.625 N / mm 2
2t 24
Longitudinal:
PD m 0.25  (0.276  10 3 )
L    4.313 N / mm 2
4t 4 4
ii. Direct stresses
Direct stresses, σw is due to the weight of the vessel, its contents, and any attachment. The
stress will be tensile (positive) for points below the plane of the vessel support and
compressive (negative) for points above the supports. Below is the detail of calculation
for direct stresses:
Cv = 1.08
Height between tangential lines, Hv  L  [2  ( Di / 3)]  2.011 m
Mean diameter of vessel, Dm  Di  (t  10 3 )  0.276 m

Minimum wall thickness, tmin = 0.004 m
Number of tube, Nt = 12
Inside diameter of tube, di = 0.0278 m
Outside diameter of tube, do = 0.032 m
212
Density of material, t = 7850 kg/m3

Gravity acceleration, g = 9.81 m/s2
Number of baffles = 14
Baffles thickness, t = 0.010 m
Shell’s area, As =0.0581 m2
For shell weight, Ws  240Cv Dm ( H v  0.8Dm )t

 240(1.08)(0.276)(2.01  0.8  0.726)(4)
 638.74 N  0.6387 kN
 [ t (d o  d i ) LN t g ] / 4
4 4
For tube weight, Wt
 [  7850  (0.032 4  0.0278 4 )1.83  12  9.81] / 4

 333.42 N  0.3334 kN
 100  baffle cut 

For internal fitting, Wf  (no. of baffles )tAb   s g
 100 
 100  35 
 14(0.004)(0.0581) (7850)(9.81)
 100 
 406.99 N  0.407 kN
 [ t (d i ) LN t g ] / 4
2
Tube side fluid, flow’s weight
 [ (7850)(0.0278 2 )1.83(14)(9.81)] / 4
 1025.96 N  1.026 kN
Shell side fluid, flow’s weight   s As H v g

 (7850)(0.0581)(2.011)(9.81)
 8995.6 N  8.996 kN
213
Total weight, Wt  0.6387  0.3334  0.4070  1.0260  8.9956  11.4 kN
Direct stresses,
Wt 11400
w    3.289 N / mm 2
 ( Di  t )t  (272  4)4
iii. Bending Stresses
Bending stresses, σb resulting from the bending moments due to which the vessel is
subjected. For horizontal vessel with saddle supports, the bending stresses are from the
disposition of dead weight load.
b. Principal stresses
The principal stresses will be given by:
1 
1
2

 h   z  ( h   z ) 2  4 2 
   4 
1
2 h   z  ( h   z ) 2 2
2
 3  0.5P
Where:
= total longitudinal stress   L   w   b
σw = should be counted as positive if tension and negative if compressive

= is usually not significant
Therefore,
 z  4.313  3.289  7.601 N / mm2
 1  8.625 N / mm2 ,  2  7.601 N / mm2
214
and  3 is negligible for thin wall

The maximum allowable stress will depend on the particular theory of failure
adopted in the design method. The maximum shear stress theory is normally used for
pressure vessel design. Using the criterion the maximum stress intensity at any point is
taken for design purposes as the numerically greatest value of the following:
( 1   2 )  1.0237 N / mm2
( 1   3 )  8.625 N / mm 2
( 2   3 )  7.6012 N / mm 2
( ) max  8.625 N / mm2  1250.97 psia
( ) max  S (20000 psia) , thus the stress analysis obeys the condition.
c. Elastic Stability
Under conditions where the resultant axial stress, σz due to the combined loading is
compressive, the vessel may fail by elastic stability (buckling). For a curve plate
subjected to an axial compressive loads, the critical buckling stress,
( )
√ (
For carbon steel at ambient T, E=192.508 N/mm2 and with a safety factor of 12:
 t 
  2  10 4 
4 
 c  2  10 4    289.855 N / mm  42040 psia
2
 Do   276 
( ) max   c (42040 psia) , hence the design is safe.
6.4.5 Design of Vessel Support
Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle support. The saddles must be
designed to withstand the load imposed by the weight of the vessel and contents, They are
constructed of bricks or concrete, or are fabricated from steel plate. The contact angle
215
should not be less than 120°, and normally be greater than 150°. Figure 6.8 shown the
saddle design.
Figure 6.8 Saddle design
a. Bending moment and stress determination
Saddle support must be designed in order to withstand the load resulted from dead weight
of the vessel as well as the contents inside the vessel. The construction material of the
saddle support consists of concrete inside the vessel. The construction material of the
saddle support consists of concrete, rocks or fabricated from steel plate.
i. Bending moment
The distribution of longitudinal axial bending moment is as shown in the Figure 6.9
below. Maxima occur at the supports and at mid span. The theoretical optimum position
of the supports to give the least maximum bending moment will be position at which the
maxima at the supports, ML2 and at mid-span, ML1, are equal in magnitude:
ML1 = 2ML2
Figure 6.9 Bending moment diagram

216
( )
[ ]
( )
[ ]
Where:
Effective length of vessel, L = 2.011 m
Distance from tangent line to span support, A= 0.109 m
Length of Depth of vessel, H = 0.272 m
Radius of vessel, R = 0.14 m
Total load, Q = Total weight = 11.40 kN
The theoretical optimum position of the supports to give the least maximum bending
moment will be the position at which the maximum at the supports and at mid span are
equal in magnitude:
ML1 = 6.962 kN.m
ML2 = 3.481 kN.m
ii. Stress in the Vessel Wall
The longitudinal bending stress at the mid-span of the vessel and the magnitude of the
longitudinal bending stress at the supports is given by:
4M L1
 b1 
D 2 t
Where:
ML1 : Longitudinal bending stress at the mid-span
D : Shell diameter
T : Shell thickness
217
4(6.962)
 b1   29969.56 kN / m 2
 (0.272) )(0.004)
2
The resultant axial stress due to bending and pressure will be given by:
PD 4M L1
z  
4t D 2 t
(250)(0.272) 4(6.962)
z    4250  29969.56 kN / m 2
4(0.004)  (0.272) 2 (0.004)
The magnitude of the longitudinal bending stress at the supports will depend on
the local stiffness of the shell; if the shell does not remain circular under load a portion of
the upper part of the cross-section is ineffective against longitudinal bending; the stress is
given by:
4M L 2 4(3.481)
 b2    14982.72 kN / m 2
C h D t (1) (0.272) (0.004)
2 2
Total loading which have to withstand by the saddle support after calculation is
11.40 kN and the vessel diameter is 0.272 m. Referring to Figure 13.23 in R.K. Sinnot,
the dimension saddle should be designed by according to the following condition:
Table 6.23 Standard Dimension of Saddle Support for Vessel up to 1.2 m
Vessel Max Dimension (m) Mm

dia. Weight Bolt Bolt
V Y C E J G t1 t2
(m) (kN) dia. Holes
0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.19 0.095 6 5 20 25
218
Figure 6.10 Standard steel saddle notations
6.4.6 Flange design
The functions of flange joints are:

 Connecting pipes and instruments to vessels
 For manhole covers,
 For removable vessel heads when ease of access is required.
 On the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for
transport or maintenance.
 To connect pipes to other connect pipes to other equipment, such as pumps and
valves.
Several different types of flange are used for various applications:
 Welding-neck flanges.
 Slip-on flanges, hub and plate types.
 Lap joint flanges
 Blank, or blind, flanges
In this heat exchanger, there are two liquid streams and two vapor stream. For liquid
streams, the pipe size is calculated using the formula below:
219
Doptimum  0.366G 0.53 0.33  0.37
Where: G=flow rate, kg/s; =density, kg/m3; µ=viscosity, Pa.s
Table 6.24 Computation of pipe size for stream 1a
Properties Value
Flow rate, kg/s 0.147
Density, kg/m3 996.2474
Viscosity, mPa.s 0.89
Diameter Optimum, in. 0.0399
Nominal pipe diameter, in. 0.125
Table 6.25 Computation of pipe size for stream 1b
Properties Value
Viscosity, mPa.s 0.28
For vapor streams, the pipe size is calculated using the formula below:
1
 g c R g T  2
a 
 M 
Where  = 1.40 for diatomic gas; g c = 32.174 ft.lbm/s2. lbf; T = 1.8(T°C+273.15), °R
R g = 1545 ft.lbf/lbmol. °R; M = Molecular mass, lbmol
Where  = density of fluid, kg/m3; U = sonic velocity = a, m/s;

A =cross sectional area of pipe, m2
4A
D

220
Table 6.26 Computation of pipe size for stream 13
Properties Value
A, m2 1.30×10-4
Table 6.27 Computation of pipe size for stream 13a
Properties Value
A, m2 2.62×10-4
The design of flanges will follow the ANSI/ASME Flanges Standards, class of 150 and
the type of flanges that we used is welding-neck flanges. The table shows the summary of
flanges that will be used for heat exchanger:
Table 6.28 Standard flange dimensions of welding-neck flanges
Flang Nom. Outside Thicknes Raised Dia. of Fillet Dia. Length Bore,
e pipe diameter s of face hub, X radius, Beginning through B (in)
class size of flange, tf diam. R (in) r (in) of hub, Y
(in) flange, O (in) (in) chamfer, (in)
(in) A (in)
150 0.5 3.50 0.44 1.38 1.19 0.12 0.84 1.88 0.125
0.75 3.88 0.50 1.69 1.50 0.12 1.05 2.06 0.75
221
tf
Figure 6.11 Welding-neck flanges schematic diagram
6.4.7 Summary
Table 6.29 Summary table of mechanical design of heat exchanger, E-104
Parameter Value
Pressure design 42.66 psi
Material of construction Carbon steel SA 516 (grade 70)
Type of Shell Cylindrical
Type of Head Torispherical
Wall thickness 4 mm
MAWPvessel 1144.51 kPa
Maximum Stress Intensity, (Δσ)max 8625 kPa
Critical buckling stress, σC 289856 kPa
Support Saddle Support
Type of Flanged joints Welding- neck
6.5 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF SPRAY TOWER V-102

(Prepared by: Tan See Gin A122623)
6.5.1 Process Description
The spray tower is used to remove carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide from the
product. Water and sodium hydroxide at 300C is used as adsorbent for these two gases.
The solubility for these gases will affect the performance of the spray tower. Stream 14 is
a stream coming out from cooler containing mixture of gases (hydrogen, methane, carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide). Stream 15 is stream of water used to remove carbon
222
monoxide and carbon dioxide from product stream. Stream 16 is waste water from spray
tower consist of water, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Stream 17 is gas product
leaving spray tower entering the next spray tower for further gas removal. The figure
below shows the calculated dimension for spray tower.
Figure 6.12 Dimension of Spray tower V-102
6.5.2 Material Selection
Carbon steel SA 516 (grade 70) is chosen as the material of construction for spray tower
(V-102). The choices of this material are based on the types of process fluid inside the
vessel and the working pressure of the process. Given that the working pressure for spray
tower is at atmospheric pressure and the fluid inside the tower is noncorrosive, thus
carbon steel SA 516 is suitable to be used as construction material. It is made from
carbon-manganese steel and suitable for fabrication of welded pressure vessels designed
223
for moderate and lower-temperature service requiring excellent notch toughness. Table
6.30 below show the design data required for calculation.
Table 6.30 Design data for spray tower
Parameter English Unit SI unit
Absolute Pressure, Pabs 1.50bar 21.76psi 150kPa

Temperature, T 167°F 348.15K 75°C
Shell diameter, Ds 39.37in. 3.28ft 1.0m
Inside Radius of Cylindrical Shell, R 19.69in. 500mm
Length of Shell, L 118.11in. 9.84ft 3.0m
Design Stress for SA 516 1378.6bar 20000psi 137858kPa
Corrosion Allowance 0.1574in. 0.0132ft 4mm
Safety Factor 10% (1.10PD)
Joint Efficiency, E For double-welded, full RT, E=1.0
a) Wall Thickness of Cylindrical Shell

For cylindrical shell, the computation of wall thickness for cylindrical shell of pressure
vessel is started by determines the internal design pressure. The operating pressure of
spray tower is 150 kPa.
Pa kPa
P o = Pg kPa kPa
The hydrostatic pressure applied on the cylindrical shell is computed by considering the
height of cylindrical shell from top of the vessel, and the density of fluid flowing inside
the vessel.
Pressure of static head, Ph psi
Design pressure, PD = Po + Ph = 54.57kPa = 7.91psig
Safety factor 10% is taken to the design pressure, the new design pressure becomes:
224
PD = 60.03 kPa = 8.70 psig
The maximum allowable stress, S for construction material of carbon steel SA-516 grade
70 at temperature of 45°C (113°F) is obtained from Table 1A, Section II, part D of
ASME. From the Table 1A, S psi
Equation below is given in ASME Code in UG-27( c)(1), for P< 0.385 SE, the wall
thickness of cylinder shell under circumferential stress is:
PR
t
SE  0.6 P
Where R is shell radius = 0.50m ≈19.69 in.

8.70(19.69)
t
20000(1)  0.6(8.70)
= 0.0086 in
= 0.22 mm
From UG-27( c)(2), minimum cylinder shell wall thickness under longitudinal stress is:
PR
t
2SE  0.4 P
(8.70)(19.69)
Hence, t 
2(20000)(1)  0.4(8.70)
= 0.0043 in
= 0.11 mm
R
The additional condition of using these formulae is: t ≤ and is fulfilled by both
2
calculated minimum thickness.
b) Wall Thickness of Torispherical Head.

225
i. Top Head
The pressure experienced at the top head is operating pressure which is 150 kPa
(absolute), top head will not experience static head.
With a 1.1 safety factor, the design pressure is:

PD=1.1 (PO+PH)
= 1.1[(150-101) + 0]
= 53.57 kPa
≈ 7.77 psig
To determine the wall thickness of torispherical head, the following equation given in
UG-32(e) of ASME code is use:
PL
t
SE  0.1P
Where L is the inside crown radius, in. In this design, the L is set to be as vessel
diameter = 1.0 m ≈ 39.37 in. Hence:
(7.77)(39.37)
t
20000(1)  0.1(7.77)
= 0.015 in
= 0.39 mm
ii. Bottom Head
Static head of at bottom head is PH = ρgh ≈ 5.87 kPa

Hence, design pressure of bottom head is
PD =1.1 (PO+PH)
= 1.1[(150-101) + 5.87]
= 60.36 kPa
≈ 8.75 psig
226
Formula used to design bottom torispherical head is the same equation in (c). Hence, the
minimum wall thickness of bottom torisperical head is:
(8.75)(39.37)
t
20000(1)  0.1(8.75)
= 0.017 in
= 0.44 mm
c) Minimum Wall Thickness of Spray tower V-102
Table 6.31 below shows the wall thickness calculated from each part of vessel
Table 6.31 Wall Thickness Calculated for Spray tower V-102
Pressure Vessel’s Part Wall Thickness Calculated, Tcal

inch mm
Cylindrical Shell
Circumferential 0.086 0.22
Longitudinal 0.0043 0.11
Top Head 0.015 0.39
Bottom Head 0.017 0.44
The largest value of wall thickness is taken to be the uniform vessel thickness
which is 0.44 mm. A corrosion allowance, CA of 4 mm is added to the thickness because
the process does not involve corrosive material. Hence, the uniform vessel wall thickness
is tmin = tcal,max + CA
= 0.44 + 4
= 4.44 mm
Standard thickness of the steel plate is obtained from website of Oakley Steel Ltd,
(http://www.oakleysteel.co.uk/sa_516_steel_plate.htm). The nearest nominal plate
thickness of carbon steel SA 516 grade 70 is 5mm.
d) Maximum Allowable Working Pressure for V-102.
The new minimum vessel wall thickness is:

227
tmin = tnominal - CA
=5-2
= 3 mm
≈ 0.118 in.
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure of every part of vessel (MAWPpart) with respect
to the new minimum vessel wall thickness is determined by applying following formulae:
-27(c)(1) of ASME
SEt
t
R  0.6t
-27(c)(2) of ASME
2SEt
t
R  0.4t
head from UG-32 (e)
SEt
t
0.885L  0.1t
Hence, MAWPvessel is calculated by subtracting corresponding static head from the

MAWPpart.
MAWPvessel = MAWPpart - PH
With t = 0.118 in., the MAWPvessel is calculated and tabulated in Table 6.32 below.
Table 6.32 MAWP for Spray Tower V-102
Pressure Vessel’s Part MAWPpart Static Head, MAWPvessel

PH
(psi) (psi) (psi)
Cylindrical Shell
Circumferential 119.43 0.85 120.28
Longitudinal 239.14 0.85 239.99
Top Head 67.71 0 67.71
Bottom Head 67.71 0.85 68.56
228
The smallest value of MAWPvessel is chosen as the overall MAWPvessel as that is a

weakest point of the vessel. Thus, the MAWPvessel = 67.71 psi ≈ 466.84 kPa (gauge)
with the wall thickness of 5 mm.
6.5.4 Combine Loading Analysis
Pressure vessel subjects to additional load other than pressure. Hence the vessel designed
must be able to withstand the operating pressure and the combine additional loading
without failure. The main sources of load to be considere are pressure, dead weight of
vessel and content, wind, seismic and external loads imposed by piping and attached
equipment.
a) Dead load
Referring to Sinnot 2009, Dead load source is caused by the loading including vessel
shell, internal and external fitting, auxiliary equipment that are not self -supported. Dead
load can be estimated using equation below:
wv = CvπρmDmg Hv + 0.8 Dm t × 10−3
Hence, the dead load on vessel is:

Wv = 4975.95 N
Assume that process fluid occupies the vessel to ensure that vessel does not fail at
maximum load. The weight of vessel on full load is:
W vessel content = ρgV = 4380.17 N
Hence the total dead weight of the vessel = 9.36 Kn
b) Wind Load
Wind load should be a source of loading that cause bending moment to this 3.0 m height
vessel. For preliminary design, the wind pressure is assumed to be Pw = 1280 N/m2 and
the wind velocity is 160 km/hr. The effective vessel diameter is calculated as follow:
𝑒 = 𝑖 + 2 × 10−3
229
= 1.0 + 2(5 × 10−3)

= 1.01 m
Loading of wind on vessel per unit meter is:

𝐹𝑤 = 1,280 × 1.01
= 1292.8𝑵/𝒎
Hence bending moment at bottom tangent line is:
Mx = 1292.8/2 x 3.02
= 5817.6 Nm
6.5.5 Vessel Support
A skirt support consists of a cylindrical shell (θs = 90o) welded to the base of vessel is
designed for spray tower V-102 as vessel support. A circular hole of radius 350 mm is
design at the support‟s shell to allow pipe fitting and maintenance work. The contraction
material of the skirt support is chosen to be carbon steel plate SA 516 grade 70, maximum
allowable stress 137 N/mm2 and Young‟s modulus, E 200,000 N/mm2 at ambient
temperature.
a) Skirt Thickness
The skirt support design specification for V-102 is shown in Table 6.33 below.
Table 6.33 Design Specification of Skirt Support
Property Value
Angle of skirt 900
Material plain carbon Steel
Design stress 135 N/mm2
Young’s modulus 200,000 N/mm2
Total Weight Load 9.36 kN
Wind Loading 1292.8 N/m
Height of skirt 1.5 m
230
Bending moment at the bottom of skirt:

wx 2
Mx 
2
= 1292.8 (3.0+1.5)2 / 2
= 13.09 k Nm
For first trial, assume the bottom section of the vessel is same as the thickness of skirt, 5
mm, and the diameter of skirt is also the same as vessel inner diameter, 1.0 m. Bending
stress in the skirt:
4M s
 bs  = 3.32 N/mm2
 ( Ds  t s ) Ds t s
For vessel full of water for hydraulic test:

Wtotal
 WS (test)  = 0.59 N/mm2
 ( Ds  t s )t s
For vessel in operating condition:

 WS (operating)  0.57 N/mm2
The resultant stresses in the skirt:

Maximum  s (tensile) =  bs -  ws
= 3.32 – 0.59
= 2.73 N/mm2
Maximum  s (compressive) =  bs   ws
= 3.32 + 0.59
= 3.91 N/mm2
Take joint factor, J as 0.85, Critiria for design with fs as the design stress:
 s (tensile) < fs J sinθs
2.73 < 0.85 × 135𝑠𝑖𝑛90
231
2.73 < 114.75
t 
 s (compressive) < 0.125E  S  sin S
 DS 
3.91 < 0.125 (20000) (5/1000) sin 90
3.91 < 12.5
Clearly, the support design fulfills the both criteria,. Adding 4 mm corrosion allowance,
the skirt thickness should be 9mm. The nominal nearest plate thickness is 10 mm.
b) Base Ring and Anchor Bolts design
Approximate pitch circle diameter, say 1.8 m

Circumference of both circle = 1800 π
Number of bolt required at minimum recommended bolt spacing of 600 mm,
1800
= ≈ 9.4 bolt
600
Set to 8 bolts, nearest multiple of 4 bolt.
Bolt area area required is:
1  4M s 
Ab    W  = 40.33mm²
Nbfb  Db 
4(40.33)
Bolt diameter, D = = 7.17mm

This is too small compare to Scheiman’s guide line, hence bolt with minimum 25 mm is
used as the bolt diameter. Use M24 bolts (BS 4190:1967) with root area of 353 mm².
The total compressive load on base ring per unit length is:
 4M s W 
Fb     = 28.78kN/m
 D S
2
D S 
232
Take the bearing pressure as 5N/mm2, the base ring width:

Lb = 28.78/5 = 5.76 mm
The minimum width required is 46.478 mm. The actual width will depend on the chair
design which is:
Ls = Lt + ts + 50 = 84 mm
Actual bearing pressure on the concrete foundation:
Lc’ = 28.78/74 = 0.389 N/mm2
The maximum allowable stress of ring material, f r = 140N/mm. Hence the minimum
thickness is:
'
3f c
t b  Lr ≈ 7.2 mm (round up to nearest nominal thickness, 8 mm.)
fr
c) Flange Design
Flange joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manhole
covers, and for removable heads when ease of access is required. It is used on the vessel
body when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for transport and maintenance.
It also used to connect pipe sections where ease of assembly and dismantling is required
for maintenance, but pipe work will normally be welded to reduce costs. There have few
types of flange joints which are welding-neck flanges, slip on flanges, lap joint flanges,
screwed flanges and blank or blind flanges. Flange selection depends on the pipe size.
Standard size of flange is available in market. Table 6.34 shows the
Table 6.34 Pipe Size Connected to Vessel V-102
Pipe for Pipe size, mm

Vapor Inlet, S14 73.03
Liquid Inlet, S16 10.29
Vapor Outlet, S18 26.67
Liquid Outlet, S17 10.29
233
From Sinnott 2008, the nominal sizes of flange that correspond to the pipe size are
selected as in appendix.
6.5.6 Design Summary
The design specifications for spray tower V-102 are shown in the Table 6.35 below.
Table 6.35 Specification of Spray Tower V-102
Properties Value/ Type

Vessel's Part Cylindrical Shell with torisperical heads
Construction material Carbon Steel SA 516 grade 70
Vessel height 3.0 m
Vessel internal diameter 1.0 m
Vessel outer diameter 1.016 m
Corrosion allowance 4 mm
nominal wall thickness 8 mm
Table 6.36 Vessel Support Specification

Type of skirt support cylindrical
material carbon steel SA 516 grade 70
Support height 1.5 m
skirt thickness 10 mm
Table 6.37 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Specification

Base Ring diameter 1.8 m
Number of Bolt 8
Bolt Type M24
Minimum Width 84 mm
Minimum Thickness 8 mm
234
Table 6.38 Flange Specification
Connection Nominal diameter, mm Flange diameter, mm Bolting

Vapor Inlet, S14 70 160 M12
Liquid Inlet, S16 10 75 M10
Vapor Outlet, S18 27 100 M10
Liquid Outlet, S17 10 75 M10
Manhole 600 755 M24
6.6 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PSA V-105

(Prepared by Fatin Syahida bt Agusalim A122465)
6.6.1 Introduction
PSA is a unit that is used to purify hydrogen from other gases. Activated carbon is the
adsorbent that is used to absorb the gases using high amount of pressure. The operating
pressure for this process is 10 atm and hydrogen gas will flowing upward while the waste
gas will go down as the byproducts. The shell side is in cylindrical shape with the ends of
both vessel are in ellipsoidal shape.
6.6.2 Material Selection
The selection of construction material is depends on ease of fabrication and suitability to

the process condition. The material construction for PSA vessel is stainless steel type
316L. This material is chosen because it can eliminate sensitization or carbon
precipitation and reduce formation of chromium carbide. Due to the existence of
hydrogen in the process, this material is suitable to be used to reduce corrosion in the
vessel.
Table 6.39 shows the important parameters to determine the wall thickness of the vessel
235
Table 6.39 Importance Parameters for Wall Thickness
Parameters Value
Internal diameter 0.44 m (17.32 in)
Height, H 1.67 m (5.48 ft), (65.75 in)
Operating Temperature, T 40 oC
Operating Pressure, P (abs) 1114.58 kPa (161.66 psi)
Operating Pressure, P (gauge) 1013.25 kPa (146.96 psi)
Design Stress at 40oC 20000 psi
Joint efficiency, E 1
Nominal thickness 12 mm
Corrosion allowance 2 mm
Since Po,abs ≥ Patm , and P not exceed 0.385SE (161.66 psi < 7700 psi) the pressure
vessel is designed under internal pressure.
Figure 6.13 shows the shape of the vessel, the top and head of vessel and its dimension.
Top - ellipsoidal head with a radio of 2:1
Shell – cylindrical
Bottom - ellipsoidal head with a radio of 2:1
ho
h/3
Di
L
hs H
h/3
ho
Figure 6.13 Dimensions of Pressure Vessel

236
For the ellipsoidal height with a ratio of 2:1(major axis : minor axis), Di  2  2h ,
D i 17.32 in
Ellipsoidal height, h o    4.33 in  0.11 m  0.361ft
4 4
Shell height, h s  H  2h o  65.75 in  24.33in   57.09 in  1.45 m  4.765ft
h   4.33in 
Support line, L  h s  2 o   57.09 in  2   59.98 in
 3   3 
Table 6.40 Dimensions of the Vessel
Part Dimension(ft) Dimension (in) Dimension (m)

Internal diameter 1.44 17.32 0.44
Height 5.48 65.75 1.67
Ellipsoidal height 0.36 4.33 0.11
Shell height 5.00 59.98 1.52
The wall thickness, t for each part of the pressure vessel has to be calculated in order to
get the minimum wall thickness, tmin under internal pressure.
6.6.3.1 Ellipsoidal Head (Top)
From ASME Code, maximum allowable stress, S for stainless steel Type 316 is 20000 psi
while the joint efficiency, E is 1.0.
Operating pressure = 1114.58 kPa = 161.66 psi

Design pressure, PD = Po + 0.433h
= 1114.58 + 0.433(0.36)
= 1114.74 psi
From ASME Code UG-32 part (D),

Thickness, t =
( )
= ( )( ) ( )(
= 0.485 in
)
237

= 1114.58 + 0.433(5)
= 1116.75 psi
From ASME Code UG-27 Part (C),

For circumferential stress, thickness, t =
( )( )
= ( ) ( )
= 0.50 in
For longitudinal stress, thickness, t =
( )( )
= ( )( ) ( )
= 0.239 in
6.6.3.3 Bottom Ellipsoidal Head

= 1114.58 + 0.433(5.48)
= 1116.95 psi
From ASME Code UG-32 Part (D),
Thickness, t =
( )
= ( )( ) ( )( )
= 0.486 in
tcalc = 0.50 in = 12.7 mm

By considering corrosion allowance, CA of 2 mm,
tuser = tcalc + CA
= 12.7 mm + 2 mm = 14.7 mm
238
tmin = tnominal – CA
= 12 mm – 2 mm
= 10 mm
= 0.394 in
Table 6.41 Design Pressure and Wall Thickness of The Vessel
Part Design pressure Wall thickness (in) Wall thickness

(psi) (m)
Cylindrical shell 1116.75 0.500 0.0127
Bottom ellipsoidal 1116.95 0.486 0.0123
head
Thus, the largest thickness that we chose is the cylindrical shell thickness = 0.50 inch
The maximum allowable working pressure of pressure vessel, MAWP is determined by

calculating part by part under internal pressure.
From 6.2.4, tmin = 0.394 in = 10 mm.
6.6.4.1 Top ellipsoidal head

P=
( )( )( )
= ( )
= 905.81 psi
MAWP vessel = 905.81 – 0.433(0.36)
= 905.65 psi
239
From ASME Code UG-27 Part (C),

For circumferential stress,
P=
( )( )
= ( )
= 885.75 psi
MAWP vessel = 885.75 – 0.433(5)
= 883.59 psi
For longitudinal stress,
P=
( )( )( )
= ( )
= 1853.59 psi
MAWP vessel = 1853.59– 0.433(5)
= 1851.43 psi
6.6.4.3 Bottom ellipsoidal head

P=
( )( )( )
= ( )
= 905.81 psi
MAWP vessel = 905.81 – 0.433(5.48)
= 903.44 psi
Table 6.42 MAWP of The Vessel
Part MAWP (psi) MAWP(kPa)
Top ellipsoidal head 905.65 6244.240
Cylindrical shell 1851.43 12768.68
Bottom ellipsoidal head 903.44 6231.830
240
In conclusion, MAWP vessel is 903.85 psi = 6231.83 kPa, smallest value is chosen.
6.6.5 ANALYSIS OF COMBINED LOADING
6.6.5.1 Primary Stresses
For a cylindrical vessel, primary stresses which are required to achieve static equilibrium
are due to the following sources:
 Longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure
 Direct stress
 Bending stresses
 Torsional shear stresses
Column height, H = 5.48 ft = 1.67 m

P gage = P abs – P atm
= 10.133 bar – 1.01325 bar
= 9.12 bar
Design pressure, P = P gage + ρgh
= 9.12 (105) + (0.4911)(9.81)( 1.67)
= 912008.05 N/m2
= 0.912 N/mm2
By considering safety factor of 10%, design pressure,
P = 1.10(0.912) = 1.003 N/mm2
(a) Longitudinal (  L ) and circumferential (  h ) stresses
P  Di 1.003 (17.32)
L    11.023 N / mm 2  1.102  10 7 N / m 2
4t 4  0.394
P  Di 1.003(17.32)
h    22.04 N / mm 2  2.204  10 7 N / m 2
2t 2  0.394
(b) Direct stress (  w )

241
W
w 
 Di  t t
For a steel vessel, Wv  240Cv Dm H v  0.8Dm t
with C v  1.08, D m  Di (m)  t  0.44  0.0127  0.4527 m, H v  1.52 m
Wv  240  1.08  0.45271.52  0.8  0.452712.7  2804.82 N

2804.82
w   0.155N / mm 2
440  12.7 (12.7)
(c) Bending stresses (  b )
M  Di 
b    t
Iv  2 
With M = total bending moment
I = second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending
Wx 2
M
2
x  H V  1.16 m, D eff  D o  D i  2t  0.44  20.01  0.46m,
Pw  1280 N / m 2 , W  Pw D eff  1280  0.46  588.8 N / m
2804.82  1.52 2
M   3240.13 Nm
2
Iv 
 4
64

D o  D i4 


64
 
0.46 4  0.44 4  3.58  10 4 m 4
3204.82  0.44 
 b   4
  0.01  2.06  10 6 N / m 2  2.059`N / mm 2
3.58  10  2 
(d) Torsional shear stresses (  )

The torsional shear stresses can be neglected in preliminary vessel design because
these loads will normally be small.   0
Total longitudinal stresses for upwind and downwind
 z upwind  L  w  b  11.02  0.155  2.059  13.23 N / mm 2
 z downwind   L   w   b  11.02  0.155  2.059  9.511N / mm 2

242
Table 6.43 Primary Stress
Primary stress Value (N/mm2)

Longitudinal stress 11.02
Circumferential stress 22.04
Direct stress 0.155
Bending stress 2.059
6.6.5.2 Principal Stresses
Since   0 , σ1 = σh = 22.04 N/mm2
σ2 = σz = 11.023 N / mm 2
σ3 = 0.5P = 0.5(1.003) = 0.502 N/mm2
6.6.5.3 Maximum Allowable Stress Intensity
σ1 – σ2 = 11.017 N/mm2
σ1 – σ3 = 21.538 N/mm2
σ2 – σ3 = 10.52 N/mm2
From ASME Code Sec II Part D Table 1A, tensile strength, S = 20000 psi =
137.895 N/mm2
 max = 21.538 N/mm
  max  S
Thus, the design is safe.
6.6.5.4 Elastic Stability
E  t 
Critical buckling stress,  c   

31 v2  R
 p


For steel at ambient temperature, E = 200000 N/mm2 with a safety factor of 12, the
 t   10 
 c  2 10 4    2 10 4    434.78 N / mm
2
 Do   460 
243
 max   b   w  2.059  0.155  1.904 N / mm 2
    
max c
Thus, the design is safe.
From the analysis of combined loading, the material we chose has fulfilled both
requirements of maximum stress intensity and elastic stability.
 max  S and  max
 c .
Therefore, the design is safe.
6.6.6 Vessel Support Analysis
The pressure vessel designed is a vertical cylindrical vessel. For vertical cylindrical
vessel, there are two types of skirts which are straight skirt and conical skirt. In this case,
we chose straight skirt. A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to
the base of the vessel. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the
foundations. Openings must be provided in the skirt for access and for any connecting
pipes where the openings are normally reinforced. The skirt may be welded to the bottom
head of the vessel, welded flush with the shell or welded to the outside of the vessel. In
this case, we chose skirt welded flush with the shell which is the most commonly used.
Straight skirt supports are recommended for vertical vessels as they do not impose
concentrated loads on the vessel shell and particularly suitable for use with tall columns
subject to wind loading.
244
Figure 6.14 Straight skirt support
6.6.6.1 Skirt Thickness
The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the vessel and it will not be under the vessel pressure.
The resultant stresses in the skirt are:
 s tensile    bs   ws
 s compressive   bs   ws
4M s
With bending stress in the skirt,  bs 
 Ds  t s t s Ds
W
And dead weight stress in the skirt,  ws 
 Ds  ts ts
Assume skirt support height, h  0.25 m and skirt thickness, t s  0.009 m
245
x Hh  1.67  0.009  1.679 m

s
D  Do  0.46m
s
W  2840.82 N
V
W  588.8 N / m
For the bending stress in the skirt,  bs
Wx 2 588.8  1.679 2
Maximum bending moment, M s    821.05Nm
2 2
4  821.05
  bs   538403.26 N / m 2  0.5384 N / mm 2
0.46  0.0090.009(0.46)
For the dead weight stress in the skirt,  ws
2840.82
  ws   214229.11 N / m 2  0.2142 N / mm 2
0.46  0.0090.009
Therefore, resultant stresses

s tensile  0.5384  0.2142  0.324 N / mm 2
s compressive  0.5384  0.2142  0.753N / mm 2
The skirt thickness under the worst combination of wind and dead weight loading should
follow the below design criteria:
 ts 
 s tensile   f s J sin  and  s compressive  0.125E  sin 
 s
D
Assumptions:
 Weld joint factor, J = 1.0
 Base angle,  s  90 o
 Maximum allowable design stress, fs  137.895 N / mm2

246
 Young’s modulus, E = 2.9×107 psi = E  200000 N / mm 2
fs J sin s  137.895 1.0  sin 90o  137.895 N / mm2
 t   0.009 
0.125E s  sin s  0.125  200000    sin 90  48.913N / mm
o 2
 Ds   0.46 
s tensile  f s J sin  where 0.2014 N / mm 2  137.895 / mm 2
t 
 s compressive  0.125E s  sin  where 0.5436 N / mm 2  137.895 N / mm 2
 Ds 
Since both criteria are satisfied, the assumed value of skirt thickness t s  0.009 m is
acceptable. With corrosion allowance of 2 mm, the design skirt thickness, t s  0.011 m .
6.6.6.2 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Design
The double plate with gusset is being used as the base ring design of the skirt support. It
can overcome the moment produced by wind and other lateral loads. The anchor bolts are
assumed to share the overturning load equally and the bolt area required:
Figure 6.15 Double plate with gusset
[ ]
Where, no. of bolts,

Maximum allowable bolt stress,
247
Bending moment at the base,

Weight of the vessel,
Bolt circle diameter,
Bolt spacing
Thus,
( )
( )
The base ring is sufficiently wide to distribute the load to the foundation. The total
compressive load on the base ring:
𝐹 [ ]
( )
𝐹 [ ]
( ) ( )
The minimum width of the base ring:

𝐹
Where, the maximum allowable bearing pressure on the concrete foundation,
The required thickness for the base ring is found by treating the ring as a cantilever beam
With Lr = distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring (mm)
tb= base ring thickness (mm)
f’c= actual bearing pressure (N/mm2)
248
fr = allowable design stress in the ring material = 140 N/mm 2
( )
√
6.6.7 Flanged Joint Design
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manhole
covers, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanges may also
be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for
transport or maintenance. Flanged joints are also used to connect pipes to other
equipment, such as pumps and valves. Screwed joints are often used for small-diameter
pipe connections, below 40 mm. Flanged joints are also used for connecting pipe sections
where ease of assembly and dismantling is required for maintenance, but pipe work will
normally be welded to reduce costs.
Lap joint flanged are used in the design vessel because they are economical when
used with expensive alloy pipe, such as stainless steel, as the flange can be made from
inexpensive carbon steel. Usually a short lapped nozzle is welded to the pipe, but with
some schedules of pipe the lap can be formed on the pipe itself, and this will give a cheap
method of pipe assembly
Figure 6.16 Lap joint flanged

Figure 6.16 above shows the flange that is used in the vessel and Table 6.44 shows the dimension of lap joint flange.
Table 6.44 Dimension Lap Joint Flange
A B C D R F H I J
Outside
diameter Overall Inside Flange Overall Lap Hub Bolt Diameter of
dia. dia. thickness length radius diameter hole dia. circle holes
Nomina min Number
l size in in in in in in in of holes in in
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
0.840 3.500 0.900 0.440 0.620 0.120 1.190 4 0.620 2.380

21.30 88.90 22.90 11.20 15.70 3.000 30.20 15.70 60.45
Source: www.steel –flange.com
Stream 23, 24 and 25 are all in gas phase. The dimension of the flange can be found in Chapter 4. Table 6.45 below shows the
nominal size of the flange design. Table 6.46 shows the dimension of piping system in PSA.
Table 6.45 Nominal Size Flange Design
Stream Nominal Diameter (inch) Nominal Diameter (mm)

23 0.375 10
24 0.375 10
25 0.125 3.2
249
Table 6.46 Dimension Piping System for PSA
Wall
Qm Nominal Outside
Stream ρ(kg/m3) A (m2) D(m) D(in) Schedule Thickness Material
(kg/s) Size (in) D(mm)
(mm)
23 0.007 0.281 0.36×10-4 0.0068 0.27 0.375 40 17.15 2.311 Carbon Steel
24 0.005 0.081 0.44×10-4 0.0075 0.30 0.375 40 17.15 2.311 Carbon Steel
25 0.002 0.682 0.8×10-5 0.0031 0.12 0.125 40 10.29 1.727 Carbon Steel
250
251
6.6.8 Summary of Design on PSA
Table 6.47 Summary of design of PSA
Parameter Value
Pressure design 912008.05 Pa
Material of construction Stainless Steel 316
Type of Shell Cylindrical
Type of Head Ellipsoidal
Wall thickness 12.7 mm
Maximum Stress Intensity, (Δσ)max 1904000 Pa
Support Straight Skirt Support
Type of Flanged joints Lap-Joint
CHAPTER VII
UTILITY DESIGN
7.1 COOLING TOWER DESIGN
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the
atmosphere. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process
heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case of
closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the
dry-bulb air temperature. Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from
various sources such as machinery or heated process material. The primary use of large,
industrial cooling towers is to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating cooling water
systems used in power plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas
processing plants, food processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and for other industrial
facilities such as in condensers of distillation columns and for cooling liquid in
crystallization. The circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW coal-fired
power plant with a cooling tower amounts to about 71,600 cubic meters an hour and the
circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5 percent (i.e., 3,600
cubic meters an hour). Figure 7.1 shows the cooling tower system in this plant.
Cooling towers fall into two main sub-divisions which are natural draft and
mechanical draft. Natural draft designs use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air
253
through the media. Due to the tremendous size of these towers (500 ft high and 400 ft in
diameter at the base) they are generally used for water flow rates above 200,000 gal/min.
Usually these types of towers are only used by utility power stations. Mechanical draft
cooling towers are much more widely used. These towers utilize large fans to force air
through circulated water. The water falls downward over fill surfaces that help increase
the contact time between the water and the air. This helps maximize heat transfer between
the two.
There are three types of mechanical draft cooling tower which are forced draft,
induced draft cross flow and induced draft counter flow. In this process, induced draft
counter flow is chosen. The hot water enters at the top while the air enters at the bottom
and exit at the top. This process is using induced draft fans and forces to cool down the
hot water. Figure 7.2 shows the induced draft cooling tower.
Figure 7.1 Cooling Tower System

254
Figure 7.2 Induced Draft Cooling Tower
Source: UNEP 2005
7.1.1 Cooling Water Requirement
The cooling water must be determined before feeding it into the cooling tower. The water
requirement is calculated based on heat duty of the cooler or heat exchanger in the
process plant. Equation 7.1 shows the formula to determine the cooling water flow rate,
m.
Where Q = heat duty of utilities (kW)

Cp = specific heat capacity of water
∆T = temperature difference of cooling water
In this process, water is used as the cooling medium to cool down the gas temperature
from 504.7oC to 225oC. The hot water flow into cooling tower system has been cooled
down until room temperature. Table 7.1 shows the property of heat duty of utility and
cooling water flow rate in the system.
255
Table 7.1 Value of cooling tower requirements
Utility Tin Tout Cp water Heat Tin (oC) Tout (oC) Cooling water
(oC) (oC) (kJ/kg.oC) Duty (Cooling (Cooling flow rate, m
(Gas) (Gas) (kW) water) water (kg/hr)
E-105 504.7 225 4.18 151.76 50 28 5940.62
From the properties of cooling water, the condition of cooling tower are as below
The L/G ratio for mechanical draft cooling tower is set around 0.75-1.50. In this design,
the value is assumed to be 0.75. From figure 7.3, the wet bulb temperature and tower
characteristic, KaV/L can be determined.
Figure 7.3 Nomograph of Cooling Tower Characteristic
Sources: Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook

256
From figure above, the value for wet bulb temperature is 77oF (25oC) and tower
characteristic, KaV/L is approximately 1.7
The cooling tower approach is
Cooling tower has better performance with lower temperature approach. (UNEP, 2006)
The effectiveness of cooling tower is determined by,
The minimum area required for the cooling tower can be obtained using the sizing chart
as Figure 7.4 below. It shows the relationship of the hot water, cold water, and wet-bulb
temperatures to the water concentration.
Figure 7.4 Sizing Chart of Counter Flow Induced-Draft Cooling Tower
Sources: Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook
From figure 7.4, the water concentration at wet bulb temperature (77oF) is 1.5 gal/min.ft2.
hence, the minimum tower area can be calculated using equation 7.2 below.
257
To determine the height of cooling tower, equation 7.3 is used to calculate it.
̅
By assuming the value of Ka to be 0.5 lb.ft 3/hr, and recall the value of KaV/L is 1.6 while
̅ is 1.7, the height of cooling tower, h = 5.1 ft = 1.55 m
Volume of cooling tower,
7.1.2 Water Makeup
Water makeup of cooling tower is due to water loss in the water by evaporation, drift
loss and blown down.
7.1.2.1 Evaporation Loss
The loss of heat by evaporation lowers the remaining water temperature. The smaller
amount of cooling also occurs when the remaining water transfers heat (sensible heat) to
the air. The rate of evaporation is about one percent of the rate of flow of the recirculating
water passing through the tower for every 10°F decrease in water temperature achieved
by the tower. The evaporation loss of cooling tower is calculated as equation (7.5) below.
Where Wc = circulating water flow rate enter cooling tower (m3/hr) and (T1-T2) is
temperature difference (ºF).
Recall that Wc = 5.94 m3/hr and (T1-T2) is 39.6oF. Thus,
258
7.1.2.2 Drift Loss
Drift is a loss of water from the cooling tower in the form of mist carried out of the tower
by an air draft. A typical rate of drift is 0.05 to 0.2 percent of the total circulation rate.
Reduction in drift through baffles or drift eliminators will conserve water, retain water
treatment chemicals in the system, reduce "spotting" around the tower area and improve
operating efficiency. The value for drift loss is given by equation 7.6 below.
7.1.2.3 Blowdown
Blowdown is a term for water that is removed from the recirculating cooling water to
reduce contaminant buildup in the tower water. As evaporation occurs, water
contaminants, such as dissolved solids, build up in the water. By removing blowdown and
adding fresh makeup water, the dissolved solids level in the water can be maintained to
reduce mineral scale build-up and other contaminants in the tower, cooling condensers
and process heat exchangers. Thermal efficiency, proper operation and life of the cooling
tower are directly related to the quality of the recirculating water in the tower. Water
quality in the tower is dependent on make-up water quality, water treatment and
blowdown rate. Optimization of blowdown, in conjunction with proper water treatment,
represents the greatest opportunity for water efficiency improvement. Blowdown can be
controlled manually or automatically by valves actuated by timers or conductivity
meters. Cycles of concentration involved with cooling-tower operation normally range
from three to five cycles. In this project, five cycles are selected for this cooling tower.
Equation 7.7 below shows the calculation of blowdown.
Hence, total water makeup that is needed to supply to the cooling water is,
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7.1.3 Summary of Cooling Tower Design
Table 7.2 Summary of Cooling Tower Design
Properties Values
Type of Cooling tower Mechanical draft- Counter Flow
Induced Draft Cooling tower
Cooling water flow rate (kg/hr) 5940.692

Water inlet temperature (oC) 50
Water outlet temperature (oC) 28
Ambient wet-bulb temperature (oC) 77
Tower characteristic, KaV/L 1.6
Effectiveness 0.88
Minimum tower area (m2) 1.62
Height of cooling tower (m) 1.55
Volume of cooling tower (m3) 2.52
Total water makeup (m3/hr) 0.262
Evaporation loss
= 0.2 m3/hr
Drift loss = 0.012

m3/hr
5940.62 kg/hr
0.262 m3/hr
Figure 7.5 Cooling Tower Design

260
7.2 BOILER SYSTEM (E-101)
7.2.1 Introduction
Steam has become the most commonly used as heating medium in industry. In this
process, water will be heated to become steam and it is is needed to heat the biomass in
the superheated steam generator from 30oC to 625oC. The advantages of using this unit
are (Clayton Industries, 2012):
i. Rapid start—from a cold state to full output in 20 minutes
ii. Fast response to load swings
iii. Compact design
iv. High degree of operator safety—non-explosive design
v. Low maintenance—single burner
7.2.2 Steam Requirement
In this hydrogen production, steam is used as the heating medium and the steam
requirement of the process is calculated using equation 7.8 below:
q
ms 
he (7.8)
Where,
ms = mass of steam (kg/s)
q = calculated heat transfer (kW)
he = evaporation energy of steam (kJ/kg) = 2257 kJ/kg
Q which is also called heat duty can be calculated from the iCON simulation where:
261
Q  mC p T
Q  (0.1467)(4.18)(625.30)  364.73kW
364.73
Thus, m s   0.162kJ / s  581.76kg / hr
2257
7.2.3 Boiler Specification
In fossil-fueled power plants, steam generator refers to a furnace that burns the fossil fuel
to boil water to generate steam. Most boilers produce steam to be used at saturation
temperature that is, saturated steam. Superheated steam boilers vaporize the water and
then further heat the steam in a super heater. This provides steam at much higher
temperature, but can decrease the overall thermal efficiency of the steam generating plant
because the higher steam temperature requires a higher flue gas exhaust temperature.
Four identical steam generators of the recirculation type with integral preheaters, generate
steam by heat transfer from the heavy water on the heat transport side to the light water
on the secondary side. The steam generators consist of an inverted vertical U-tube bundle
installed in a shell. Steam separating equipment is housed in the upper end of the shell.
Four steam generators are located in the steam generator room which is accessible during
normal operation. In this hydrogen plant, steam generators chosen to be used to generate
steam are natural circulation, integral preheater, integral steam drum, inverted U-tube
units. Flue gas passes through the U-tubes, boiling the secondary side fluid and creating
two-phase flow around the tube bundle. The two-phase flow increases in quality towards
the top. It then passes through cyclone separators. The two-phase fluid is separated into
99.75 % dry steam which passes out of the steam generator by the steam outlet pipe and
saturated liquid which returns to the bottom of the tube bundle via the annular down
comer completing the circulation loop. To replace the outflow of steam, feed water is
pumped into the preheater. It is the difference in static head between the saturated down
comer fluid and the less dense two-phase flow in the riser which creates the driving force
for natural circulation within the steam generator. During a power increase more steam is
262
produced around the tube bundle. Since this is a fixed volume, the liquid which the steam
is replacing is forced into the steam drum, and the change in power is reflected by any
increase in water level. Similarly, if power goes down, so does the level. Figure 7.6 shows
the component of steam generator.
Figure 7.6 Component of steam generator
Source: Canteach 1996

CHAPTER VIII
POLLUTION AND CLEANER PRODUCTION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Every of chemical process plant, a variety of wastes are generated from the processing
stream and from utility plant. According to Metcalf and Eddy (2004), an understanding of
the nature of the physical, chemical, biological characteristic of wastewaters is essential
in the design and operation of collection, treatment, and disposal facilities and in the
engineering management of environmental quality. The analyses performed on
wastewaters may be classified as physical, chemical, and biological.
Wastewater treatment process involved the separation of solids from some part of
operation and removal of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) in some extent. The discharge of wastewater should be controlled
according to requirements or environmental regulations. In our country, Environmental
Quality Act is the environmental regulations that usually refer to.
Table 8.1: Parameter Limit of Effluent

Parameter Unit Standard A Standard B
Temperature °C 40 40
pH - 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.0
BOD at 20 °C mg/l 20 50
COD mg/l 50 100
Suspended solid mg/l 50 100
Mercury mg/l 0.005 0.05
Continue…
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…Continued
Cadmium mg/l 0.01 0.02
Chromium mg/l 0.05 0.05
Arsenic mg/l 0.05 0.10
Cyanide mg/l 0.05 0.10
Lead mg/l 0.10 0.5
Chromium,Trivalent mg/l 0.20 1.0
Copper mg/l 0.20 1.0
Manganese mg/l 0.20 1.0
Nickel mg/l 0.20 1.0
Tin mg/l 0.20 1.0
Zinc mg/l 1.0 1.0
Boron mg/l 1.0 4.0
Iron(Fe) mg/l 1.0 5.0
Phenol mg/l 0.001 1.0
Free chlorine mg/l 1.0 2.0
Sulphide mg/l 0.50 0.50
Oil and Grease mg/l Not Detectable 10.0
Source: EQ (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979
8.2 WASTERWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Wastewater that generates from this plant is 154375.44 kg/ d which contains carbon
monoxide, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide and slurry tar.
Furthermore, the wastewater in this production can also collect from few sources as
below:
i. Blow down from heat exchanger system
ii. Miscellaneous discharge from spills
iii. Maintenance and equipment shut down
There are two types of waste that produced from the plant which are solid waste
and wastewater. Ash and solid particle will separate from cyclone as solid waste in
stream 8. While slurry tar separate out from quencher system in stream 12 and the carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide dissolves inside water and sodium hydroxide in stream 20.
Both stream need wastewater treatment before discharge to environment. Figure 8.1
shows the waste generation from the plant.
265
Product
Biomass
Feed Separation
Reactor Cyclone Quencher Scrubber
water Preparation unit
By-product
WW1 WW2 WW3
Figure 8.1 Waste generation from hydrogen and methane plant
However, the only important parameters such as pH value, Biochemical Oxygen

Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and suspended solids (SS) are used
for designing wastewater treatment plants. Table shows the comparison between
wastewater characteristic and standard B.
Table 8.2: Comparison between wastewater characteristic and standard B
Parameter Effluent from Production Plant Standard B

pH 10.9 5.5- 9.0
COD(mg/L) 2000 100
BOD5(mg/L) 800 50
SS(mg/L) 600 100
8.3 Wastewater Treatment Plant Unit Operation
The preliminary design of wastewater treatment plant is proposed as figure 8.2 below.
Wastewater from
production
Chlorine
Primary Contact
Equalization Tank Flocculation Aeration Tank Settling Tank
Sedimentation Chamber Effluent
Return Effluent
Sludge
Treatment
Figure 8.2 Preliminary design of wastewater treatment plant

266
8.3.1 Equalization Tank
The wastewater from production areas will be collected at equalization tank first before
sent for treatment. The contents of equalization tank are continuously agitated by a
turbine with 6 flat blades, and liquid level and temperature controls mounted mixer, and
level temperature and level are manipulated in order to provide continuous wastewater
flow. Equalization tank is used to mix the influent collected equally as to dampen these
variations and achieve a relatively constant loading of downstream treatment processes.
8.3.2 Flocculation
At this stage, chemical methods are applied to coagulate the small particle to bigger
particles which can be precipitated and removed from water. Three stages are pH
adjustment, coagulant and polymer at the third stage. The objectives of both chemicals
are added are to ensure the optimum pH for downstream process.
An essential part of this stage is stirring or agitation to increase the opportunity for
particle contact. Thus, flocculation is promoted by gentle stirring with slow moving
paddles. The moving speed of paddles is important since increased the particle contact
will promote floc growth, however, if the agitation is too vigorous, the shear forces will
break the floc into smaller particles. As a conclusion, agitation should be carefully
controlled so that the floc particles will be suitable size and settle readily.
8.3.3 Primary Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the separation of suspended particles that are heavier than water from
wastewater by gravitational settling. It is one of the most widely used unit operations in
wastewater treatment. In this case, the primary sedimentation tank is used to produce the
concentrated sludge easy and can be treated more economically. In the design of
sedimentation basins, due consideration should be given to production of both a clarified
effluent and a concentrated sludge. In addition, sedimentation tank also used in remove
267
the floating materials in order to reduce the amount of suspended solids. Thus, primary
sedimentation always operated as preliminary steps in wastewater treatment to reduce the
solid on following treatments.
8.3.4 Aeration Tank
Aeration is an aerobic biological treatment process. The main purpose of this tank is to
remove the organic matter from wastewater through the metabolic means oxidation or cell
synthesis as following:
Bacteria + organic matter + O2 new bacteria cell + CO2 + H2O
The oxygen inside the tank is supplied by means of surface aerators or diffused
aerators. In generally, there are two types of aeration tank which is aerobic tank and
aerobic-anaerobic tank. In aerobic lagoon, the contents are well mixed and the incoming
solids and biological solids produced from waste do not settle out. While in the case of
aerobic-anaerobic tank, the contents of the basin are not completely mixed and a large
portion of the incoming solids and biological solids produced are settled to the bottom of
the lagoon and the anaerobic reaction will happened.
In general, bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa are the microorganism that involved
in biological treatment process. Bacteria as primary organism that utilize soluble food
while other microorganism play a different role in an ecosystem in the aeration tank.
8.3.5 Sludge Treatment
The sludge collected from primary sedimentation and settling tank will be sent to sludge
treatment and then send to disposal. Several methods that have been used for chemical
sludges include spreading on soil, landfilling, lagooning and ocean dumping.
268
8.3.6 Chlorine Contact Chamber
After the settling of all suspended solids in settling tank, the effluent will undergo
disinfectants before disposal to our environment. Chlorine is perhaps the one most
commonly used throughout the world. Difference doses of chlorine will have different
application, such as prevention slime-growth, control corrosion, odor control, ferrous
oxidation, filter-fly control, bacterial reduction. Thus, the amount of chlorine suitable for
disinfection is around 6-25 mg/L. Normally, chlorine is supplied as a liquefied gas under
high pressure.
8.4 Design Criteria
From the mass balance, flow of wastewater from production plant sent to wastewater
treatment plant is 154375.44 kg/ d.
Thus Q = 6.432 m3/hr = 154.375 m3/day
Let take 1.5 safety factor for the capacity of wastewater treatment plant.
Q = 1.5 (6.432) = 9.658 m3/hr = 231.55 m3/day
The wastewater treatment plan is operating 24 hours a day.
8.4.1 Equalization Tank
The design of equalization tank is highly site specific and dependent upon the type and
magnitude of the input flow variations and facilities requirement. The pumping and flow
control mode, aeration, mixing and flushing methods are dependent upon size and site
conditions. It also involves determining the necessary volume, mixing and aeration
requirements.
Hydraulic retention time, HRT = 12 hours = 0.5 day
Volume of tank, V= Q × HRT

= 115.775 m3
269
By taking the tank as rectangular shape, the dimension should as below,

Length, L = 8m
Width, W = 5m
Height, H = 3m
The power requirement for mixing the wastewater from the production plant,
for turbulent conditions
Let assume the flow inside the equalization tank remain in turbulent condition with a 5m
diameter of impeller and the 3rps.
Thus, the power requirement for impeller is 9633.03 watt.
An efficiency 10 % removal for COD and BOD5 are taking for equalization.
COD (residual) = 0.9 × COD (in) = 1800 mg/L
BOD5 (residual) =0.9 X BOD5 (in) = 720 mg/L
8.4.2 Flocculation Tank
There are three stages are pH adjustment, coagulant and polymer in flocculation tank. The
objective of this process is to ensure the optimum pH for downstream process.
Retention time, τ = 60 min
Volume of Tank, V = Q × τ
= 9.658 m3
Cylindrical flocculation tank has been chosen, V = πr2h
Assume height of tank, h = 3 m

270
r=√ = 1.012 m ≈ 1.1 m
Dimension of flocculation cylindrical tank

Radius, r = 1.1 m
Height, h = 3 m
The power requirement for a paddle to achieve a mean velocity gradient of 50 sec -1.
With P= power requirement

G= mean velocity gradient
V= volume of the flocculation tank
Thus, the power requirement for a paddle is 24. 193 watt.
8.4.3 Primary Sedimentation Tank
Sedimentation is the separation of suspended particles that are heavier than water from
wastewater by gravitational settling.
Let taken the detention time in the tank is 4 hr and the solids removal efficiency is 60 %
and 40% COD and BOD5 removal.
The tank is designed with rectangular tank,

Thus, the hydraulic tank, HRT = 4 hours
Volume of tank, V = HRT × Q
= 38.632 m3
So, the dimension of the tank should be as following:

Length, L = 5 m
Width, W = 2 m
Height, H = 4 m
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40% COD and BOD5 removal

BOD5 (residual) =0.6 X BOD5 (in) = 432 mg/L
60 % suspended solids removal is taken.

SS(residual) = 0.4 × SS(in) = 240 mg/L
8.4.4 Aeration tank
Aeration is an aerobic biological treatment process. The main purpose of this tank is to
remove the organic matter from wastewater through the metabolic means oxidation or cell
synthesis.
Let taken aeration retention tank, τ = 6 hours
Volume of tank, V = Q × τ
= 57.948 m3
A rectangular tank is design for aeration tank.
Therefore, dimensions required for tank are:
Length, L = 6 m
Width, W = 3 m
Height, H = 4 m
And designed volume tank, V = 72 m3
The food to mass ratio F/M is the mass food applied to the aeration tank per biomass of
the tank, Typical F/M ratio sis between 0.2- 0.6.
BOD5 (in) = 432 mg/L (154.375 m3/day × 1000L/m3) = 66.86 kg

272
Assume F/M ratio is 0.4.

0.4=
MLSS = 167.15 kg, thus 167.15 kg of biomass must be maintaining in the aeration tank.
90 % removal efficiency BOD5 and COD is taken.

BOD5 (residual) =0.1 X BOD5 (in) = 43.2 mg/L
8.4.5 Settling Tank
The concept of settling almost same with primary sedimentation tank, separation of
suspended solids that heavier than water by gravitational force. Thus, the sizing of
settling tank is same with sedimentation tank.
So, the dimension of the tank should be as following:

Length, L = 5 m
Width, W = 2 m
Height, H = 4 m
10% removal efficiency of COD and BOD5 is taken,

COD (residual) = 0.9 × COD (in) = 97.2 mg/L
BOD5 (residual) =0.9 X BOD5 (in) = 38.9 mg/L
And 60 % suspended solids removal efficiency
SS (residual) = 0.4 × SS(in) = 96 mg/L
8.4.6 Chlorine Contact Chamber
After the removal of BOD5 and COD to reach the standard B, the disinfection process is
needed. From Metcalf, 2004, the contact time for chlorine and the wastewater is
important. A minimum contact period of 15 min at peak hourly flow shall be provided.
273
Let the contact time, τ = 30 min

Volume of the chamber, V= τ ×Q = 4.829 m3
Let taken chamber in cylindrical shape with diameter 1.0 m.

And radius of column, r = 0.5m
Height of column, h = = 5.64 m
8.5 Sludge Treatment
The solid waste from cyclone and the sludge waste from wastewater treatment plant will
collected and undergo sludge treatment before disposal to the environment. Figure 8.3
show the process for sludge treatment.
Sludge from wastewater

plant
Land disposal
Aerobic Digestion Elutriation Chemical conditioning Vacuum filtration
Solid waste from cyclone
Figure 8.3: Block diagram for sludge treatment
8.5.1 Aeration Digestion
Aerobic digestion is an alternative method of treating the organic sludges produced from
various treatment operations. In addition, aerobic digestion had been used primarily in
small plants. Aeration digestion is similar to the activated-sludge process. As the supply
of available substrate is depleted, the microorganisms will begin to consume their own
protoplasm to obtain energy for cell-maintenance reactions. When microorganisms in
endogenous phase, cell tissue are aerobically oxidized to carbon dioxide, water and
ammonia. Factors that must be considered in designing aerobic digesters include
hydraulic residence time, process loading criteria, oxygen requirement, and energy
requirements for mixing, environmental conditions, and process operation.
274
8.5.2 Elutriation
Elutriation is the process involving mixing of digested sludge with water and resettling,
does not improve dewatering characteristics, but it does reduce the requirement for
coagulating chemicals. Elutriation can be performed as a batch and continuous operations.
The batch process permits close control and requires a minimum of equipment while the
continuous process provides more flexibility and easily operated in stages, but requires
more equipment. Sludge and water are mixed in a tank with slow agitation; the time for
mixing is short, but 3 to 4 hr are required for sludge resettling and densification.
8.5.3 Chemical Conditioning
The use of chemical to condition sludge for increasing yields and greater flexibility
obtained. Chemical conditioning results in coagulation of the solids and release of the
absorbed water. Chemicals are most easily applied and metered in the liquid form.
Chemicals normally used include ferric chloride, lime, alum, and organic polymers.
8.5.4 Vacuum Filtration
Vacuum filtration is probably the most widely used method of dewatering sludge by
mechanical means. A vacuum dewatering sludge cake can be produced and may be
hauled away for ultimate disposal. The purpose of vacuum filtration is reducing the
proportion of solids increase from the 5 to 10 percent range to about 30 percent. Vacuum
filtration is a continuous operation that is generally accomplished on cylindrical drums
filters. These drums have a filter medium, which may be a cloth of natural where the
drum is suspended above and dips into a vat of sludge. Water is drawn through the
porous filter cake for eliminating the moisture.
275
8.6 Design Summary
The table below shows the dimensions for each operating units in wastewater treatment
plant.
Table 8.3: Design summary for each operating units in wastewater treatment plant
Units Dimensions Dimensions( m)

Equalization tank Length 8
Width 5
Height 3
Flocculation Radius 1.1

Height 3
Primary Sedimentation Length 5

Tank
Width 2
Height 4
Aeration Tank Length 6

Width 3
Height 4
Settling Tank Length 5

Width 2
Height 4
Chlorine Contact Chamber Radius 0.5

Height 5.64
8.7 Waste Gas Management
8.7.1 Introduction
Methane is the side product from our production of hydrogen and it used as burning fuel
gas in the furnace in order to heat up the stream for the reaction. Thus, a proper
276
management on fluel gas, methane is needed. Table below is showing the composition of
fuel gas for the furnace.
Table 8.4 Fuel Gas Composition
Component Mass Flow Rate, kg/h

Methane 7.48
Carbon dioxide 0.83
Carbon monoxide 0.14
Heat duty of furnace is 222 kW, thus methane will burn in presence of air to
provide the requirement energy. From detail design of furnace, the required of fuel is
20kg/hr while the quantity of air is 349 kg/hr.
The combustion of methane will lead to release the carbon dioxide and water to
atmosphere.
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
Since the release of carbon dioxide to atmosphere will bring harmful effect to
environment. Therefore, a stack is required. A flue gas stack is a type of chimney, a
vertical pipe, channel or similar structure through which combustion products are
exhausted to the outside air. Proper design of the stack is important to ensure that the
waste gas is well dispersed in the air so that to reduce the concentration of the
pollutants and at the same time obey the standard concentration as stated in the
governmental environmental regulations. Hence, the objective here is to design a
suitable stack to emit the combustion products to the environment.
8.7.2Flue Gas Stack Design
Figure 8.4 shows the typical flue gas stack in industry.

277
Figure 8.4: Flue gas stack
The most essential parameter in designing a stack is the effective stack height, He,
which is the height in which pollutant is released. The effective stack height is the
summation of actual stack height, Hs and the plume rise, ∆h. In equation form:
He = Hs + ∆h
The height of plume can be calculated using the following equation:

278
According to good engineering stack height regulations, the actual stack height
should at least 65m height, measured from the ground level elevation at the base of the
stack. Let the actual stack height be 70m. From detail design furnace, the flue gas from
furnace is 625°C. Allow some temperature drop along the stack before releasing to the
atmosphere. Assume that Tg = 400°C, d = 0.5m, Ta = 25°C, P = 100mBar, νw = 3.8 m/s
Cross –sectional area of the stack,
A= = 0.196 m2
From icon, the flue gas at flow rate of 349 kg/hr has volumetric flow rate of 12.935 m 3/hr.
Velocity of the gas at stack, νs = 0.0183 m/s

Hence, ∆h = 0.338
Therefore, He = Hs + ∆h
He = 70.034
CHAPTER IX
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Chemical plants are built to make a profit. An estimation of the investment required
and the cost of production are needed before the profitability of a project can be
assessed. A design engineer must be able to make quick, rough, cost estimates to
decide between alternative designs and for project evaluation. Economic evaluation is
done in preliminary stage of plant design and includes the estimation of capital,
operating cost and analysis of discounted cash flow to determine optimum payback
period, internal discounted rate of return and net present value (NPV) in order to
develop the optimum design.
The parameters that will be considered in this analysis are the payback period,
discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFRR) and net present value (NPV).
9.2 TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT
Total capital investment cost, CTC can be calculated by adding up the fixed capital cost,
working capital and capital to purchase land for the plant.
Total capital investment cost, CTC = CFC + CWC + CL
Where, CFC = Fixed capital investment

CWC = Working capital
CL = Capital land purchase land for the plant
280
9.2.1 Fixed Capital Investment, CFC
The Fixed Investment Capital is the total cost of the plant for start up. Fixed capital
investment can be subdivided into manufacturing fixed-capital investment or
commonly known as direct cost and non-manufacturing fixed-capital investment or
commonly known as indirect cost.
Various methods can be employed to estimate capital investment. The choice

of any method depends on the amount of detailed information available and the
accuracy desired. There are 5 methods for estimating capital investment proposed by
American Association of Cost Engineers: Order of Magnitude Estimate, Study
Estimate, Preliminary Estimate, Definitive Estimate, and Detailed Estimate.
a. Purchased Equipment Cost
The cost of purchased equipment is needed as the basis to estimate capital investment.
The following equation is used to calculate the purchase cost of the equipments:
Cost value for each equipment, Cpe1 = a + bSn
Where a, b = Cost constant

S = Size of equipment
n = Exponent for equipment
These values are obtained from Table 6.6 from Chemical Engineering Design (Fifth
edition), Ray Sinnot & Gavin Towler. Since the datas are of 2007 and US dollar basis,
Marshall & Swift index is used for the cost adjustment. The cost is then converted into
Malaysian Ringgit unit. Index Marshall & Swift of equipment purchased cost for year
2007 and second quarter of year 2011, respectively, are 1373.3 and 1512.5. Therefore,
the first estimation of cost, Cpe1 is adjusted to Cpe2 using the following equation:
Purchase cost of equipment at current time, Cpe2 = Cpe1 (I2/I1)

281
Where Cpe1 = Purchase cost of equipment in the past time

I1 = Index year 2007
I2 = Index year 2011 (2nd quarter)
All purchased equipment cost has been summarized in Table 9.1 below:
Table 9.1: Purchase Costs for Equipments
Equipment Unit cost Unit Purchase Cost

(RM) (RM)
Biomass crusher 46,835 1 46,835
Water pump 8,427 1 8,427
Biomass dryer 23,462 1 23,462
S/heated steam generator 32,061 1 32,061
Screw conveyor 8,944 2 17,888
Gasifier 197,068 1 197,068
Cyclone 291,200 1 291,200
Quencher 168,274 1 168,274
Scrubber 28,830 2 57,660
Cooler 31,216 2 62,432
Compressor 848,000 1 848,000
Pressure Swing Adsorption 527,804 1 527,804
Total 2,281,111
b. Direct Costs
Direct cost is sum of purchased equipment cost, purchased-equipment installation,

instrumentation and control, piping, electrical systems, buildings (including services),
yard improvements, service facilities and land. The estimation of our direct cost is
summarized in Table 9.2 below.
282
Table 9.2: Manufacturing Fixed Capital Investment/ Direct Cost
% of Delivered Cost
Equipment Cost (RM)
Purchased equipment 100 2,281,111
Purchased-equipment delivery 10 228,111
Purchased-equipment installation 28 638,711
Instrumentation and control 10 228,111
Piping 25 570,278
Electrical system 15 342,167
Building 30 684,333
Yard improvements 10 228,111
Services facilities cost 20 456,222
Land cost 4 91,244
Total 5,748,400
c. Indirect Costs
Indirect cost includes engineering and supervision, legal expenses, construction

expenses, contractor’s fee and contingency. The estimation of indirect cost is
summarized in Table 9.3 below.
Table 9.3: Non-manufacturing Fixed Capital Investment/ Indirect Cost
% of Delivered Cost
Equipment Cost (RM)
Engineering and supervision 25 570,278

Legal expenses 4 91,244
Construction expenses 25 570,278
Contractor fee 4 91,244
Contigency 17 387,789
Total 1,710,833
283
Therefore, fixed capital cost, CFC = Direct cost + Indirect cost

= RM 5,748,400 + RM 1,710,833
= RM 7,459,233
9.2.2 Working Capital, CW
The working capital for an industrial plant consists of the total amount of money
invested in raw material and supplies carried in stock, finished stock and semi-
finished products in the process of being manufactured, accounts receivable such as
payments on the products that have been sold and cash kept on hand for monthly
payment of operating expenses such as salaries, wages and raw material purchases.
Most chemical plants use initial working capital amounting about 10 to 20 % of total
capital investment. We estimated our working capital as 15% of fixed capital
investment.
Therefore, working capital, CWC = 0.15 x RM 7,459,233
= RM 1,118,885
Total capital investment, CTC = CFC + CWC

= RM 7,459,233+ RM 1,118,885
= RM 8,578,119
9.3 TOTAL PRODUCT COST
Total product cost is total of all costs of operating the plant, selling the products,
recovering the capital investment and contributing to corporate functions such as
management, planning, organizing staff development programs and research and
development. Total product cost is generally divided into two components which are
manufacturing costs and general expenses.
Total product cost, TPC = COM + GE
Where, COM = Cost of manufacturing

GE = General expenses
284
9.3.1 Manufacturing Costs (COM)
Manufacturing costs are all expenses directly connected with manufacturing operation
which is direct manufacturing costs, fixed charges and plant overhead costs.
Cost of manufacturing, COM = DMC + FC + PO
Where, DMC = Direct manufacturing costs

FC = Fixed charges
PO = Plant overhead
a. Direct Manufacturing Costs (DMC)
Direct manufacturing costs include expenses that are directly associated with the
manufacturing operation. The elements for Direct Manufacturing Cost are:
1. Raw materials
2. Operating labour (COL)
3. Waste treatment and disposal cost
4. Utilities cost
5. Direct supervisory and clerical labour – 0.14 of COL
6. Maintenance and repairs cost - 0.1 of CFC
7. Operating supplies cost – 0.15 of (6)
8. Laboratory charges cost – 0.15 of COL
The estimation of our raw material cost is tabulated in the following table:
Table 9.4: Estimation of Cost of Raw Materials
Raw material Flow rate (kg/yr) Price (RM/kg) RM/year

Biomass 6,680,836.80 0.03 200,425
Water 5,039,376.10 0.002 10,079
Total 210,504
285
Cost of labour/operating labour can be estimated from the number of operators

required to supervise the whole plant and the estimation are as below:
Table 9.5: Labours (operators) per Shift
No of Operators/equipment
Equipment Operator/shift
equipment /shift
Crusher 1 0.5 0.5
Pump 1 0 0
Dryer 1 0.1 0.1
S/heated steam generator 1 1 1
Gasifier 1 0.5 0.5
Cooler 2 0.1 0.2
Compressor 1 0.15 0.15
Pressure Swing Adsorption 4 0 0
Wastewaster treatment 1 1 1
Total 3.45
Operation hour/day =24

Shift/day =3
Hour/shift =24/3 =8
Total shift/year =3 ×365 =1095
Shift /week/operator 5
Shift /year/operator =5 ×49 =245
Operator required/year =1095/245 =4.47
Total operator/shift =3.45
Total of operating labour =4.47 × 3.45 =15.42
Cost for one labour (RM/year) 21600
Operating labour cost, COL =15.42 × 21600 =333,059
Cost of utilities estimated for our hydrogen plant is summarised in Table 9.6
below:
Table 9.6: Estimation of Utility Cost
Cost of utility Rate Requirement Total (RM/year)

Electrical 0.182 RM/kWh 8,800,000 kW 1,601,600
Water 0.002 RM/kg 1,000,000 m3/year 2,000
Total 1,603,600
286
The rest of DMC elements including direct supervisory and clerical labour,
maintenance and repairs cost, waste treatment and disposal cost, operating supplies
cost and laboratory cost are estimated as in Table 9.7 below.
Table 9.7: Estimation of Direct Manufacturing Costs
Direct Manufacturing Cost Cost (RM/year)

Raw materials 210,504
Operating labour cost 333,059
Utilities 1,603,600
Maintenance/repair 45,622
Operating supply 6,843
Laboratory cost 33,306
Waste treatment plant 125,000
Direct supervisory & clerical labour 46,628
Total 2,404,562
b. Fixed Manufacturing Costs (FMC)
Fixed manufacturing costs are expenses which are practically independent of

production rate. It includes costs for depreciation, local property taxes, insurance and
loan interest. This cost must be paid every year either the plant is operated or not. As a
rough approximation, this cost is about 1 to 5% from the fixed capital costs.
Estimation of fixed manufacturing cost is summarized as in Table 9.8.
Table 9.8: Estimation of Fixed Manufacturing Costs
Fixed Manufacturing Cost % of CFC Cost (RM/year)

Local taxes 2 149,185
Insurance 1 74,592
Total 223,777
c. Plant overhead (PO)
Plant overhead directly related to the production operation. These costs are the
expenditures required for routine general plant services whereby non-manufacturing
machinery, equipment and buildings are required to provide such services. Plant
overhead costs for a process plant is about 50 to 70% of the total expenses for
287
operating labour, supervision and maintenance. In this case, the percentage is assumed
to be about 50%.
Plant overhead = 0.5 × (COL + Supervisory & clerical labour + Maintenance & repair)
= 0.5 × (333,059 + 46,628 + 45,622)
= RM 212,655
Manufacturing costs are the sum of direct manufacturing cost, fixed manufacturing
cost and plant overhead.
Therefore, cost of manufacturing, COM = 2,404,562 + 223,777 + 212,655

= RM 2,840,994
9.3.2 General Expenses (GE)
Other than the manufacturing cost, general expenses such as administrative expenses,
distribution and marketing expenses and research and development expenses are also
involved in the operations of our hydrogen plant.
General expenses, GE = AE + DM + RD
Where AE = Administrative Expenses (15% of sum of COL + Supervisory &

Clerical Labour + Maintenance & Repair)
DM = Distribution and Marketing Cost (2% of total direct production cost)
RD = Research and Development Cost (5% of total direct production cost)
Estimation of general expenses is summarized as in Table 9.9.
Table 9.9: Estimation of General Expenses
General Expenses Cost (RM/year)

Administrative expenses 49,959
Distribution and marketing cost 48,091
Research and development cost 120,228
Total 218,278
288
9.3.3 Total Product Cost (TPC)
TPC = Cost of Manufacturing (COM) + General Expenses (GE)

= 2,840,994 + 218,278
= RM 3,059,272
9.4 DEPRECIATION
The value of assets such as equipment, buildings and other material objects can
decrease as time passes by. Thus, depreciation is a measure of the decrease in the
value of an asset over time. There are several methods to calculate the yearly
depreciation of the fixed capital investment made by the company. These include
straight line depreciation, declining balance, double declining balance, sum of years
digits and sinking fund method. In this project it is assumed to follow the straight line
depreciation method that is property value decreases linearly with time over the
service life. The method is given by the following equation:
C FC  S
Annual depreciation expenses, AD =
n
Where, CFC = Fixed capital investment
S = Salvage or scrap value of the plant or equipment at the end of its
service life
n = service life of the plant or equipment
Therefore, our annual depreciation is,

7459233  0
AD 
10
= RM 745,923
9.5 BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS AND CAPACITY
To make sure the project was profitable; break even analysis was used to predict the
break even capacity or economical capacity. In break even analysis, a breakeven point
289
was estimated in order to determine whether our business would be profitable at the
proposed production rate. Break even analysis was also used to analyse the potential
profitability of an expenditure in a sales-based business.
Break Even Chart

80,000,000
70,000,000
60,000,000
50,000,000
RM
40,000,000
30,000,000
capital
investment
20,000,000
profit
10,000,000
- Year
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Figure 9.1: Break Even Chart
Based on the breakeven chart above, the breakeven point is on 2nd year. So, the project
is expected to achieve break even from the 2nd year onwards.
9.6 PROCESS PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
Process profitability analysis involves evaluation of profitability in the operation

according to the breakeven capacity or economical capacity. There are two type of
profitability analysis:
a) Methods that do not consider the time value of money.

b) Methods that consider the time value of money.
290
9.6.1 Methods That Do Not Consider the Time Value of Money
a. Return On Investment, ROI
This profitability measure is defined as the ratio of net profit to total capital
investment which can be expressed as,
N PJ
ROI 
CTC
Where ROI = Annual return on investment

NPJ = Annual net profit
CTC = Total capital investment
Net profit usually is not constant from year to year for a project. Total
investment also changes if additional investments are made during project operation.
So, the equation recommended is:
n
n
1 ( N p, j )
j 1
ROI 
CTC
Where ROI = Return on investment
NP, j = Annual net profit

CTC = Total capital investment
n = Life span
ROI that has been determined is then compared with a rate of return value
(fraction of percentage) known as the minimum acceptable rate of return, MARR. The
minimum acceptable rate of return is a rate of earning that must be achieved by a
project in order for it to be acceptable to the investor. The symbol m ar will be used for
the minimum acceptable annual rate of return. Any investment in a project must show
earning at a rate that is at least equal to the highest safe alternative opportunity
available to a company or corporation. Suggested values for risk and minimum
291
acceptable rate of return on investment can be obtained from table below. Based on
table below, minimum acceptable rate of return selected for our project is 24%.
Table 9.10: Suggested Values for Risk and Minimum Acceptable Return on
Investment
mar
Investment description Level of risk
(Percent/year)
Safe corporate investment opportunities or cost
Safe 4-8
of capital
New capacity with established corporate market
Low 8-16
position
New product entering into established market, or
Medium 16-24
new process technology
New product or process in a new application High 24-32
Everything new, high R&D and marketing effort Very High 32-48+
b. Payback Period
The profitability measure of payback period, or payout period, is the length of time
necessary for the total return to equal to the capital investment. The method is based
on the premise that the earlier the fixed capital is recovered, the better the project.
Payback period can be estimated using a simple formula:
CTC
Payback period, PBP 
PRN , ave
0.85
Payback period reference, PBPref 
marr  0.85 / n
Table 9.11 summarizes some information of our project investment. Following is our
calculation of ROI and PBP for our plant.
Table 9.11: Summary of Project Investment
Information Value Unit

Fixed Capital Investment 7,459,233 RM
Working Capital 1,118,885 RM
Total Capacity Investment 8,578,119 RM
Full Capacity 138720 kg/yr
Continues…
292
…Continued
Total Product Cost at Full Capacity 3,059,272 RM/yr
Fixed Charges (including general expenses) 654,710 RM/yr
Direct Manufacturing Cost at Full Capacity 2,404,562 RM/yr
Direct Manufacturing Cost 17.33 RM/kg
Design Life 10 year
Scrap Value at End of Design Life 0 RM
Annual Depreciation Charges 745,923 RM/yr
Taxation Rate 25 %
Minimum Acceptable Rate of Return 24 %
Main Product Sales Price 48 RM/kg
By-Product Sales Price 0.60 RM/kg
Table 9.12: Summary Calculation of ROI and PBP
Year Prod Expenditure Income Gross Profit Taxable Tax Payable Net Profit Cash Flow
Rate (RM) (RM) (RM) Income (RM) (RM) (RM) (RM)
0 0 8,578,119 - (8,578,119) (9,324,042) 0 (8,578,119) (7,832,195)
1 0.5 1,856,991 3,389,696 1,532,705 786,782 196,696 1,336,010 2,081,933
2 0.9 2,818,816 6,053,120 3,234,305 2,488,381 622,095 2,612,209 3,358,133
3 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182
4 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182
5 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182
6 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182
7 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182
8 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182
9 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182
10 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182
Total profit 27,398,292
Average profit 2,739,829
ROI 0.32
PBP 2.46
PBP ref 2.62
293
294
9.6.2 Methods That Consider the Time Value of Money
a. Net Present Value, NPV
The net present value, NPV is the total of the present worth of all cash flows minus
the present worth of all capital investments, as defined by
N n
NPV   f di, j [ A j  rec j  d j ]  f di, j Cj
j 1 j b
Where NPV = Net present value

Aj = Cash flow in year j
fdi,j = Selected present worth factor for the cash flows with interest
rate, i in year j
recj = Return earning cash
dj = Depreciation charge in year j
Cj = Total capital investment in year j
Table 9.13 below shows the calculation of NPV for our hydrogen plant.
Table 9.13: Summary Calculation of NPV
Year Prod Expenditure Income Gross Profit Taxable Tax Net Profit Cash Flow MARR Discounted Cumulative
Rate (RM) (RM) (RM) Income (RM) Payable (RM) (RM) =0.24 Cash Flow DCF (RM)
(RM) (RM)
0 0 8,578,119 - (8,578,119) (9,324,042) 0 (8,578,119) (7,832,195) 1.00 (7,832,195) (7,832,195)
3,389,69
1 0.5 1,856,991 6 1,532,705 786,782 196,696 1,336,010 2,081,933 0.81 1,678,978 (6,153,217)
6,053,12
2 0.9 2,818,816 0 3,234,305 2,488,381 622,095 2,612,209 3,358,133 0.65 2,184,009 (3,969,207)
6,718,97
3 1 3,059,272 6 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.52 1,928,635 (2,040,572)
6,718,97
4 1 3,059,272 6 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.42 1,555,351 (485,221)
6,718,97
5 1 3,059,272 6 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.34 1,254,315 769,094
6,718,97
6 1 3,059,272 6 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.28 1,011,545 1,780,639
6,718,97
7 1 3,059,272 6 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.22 815,762 2,596,401
6,718,97
8 1 3,059,272 6 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.18 657,872 3,254,273
6,718,97
9 1 3,059,272 6 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.14 530,542 3,784,816
6,718,97
10 1 3,059,272 6 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.12 427,857 4,212,672
(1,118,885
11 0 ) 1,118,885 1,118,885 1,118,885 0.09 104,990 4,317,662
NPV 4,317,662
295
296
b. Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return, DCFRR
The discounted cash flow rate of return, DCFRR is the return obtained from an
investment in which all investments and cash flows are discounted. It is determined by
setting the NPV equal to zero and solving for the discount rate that satisfies the
resulting relation. Thus,
N n
0   PWFcf , j [(s j coj  d j )(1  )  rec j  d j ]   PWF v, j CTC , j
j 1 j b
The DCFRR is only of concern when the project rates favourably compared to the
value of mar used in calculating the net present value. Clearly if the NPV that is
calculated equals zero, then the mar used is the DCFRR. However, if the NPV is
greater than zero, then the DCFRR must be calculated from equation above. For the
project to be favourable, the discounted cash flow rate of return must be greater than
the mar used. By using Microsoft Excel defined function “Goal-Seek”, our DCFRR
value can be computed as 38%. Since the value of i for a project is greater than marr,
then the project is said to be attractive. Following table summarizes our calculation of
DCFRR for our plant.
Table 9.14: Summary Calculation of DCFRR
Year Prod Expenditure Income Gross Profit Taxable Tax Net Profit Cash Flow MARR Discounted Cumulative
Rate (RM) (RM) (RM) Income Payable (RM) (RM) =i Cash Flow DCF (RM)
(RM) (RM) (RM)
(1,864,808 (1,118,885
-2 0 1,118,885 - (1,118,885) - (372,962) (372,962) (372,962)
) )
(3,356,655 (2,610,732 (1,864,808
-1 0 2,610,732 - (2,610,732) - (1,864,808) (2,237,770)
) ) )
(4,475,540 (3,729,617 (2,983,693
0 0 3,729,617 - (3,729,617) ) - ) ) 1.00 (2,983,693) (5,221,463)
1 0.5 1,856,991 3,389,696 1,532,705 786,782 196,696 1,336,010 2,081,933 0.64 1,324,279 (3,897,184)
2 0.9 2,818,816 6,053,120 3,234,305 2,488,381 622,095 2,612,209 3,358,133 0.40 1,358,699 (2,538,485)
3 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.26 946,354 (1,592,131)
4 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.16 601,958 (990,173)
5 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.10 382,894 (607,279)
6 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.07 243,552 (363,727)
7 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.04 154,919 (208,808)
8 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.03 98,541 (110,266)
9 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.02 62,680 (47,586)
10 1 3,059,272 6,718,976 3,659,704 2,913,781 728,445 2,931,259 3,677,182 0.01 39,870 (7,717)
11 0 (1,118,885) 1,118,885 1,118,885 1,118,885 0.01 7,717 (0)
NPV 0
DCFRR 0.57
297
298
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return

against Year
1.00E+06
Year
0.00E+00
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Discounted Cash Flow (RM)
-1.00E+06
i=0.57
-2.00E+06
i=0.55
i=0.59
-3.00E+06
i=0.61
-4.00E+06
-5.00E+06
-6.00E+06
Figure 9.2: Graph of DCFRR against Year
Discounted Cash Flow and Non-discounted

Cash Flow against Year
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
Cash Flow (RM/year)
2,000,000
1,000,000
- Year
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
(1,000,000) Non-
discounted
(2,000,000) Cash Flow
Discounted
(3,000,000) Cash Flow
(4,000,000)
Figure 9.3: Graph of Cash Flow and Non-Discounted Cash Flow against Year
299
9.6.3 Result of Profitability Analysis
Table 9.15: Summary of Profitability Analysis
Methods Values Comments

ROI 0.32 More than MARR so offer an acceptable return
PBP 2.46 year PBP ref is 2.62. PBP less than PBP ref hence this
project is acceptable
NPV RM 4,317,662 NPV is positive so this project is considerable
DCFRR 0.57 DCFRR greater than MARR so this project is
considerable
CHAPTER X
SAFETY, RISK ASSESSMENT AND LOSS PREVENTION
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The safe design and operation of facilities is of paramount importance to every company
that is involved in the manufacture of fuels, chemicals and pharmaceutical products. Any
organization has a legal and moral obligation to safeguard the health and welfare of its
employees and the general public. Safety management practices needed to ensure safe
operations as well as ensure efficient operations. Risk assessment and loss prevention are
an important ways in identify the risk in order to avoid any bad consequences, plant
damage and financial loss. The term ‘loss prevention’ is an insurance term, the loss being
the financial loss caused by an accident. This loss will not only be the cost of replacing
the damaged plant, paying fines and settling third party claims, but also the loss of
earnings from loss of production and loss sales opportunity. In the event of major
accident, such costs can be large enough to overwhelm a company. The main reason why
we should conduct the risk assessment is because we are handling and producing several
hazardous materials. In identifying the risk, there are several study can be conducted such
as hazards operability study (HAZOP), qualitative risk assessment (QRA), failure mode
effect analysis (FMEA) and concept hazard analysis (CHA).
301
10.2 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
Due to particular hazards associated with processing large quantities of chemicals and
fuels, most government have enacted legislation to ensure that best safety practices are
followed. In developing styrene production plant, there are several legal requirements
that need to be considered. The legal requirements are as follow:
i. Environmental Quality Act 1974

ii. Occupational Safety And Health Act 1994
iii. Factories And Machinery Act 1967
These legal requirements are needed in constructing the hydrogen and methane plant.
The legal requirements required for each stage in project life cycle is classified in Table
10.1.
Table 10.1: Classification of legal requirement at each stage in project life cycle
Stage Legal Requirement

Planning  Environmental Quality Act 1974
Construction  Environmental Quality Act 1974
 Occupational Safety And Health Act 1994
 Factories And Machinery Act 1967
Operation  Environmental Quality Act 1974
 Occupational Safety And Health Act 1994
 Factories And Machinery Act 1967
10.2.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974
Environmental Quality Act 1974 is an act relating to the prevention, abatement, control of
pollution and enhancement of the environment and for purposes connected therewith.
There is government board that responsible for administration and enforcement of EQA
1974 which is the Department of Environment (DOE), under the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment.
302
During planning stage is required to carry out an Environmental Impact Assessments

(EIA) to ensure that the safety of the public is safeguarded, the environment is protected
and sustainability criteria were considered. In addition, any industrial activities are
required to obtain the following approvals from the Director General of Environmental
Quality:
 EIA reports f(for prescribed activities)

 Site suitability evaluation (for non-prescribe activities)
 Written permission to construct
 Written approval for installation of incinerator, fuel burning equipment and
chimney
 License to use and occupy (for prescribed premises)
As a production plant, the plant should obey the parameter limits of industrial
effluent of Standard A and B. Table 10.2 below shows the parameter limits of industrial
effluent of Standard A and B.
Table 10.2 Parameter limits of industrial effluent of Standard A and B
Parameter Unit Standard

A B
o
Temperature C 40 40
pH value pH 6.0-9.0 5.5.-9.0
BOD at 20oC mg/L 20 50
COD mg/L 50 100
Suspended solids mg/L 50 100
Source: EQA 1974 (Act 127)
10.2.2 Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (OSHA 1994)
OSHA 1994 defines as the general duties of employers, employees, the self-employed
designers, manufacturers, importers and suppliers of plant or substances. The act provides
303
a comprehensive and integrated system of law to deal with the safety and health of
virtually all people at work and the protection of the public where they may be affected
by the activities of people at work.
There are seven regulations under OSHA 1994 that enforced by the Department of
Occupational Safety and Health, under the Ministry of Human Resources. They are:
i. Employer’s Safety and Health General Policy Statements (Exception)

Regulations, 1995
ii. Control of Industrial Major Accidents Hazards Regulations, 1996
iii. Classification, Packaging and Labeling of Hazardous Chemical Regulations,
1997
iv. Safety and Health Committee Regulations, 1996
v. Safety and Health Officer Regulations, 1997
vi. Use and Standards of Exposure of Chemicals Hazardous to Health
Regulations, 2000
vii. Notification of Accident, Dangerous Occurrence, Occupational Poisoning and
Occupational Disease Regulations, 2004
The objectives of this act for securing the safety, health and welfare of person at
works, protect the person at the workplace other than employees, to promote a suitable
environment for person at work and to enable previous legislation to be replaced by
regulations and approved industry codes of practice operating in combination with the
OSHA 1994.
In this design plant, the hydrogen and methane plant will be located in the campus and
it is very important for the designers, manufacturers and suppliers to design and construct
the plant safely to ensure the safety of the people surrounding. It is also important for the
employer to protect their employees and other personnel that may be affected by the
process activities. There are some hazardous materials in the production of hydrogen and
methane and they can cause accidents (minor or major). Thus, CIMAH Regulations 1996
304
is needed to prevent people, property and environment from industrial major accidents ad
to mitigate the consequences of this accidents.
Besides CIMAH 1996, guidelines on hazard identification, risk assessment and risk
control (HIRARC) was also introduced. The purpose of this guideline is to provide a
systematic and objective approach to assessing hazards and their associated risks that will
provide an objective measure of an identified hazard as well as provide a method to
control the risk. It is one of the general duties as prescribed under the OSHA 1994 (Act
514) for the employer to provide a safe workplace to their employees and other related
person. The purpose of HIRARC includes to cover all the factors that may cause harm to
employees and others (the hazards), to consider what the chances are of that harm
actually be falling anyone in any circumstances of a particular case and the possible
severity that could come from it (the risks) and to enable employers to plan, introduce and
monitor preventive measures to ensure that the risks are adequately controlled at all times.
According to HIRARC guidelines also, risk control shall be implemented at the source of
the hazard, engineering control, administrative control and personal protective equipment
(PPE).
10.2.3 Factory and Machinery Act 1967 (Act 139)
An act to provide for the control of factories with respect to matters relating to the safety,
health and welfare of person therein, the registration and inspection of machinery and for
matters connected therewith.
In the construction stage, Part V required that is notice of occupation of factory, and
registration and use of machinery. Part V 34. (1) stated that every person who at the
commencement of this Act occupies or uses any premises as a factory shall :
(a) within three months of the date submit to the Chief Inspector such particulars as
may be prescribed
(b) within six months of being required so to do by the Chief Inspector submit such
further particulars as may be prescribed
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Section 34(2) explain about no person shall except with the written permission of the
Inspector begin to use any premises as a factory until one month after he has served on the
Inspector a written notice in the prescribed form. The last section 34 is state that shall not
apply to building operations and works of engineering construction. For the Building
operations or works of engineering construction are in Part V 35. (1), (2) that explained who
undertakes any building operations or works of engineering construction shall not later than
seven days from the commencement of those operations and can not apply to engineering
construction that carrying out of which does not involve the use of machinery and which the
person undertaking them has grounds for believing will be completed in a period of less than
six weeks. For the installation of machinery stated in Part V.36 (1) and (2) which explain no
person shall install or cause to be installed any machinery except with the written approval of
the Inspector. In Part II also discuss about the contruction of machinery. Section Part II.14
stated that all machinery and every part thereof including all fittings and attachments shall be
of sound construction and sound material free from defect and suitable for the purpose and
shall be properly maintained. Some plant have dangerous machinery that stated in Part II.15.
This section explain that every dangerous part of any machinery shall be securely fenced
unless it is in such a position or of such construction as to be as safe to every person
employed or working on or entering into the premises.
The FMA 1967 also involve in operation stage. The workers must be handle the
machine efficiently to avoid any undesired event occurred. Section Part II.16 stated that any
part of any material carried by that machinery while it is working thereon which projects
beyond any part of the machinery shall be effectively fenced unless it is in such a position as
to be safe to any person employed or working on or entering into the premises. Besides that
machinery for hire or sale must comply with regulations.
Part II.17 stated that no sell or let on hire any machinery other than transmission
machinery which does not comply with any regulations made under this Act applicable to the
machinery. In the factory, worker also exposed to explosive or inflammable of machinery.
Part II.11 explained that in every factory in which persons are exposed to risk of bodily injury
from explosive, inflammable, poisonous or corrosive substances or ionizing radiations, such
measures as may be prescribed shall be taken as will eliminate the risk.
10.3 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS INVENTORY AND PROPERTIES
In the production of hydrogen and methane, there are some materials that can be identified as hazardous materials such as carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen itself. Most of the equipments in the plant involves with this amount of gases.
Table 10.3 below shows the amount of hazardous materials contains in the equipments.
Table 10.3: Hazardous materials contains in the equipments
Size Hydrogen Methane CO CO2

Equipment/
Equipment flowrate volume/ flowrate volume/ flowrate volume/ flowrate volume/
Material
(height) (kg/hr) composition (kg/hr) composition (kg/hr) composition (kg/hr) composition
Reactor 3.6 - - - - - - - -
Cyclone1 4 17 0.438 12.364 0.0398 174.134 0.32 172.502 0.202
Spray Tower1 3.0 17 0.438 12.364 0.0398 174.134 0.32 172.502 0.202
Spray Tower1 2.3 17 0.438 12.364 0.0398 174.134 0.32 172.502 0.202
Quencher 3.6 17 0.6902 12.364 0.0627 52.24 0.152 51.75 0.0955
PSA1 1.66 17 0.6902 12.364 0.0627 52.24 0.152 51.75 0.0955
PSA2 1.58 - - 12.24 0.203 51.71 0.489 51.23 0.308
306
307
Table 10.4 below show the hazardous material data which consists of flammability,
toxicity, auto-ignition temperature and exposure limit of the materials. These materials
should not exceed this value in the equipment to avoid any major accident such as fire,
explosion or release toxic material in the plant.
Table 10.4: Hazardous material data
Hazardous
hydrogen methane CO CO2
Material
Auto-Ignition
565.5 537 608.9 None
Temperature(oC)
Lower
Limit 4 5 12.5
Flammable (%)
None
Limit Upper
Limit 74 15 74
(%)
Density ( kg/m3) 0.08342 0.673 1.161 1.53
Simple Simple
25 ppm 5000 ppm
Exposure limit asphyxiant Asphyxiant
Toxicity (TWA)- Simple Simple
3760 ppm, 40000 ppm
ACGIH asphyxiant Asphyxiant
10.4 HAZARDOUS MATERIAL
10.4.1 Hydrogen
10.4.1.1 Flammability Hazard
Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and flammable nontoxic gas. It is the lightest
of all gasses with specific gravity of 0.0695. The hydrogen content of atmosphere air at
sea level is 0.5 ppm. Hydrogen has unique properties and several unique properties
contribute to the hazards associated with gases and liquid hydrogen systems. Hydrogen
burns with nearly invisible bluish flame, unless it is contaminated with impurities, in
which case a pale-yellow flame is easily visible in dark. The temperature of burning
308
hydrogen in air is high (2045oC as compared with 1246.67oC for gasoline) and warm
hydrogen gas rises rapidly because of its buoyancy. Hydrogen forms a flammable mixture
over a wide range of concentrations in air and requires a minimum ignition source, only
one-tenth of the energy required for gasoline vapors. It is the combination of these factors
that contributes to the flammability hazard associated with hydrogen gas.
The primary physical hazard associated with hydrogen gas is its flammability and
explosivity. This is because hydrogen can form a flammable mixture with air over a wide
range of concentrations (4%-75%) and very low energy is needed to ignite hydrogen-air
mixtures. Once hydrogen is ignited, the reaction can process either by deflagration or
detonation. Deflagration in a closed volume can cause a pressure increase of almost eight
times the initial pressure. Detonation from a low-energy ignition source is possible in
hydrogen-air mixtures of 18-60% vol that are well mixed and confined. Hydrogen
detonation although is rare, it is characterized by pressure increase, so rapid that pressure
relief devices are usually ineffective.
Because of the extremely low energy required to ignite flammable mixtures of

hydrogen gas, a person must exercise caution when using hydrogen around electrical
equipment. All flexible hoses and piping systems must be electrically grounded. The
National Fire Protection Association has established standards for the specifications of
electrical equipment intended to be used around hydrogen gas. The Occupational Safety
and Health Administration have also established specifications for electrical equipment
used around indoor hydrogen gas systems with a gas volume capacity greater than 400
cubic feet. Contact area safety engineer for assistance in ensuring that these standards are
followed. If fire is present, the hydrogen source must be shut-off and let the fire burn
itself out. Use water spray to thermally protect people and equipment if the fire is hot
enough to warrant it. However, a venting hydrogen flame cannot normally be
extinguished with water.
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10.4.1.2 Potential Health Effect
As hydrogen is extremely flammable, its many reactions may cause fire or explosion. As
the gas mixes well with air, explosive mixtures are easily formed. Moreover the gas is
lighter than air. The gas can be absorbed into the body by inhalation and high
concentrations can cause an oxygen-deficient environment. Individuals breathing such an
atmosphere may experience symptoms which include headaches, ringing in ears,
dizziness, drowsiness, unconsciousness, nausea, vomiting and depression of all the
senses. The skin of a victim may have a blue color. Under some circumstances, death may
occur. Hydrogen is not expected to cause mutagenicity, embryotoxicity, teratogenicity or
reproductive toxicity. Pre-existing respiratory conditions may be aggravated by
overexposure to hydrogen. When inhaled a harmful concentration of this gas in the air
will be reached very quickly. Table 10.5 below shows the shows the symptoms of
hydrogen exposure and first aid measured.
Table 10.5: Symptoms of hydrogen exposure and first aid measured.
Symptoms First-Aid Measure

Eye Contact Redness, pain, and Check for and remove any contact lenses.
blurred vision Immediately flush eyes with plenty of
water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally
lifting the upper and lower eyelids. Get
medical attention immediately
Skin Contact Erythematic (redness), In case of contact, immediately flush skin
exfoliation and with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes
vesiculation (blistering) while removing contaminated clothing and
skin of a victim may shoes. Wash clothing before reuse. Clean
have a blue color shoes thoroughly before reuse. Get
medical attention immediately.
Inhalation Headaches, ringing in Move exposed person to fresh air. If not
ears, dizziness, breathing, if breathing is irregular or if
drowsiness, respiratory arrest occurs, provide artificial
unconsciousness, nausea, respiration or oxygen by trained personnel.
vomiting Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie,
belt or waistband. Get medical attention
immediately.
Continue…
310
…Continued
Frostbite Change in skin color to Try to warm up the frozen tissues and seek
white or grayish-yellow. medical attention.
The pain after contact
with the liquid can
quickly subside.
Ingestion Abdominal pain, nausea, As this product is a gas, refer to the
vomiting. Aspiration into inhalation section.
the lungs may cause
pneumonia.
10.4.1.3 Environmental Aspects
Hydrogen occurs naturally in the atmosphere. The gas will dissipated rapidly in well-
ventilated areas. Hydrogen forms 0.15% of the earth’s crust and it is the major constituent
of water. 0.5 ppm of hydrogen and varial proportions as water vapor is present in the
atmosphere. Effect of hydrogen on plants or animals would be related to oxygen deficient
environments. No adverse effect is anticipated to occur to plant life, except for frost
produced in the presence of rapidly expanding gases. No evidence is currently available
on the effect of hydrogen on aquatic life.
10.4.2 Methane
Methane is an odorless, colorless gas, odorless liquid in its cryogenic form. Both the
liquid and the gas pose a serious fire hazard when accidentally released. The liquid will
rapidly boil to the gas at standard temperatures and pressures. As a gas, it will act as a
simple asphyxiant and present a significant health hazard by displacing the oxygen in the
atmosphere. The gas lighter than air and may spread long distance. Distant ignition and
flashback are possible. Methane is considered as non-toxic material. However, it is
extremely flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is violently
reactive with oxidizers, halogens and some halogen containing compounds. The
311
concentration of methane at which asphyxiation risk becomes significant is much higher

than the 5–15% concentration in a flammable or explosive mixture.
Fire fighting equipment must be provided for safety purposes. If fire occurs,
extinguish fires by shutting off the source of the gas. Use water spray to cool the fore
exposed containers, structures and equipments. When involves in a fire, methane will
ignite and decompose to produce toxic gas including carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide. Exposure to fire could cause a catastrophic failure of the cylinder releasing the
contents into a fireball and explosion of released gas. The resulting fire and explosion can
result in severe equipment damage and personnel injury or death over a large area around
the cylinder. For massive fires in large areas, use unmanned hose holder or monitor
nozzles and if it is not possible, withdraw from area and allow fire to burn. Structural fire-
fighters must wear Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus and full protective equipment.
Because of the potential for a fire, evacuation of non-emergency personnel is essential. If
water is not available for cooling or protection of cylinder exposures, evacuate the area.
Because methane is present naturally in the atmosphere, the general public may be
exposed to very low levels when breathing in air. Using gas appliances in the home may
also increase exposure due to improper use or leakage. If exposed to methane, the
potential adverse health effects that may occur depend on the way people are exposed and
the amount to which they are exposed. High levels of methane can displace oxygen in the
air and cause oxygen deprivation, which can lead to suffocation. Breathing high levels of
the gas can also lead to agitation, slurred speech, nausea, vomiting, facial flushing and
headache. In severe cases, breathing and heart complications, coma and death may occur.
Skin contact with liquefied gas may cause frostbite. Table 10.6 shows the symptoms of
methane exposure and first aid measured.
312
Table 10.6: Symptoms of methane exposure and first aid measured.

Inhalation Irritation of upper Move exposed person to fresh air. If not
respiratory tract, fatigue, breathing, if breathing is irregular or if
headache, dizziness, respiratory arrest occurs, provide artificial
drowsiness, numbness. respiration or oxygen by trained personnel.
Very high concentrations Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie,
may cause belt or waistband. Get medical attention
unconsciousness or death immediately.
The pain after contact
with the liquid can
quickly subside.
Methane can be released into the environment during its extraction from the earth,
emissions from industries, agriculture, distribution and use in residential and commercial
buildings. A large quantity of the gas is released from decaying rubbish in landfill sites.
Methane released into soil or water will eventually escape into the air where it will
degrade slowly in the atmosphere by sunlight. The main impact of methane on the
environment is as a greenhouse gas, leading to global warming. Methane is the second
most important greenhouse gas, after carbon dioxide. Although less emissions of methane
are emitted into the environment the Global Warming potential of Methane is 21 times
that of CO2, over 100 years. The concept of Global Warming Potential has been
developed to compare the ability of each greenhouse gas to trap heat in the atmosphere
relative to another gas. CO2 has a GWP of 1 (over 100 years).
313
10.4.3 Carbon Monoxide
The National Fire Protection Association has assigned a flammability rating of 4 (severe
fire hazard) to carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is an odorless, colorless and toxic gas.
Due to its impossible to see, taste or smell the toxic fumes, carbon monoxide can kill
people before it is aware. Carbon monoxide is a gas at room temperature and normal
atmospheric pressure. Compressed carbon monoxide can pose extreme health and
flammability hazards following rapid release. Carbon monoxide is flammable. Mixtures
of carbon monoxide and air in the flammable range will ignite if a flame or a spark is
present. Flammable mixtures containing carbon monoxide and other gases can be ignited
easily by heated surfaces, open flames and even by the burning tip of a cigarette. The
serious nature of the flammability hazard is reflected in the extensive flammable range of
carbon monoxide in air. Table 10.7 shows the physical properties of carbon monoxide.
Table 10.7: Physical properties of carbon monoxide
Physical Properties
Melting Point -205oC
Boiling Point -192oC
Vapor Density 0.9678
Flammable Range (in air by 12.5-74%
volume)
Auto-Ignition Temperature 610oC
Fires involving carbon monoxide should be fought upwind and from the
maximum distance possible. Keep unnecessary people away, isolate the hazard area and
deny entry. Isolate the area for 1/2 mile in all directions if a tank, rail car, or tank truck is
involved in the fire. For a massive fire in a cargo area, use unmanned hose holders or
monitor nozzles and if this is impossible, withdraw from the area and let the fire burn.
Emergency personnel should stay out of low areas and ventilate closed spaces before
entering. Vapors may travel to a source of ignition and flash back. Vapors are an
314
explosion and poison hazard indoors, outdoors, or in sewers. Containers of carbon

monoxide may explode in the heat of the fire and should be moved from the fire area if it
is possible to do so safely. If this is not possible, cool fire-exposed containers from the
sides with water until well after the fire are out. Stay away from the ends of containers.
Personnel should withdraw immediately if a rising sound from a venting safety device is
heard or if there is discoloration of a container due to fire. Firefighters should wear a full
set of protective clothing, including a self-contained breathing apparatus, when fighting
fires involving carbon monoxide.
10.4.3.2 Potential Health Effects
Carbon monoxide is very harmful if it is inhaled by human. It can cause blood damage
and difficulty in breathing. Inhalation causes headache, dizziness, weakness of limbs,
confusion, nausea, unconsciousness, and finally death. Inhalation of a 0.4% concentration
can prove fatal in less than 1 hr. Inhalation of high concentrations can cause sudden,
unexpected collapse. Contact of liquid with skin will cause frostbite. Table 10.8 shows
the symptoms of carbon monoxide exposure and first aid measured.
Table 10.8: Symptoms of carbon monoxide exposure and first aid measured.

Inhalation Nausea, vomiting, loss of If adverse effects occur, remove to
appetite, headache, dizziness, uncontaminated area. Give artificial
visual disturbances, blood respiration if not breathing. If breathing
disorders, heart disorders, is difficult, oxygen should be
heart damage, nerve damage, administered by qualified personnel. Get
reproductive effects, birth immediate medical attention.
defects, brain damage
unconsciousness or death.
Continue…
315
…Continued
Frostbite Change in skin color to white If frostbite or freezing occur,
or grayish-yellow. The pain immediately flush with plenty of
after contact with the liquid lukewarm water (105- 115 F; 41-46 C).
can quickly subside. Do not use hot water. If warm water is
not available, gently wrap affected parts
in blankets. Get immediate medical
attention.
Eye Contact Redness, pain, and blurred Immediately flush eyes with plenty of
vision water for at least 15 minutes.
Then get immediate medical attention.
Ingestion Abdominal pain, nausea, If a large amount is swallowed, get
vomiting. Aspiration into the medical attention.
lungs may cause pneumonia.
Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas that forms when the carbon in fuels such as gasoline,
heating oil, natural gas, wood and charcoal does not burn completely. Carbon monoxide
cannot be seen or smelled, but it can be dangerous to our health and in high
concentrations, even deadly. Carbon monoxide is one of several pollutants that can
interact in the presence of sunlight to produce ground-level ozone or "smog," particularly
on hot summer days. In addition to posing a health risk, ozone can damage buildings and
harm crops. Carbon monoxide also can have health impacts on wildlife similar to those
experienced by people by decreasing supply of oxygen to the organs, tissues and central
nervous system.
10.4.4 Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a colorless gas and cryogenic liquid. At low concentrations, both gas
and liquid are odorless. At higher concentrations, carbon dioxide will have a sharp, acidic
odor. At concentration between 2 and 10%, carbon dioxide can cause health problems.
316
All forms of carbon dioxide are non-combustible and it is a non-flammable gas. It is

heavier than air and should not be allowed to accumulate in low lying areas.
A significant hazard associated with carbon dioxide gas is the potential of the
overexposure of this gas. Inhalation of this gas can cause nausea, dizziness, headache and
respiratory rate. Severe inhalation exposures maybe fatal due to the overexposure or
asphyxiation. Moisture in the air could lead to the formation of carbonic acid which can
be irritating to the eyes. Contact with the cold gas can cause freezing of exposed tissue.
Table 10.9 shows the symptoms of carbon dioxide exposure and first aid measured.
Table 10.9: Symptoms of carbon dioxide exposure and first aid measured.

Inhalation Nausea, vomiting, loss of -If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not
appetite, headache, breathing, give artificial respiration. If
dizziness, visual breathing is difficult, give oxygen.
disturbances, blood -Get medical attention.
disorders, heart disorders,
heart damage, nerve
damage, reproductive
effects, birth defects, brain
damage unconsciousness or
death.
Eye Contact Redness, pain, and blurred In case of contact, immediately flush eyes
vision with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.
Get medical attention immediately. Then
get immediate medical attention.
Skin Contact Chang in skin color to red, In case of contact, immediately flush skin
cracked and irritated skin with plenty of water. Remove contaminated
clothing and shoes. Wash clothing before
reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse.
Get medical attention.
317
Due to human activities, the amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere has been rising
extensively during the last 150 years. As a result, it has exceeded the amount sequestered
in biomass, the oceans, and other sinks. Since the industrial revolution in 1850 began,
human processes have been causing emissions of greenhouse gasses, such as CFC's and
carbon dioxide. This has caused an environmental problem: the amounts of greenhouse
gasses grew so extensively, that the earth's climate is changing because the temperatures
are rising. This unnatural addition to the greenhouse effect is known as global warming. It
is suspected that global warming may cause increases in storm activity, melting of ice
caps on the poles, which will cause flooding of the inhabited continents, and other
environmental problems. Increasing carbon dioxide emissions cause about 50-60% of the
global warming. Carbon dioxide emissions have risen from 280 ppm in 1850 to 364 ppm
in the 1990s.
10.5 CONCEPT HAZARD ANALYSIS INITIAL REVIEW (CHAIR)
Concept Hazard Analysis (CHAIR) is used for the identification of hazard characteristic
in an attempt to identify areas which are recognized as being particularly dangerous from
previous incidents in the past. It also identifies the need to explore any difficulties which
might be experienced with unwanted reaction.
CHAIR is also known as pre-HAZOP. It involves generating a simple record of

one or more meetings between appropriate specialists at which various aspects of design
and operation are discussed in a structured way. Various keywords can be used to
stimulate an appropriate discussion topic which is recorded together with actions and
notes.
318
10.5.1 Gasifier
Biomass (empty fruit brunch) will enter the gasifier and react with steam at extreme high
temperature to produce hydrogen gas and methane gas.
Table 10.10 CHAIR for Gasifier R-101
Keyword Discussion Action/Recommendation

FLAMMABLE Hydrogen is flammable and tends Consider fire fighting
to self-ignite on release as a leak measurements.
through flanges and joints.
Otherwise it readily dissipates to
atmosphere.
If diluted with 20% CO2, it will
still disperse satisfactorily.
FIRE Leakage of hydrogen and Stop the flow of steam and close
methane will cause fire when the the valve related. Spray the foam
ignition source is present. on the reactor and dry chemical
or sand can be used if small fire
occurs. Extinguish source of
ignition. Maintain oxygen-free
atmosphere at shutdown.
EXPLOSION An external explosion is unlikely Nitrogen purge required at start
as hydrogen disperses upwards up and shut down. Electrical
and plant is in an open area. An equipment should be
internal explosion could occur if nonsparking and explosion
plant is not thoroughly purged at proof.
start-up.
REACTION The control of the reaction Good control strategy applied on

temperature and flammability of temperature and pressure control
the reaction mixture causing the in the reactor by controlling the
possibility of a runaway reaction. heat exchanger (heater and
furnace) of the feed medium.
DISCHARGE The emission of material on Check if hydrogen is

overpressure can cause flare. environmentally friendly.
Continue…
319
…Continued
OVER When there is too much steam Pressure relief valves should be
PRESSURE inside the gasifier, over pressure connected to a burning stack or
will occur. flare system provided with a
positive means of ignition.
Automatic valve of steam close
when pressure inside gasifier
increase.
START UP OF Problem with controlling the Develop a temperature and
GASIFIER gasifier temperature, level and pressure control system to the
pressure at its set point. gasifier.
UTILITY
PROBLEMS
• loss of steam Cause reaction fail in gasifier. Open bypass on steam input
failure. Install back-up steam
input system.
• loss of Blackout and short circuit causes Open bypass on electricity
electricity sudden plant shutdown and failure. Install back-up electricity
equipment failure. system.
• loss of Cause reaction fail in gasifier. Open bypass on heating failure.
heating Install back-up heating system.
10.5.2 Superheater Steam Generator
This steam generator will provides steam for gasifier so that gasification process can be
carried out.
Table 10.11 CHAIR for Superheater Steam Generator E-101

OVER When there is too much steam Pressure relief valves should be
PRESSURE inside the superheater steam connected to a burning stack or
generator, over pressure will flare system provided with a
occur. positive means of ignition.
Automatic valve of steam close
when pressure inside superheater
steam generator increase.
Continue…
320
…Continued
START UP OF Problem with the generator Develop a temperature and
SUPERHEATER temperature, level and pressure control system to the
STEAM pressure at its set point. generator.
GENERATOR
UTILITY
PROBLEMS
• loss of Blackout and short circuit Open bypass on electricity failure.
electricity causes sudden plant shutdown Install back-up electricity system.
and equipment failure.
• loss of steam fail to supply steam to Open bypass on steam input
gasifier. failure. Install back-up steam input
system.
• loss of heating fail to supply steam to Open bypass on heating failure.
gasifier. Install back-up heating system.
10.5.3 Cyclone
Cyclone will remove ash and solid particles from the output stream of gasifier. This is an
important steps to make sure that the solid particles will not enter the following units.
Table 10.12 CHAIR for Cyclone T-102

FLAMMABLE Hydrogen is flammable and Consider fire fighting
tends to self-ignite on release as measurements.
a leak through flanges and
joints. Otherwise it readily
dissipates to atmosphere.
If diluted with 20% CO2, it will
still disperse satisfactorily.
Continue…
321
…Continued
FIRE Leakage of hydrogen and Stop the flow of steam and close the
methane will cause fire when valve related. Spray the foam on the
the ignition source is present. vessel and dry chemical or sand can
be used if small fire occurs.
Extinguish source of ignition.
Maintain oxygen-free atmosphere at
shutdown.
EXPLOSION An external explosion is Nitrogen purge required at start up

unlikely as hydrogen disperses and shut down. Electrical equipment
upwards and plant is in an open should be nonsparking and
area. An internal explosion explosion proof.
could occur if plant is not
thoroughly purged at start-up.

EFFLUENTS Ash and solid particles in Effluent to waste treatment.

effluent.
START UP OF Problem with controlling the Develop a pressure control system to

CYCLONE cyclone pressure at its set point. the cyclone.
UTILITY
PROBLEMS
• loss of Blackout and short circuit Open bypass on electricity failure.
electricity causes sudden plant shutdown Install back-up electricity system.
and equipment failure.
322
10.5.4 Quencher V-101
Table 10.13 CHAIR for Quencher V-101

tends to self-ignite on release measurements.
as a leak through flanges and
If diluted with 20% CO2, it
will still disperse
satisfactorily.
FIRE Leakage of hydrogen and Stop the flow of steam and

methane will cause fire when close the valve related. Spray
the ignition source is present. the foam on the vessel and dry
chemical or sand can be used
if small fire occurs.
Maintain oxygen-free
EXPLOSION An external explosion is Nitrogen purge required at

unlikely as hydrogen start up and shut down.
disperses upwards and plant is Electrical equipment should
in an open area. An internal be nonsparking and explosion
explosion could occur if plant proof.
is not thoroughly purged at
start-up.

UTILITY
PROBLEMS
• loss of Blackout and short circuit Open bypass on electricity
electricity causes sudden plant shutdown failure. Install back-up
and equipment failure. electricity system.
323
10.5.5 Spray Tower V-102
Spray tower will absorb carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the product line.
Table 10.14 CHAIR for Spray Tower V-102

will still disperse
satisfactorily.
FIRE Leakage of hydrogen and Stop the flow of steam and

methane will cause fire when close the valve related.
the ignition source is present. Maintain oxygen-free
EXPLOSION An external explosion is Nitrogen purge required at

unlikely as hydrogen start up and shut down.
disperses upwards and plant is Electrical equipment should
in an open area. An internal be nonsparking and explosion
explosion could occur if plant proof.
start-up.

EFFLUENTS Tar presents in effluent. Effluent to waste treatment.
UTILITY
PROBLEMS
324
10.5.6 Spray Tower V-103
Table 10.15 CHAIR for Spray Tower V-103

will still disperse
satisfactorily.
FIRE Leakage of hydrogen and Stop the flow of steam and close the
methane will cause fire when valve related. Spray the foam on the
the ignition source is present. vessel and dry chemical or sand can
be used if small fire occurs.
Maintain oxygen-free atmosphere at
shutdown.
EXPLOSION An external explosion is Nitrogen purge required at start up

unlikely as hydrogen and shut down. Electrical equipment
disperses upwards and plant is should be nonsparking and
in an open area. An internal explosion proof.
explosion could occur if plant
start-up.

325
10.5.7 PSA V-105
This PSA will be function as hydrogen removal.
Table 10.16 CHAIR for PSA V-105

FLAMMABLE Methane is flammable and Consider fire fighting
joints.
FIRE Leakage of methane will Stop the flow of steam and
cause fire when the ignition close the valve related. Spray
source is present. the foam on the vessel and dry
chemical or sand can be used
if small fire occurs.
Maintain oxygen-free
DISCHARGE The emission of material on Check if methane is
START UP OF Problem with controlling the Develop a temperature and
PSA PSA temperature, level and pressure control system to the
pressure at its set point. PSA.
UTILITY
PROBLEMS
326
10.6 FAILURE MODE EFFECT ANALYSIS (FMEA)
Failure Modes and Effect Analysis systematically identifies the potential failure of a
system and its effect. It assesses the significance of each failure mode to determine
actions that would eliminate the chance of occurrence. FMEA documents the potential
failures. It oriented towards equipment rather than process. It particularly suited for
mechanical and electrical systems. It can be applied at various stages such as concept,
design, process, service and maintenance. It can be make improvements in safety, quality
and reliability. Table 10.17 shows FMEA analysis for hydrogen and methane plant.
Table 10.17 FMEA analysis for hydrogen and methane plant
Component Failure Mode Failure Effect Symptoms Safeguard Action

P-101 Water motor failure inability to pump fail to supply water to none have alternative water
pump water heater and cause pump
gasification cannot be
carried out
power failure inability to pump fail to supply water to none back-up power supply
water heater and cause generator
carried out
T-101 biomass rotor failure inability to crush large pieces of biomass none schedule inspection
crusher biomass in downstream unit and maintenance
operation
carry out screening
process for outlet
stream of crusher
blockage at overflow of biomass no biomass in none schedule inspection
crusher outlet in crusher downstream unit and maintenance
operation
E-101 Rupture of Steam will jet out temperature of stream none install of temperature
Superheater tank wall from the generator. drop. indicator.
Steam
Generator
Continue…
327
…Continued
cause injuries due to room temperature schedule inspection
high temperature. increase rapidly due to and maintenance.
heat release.
overpressure explosion of generator wall rupture increase the install of pressure
due to high pressure. immediately. wall indicator and alarm.
thickness.
opening of install relief valve.
relief valve.
over may cause rupture of wall melted increase the install of temperature
temperature wall and steam will jet wall indicator.
out. thickness.
room temperature choose
increase rapidly. material
which have
higher
melting point.
E-101 Biomass power failure inability to dry the low temperature of none back-up power supply
dryer biomass biomass stream exit generator
from dryer
SC-101 Screw over loading inability to transport no feed into system, none install weight indicator
Conveyor feed to biomass dryer plant operation cannot
be carried out
conveyor inability to transport no feed into system, none schedule inspection
motor failure feed to biomass dryer plant operation cannot and maintenance.
328
be carried out
Continue…
…Continued
SC-102 Screw over loading inability to transport no feed into system, none install weight indicator
Conveyor feed to gasifier plant operation cannot
be carried out
conveyor inability to transport no feed into system, none schedule inspection
motor failure feed to biomass dryer plant operation cannot and maintenance.
be carried out
R-101 Gasifier over loading inability to carry out low raw material none install weight indicator
gasification efficiently conversion rate
little amount of
product from gasifier
power failure inability to carry out low raw material none back-up power supply
gasification efficiently conversion rate generator
little amount of
product from gasifier
over may cause rupture of wall melted increase the install of temperature
temperature wall and steam will jet wall indicator.
out. thickness.
T-102 Cyclone rupture of unable to separate ash gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) none schedule inspection
cyclone wall and solid particles out will disperse within and maintenance
from the gas stream area working and
nearby areas
329
increase the amount of
work of tar removal
(T-103)
Continue…
…Continued
C-101 compressor gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) none schedule inspection
Compressor failure will evaporate to will disperse within and maintenance
atmosphere area working and
nearby areas
overpressure explosion will occur cause injuries and none install pressure
(crack) due to high pressure economic loses indicator
V-101 power failure unable to cool the fluid will enter tar none back-up power supply
Quencher outlet stream of removal (T-103) at generator
cyclone (T-102) very high temperature
V-102 Spray rupture of unable to separate CO gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) none schedule inspection
tower wall and CO2 out from the will disperse within and maintenance
gas stream area working and
nearby areas

work of next spray
tower
330
V-103 Spray rupture of unable to separate CO gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) none schedule inspection
tower wall and CO2 out from the will disperse within and maintenance
gas stream area working and
nearby areas
Continue…
…Continued
E-104 Cooler power failure unable to cool the fiuld will enter knock none back-up power supply
outlet stream of out drum at very high generator
absorber temperature
the result for knock out
drum separation is not
good
V-104 PSA rupture of -gas (CH4,H2) will -adsorbent(zeolite) in Increase the schedule inspection
tank wall evaporate to downstream unit thickness of and maintenance
atmosphere operation vessel wall to
withstand the
pressure
331
overpressure -explosion will occur - gas (CH4,H2) will Installation of pressure
due to high pressure disperse within area indicator and alarm
working area and when overpressure
working nearby areas
low pressure Adsorbent(carbon and

zeolite) will spilled to Installation of pressure
the ground
controller.
Extrusion of vessel Install relief valve.
wall from atmospheric
pressure.
Continue…
…Continued
C-101 compressor Hydrogen gas will Hydrogen gas will none schedule inspection
Compressor failure evaporate to disperse within area and maintenance
atmosphere working and nearby
areas
overpressure explosion will occur installation of pressure
(minor or due to high pressure controller
major crack)
332
PSA piping rupture or gas (CH4,H2) will gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) none installation of gas
connection leakage in evaporate to will disperse within detector
piping atmosphere area working and
transferring nearby areas
gas (CH4,H2)
schedule inspection
and maintenance
333
334
10.7 QUALITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENTS
A risk assessment of this plant is simply a careful examination of whatever, in this plant,
that could cause harm to people, so that precautions and controls can be determined to
prevent harm. Hazardous chemical agents in this hydrogen and methane production plant
are hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane and other by-products.
Risk assessment of a plant can be divided into two types of approaches which are
qualitative and quantitative risk assessment. The different between these two approaches
is qualitative assessment relies heavily on the experience of assessors whereas
quantitative assessment are based on facts and data of both the likelihood and
consequences.
Qualitative risk assessment uses words to describe the magnitude of potential

severity and the likelihood that those severity. Description of severity and the likelihood
are based on the guideline for HIRARC, DOSH, 2008. An alternative method to do
qualitative analysis is by using risk diagram. Approach use in this hydrogen and methane
plant is Failure Mode Effect Analysis Critical Analysis (FMEACA). Table 5.18 shows
definition for failure mode effect analysis severity score and table 5.19 shows definition
for failure mode effect analysis frequency score. Lastly, table 5.20 will summarize FMEA
Critical Analysis.
Table 10.18 Definition for Failure Mode Effect Analysis Severity Score
Description Score
negligible loss of mission due to inability of equipment to perform 1
minor economic loss due to lack of output or function 2
major damage to plant or third party property 3
critical injury to operating personnel or the public 4
catastrophic death to operating personnel or the public or significant damage to the 5
environment
Table 10.19 Definition for Failure Mode Effect Analysis Frequency Score
Description Score
extremely unlikely less than 0.001 per year 1
remote between 0.01 to 0.001 per year 2
Occasional between 0.1 to 0.01 per year 3
reasonably frequent between 0.2 to 0.1 per year 4
frequent more than 0.2 per year 5
335
Table 10.20 FMEA Critical Analysis (FMEACA)
Component Failure Failure Effect Symptoms Severity Frequency Score

Mode
P-101 Water motor failure inability to pump fail to supply water to 3 2 6
pump water heater and cause
carried out
power inability to pump fail to supply water to 3 2 6
failure water heater and cause
carried out
T-101 biomass rotor failure inability to crush large pieces of biomass in 2 2 4

crusher biomass downstream unit operation
blockage at overflow of biomass no biomass in downstream 3 3 9
crusher in crusher unit operation
outlet
E-101 Rupture of Steam will jet out temperature of stream 4 1 4

Superheater tank wall from the generator. drop.
Steam
Generator
cause injuries due to room temperature increase
high temperature. rapidly due to heat release.
overpressure explosion of generator wall rupture immediately. 4 1 4
due to high pressure.
Continue…
336
…Continued
over may cause rupture of wall melted 4 1 4
temperature wall and steam will jet
out.
room temperature increase
rapidly.
E-101 Biomass power inability to dry the low temperature of 3 2 6

dryer failure biomass biomass stream exit from
dryer
SC-101 Screw over loading inability to transport no feed into system, plant 3 2 6
Conveyor feed to biomass dryer operation cannot be carried
out
conveyor inability to transport no feed into system, plant 3 2 6
motor failure feed to biomass dryer operation cannot be carried
out
SC-102 Screw over loading inability to transport no feed into system, plant 3 2 6
Conveyor feed to gasifier operation cannot be carried
out
conveyor inability to transport no feed into system, plant 3 2 6
motor failure feed to biomass dryer operation cannot be carried
out
Continue…
337
…Continued
R-101 Gasifier over loading inability to carry out low raw material 3 2 6
gasification efficiently conversion rate
little amount of product
from gasifier
power inability to carry out low raw material 3 2 6
failure gasification efficiently conversion rate
little amount of product
from gasifier
over may cause rupture of Wall melted 4 1 4
temperature wall and steam will jet
out.
T-102 Cyclone rupture of unable to separate ash gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) will 5 1 5

cyclone wall and solid particles out disperse within area
from the gas stream working and nearby areas
work of tar removal (T-
103)
C-101 compressor gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) will 5 1 5

Compressor failure will evaporate to disperse within area
atmosphere working and nearby areas
Continue…
338
…Continued
overpressure explosion will occur cause injuries and 5 1 5
(minor or due to high pressure economic loses
major crack)
V-101 power unable to cool the fluid will enter tar removal 2 2 4
Quencher failure outlet stream of (T-103) at very high
cyclone (T-102) temperature
V-102 spray rupture of gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) will 5 1 5

tower tank wall will evaporate to disperse within area
solvent in absorber chemical spillage
will spill to the
ground
V-102 spray rupture of gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) will 5 1 5

tower tank wall will evaporate to disperse within area
solvent in absorber chemical spillage
will spill to the
ground
Continue…
339
…Continued
E-104 Cooler power unable to cool the fiuld will enter knock out 2 2 4
failure outlet stream of drum at very high
absorber temperature
the result for knock out
drum separation is not
good
V-104 PSA rupture of -gas (CH4,H2) will -adsorbent(zeolite) in 5 1 5

tank wall evaporate to downstream unit operation
atmosphere
overpressure -explosion will occur - gas (CH4,H2) will 5 1 5
due to high pressure disperse within area
working area and working
nearby areas
low pressure Adsorbent(carbon and 5 1 5

zeolite) will spilled to
the ground
Extrusion of vessel
wall from atmospheric
pressure.
C-101 compressor Hydrogen gas will Hydrogen gas will disperse 5 1 5

Compressor failure evaporate to within area working and
atmosphere nearby areas
Continue…
340
…Continued
overpressure explosion will occur 5 1 5
(minor or due to high pressure
major crack)
PSA piping rupture or gas (CH4,H2) will gas (CH4,H2,CO,CO2) will 5 1 5

connection leakage in evaporate to disperse within area
piping atmosphere working and nearby areas
transferring
gas (CH4,H2)
341
342
10.8 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION, RISK ASSESSMENT & RISK

CONTROL (HIRARC)
The purpose of this guideline is to provide a systematic and objective approach to

assessing hazards and their associated risks that will provide an objective measure of
an identified hazard as well as provide a method to control the risk. It is one of the
general duties as prescribed under the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (Act
514) for the employer to provide a safe workplaces to their employees and other
related person. Table below shows the HIRARC analysis of plant designed.
Table 10.21 : HIRARC Analysis
Hazard
Risk Assessment Risk Control
Identifications
Likelihood Consequence Control /
Mitigating
Risk Preventive
Hazardous Scenario Measure
Description Ranking Description Ranking Rating Measure
(minimize
the hazard)
Vessel wall of An event may 2 Can cause fire 3 6 Scheduled Emergency
gasifier is rapture occur at some due to inspection alarms
and the process time flammable fluid and
fluid inside is maintenance
leaking
Overpressure inside Expected to 4 Can cause fire 3 12 Scheduled Emergency

the reactor and occur in most due to inspection alarms
cause leaking of circumstances flammable fluid and
fluid maintenance
Vessel wall of An event may 2 Can cause fire 4 8 Scheduled Emergency

gasifier facing occur at some and explosive inspection alarms
vibration time and
phenomena and maintenance
small leak on the
vessel wall
Continue…
343
…Continued
Internal corrosion Has a good 4 Can cause crack 3 12 Scheduled Install
and erosion of the chance of in piping system inspection emergency
piping system in the occurring and is and components and alarms.
quencher. not unusual. exposed to the maintenance.
atmosphere.
Rupture of quencher Has a good 4 Can cause 4 16 Scheduled Install

wall chance of explosion and inspection emergency
occurring and is heat released. and alarms.
not unusual. Major injuries maintenance.
and loss.
Sudden temperature Has a good 4 Can cause crack 3 12 Scheduled Install

rise in quencher chance of in tower inspection temperature
occurring and is resulting in and indicator and
not unusual. release of maintenance automatic shut
chemical and down if
explosion. sudden
Major injuries increase in
and property temperature.
damage
Tube tearing in Expected to 4 Can cause fire 3 12 Scheduled Emergency

heat exchanger and occur in most due to inspection alarms
process fluid circumstances flammable fluid and
is leaking (>10-5) maintenance
Continue…
344
…Continued
Overflow in spray Might occur at 2 Liquid enter the 2 4 Schedule Insert liquid
tower some time product line. inspection level
(10-8 – 10-6) Will destroy the and controller
PSA. maintenance
Loss of maintenance Hydrogen gas 3 It can cause fire 4 12 Scheduled Emergency

in hydrogen pipeline will dispersed if there is an inspection alarm
in atmosphere ignition source and
maintenance
Overpressure in Hydrogen 3 Pressure vessel 3 9 Install relief Install relief

PSA purification may crack due header valve
might not be to over pressure
completed
Internal corrosion in Hydrogen can 3 Can cause crack 3 9 Increase wall Install
vessel corrode the in the vessel and thickness on automatic
vessel explosion might the vessel shutdown
occur Use stainless valve in there
steel is sudden
pressure drop
Loss of containment Significance 3 Hydrogen gas, 3 9 Regular -Initiate

in PSA vessel of product methane gas inspection Emergency
mixture to will dispersed in and Response
spill out due atmosphere and patrolling of Alert (ERP)
to tank cause fire or the -Install
rupture explosion equipment pressure relief
345
valve
346
10.9 HAZOP
A Hazard and operability study is a structured and systematic examination of a
planned or existing process or operation in order to identify and evaluate problems that
may represent risks to personnel or equipment or prevent efficient operation. The
method applies to processes (existing or planned) for which design information is
available. This commonly includes a piping and instrumentation diagram which is
examined in small sections. The objectives of a HAZOP study on a processing plant
are to identify how process deviations can be prevented or mitigated to minimize
process hazards. Outcomes from HAZOP analysis should be able to suggest necessary
changes to a system to meet risk guidelines or suggest procedures or changes for
eliminating or reducing the probability of operating deviations.
Table 10.22: HAZOP for Reactor R-101
Project name : Production of Hydrogen and Methane Date : 23/3/2012 Page :

Process : Gasification of Empty Fruit Brunch
Section : Reactor R-101 Reference drawing :
Item Study Process Deviations
Node Parameters (guide Possible causes Possible consequences Action required
words)
1A S6 Flow No 1.Plugged pipe 1.No product produced 1.Schedule inspection
and maintenance
1B Low 1. Product pipelines 1. Off specification 1. Schedule inspection

clogged product and maintenance
1C High 1. Uncontrolled flow of 1. Conversion of 1. Schedule inspection

process fluid. reactant is not at and maintenance
optimum state.
2A S2 Flow No 1.Plugged pipe 1.No product produced 1.Schedule inspection

and maintenance
2B Low 1. Product pipelines 1. Off specification 1. Schedule inspection

clogged product and maintenance
2C High 1. Uncontrolled flow of 1. Conversion of 1. Schedule inspection

process fluid. reactant is not at and maintenance
2. High pressure from optimum state.
E-101 2. Over quantity flow of
water in downstream
347
Continue…
…Continued
3A R-101 Temperature High 1. TRC faulty 1. Equipment damage 1. Install high
2. Product off temperature alarm.
specification
3B Low 1. TRC faulty 1. Product off 1. Install low temperature

specification Alarm.
3C Pressure High 1. PIC faulty 1. Vessel wall rapture 1. Install pressure relief
valve
2. Schedule inspection
and maintenance
3D Low 1. PIC faulty 1. Possible backflow 1. Schedule inspection

2. Product off 2. Install low pressure
specification alarm
Table 10.23: HAZOP for Furnace

Process : Heating of water
Section : E-101 Reference drawing :
Deviations
Study Process
Item (guide Possible causes Possible consequences Action required
Node Parameters
words)
1A S2a Flow No 1. Pipeline leakage 1. No product formed. 1. Schedule inspection and
maintenance.
348
Continue…
…Continued
Low 1. Clogged pipeline 1. Back flow of material 1. Install flow meter
2. Schedule inspection and
maintenance
High 1. High incoming 1. Damaged component 1. Install FRC-E101

pressure of steam. in line
2A Fuel Flow No 1. Pipeline rupture 1. No output steam with 1. Install valve

gas 2. Pipeline faulty the desired temperature. 2. Schedule inspection and
stream 2. Off specification. maintenance
Low 1. pipeline leakage 1. No output steam with 1. Schedule inspection and

desired temperature is maintenance
produce. 2. install flow meter
High 1. High pressure of fuel 1. Output steam does not 1. Schedule inspection and
gas achieve desired maintenance
temperature 2. install flow meter
2B E-101 Temperature Low 1. Furnace malfunction 1. Off specification 1. Install temperature

alarm.
maintenance
High 1. Clogged outlet 1. Off specification 1. Install temperature

pipeline. 2. Vessel explode alarm.
maintenance
349
Continue…
…Continued
2C E-101 Pressure Low 1. Tube inside the 1. No flow of steam out 1. Install pressure alarm.
furnace leak of the furnace. 2. Schedule inspection and
2. Off specification maintenance
High 1.Clogged output 1. No flow steam out of 1. Install pressure alarm.
pipeline the furnace. 2. Schedule inspection and
2. Off specification maintenance
Table 10.24: HAZOP for Quencher V-101

Process : Cooling and separation
Section : V-101 Reference drawing :
Deviations
Study Process
Node Parameters
words)
1A S10 Flow No 1. Controller faulty 1. Equipment damaged 1. Install check valve CV-
V101
maintenance.
1B Low 1. Low pressure from 1. Back flow of material 1. Install check valve CV-
source. V101
1C High 1. High pressure from 1. Damaged component 1. Install FRC-V101

source. in line
Continue…
350
…Continued
1D Containment No 1. Leakage at gasket and 1. Loss containment of 1. Implement standard
mechanical joints. material. working procedure and
2. High pressure in line. 2. Pipe burst due to over non-destructive inspection.
3. Improper maintenance pressure.
procedure.
2A V-101 Flow Low 1. Low pressure from 1. Implosion of vessel 1. Install check valve CV-
source. 2. Back flow of material. V101.
maintenance.
2B High 1. High pressure from 1. Spillage of liquid on 1. Install pressure relief

source. floor. valve PSV-V101
2. Low pressure at
downstream.
2C Temperature Low 1. TRC-V101 1. Physical implosion 1. Install low temperature

malfunction alarm TAL-V101
2D High 1. TRC-V101 1. Physical explosion 1. Install high temperature

malfunction alarm TAH-V101
2F Level Low 1. Pipe clogged/leakage 1. Level decreased in 1. Install low level alarm
2. LRC-V101 vessel. LAL-V101
malfunctions.
High 1. Output pipe blockage. 1. Overpressure of 1. Install high level alarm

2. LRC-V101 quencher. LAH-V101
351
malfunctions. 2. Level increased .
Table 10.25: HAZOP for Heat Exchanger E-104
Project name : Production of Hydrogen and Methane Date :23/3/2012 Page :

Process : Cooling of Process Fluid
Section : Heat Exchanger E-104 Reference drawing :
Item Study Process Deviations Possible causes Possible consequences Action required
Node Parameters (guide
words)
1A S13 Flow No 1.Plugged pipe 1. No product produced. 1. Schedule inspection and
Maintenance
1B Low 1. Product pipelines 1. Off specification 1. Schedule inspection and

clogged products. maintenance.
1C High 1. Uncontrolled flow of 1. Process fluid is not 1. Schedule inspection and

process fluid. cooled properly maintenance.
2. High pressure from
quencher V-101
1D Pressure High 1. High flow rate 1. Pipe leak and 1. Install pressure
from quencher V-101 possible rupture at controller PIC-V101
mechanical joints
1E Low 1. Low pressure from 1. Possible backflow 1. Install check valve CV-
feed V101.
2A E-104 Temperature High 1. TRC-E104 faulty 1. Equipment damage 1. Install high temperature
2. Product off alarm TAH-E104.
specification
352
Continue…
…Continued
2B Low 1. TRC-E104 faulty 1. Product off 1. Install low temperature
specification alarm TAL-E104
Table 10.26: HAZOP for Spray Tower V-102

Process : Separation of carbon monoxide & carbon dioxide from product
Section : Spray Tower V-102 Reference drawing :
Deviations
Study Process
Node Parameters
words)
1A S14 Flow High 1. High pressure from 1. Damage in line 1. None.
source. component
2. Low pressure at 2. Damage in line 2. None.
downstream component
1B Low 1. Partially clogged in 1. Less feed going into 1. Schedule inspection

feed pipeline. the spray tower. and maintenance
2. Feed pipeline leak.
1C No 1. Feed pipeline damage 1. No product 1. Schedule inspection

produced. and maintenance
2A V102 Pressure High 1. High flow from the 1. Spray tower 1. Schedule inspection
inlet. damaged. and maintenance
2. S17 & S18 clogged.
353
Continue…
…Continued
1. Level control valve 1. Flooding in spray 1. Install drain valve
2B Level High
malfunction tower. DV-V101
2. High feed flow rate. 2. Install high level
alarm LAH-V101
Low 1. Level control valve 1. Separation failure 1. Install low level

malfunction alarm LAL-V101
and maintenance
Table 10.27: HAZOP for Spray Tower V-103

Process : Separation of carbon monoxide & carbon dioxide from product
Section : Spray Tower V-103 Reference drawing :
Deviations
Study Process
Node Parameters
words)
1A S14 Flow High 1. High pressure from 1. Damage in line 1. None.
source. component
2. Low pressure at 2. Damage in line 2. None.
downstream component
1B Low 1. Partially clogged in 1. Less feed going into 1. Schedule inspection

feed pipeline. the spray tower. and maintenance
2. Feed pipeline leak.
354
Continue…
…Continued
1C No 1. Feed pipeline damage 1. No product 1. Schedule inspection
produced. and maintenance
2A V102 Pressure High 1. High flow from the 1. Spray tower 1. Schedule inspection
inlet. damaged. and maintenance
2. S20 & S22 clogged.
2B Level High 1. Level control valve 1. Flooding in spray 1. Install drain valve
malfunction tower. DV-V101
2. High feed flow rate. 2. Install high level
alarm LAH-V101
Low 1. Level control valve 1. Separation failure 1. Install low level

malfunction alarm LAL-V101
and maintenance
Table 10.28: HAZOP for PSA – V105
Project name : Production of Hydrogen and Methane Date : Page :

Process : Separation of hydrogen
Section : PSA – V105 Reference drawing :
Deviations
Study Process
Node Parameters
words)
1A S23 Pressure Low Pipe crack Pressurization process Scheduled inspection and
incomplete maintenance
355
Continue…
…Continued
1B High High gas flow in pipe Vessel crack or rupture None. It is controlled by
PRC at C-101
1C S23 Flow Low Low pressure from Backflow of material Scheduled inspection and
source maintenance
1D High High pressure from Damage component in None. It is controlled by

source line PRC at C-101
2A PSA Pressure High Higher than setting Incomplete Install relieve valve
vessel point pressurization
Vessel crack or rupture
2B Low Lower than set point Incomplete None, pressure is

pressurization manually controlled from
Hydrogen is not control room
completely purified
356
Table 10.29: HAZOP for Pump P-101
Project name : Production of Hydrogen and Methane Date : Page :

Process : Pump water
Section : Pump P-101 Reference drawing :
Deviations
Study Process
Node Parameters
words)
1A S1 Pressure Low 1. Pipe crack 1. Insufficient water for 1. Scheduled inspection
reaction and separation and maintenance
of carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide
1B High 1. High water flow 1. Too much water 1. Install pressure

supply to pipe entering the system, detector at P-101
resulting in wastage.
1C S1 Flow Low 1. Blockage in pipe 1. Insufficient water for 1. Scheduled inspection

of carbon monoxide and 2. Install flow detector at
carbon dioxide P-101
1D High 1. High pressure from 1. Too much water 1. Scheduled inspection

source entering the system, and maintenance
resulting in wastage. 2. Install flow detector at
P-101
Continue…
357
…Continued
2A Pump Flow High 1. High pressure from 1. Too much water 1. Scheduled inspection
source entering the system, and maintenance
resulting in wastage.
2B Low 1. Blockage in pipe 1. Insufficient water for 1. Scheduled inspection

of carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide
358
CHAPTER XI
PLANT LOCATION
11.1 INTRODUCTION
One important aspect that needs to be considered in designing a plant is the location of
plant site. This is important as it affects the profitability and future plan of expanding the
plant size. In order to achieve that, the plant should be located in a strategic location.
Strategic location is determined by considering several factors that are:
a) Location with respect to the marketing area

b) Raw material supply
c) Transport facilities
d) Availability of labour
e) Availability of utilities
f) Environmental impact and waste disposal
g) Local community consideration
Each of the factors listed is essential in guiding us to determine strategic location. Two
possible locations inside Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM are choses in analyzing
these factors and eventually chosen to be the site of the plant. Those 2 locations are
Taman Pantun UKM and land beside transportation unit. UKM is an institute located in
Bandar Baru Bangi in Hulu Langat district. In this chapter, we are going to determine
whether it is better to locate the plant inside UKM or outside of UKM.
360
11.2 LAND BESIDE UKM TRANSPORTATION UNIT
One possible location for the plant is located beside UKM transportation unit. The
estimated area of the land is around 3.5 acre. This area is enough for a small scale
industry plant to be developed. This area is quite small compared to Taman Pantun that.
But considering that our plant is a medium size industry, it is possible to locate our plant
here. The disadvantage is that the work of future expansion is limited. Below is the 1st
proposed location for our plant.
Figure 11.1: Land Beside UKM Transportation Unit
Source: GoogleMaps.org, 2011.
11.2.1 Location With Respect to Marketing Area
The marketing area of our product that is the hydrogen is to be supply for the use inside
campus. The hydrogen produce are used to fuel up public transport in UKM that is the
buses. Hence, we can deliver the hydrogen produce with less transportation cost. This is
the advantage of having this location as plant site.
361
11.2.2 Raw Material Supply
The next thing that should be considered is the supply of raw material. The plant location
with the nearest distance to the good supplier of raw material is good location. Good
supplier here referring to the availability, capacity and the price of the raw material in our
case, empty fruit bunch (efb). Efb can be obtained from the supplier from Dengkil can be
reach by shortest distance using the road next to Taman Pantun. This distance could help
this company save a lot in transportation cost. Also, the price to distance provided is good
rather than having slightly lower price efb but with further distance from the plant.
11.2.3 Transport Facilities
The transportation is very essential in to transport the supply and the product produce by
our plant. Major consideration in good transport facilities for the site is a good street
network whether it is by the main road or the railway. In our case, we Taman Pantun are
located next to the road and about 3 to 4 km to PLUS highway. Since dengkil can be
reach with the shortest distance using the road next to Taman Pantun heading to Bangi
Lama, we conclude that Taman Pantun provide good transport facilities. Moreover, the
site is located outside of UKM campus. This can avoid the lorry to use internal campus
road avoiding the traffic during peak hour and damaging the road.
11.2.4 Availability of Labour
In constructing new plant, 1 most important thing is to get labour that will be employed to
operate the plant and for the construction purposes. A skilled engineer is needed as the
plant is very sensitive. The operating condition of the plant making it needs skilled
engineer in order to avoid accident cause by construction defect from happening. UKM
itself can provide enough skilled engineers beside other institutes in or near the
neighborhood.
362
Table 11.1: List of Institutions near Bangi
Institution Location
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) Bandar Baru Bangi
Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysia France Institute (UniKL MFI) Bangi
Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) Kajang
Kuala Lumpur Infrastructure Universiti College (KLIUC) Kajang
Source: Malaysia University Portal
The consideration of availability of the labour with respect to the place is the
population of the area. The population of bangi resident are estimated to be around 350
000 people. This is based on the population of the nearest town, kajang in the year 2000 is
about 200 000 (tageo.com, 2011). The annual growth rate is stated to be 2.1% throughout
the year 2000 to 2009 (unicef.org, 2011). With this volume of population, having labour
for construction and operating of the plant would not be a problem. Table 11.2 list basic
grades of executive staff and labour needed to start a company.
Table 11.2 Basic Labour Grade and Salary
Grade Monthly Basic Salary (RM)

General Manager > 8000
Production Manager 8000
Department Manager 4500-5000
Foreman 2000
Plant Engineer 3000
Accountant 2800
Secretary 2000
Typist/ Clerk 600-1000
Security Guard 600
Chargeman/ Electrical 2500
Mechanic/Fitter 1000-1500
Driver <1000
Operators 600-1000
General Work 500
Source: lumutport.com, 2011

363
11.2.5 Availability of Utilities
Three main utilities essential in ensuring a construction and process will go smoothly are
source of water, electricity and telecommunications.
11.2.5.1 Water Supply
Since, steam gasification process required a lot of water usage, ensuring enough water
supplies for the capacity of the plant is indeed very important. The plant must be located
in the location where water supply can be continuously supplied with average quantity.
The plant can receive water supply from Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor Sdn. Bhd.
(SYABAS). The tariff of water usage in industry is as follow:
Table 11.3: Water Tariff in Selangor
Usage (m3) Price (RM/m3)

0 – 20 0.57
21 – 35 1.03
>35 2.00
Source: SYABAS. 2011
11.2.5.2 Electric Supply
As other plant and residential places in Malaysia, our plant will be powered by electricity
provided by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) which is the main electricity generator and
supplier in Malaysia. Starting 1st June 2011, TNB have updated the electricity tariffs for
industrial activities in Peninsular Malaysia that is as follows:
364
Table 11.4: Electrity Industial Tariff
Industrial Tariff Per kWh (sen)

Tariff D (Low Voltage, supply voltage not exceeding 1,000 volts)
For overall monthly consumption between 0 – 200 kWh per month:
For all kWh : 34.5
The minimum monthly charge is RM7.20
For overall monthly consumption more than 200 kWh per month:
For all kWh (from 1kWh and above) 37.7
Tariff E1 (Medium Voltage General, 6.6kV-66kV supply)
For all kWh 28.8
For each kW of maximum demand per month: RM25.30

Tariff E2 (Medium Voltage Peak / Off-Peak, 6.6kV-66kV supply)
For all kWh during the peak period (0800 – 2200 hours) 30.4
For all kWh during off-peak period (2200 – 0800 hours) 18.7
For each kW of maximum demand per month during peak period: RM31.70
Tariff E3 (High Voltage Peak / Off-Peak, 132kV and above supply)
For all kWh during the peak period (0800 – 2200 hours) 26.7
For all kWh during off-peak period (2200 – 0800 hours) 14.7
For each kW of maximum demand per month during peak period: RM24.40
Source: MIDA. 2011.
11.2.5.3 Sewerage System
In Bangi, Indah Water Konsortium Sdn. Bhd., managed the sewerage system. It is a
company that is wholly owned by Minister of Finance Incorporated. The rates of their
service are:
365
Table 11.5: Sewerage Rates
Type of Premises Rates

Premises receiving connected sewerage services RM2.50 per head per month
Premises with individual septic tanks RM2 per head per month
Source: MIDA. 2011
11.2.5.4 Environmental Impact and Waste Disposal
Waste disposal is a proper management of waste produce from any process or routine to
prevent harm to the environment, health and people. The intention of disposing the waste
is to permanently store the waste away from thing that being affected by it in the duration
where its biological and chemical activity in no longer active (Anon, 2011). Wrong
management of the waste could lead to harming the environment. It is better to treat the
waste rather than to just dispose it. Disposing the waste should be the last option.
Gasification process produces CO, CO2 and also water as its gas waste. The gas
will be treated to the level that it is safe and allowed to be released to the atmosphere. The
contaminated water can be treated to be recycled for the usage of the plant process
including the cleaning process. The solid waste produce that is the ashes and the tar is
managed by Kualiti Alam located at Bukit Nanas Negeri Sembilan.
11.2.5.5 Local Community Consideration
In building a plant, we should consider local communities affair that is related to building
the plant. It includes ensuring the safety and comfort of them. Comfort referring to the
ability of the community to carry out their daily activities without worry. The proposed
plant must fit in with and accepted by the majority of the local communities that is the
residents of the neighborhood near the location.
366
11.3 TAMAN PANTUN UKM
Taman Pantun formerly was a site of a traditional village before 1960s that is before
UKM is built. After the development of UKM, Taman Pantun is owned and manages by
UKM. Taman Pantun is located beside Malaysia Genome Institute UKM. Basically, the
location is at beside the main road to Bangi Lama. The location is at the right-side of the
road just after passing UKM Lingkungan Kedua gate from UKM main gate. Taman
Pantun land area suitable to become the plant site is estimated to be around 65 000 m2 or
16 acres. Figure 11.2 shows the 2nd propose location for our plant that is Taman Pantun.
Figure 11.2: Taman Pantun UKM area
Source: googlemaps, 2011.

367
Figure 11.3: Taman Pantun Blueprint
11.3.1 Location With Respect to Marketing Area
The purpose of hydrogen produce is for the campus use. So the hydrogen produced will
be used for UKM campus that is the busses. Considering the distance of the campus that
is the primary market and the plant location is in the range of less than 10 km, the
selection of plant location in Taman Pantun UKM is very good. Moreover, Taman Pantun
is actually UKM land. So, it is not a problem to market the product that is hydrogen and
methane.
11.3.2 Transport Facilities
The transportation is very essential in to transport the supply and the product produce by
our plant. Major consideration in good transport facilities for the site is a good street
network whether it is by the main road or the railway. In our case, we Taman Pantun are
located next to the road and about 3 to 4 km to PLUS highway. Since dengkil can be
reach with the shortest distance using the road next to Taman Pantun heading to Bangi
Lama, we conclude that Taman Pantun provide good transport facilities. Moreover, the
368
site is located outside of UKM campus. This can avoid the lorry to use internal campus
road avoiding the traffic during peak hour and damaging the road.
11.3.3 Local Community Consideration
In building a plant, we should consider local communities affair that is related to building
the plant. It includes ensuring the safety and comfort of them. Comfort referring to the
ability of the community to carry out their daily activities without worry. The proposed
plant must fit in with and accepted by the majority of the local communities that is the
residents of the neighborhood near the location. The proposed site is located far from any
residential area except for UKM campus. But, the residential college located far from the
propose site. The sound from the plant would not harm the residents and office near the
plant.
11.4 SELECTION OF SUITABLE PLANT LOCATION
In determining the most suitable site location of the plant, one scheme of mark evaluation
is used. This scheme involves all the factors that have been considered in the discussion
in this chapter. The evaluation mark is listed in Table 11.6 below.
Table 11.6: Weighted Scale for Plant Location Evaluation
Factor Mark (8-10) Mark (4-7)

Site Area Site area > 40 acres Site area < 40 acres
Raw Material Supply Supplier is in state Supplier from other state

with distance > 50 km
Continue…
369
…Continued
Transport Facilities Systematic road and Systematic road and
highway without interfere highway with interfere
UKM’s internal road UKM’s internal road
Labour Availability High labour Slightly high labour
Utilities High electric supply and High electric supply and

low cost high cost
High water supply and low High water supply and high
cost cost
Environmental Impact and No harm to environment Slightly harm to

Waste Disposal environment
Low waste treatment cost High waste treatment cost
Local Community Low constraint Low constraint

Consideration Good ecosystem Bad ecosystem
Table 11.7 shows the comparison of mark evaluation between three choice of
possible plant locations proposed which are Taman Pantun and land beside UKM
Transportation Unit.
Table 11.7: Comparison of Plant Location
Land beside UKM

Item Factor Taman Pantun
Transportation unit
1 Site Area 7 5
2 Raw Material Supply 9 9
3 Transport Facilities 8 9
4 Labour Availability 9 9
5 Utilities 9 8
6 Environmental Impact and Waste 6 8
Disposal
7 Local Community Consideration 8 8
8 Storage facilities 5 8
9 Total Marks 61/70 64/70
10 Percentage 87.14 91.43
11 Position 2 1
370
From the mark evaluation in table 11.7, it is shown that land beside UKM
transportation unit has more advantages from Taman Pantun. Hence it is the most suitable
site location for our Biomass gasification plant.
11.5 PLANT LAYOUT
Appendix G shows the site layout plan of hydrogen production plant. There will
be main entrances to the production plant, located at the south of the production plant,
which is for the general usage. Employees’ vehicles and heavily vehicles will enter
through this gate. There will be the guard located beside the entrances to monitor and
manage the security of the production plant. There will be another entrance located at
north of the production plant which is for buses usage. Admittance of non-employees to
the hydrogen production plant will require registrations and permits from the security
office. All personnel that will work inside the hydrogen production plant must attend a
safety induction course. The administrative building will be located on the north of the
site beside the car park, where administrative work will be carried out. Canteen, medical
center and Surau will be located inside the administrative building. There will be a car
park for heavy vehicles. There will be 2 assembly areas for emergency cases. Laboratory,
maintenance and engineering building are located opposite the plant.
TNB sub-station is located behind the guard house 2. Whole plant areas include
storage of EFB, hydrogen and methane plus the TNB sub-station are categorized as
restricted area. Only authorized people are allowed to enter the area. Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) must be worn when entering this area. Ear plug also required because
of noisy environment in the production plant when in operation. The production site is
located at the west of the site to minimize any incidents such as fatality and damage. The
waste treatment facility which consists of wastewater treatment plant is located at besides
of production plant. Stack for the emission of flue gas is built. Beside the waste water
treatment plant, there will be a cooling tower for cooling purpose. Behind of cooling
tower, there will be a fire station and besides of emergency water.
371
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APPENDIX A
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET

(MSDS)
i Hydrogen
ii Methane
iii Carbon Monoxide
iv Carbon Dioxide
PRODUCT NAME: HYDROGEN
1. Chemical Product and Company Identification
BOC Gases, BOC Gases

Division of Division of
The BOC Group, Inc. BOC Canada Limited
575 Mountain Avenue 5975 Falbourne Street, Unit 2
Murray Hill, NJ 07974 Mississauga, Ontario L5R 3W6
TELEPHONE NUMBER: (908) 464-8100 TELEPHONE NUMBER: (905) 501-1700

24-HOUR EMERGENCY TELEPHONE NUMBER: 24-HOUR EMERGENCY TELEPHONE NUMBER:
CHEMTREC (800) 424-9300 (905) 501-0802
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLAN NO: 20101

CHEMICAL NAME: Hydrogen
COMMON NAMES/SYNONYMS: Normal Hydrogen
TDG (Canada) CLASSIFICATION: 2.1
WHMIS CLASSIFICATION: A, B1
PREPARED BY: Loss Control (908)464-8100/(905)501-1700

PREPARATION DATE: 6/1/95
REVIEW DATES: 6/7/96
2. Composition, Information on Ingredients
INGREDIENT % VOLUME PEL-OSHA1 TLV-ACGIH2 LD50 or OC50

Route/Species
Hydrogen >99.5 Simple Asphyxiant Simple Asphyxiant Not Available
FORMULA: H2
CAS: 1333-74-0
RTECS #: MW8900000
1
As stated in 29 CFR 1910, Subpart Z (revised July 1, 1993)
2
As stated in the ACGIH 1994-95 Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
3. Hazards Identification
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Simple Asphyxiant - This product does not contain oxygen and may cause asphyxia if released in a
confined area. Maintain oxygen levels above 19.5%. Flammable.
MSDS: G-4
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 1 of 6
ROUTE OF ENTRY:
Skin Contact Skin Absorption Eye Contact Inhalation Ingestion
No No No Yes No
HEALTH EFFECTS:
Exposure Limits Irritant Sensitization
No No No
Teratogen Reproductive Hazard Mutagen
No No No
Synergistic Effects
None reported
Carcinogenicity: -- NTP: No IARC: No OSHA: No
EYE EFFECTS:
None known.
SKIN EFFECTS:
None known.
INGESTION EFFECTS:
None known. Ingestion is unlikely as product is gas at room temperature.
INHALATION EFFECTS:
Product is a non-toxic simple asphyxiant. High concentrations may exclude an adequate supply of oxygen to the
lungs. Effects of oxygen deficiency resulting from simple asphyxiants may include: rapid breathing, diminished
mental alertness, impaired muscular coordination, faulty judgement, depression of all sensations, emotional
instability, and fatigue. As asphyxiation progresses, nausea, vomiting, prostration, and loss of consciousness
may result, eventually leading to convulsions, coma, and death.
Oxygen deficiency during pregnancy has produced developmental abnormalities in humans and experimental
animals.
NFPA HAZARD CODES HMIS HAZARD CODES RATINGS SYSTEM
Health: 0 Health: 0 0 = No Hazard

Flammability: 4 Flammability: 4 1 = Slight Hazard
Reactivity: 0 Reactivity: 0 2 = Moderate Hazard
3 = Serious Hazard
4 = Severe Hazard
4. First Aid Measures
EYES:
None required.
SKIN:
None required.
INGESTION:
None required.
INHALATION:
MSDS: G-4
PROMPT MEDICAL ATTENTION IS MANDATORY IN ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE. RESCUE

PERSONNEL SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS. Victims
should be assisted to an uncontaminated area and inhale fresh air. Quick removal from the contaminated area is
most important. Unconscious persons should be moved to an uncontaminated area, and if breathing has stopped,
administer artificial resuscitation and supplemental oxygen. Further treatment should be symptomatic and
supportive.
5. Fire Fighting Measures
Conditions of Flammability: Flammable

Flash point: Method: Autoignition
Not Available Not Applicable Temperature: 1058 oF (570 oC)
LEL(%): 4 UEL(%): 74.5
Hazardous combustion products: None
Sensitivity to mechanical shock: None
Sensitivity to static discharge: Not Available
FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS:

Extremely flammable gas. Hydrogen is very light and may collect in the upper portions of storage areas.
Hydrogen burns with an almost invisible flame.
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA:
Water, Dry chemical, Carbon dioxide.
FIRE FIGHTING INSTRUCTIONS:

If possible, stop the flow of gas mixture. Use water spray to cool surrounding containers. A water fog may be
used to create ventilation. Ventilation fans must be explosion proof.
6. Accidental Release Measures
Evacuate all personnel from affected area. Use appropriate protective equipment. If leak is in user’s equipment,
be certain to purge piping with inert gas prior to attempting repairs. If leak is in container or container valve,
contact the appropriate emergency telephone number listed in Section 1 or call your closest BOC location.
7. Handling and Storage
Electrical Classification:
Class 1, Group B.
Earth-ground and bond all lines and equipment associated with the hydrogen system. Electrical equipment
should be non sparking and explosion proof.
This gas mixture is noncorrosive. However, hydrogen can interact with some metals (hardened steels) to cause
embrittlement.
Use only in well-ventilated areas. Valve protection caps must remain in place unless container is secured with
valve protection outlet piped to use point. Do not drag, slide or roll cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for
cylinder movement. Use a pressure reducing regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<3000 psig)
piping or systems. Do not heat cylinder by any means to increase the discharge rate of product from the
cylinder. Use a check valve or trap in the discharge line to prevent hazardous back flow into the cylinder.
MSDS: G-4
Protect cylinders from physical damage. Store in cool, dry, well-ventilated area of non-combustible construction
away from heavily trafficked areas and emergency exits. Do not allow the temperature where cylinders are
stored to exceed 130oF (54oC). Cylinders should be stored upright and firmly secured to prevent falling or being
knocked over. Use a "first in-first out" inventory system to prevent full cylinders being stored for excessive
periods of time.
For additional recommendations, consult Compressed Gas Association Pamphlets P-1, P-14, P-9, and Safety
Bulletin SB-2.
Never carry a compressed gas cylinder or a container of a gas in cryogenic liquid form in an enclosed space such
as a car trunk, van or station wagon. A leak can result in a fire, explosion, asphyxiation or a toxic exposure.
8. Exposure Controls, Personal Protection
EXPOSURE LIMITS1:
INGREDIENT % VOLUME PEL-OSHA2 TLV-ACGIH3 LD50 or LC50
Route/Species
Hydrogen >99.5 Simple Asphyxiant Simple Asphyxiant Not Available
FORMULA: H2
CAS: 1333-74-0
RTECS #: MW8900000
1
Refer to individual state of provincial regulations, as applicable, for limits which may be more stringent than
those listed here.
2
As stated in 29 CFR 1910, Subpart Z (revised July 1, 1993)
3
As stated in the ACGIH 1994-1995 Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents.
ENGINEERING CONTROLS:
Local exhaust to prevent accumulation of high concentrations so as to reduce the oxygen level in the air to less
than 19.5% and to keep gas mixture below lower explosive limit (4 %).
EYE/FACE PROTECTION:
Safety goggles or glasses as appropriate for the job.
SKIN PROTECTION:
Protective gloves of material appropriate for the job.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION:
Positive pressure air line with full-face mask and escape bottle or self-contained breathing apparatus should be
available for emergency use.
OTHER/GENERAL PROTECTION:
Safety shoes or other footwear as appropriate for the job.
MSDS: G-4
9. Physical and Chemical Properties
PARAMETER VALUE UNITS

Physical state (gas, liquid, solid) : Gas
Vapor pressure : Supercritical
Vapor density at 0 oC (Air = 1) : 0.069
Evaporation point : Not Available
o
Boiling point : -423.2 F
o
: -252.8 C
o
Freezing point : -434.8 F
o
: -259.2 C
pH : Not Applicable
Specific gravity : Not Available
Oil/water partition coefficient : Not Available
Solubility (H20) : Slight
Odor threshold : Not Applicable
Odor and appearance : Colorless, odorless gas
10. Stability and Reactivity
STABILITY:
Stable
INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS:
Oxidizers. Fluorine and hydrogen react at 418 oF (-250 oC) when impurities are present. Chlorine/hydrogen
mixtures explode if exposed to light. Lithium metal will burn in hydrogen atmosphere.
HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION:
Does not occur.
11. Toxicological Information
Oxygen deficiency during pregnancy has produced developmental abnormalities in humans and experimental
animals.
No data given in the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS) or Sax, Dangerous Properties
of Industrial Materials, 7th ed.
12. Ecological Information
No data given.
MSDS: G-4
13. Disposal Considerations
Do not attempt to dispose of residual waste or unused quantities. Return in the shipping container PROPERLY
LABELED, WITH ANY VALVE OUTLET PLUGS OR CAPS SECURED AND VALVE PROTECTION CAP
IN PLACE to BOC Gases or authorized distributor for proper disposal.
14. Transport Information
PARAMETER United States DOT Canada TDG

PROPER SHIPPING NAME: Hydrogen, compressed Hydrogen, compressed
HAZARD CLASS: 2.1 2.1
IDENTIFICATION NUMBER: UN 1049 UN 1049
SHIPPING LABEL: FLAMMABLE GAS FLAMMABLE GAS
15. Regulatory Information
SARA TITLE III NOTIFICATIONS AND INFORMATION
Hydrogen is listed under the accident prevention provisions of section 112(r) of the Clean Air Act (CAA) with a
threshold quantity (TQ) of 10,000 pounds.
SARA TITLE III - HAZARD CLASSES:

Fire Hazard
Sudden Release of Pressure Hazard
16. Other Information
Compressed gas cylinders shall not be refilled without the express written permission of the owner. Shipment of
a compressed gas cylinder which has not been filled by the owner or with his/her (written) consent is a violation
of transportation regulations.
DISCLAIMER OF EXPRESSED AND IMPLIED WARRANTIES:

Although reasonable care has been taken in the preparation of this document, we extend no warranties and make
no representations as to the accuracy or completeness of the information contained herein, and assume no
responsibility regarding the suitability of this information for the user’s intended purposes or for the
consequences of its use. Each individual should make a determination as to the suitability of the information for
their particular purpose(s).
MSDS: G-4
SECTION 1. PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION
PRODUCT NAME: Methane FORMULA: CH4
CHEMICAL NAME: Methane, Saturated Alphatic Hydrocarbon, Alkane
SYNONYMS: Methyl Hydride, Marsh Gas, Fire Damp
MANUFACTURER: Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.
7201 Hamilton Boulevard
Allentown, PA 18195 - 1501
PRODUCT INFORMATION : (800) 752-1597
MSDS NUMBER: 1070 REVISION: 6
REVIEW DATE: July 1999 REVISION DATE: July 1999
SECTION 2. COMPOSITION / INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Methane is packaged as pure product (>99%).
CAS NUMBER: 74-82-8
EXPOSURE LIMITS:
OSHA: None established ACGIH: Simple Asphyxiant NIOSH: None established
SECTION 3. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Methane is a flammable, colorless, odorless, compressed gas packaged in cylinders under high
pressure. It poses an immediate fire and explosion hazard when mixed with air at concentrations
exceeding 5.0%. High concentrations that can cause rapid suffocation are within the flammable
range and should not be entered.
EMERGENCY TELEPHONE NUMBERS

800 - 523 - 9374 in Continental U.S. , Canada and Puerto Rico
610 - 481 - 7711 outside U.S.
ACUTE POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS:

ROUTES OF EXPOSURE:
EYE CONTACT: No harmful affect.
INGESTION: Not applicable
INHALATION: Methane is nontoxic. It can, however, reduce the amount of oxygen in the air
necessary to support life. Exposure to oxygen-deficient atmospheres (less than 19.5 %) may
produce dizziness, nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness, and death. At very low oxygen
concentrations (less than 12 %) unconsciousness and death may occur without warning. It should
be noted that before suffocation could occur, the lower flammable limit for Methane in air will be
exceeded; causing both an oxygen deficient and an explosive atmosphere.
SKIN CONTACT: No harmful affect.
POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF REPEATED EXPOSURE:
ROUTE OF ENTRY: None
SYMPTOMS: None
MSDS # 1070 Methane Page 1 of 5

Pub # 320-732
TARGET ORGANS: None
MEDICAL CONDITIONS AGGRAVATED BY OVEREXPOSURE: None
CARCINOGENICITY: Methane is not listed as a carcinogen or potential carcinogen by NTP, IARC, or
OSHA Subpart Z.
SECTION 4. FIRST AID MEASURES
EYE CONTACT: No treatment necessary.

INGESTION: Not applicable
INHALATION: Remove person to fresh air. If not breathing, administer artificial respiration. If
breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. Obtain prompt medical attention.
SKIN CONTACT: No treatment necessary.
NOTES TO PHYSICIAN: Treatment of overexposure should be directed at the control of symptoms and
the clinical condition.
SECTION 5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES

FLASH POINT: AUTOIGNITION: FLAMMABLE RANGE:
-306 °F (-187.8 °C) 999 °F (537 °C) 5.0% - 15%
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA: Dry chemical, carbon dioxide, or water.
SPECIAL FIRE FIGHTING INSTRUCTIONS: Evacuate all personnel from area. If possible, without risk,
shut off source of methane, then fight fire according to types of materials burning. Extinguish fire only
if gas flow can be stopped. This will avoid possible accumulation and re-ignition of a flammable gas
mixture. Keep adjacent cylinders cool by spraying with large amounts of water until the fire burns itself
out. Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) may be required.
UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS: Most cylinders are designed to vent contents when
exposed to elevated temperatures. Pressure in a cylinder can build up due to heat and it may rupture
if pressure relief devices should fail to function.
HAZARDOUS COMBUSTION PRODUCTS: Carbon monoxide
SECTION 6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

STEPS TO BE TAKEN IF MATERIAL IS RELEASED OR SPILLED: Evacuate immediate area.
Eliminate any possible sources of ignition, and provide maximum explosion-proof ventilation. Use a
flammable gas meter (explosimeter) calibrated for Methane to monitor concentration. Never enter an
area where Methane concentration is greater than 1.0% (which is 20% of the lower flammable limit).
An immediate fire and explosion hazard exists when atmospheric Methane concentration exceeds
5.0%. Use appropriate protective equipment (SCBA and fire resistant suit). Shut off source of leak if
possible. Isolate any leaking cylinder. If leak is from container, pressure relief device or its valve,
contact your supplier. If the leak is in the user’s system, close the cylinder valve, safely vent the
pressure, and purge with an inert gas before attempting repairs.
SECTION 7. STORAGE AND HANDLING

STORAGE: Store cylinders in a well-ventilated, secure area, protected from the weather. Cylinders
should be stored upright with valve outlet seals and valve protection caps in place. There should be
no sources of ignition. All electrical equipment should be explosion-proof in the storage areas.
Storage areas must meet National Electrical Codes for class 1 hazardous areas. Flammable storage
areas must be separated from oxygen and other oxidizers by a minimum distance of 20 ft. or by a
barrier of non-combustible material at least 5 ft. high having a fire resistance rating of at least _ hour.
Post “No Smoking or Open Flames” signs in the storage or use areas. Do not allow storage temperature
to exceed 125 °F (52 °C). Storage should be away from heavily traveled areas and emergency exits.
Full and empty cylinders should be segregated. Use a first-in first-out inventory system to prevent full
containers from being stored for long periods of time.
HANDLING: Do not drag, roll, slide or drop cylinder. Use a suitable hand truck designed for cylinder
movement. Never attempt to lift a cylinder by its cap. Secure cylinders at all times while in use. Use
a pressure reducing regulator to safely discharge gas from cylinder. Use a check valve to prevent
reverse flow

Pub # 320-732
into cylinder. Never apply flame or localized heat directly to any part of the cylinder. Do not allow
any part of the cylinder to exceed 125 °F (52 °C). Use piping and equipment adequately designed to
withstand pressures to be encountered. Once cylinder has been connected to properly purged and
inerted process, open cylinder valve slowly and carefully. If user experiences any difficulty operating
cylinder valve, discontinue use and contact supplier. Never insert an object (e.g., wrench, screwdriver,
etc.) into valve cap openings. Doing so may damage valve causing a leak to occur. Use an adjustable
strap-wrench to remove over-tight or rusted caps. All piped systems and associated equipment must be
grounded. Electrical equipment should be non-sparking or explosion-proof.
SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS: Always store and handle compressed gas cylinders in accordance with
Compressed Gas Association, Inc. (telephone 703-412-0900) pamphlet CGA P-1, Safe Handling of
Compressed Gases in Containers. Local regulations may require specific equipment for storage or use.
SECTION 8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION

ENGINEERING CONTROLS:
VENTILATION: Provide adequate natural or explosion-proof ventilation to prevent
accumulation of gas concentrations above 1.0% Methane (20% of LEL).
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION:
Emergency Use: Do not enter areas where Methane concentration is greater than 1.0% (20%
of the LEL). Exposure to concentrations below 1.0% do not require respiratory protection.
EYE PROTECTION: Safety glasses and/or face shield.
SKIN PROTECTION: Leather gloves for handling cylinders. Fire resistant suit and gloves in emergency
situations.
OTHER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT: Safety shoes are recommended when handling cylinders.
SECTION 9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

APPEARANCE, ODOR AND STATE: Colorless, odorless, flammable gas.
MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 16.04
BOILING POINT (1 atm) : -258.7 °F (-161.5 °C)
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Air = 1): 0.554
FREEZING POINT / MELTING POINT: -296. 5 °F (-182.5 °C)
VAPOR PRESSURE (At 70 F (21.1 C)): Permanent, noncondensable gas.
GAS DENSITY (At 70 F (21.1 C) and 1 atm): 0.042 lb/ft 3
SOLUBILITY IN WATER (vol/vol): 3.3 ml gas / 100 ml
SECTION 10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY

CHEMICAL STABILITY: Stable
CONDITIONS TO AVOID: Cylinders should not be exposed to temperatures in excess of 125 °F (52 °C).
INCOMPATIBILITY (Materials to Avoid): Oxygen, Halogens and Oxidizers
REACTIVITY:
A) HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: None
B) HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: Will not occur
SECTION 11. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION

LC50 (Inhalation): Not applicable. Simple asphyxiant.
LD50 (Oral): Not applicable
LD50 (Dermal): Not applicable
SKIN CORROSIVITY: Methane is not corrosive to the skin.
ADDITIONAL NOTES: None

Pub # 320-732
SECTION 12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION
AQUATIC TOXICITY: Not determined
MOBILITY: Not determined
PERSISTENCE AND BIODEGRADABILITY: Not determined
POTENTIAL TO BIOACCUMULATE: Not determined
REMARKS: This product does not contain any Class I or Class II ozone depleting chemicals.
SECTION 13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS

UNUSED PRODUCT / EMPTY CONTAINER: Return container and unused product to supplier. Do not
attempt to dispose of residual or unused quantities.
DISPOSAL INFORMATION: Residual product in the system may be burned if a suitable burning unit
(flair incinerator) is available on site. This shall be done in accordance with federal, state, and local
regulations. Wastes containing this material may be classified by EPA as hazardous waste by
characteristic (i.e., Ignitability, Corrosivity, Toxicity, Reactivity). Waste streams must be characterized
by the user to meet federal, state, and local requirements.
SECTION 14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION

DOT SHIPPING NAME: Methane, compressed
HAZARD CLASS: 2.1
IDENTIFICATION NUMBER: UN1971
SHIPPING LABEL(s): Flammable gas
PLACARD (When required): Flammable gas
SPECIAL SHIPPING INFORMATION: Cylinders should be transported in a secure upright position in a
well-ventilated truck. Never transport in passenger compartment of a vehicle. Ensure cylinder valve is
properly closed, valve outlet cap has been reinstalled, and valve protection cap is secured before
shipping cylinder.
CAUTION: Compressed gas cylinders shall not be refilled except by qualified producers of compressed
gases. Shipment of a compressed gas cylinder which has not been filled by the owner or with the owner’s
written consent is a violation of Federal law (49 CFR 173.301).
NORTH AMERICAN EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK NUMBER (NAERG #): 115
SECTION 15. REGULATORY INFORMATION

U.S. FEDERAL REGULATIONS:
EPA - ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CERCLA: Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980
(40 CFR Parts 117 and 302)
Reportable Quantity (RQ): None
SARA TITLE III: Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act
SECTIONS 302/304: Emergency Planning and Notification (40 CFR Part 355)
Extremely Hazardous Substances: Methane is not listed.
Threshold Planning Quantity (TPQ): None
Reportable Quantity (RQ): None
SECTIONS 311/312: Hazardous Chemical Reporting (40 CFR Part 370)
IMMEDIATE HEALTH: Yes PRESSURE: Yes
DELAYED HEALTH: No REACTIVITY: No
FIRE: Yes
SECTION 313: Toxic Chemical Release Reporting (40 CFR Part 372)
Methane does not require reporting under Section 313.

Pub # 320-732
CLEAN AIR ACT:
SECTION 112 (r): Risk Management Programs for Chemical Accidental Release
(40 CFR PART 68)
Methane is listed as a regulated substance.
Threshold Planning Quantity (TPQ): 10,000 lbs
TSCA: Toxic Substance Control Act
Methane is listed on the TSCA inventory.
OSHA - OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION:
29 CFR Part 1910.119: Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals
Methane is not listed in Appendix A as a highly hazardous chemical. However, any
process that involves a flammable gas on site in one location, in quantities of 10,000
pounds
(4,553 kg) or greater is covered under this regulation unless it is used as fuel.
STATE REGULATIONS:
CALIFORNIA:
Proposition 65: This product is not a listed substance which the State of California
requires warning under this statute.
SECTION 16. OTHER INFORMATION

NFPA RATINGS: HMIS RATINGS:
HEALTH: = 1 HEALTH: = 0
FLAMMABILITY: = 4 FLAMMABILITY: = 4
REACTIVITY: = 0 REACTIVITY: = 0
SPECIAL: = SA*
*SA denotes “Simple Asphyxiant” per Compressed Gas Association recommendation.

Pub # 320-732
Material Safety Data Sheet
Carbon Monoxide
Section 1. Chemical product and company identification

Product name : Carbon Monoxide
Supplier : AIRGAS INC., on behalf of its subsidiaries
259 North Radnor-Chester Road
Suite 100
Radnor, PA 19087-5283
1-610-687-5253
Product use : Synthetic/Analytical chemistry.
Synonym : Carbon oxide (CO); CO; Exhaust Gas; Flue gas; Carbonic oxide; Carbon oxide;
Carbone; Carbonio; Kohlenmonoxid; Kohlenoxyd; Koolmonoxyde; NA 9202; Oxyde de
carbone; UN 1016; Wegla tlenek; Flue gasnide; Carbon monooxide
MSDS # : 001014
Date of : 9/2/2010.
Preparation/Revision
In case of emergency : 1-866-734-3438
Section 2. Hazards identification

Physical state : Gas. [COLORLESS GAS, MAY BE A LIQUID AT LOW TEMPERATURE OR HIGH
PRESSURE.]
Emergency overview : WARNING!
FLAMMABLE GAS.
MAY CAUSE FLASH FIRE.
MAY BE FATAL IF INHALED.
MAY CAUSE TARGET ORGAN DAMAGE, BASED ON ANIMAL DATA.
CONTENTS UNDER PRESSURE.
Keep away from heat, sparks and flame. Do not puncture or incinerate container. Avoid
breathing gas. May cause target organ damage, based on animal data. Use only with
adequate ventilation. Keep container closed.
Contact with rapidly expanding gases can cause frostbite.
Target organs : May cause damage to the following organs: blood, lungs, cardiovascular system, central
nervous system (CNS).
Routes of entry : Inhalation
Potential acute health effects
Eyes : Contact with rapidly expanding gas may cause burns or frostbite.
Skin : Contact with rapidly expanding gas may cause burns or frostbite.
Inhalation : Toxic by inhalation.
Ingestion : Ingestion is not a normal route of exposure for gases
Potential chronic health : CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS: Not available.
effects MUTAGENIC EFFECTS: Not available.
TERATOGENIC EFFECTS: Classified 1 by European Union.
Medical conditions : Pre-existing disorders involving any target organs mentioned in this MSDS as being at
aggravated by over- risk may be aggravated by over-exposure to this product.
exposure
See toxicological information (section 11)
Build 1.1 Page: 1/7

Carbon Monoxide
Section 3. Composition, Information on Ingredients

Name CAS number % Volume Exposure limits
Carbon Monoxide 630-08-0 100 ACGIH TLV (United States, 2/2010).
TWA: 29 mg/m³ 8 hour(s).
TWA: 25 ppm 8 hour(s).
NIOSH REL (United States, 6/2009).
CEIL: 229 mg/m³
CEIL: 200 ppm
OSHA PEL (United States, 11/2006).
OSHA PEL 1989 (United States, 3/1989).
CEIL: 229 mg/m³
CEIL: 200 ppm
Section 4. First aid measures

No action shall be taken involving any personal risk or without suitable training.If it is suspected that fumes are still present,
the rescuer should wear an appropriate mask or self-contained breathing apparatus.It may be dangerous to the person
providing aid to give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
Eye contact : Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water
for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting the upper and lower eyelids. Get medical
attention immediately.
Skin contact : In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes
while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. To avoid the risk of static discharges
and gas ignition, soak contaminated clothing thoroughly with water before removing it.
Wash clothing before reuse. Clean shoes thoroughly before reuse. Get medical
attention immediately.
Frostbite : Try to warm up the frozen tissues and seek medical attention.
Inhalation : Move exposed person to fresh air. If not breathing, if breathing is irregular or if
respiratory arrest occurs, provide artificial respiration or oxygen by trained personnel.
Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. Get medical attention
immediately.
Ingestion : As this product is a gas, refer to the inhalation section.
Section 5. Fire-fighting measures

Flammability of the product :
Flammable.
Auto-ignition temperature :
608.89°C (1128°F)
Flammable limits :
Lower: 12.5% Upper: 74%
Products of combustion :
Decomposition products may include the following materials:
carbon dioxide
carbon monoxide
Fire hazards in the presence : Extremely flammable in the presence of the following materials or conditions: open
of various substances flames, sparks and static discharge and oxidizing materials.
Fire-fighting media and : In case of fire, use water spray (fog), foam or dry chemical.
instructions
In case of fire, allow gas to burn if flow cannot be shut off immediately. Apply water from
a safe distance to cool container and protect surrounding area. If involved in fire, shut
off flow immediately if it can be done without risk.
Contains gas under pressure. Flammable gas. In a fire or if heated, a pressure
increase will occur and the container may burst, with the risk of a subsequent explosion.
Special protective : Fire-fighters should wear appropriate protective equipment and self-contained breathing
equipment for fire-fighters apparatus (SCBA) with a full face-piece operated in positive pressure mode.
Build 1.1 Page: 2/7

Carbon Monoxide
Section 6. Accidental release measures

Personal precautions : Immediately contact emergency personnel. Keep unnecessary personnel away. Use
suitable protective equipment (section 8). Shut off gas supply if this can be done safely.
Isolate area until gas has dispersed.
Environmental precautions : Avoid dispersal of spilled material and runoff and contact with soil, waterways, drains
and sewers.
Methods for cleaning up : Immediately contact emergency personnel. Stop leak if without risk. Use spark-proof
tools and explosion-proof equipment. Note: see section 1 for emergency contact
information and section 13 for waste disposal.
Section 7. Handling and storage

Handling : Use only with adequate ventilation. Use explosion-proof electrical (ventilating, lighting
and material handling) equipment. High pressure gas. Do not puncture or incinerate
container. Use equipment rated for cylinder pressure. Close valve after each use and
when empty. Keep container closed. Keep away from heat, sparks and flame. To avoid
fire, eliminate ignition sources. Protect cylinders from physical damage; do not drag, roll,
slide, or drop. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder movement.
Storage : Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Keep container tightly closed and sealed
until ready for use. Avoid all possible sources of ignition (spark or flame). Segregate
from oxidizing materials. Cylinders should be stored upright, with valve protection cap in
place, and firmly secured to prevent falling or being knocked over. Cylinder temperatures
should not exceed 52 °C (125 °F).
Section 8. Exposure controls/personal protection

Engineering controls : Use only with adequate ventilation. Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation or
other engineering controls to keep worker exposure to airborne contaminants below any
recommended or statutory limits. The engineering controls also need to keep gas, vapor
or dust concentrations below any lower explosive limits. Use explosion-proof ventilation
equipment.
Personal protection
Eyes : Safety eyewear complying with an approved standard should be used when a risk
assessment indicates this is necessary to avoid exposure to liquid splashes, mists or
dusts.
Skin : Personal protective equipment for the body should be selected based on the task being
performed and the risks involved and should be approved by a specialist before handling
this product.
Respiratory : Use a properly fitted, air-purifying or air-fed respirator complying with an approved
standard if a risk assessment indicates this is necessary. Respirator selection must be
based on known or anticipated exposure levels, the hazards of the product and the safe
working limits of the selected respirator.
The applicable standards are (US) 29 CFR 1910.134 and (Canada) Z94.4-93
Hands : Chemical-resistant, impervious gloves complying with an approved standard should be
worn at all times when handling chemical products if a risk assessment indicates this is
necessary.
Personal protection in case : Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) should be used to avoid inhalation of the
of a large spill product. Full chemical-resistant suit and self-contained breathing apparatus should be
worn only by trained and authorized persons.
Product name
Carbon monoxide ACGIH TLV (United States, 2/2010).
NIOSH REL (United States, 6/2009).
CEIL: 229 mg/m³
CEIL: 200 ppm
OSHA PEL (United States, 11/2006).
Build 1.1 Page: 3/7
Carbon Monoxide
OSHA PEL 1989 (United States, 3/1989).
CEIL: 229 mg/m³
CEIL: 200 ppm
Consult local authorities for acceptable exposure limits.
Section 9. Physical and chemical properties

Molecular weight : 28.01 g/mole
Molecular formula : C-O
Boiling/condensation point : -191.7°C (-313.1°F)
Melting/freezing point : -198.9°C (-326°F)
Critical temperature : -140.1°C (-220.2°F)
Vapor density : 0.97 (Air = 1)
Specific Volume (ft 3/lb) : 13.8889
Gas Density (lb/ft 3) : 0.072
Section 10. Stability and reactivity

Stability and reactivity : The product is stable.
Incompatibility with various : Extremely reactive or incompatible with the following materials: oxidizing materials.
substances
Hazardous decomposition : Under normal conditions of storage and use, hazardous decomposition products should
products not be produced.
Hazardous polymerization : Under normal conditions of storage and use, hazardous polymerization will not occur.
Section 11. Toxicological information

Toxicity data
Product/ingredient name Result Species Dose Exposure
Carbon monoxide TDLo Intraperitoneal Rat 35 mL/kg -
LC50 Inhalation Rat 13500 mg/m3 15 minutes
Vapor
LC50 Inhalation Rat 1900 mg/m3 4 hours
Vapor
LC50 Inhalation Rat 3760 ppm 1 hours
Gas.
LC50 Inhalation Mouse 2444 ppm 4 hours
Gas.
LC50 Inhalation Rat 6600 ppm 30 minutes
Gas.
LC50 Inhalation Rat 1807 ppm 4 hours
Gas.
IDLH : 1200 ppm
Chronic effects on humans : TERATOGENIC EFFECTS: Classified 1 by European Union.
May cause damage to the following organs: blood, lungs, cardiovascular system, central
nervous system (CNS).
Other toxic effects on : No specific information is available in our database regarding the other toxic effects of
humans this material to humans.
Specific effects
Carcinogenic effects : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Mutagenic effects : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Reproduction toxicity : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Build 1.1 Page: 4/7

Carbon Monoxide
Section 12. Ecological information

Aquatic ecotoxicity
Not available.
Products of degradation : Products of degradation: carbon oxides (CO, CO2).
Environmental fate : Not available.
Environmental hazards : No known significant effects or critical hazards.
Toxicity to the environment : Not available.
Section 13. Disposal considerations

Product removed from the cylinder must be disposed of in accordance with appropriate Federal, State, local
regulation.Return cylinders with residual product to Airgas, Inc.Do not dispose of locally.
Section 14. Transport information

Regulatory UN number Proper shipping Class Packing group Label Additional
information name information
DOT Classification UN1016 CARBON 2.3 Not applicable (gas). Limited

MONOXIDE, quantity
COMPRESSED Yes.
Packaging
instruction
Passenger
aircraft
Quantity
limitation:
Forbidden.
Cargo aircraft
Quantity
limitation:
25 kg
Special
provisions
4
TDG Classification UN1016 CARBON 2.3 Not applicable (gas). Explosive

MONOXIDE, Limit and
COMPRESSED Limited
Quantity
Index
0
ERAP Index
500
Passenger
Carrying Ship
Index
Forbidden
Passenger
Carrying
Road or Rail
Index
Forbidden
Build 1.1 Page: 5/7

Carbon Monoxide
Mexico UN1016 CARBON 2.3 Not applicable (gas). -

Classification MONOXIDE,
COMPRESSED
“Refer to CFR 49 (or authority having jurisdiction) to determine the information required for shipment of the
product.”
Section 15. Regulatory information

United States
U.S. Federal regulations : United States inventory (TSCA 8b): This material is listed or exempted.
SARA 302/304/311/312 extremely hazardous substances: No products were found.
SARA 302/304 emergency planning and notification: No products were found.
SARA 302/304/311/312 hazardous chemicals: Carbon monoxide
SARA 311/312 MSDS distribution - chemical inventory - hazard identification:
Carbon monoxide: Fire hazard, Sudden release of pressure, Immediate (acute) health
hazard, Delayed (chronic) health hazard
Clean Water Act (CWA) 307: No products were found.
Clean Water Act (CWA) 311: No products were found.
Clean Air Act (CAA) 112 accidental release prevention: No products were found.
Clean Air Act (CAA) 112 regulated flammable substances: No products were found.
Clean Air Act (CAA) 112 regulated toxic substances: No products were found.
State regulations : Connecticut Carcinogen Reporting: This material is not listed.
Connecticut Hazardous Material Survey: This material is not listed.
Florida substances: This material is not listed.
Illinois Chemical Safety Act: This material is not listed.
Illinois Toxic Substances Disclosure to Employee Act: This material is not listed.
Louisiana Reporting: This material is not listed.
Louisiana Spill: This material is not listed.
Massachusetts Spill: This material is not listed.
Massachusetts Substances: This material is listed.
Michigan Critical Material: This material is not listed.
Minnesota Hazardous Substances: This material is not listed.
New Jersey Hazardous Substances: This material is listed.
New Jersey Spill: This material is not listed.
New Jersey Toxic Catastrophe Prevention Act: This material is listed.
New York Acutely Hazardous Substances: This material is not listed.
New York Toxic Chemical Release Reporting: This material is not listed.
Pennsylvania RTK Hazardous Substances: This material is listed.
Rhode Island Hazardous Substances: This material is not listed.
California Prop. 65 : WARNING: This product contains a chemical known to the State of California to cause
birth defects or other reproductive harm.
Ingredient name Cancer Reproductive No significant risk Maximum
level acceptable dosage
level
Carbon Monoxide No. Yes. No. No.
Canada
WHMIS (Canada) : Class A: Compressed gas.
Class B-1: Flammable gas.
Class D-1A: Material causing immediate and serious toxic effects (Very toxic).
Class D-2A: Material causing other toxic effects (Very toxic).
Build 1.1 Page: 6/7

Carbon Monoxide
CEPA Toxic substances: This material is not listed.

Canadian ARET: This material is not listed.
Canadian NPRI: This material is listed.
Alberta Designated Substances: This material is not listed.
Ontario Designated Substances: This material is not listed.
Quebec Designated Substances: This material is not listed.
Section 16. Other information

United States
Label requirements : FLAMMABLE GAS.
MAY CAUSE FLASH FIRE.
MAY BE FATAL IF INHALED.
MAY CAUSE TARGET ORGAN DAMAGE, BASED ON ANIMAL DATA.
CONTENTS UNDER PRESSURE.
Canada
Label requirements : Class A: Compressed gas.
Class B-1: Flammable gas.
Class D-1A: Material causing immediate and serious toxic effects (Very toxic).
Class D-2A: Material causing other toxic effects (Very toxic).
Hazardous Material : Health * 2

Information System (U.S.A.)
Flammability 4
Physical hazards 0
National Fire Protection :

4 Flammability
Association (U.S.A.)
Health 2 0 Instability
Special
Notice to reader
To the best of our knowledge, the information contained herein is accurate. However, neither the above-named
supplier, nor any of its subsidiaries, assumes any liability whatsoever for the accuracy or completeness of the
information contained herein.
Final determination of suitability of any material is the sole responsibility of the user. All materials may present
unknown hazards and should be used with caution. Although certain hazards are described herein, we cannot
guarantee that these are the only hazards that exist.
Build 1.1 Page: 7/7

APPENDIX B
iCON SIMULATION REPORT
i iCON Simulation Report Before Heat Integration

ii iCON Simulation Report After Heat Intergration
Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Streams Summary
Name 1 2 2+6 3
Description
Upstream Op E-101.Out M-1.Out
Downstream Op E-101.In M-1.In0 Gasifier.In E-102.In
VapFrac 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00
T [C] 25.0 627.0 626.4 25.0
P [kPa] 101.325 101.325 101.325 101.325
Mole Flow [kgmole/h] 29.31 29.31 37.69 8.38
MassFlow/Composition Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h
WATER 1.0000 527.94 1.0000 527.94 0.39203 527.94 0.0000 0.00
HYDROGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
METHANE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
cellulose* 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.60797 818.73 1.0000 818.73
SODIUM HYDROXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
SODIUM CARBONATE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 527.94 1.00 527.94 1.00 1346.67 1.00 818.73
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 0.530 2163.012 2771.449 0.548
Std Liq Volume Flow [m3/hr] 0.528 0.528 1.072 0.544
Std Gas Volume Flow [SCMD] 1.6662E+4 1.6662E+4 2.1427E+4 4.7646E+3
Energy [W] -2.808E+5 2.594E+5 7.953E+5 -2.228E+5
H [kJ/kmol] -34497.1 31871.1 75974.9 -95705.2
S [kJ/kmol-K] 70.754 230.402 231.176 -295.576
MW 18.02 18.02 35.73 97.70
Mass Density [kg/m3] 996.2474 0.2441 0.4859 1495.3933
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 76.026 40.034 160.956 212.369
Thermal Conductivity [W/m-K] 0.6072 0.0836 0.0570 0.2733
Viscosity [Pa-s] 8.9008E-4 3.3692E-5 1.6666E-5 1.0447E+1
Molar Volume [m3/kmol] 0.018 73.810 73.542 0.065
Z Factor 0.0009 0.9994 0.9969 0.0104
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound
File: F:\sem2_jw .vmp

April-15-12 iCON v6.5 Page 1 of 7
Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 4 6 7 8
Description
Upstream Op E-102.Out E-102_1.Out Cyclone.Out1
Downstream Op E-102_1.In M-1.In1 Cyclone.In0
VapFrac 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
T [C] 150.0 627.0 625.0 627.0
P [kPa] 101.325 101.325 4256.66663 101.325
WATER 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.38834 522.97 0.0000 0.00
HYDROGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.01262 17.00 0.0000 0.00
METHANE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00556 7.49 0.0000 0.00
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.24832 334.41 0.0000 0.00
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.04116 55.43 0.0000 0.00
cellulose* 1.0000 818.73 1.0000 818.73 0.30398 409.37 1.0000 388.90
Total 1.00 818.73 1.00 818.73 1.00 1346.67 1.00 388.90
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 0.607 598.427 94.263 284.253
Energy [W] -1.493E+5 5.359E+5 6.815E+5 2.545E+5
H [kJ/kmol] -64136.6 230206.3 44352.8 230206.3
S [kJ/kmol-K] -207.982 214.222 193.453 214.222
MW 97.70 97.70 24.34 97.70
Mass Density [kg/m3] 1349.7752 1.3681 14.2863 1.3681
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 293.853 584.975 80.125 584.975
Viscosity [Pa-s] 8.1341E-2 7.5284E-6 2.5309E-5 7.5284E-6
Z Factor 0.0075 0.9693 0.9813 0.9693
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 9 10 10+11 11
Description
Upstream Op Cyclone.Out0 E-103.Out M-2.Out
Downstream Op E-103.In M-2.In0 Quencher.In0 M-2.In1
VapFrac 1.00 1.00 0.99966 1.00
T [C] 627.0 225.0 200.4 215.0
P [kPa] 101.325 4.71908 4.71908 2126.27243
WATER 0.54603 522.97 0.54603 522.97 0.82309 2022.97 1.0000 1500.00
HYDROGEN 0.01775 17.00 0.01775 17.00 0.00692 17.00 0.0000 0.00
METHANE 0.00782 7.49 0.00782 7.49 0.00305 7.49 0.0000 0.00
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.34916 334.41 0.34916 334.41 0.13606 334.41 0.0000 0.00
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.05787 55.43 0.05787 55.43 0.02255 55.43 0.0000 0.00
cellulose* 0.02137 20.47 0.02137 20.47 0.00833 20.47 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 957.77 1.00 957.77 1.00 2457.77 1.00 1500.00
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 3791.313 45053.642 112249.789 143.453
Energy [W] 4.392E+5 2.284E+5 5.841E+5 3.557E+5
H [kJ/kmol] 30798.3 16013.1 15621.6 15380.3
S [kJ/kmol-K] 223.946 227.826 231.300 180.875
MW 18.66 18.66 18.26 18.02
Mass Density [kg/m3] 0.2526 0.0213 0.0219 10.4564
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 39.400 34.346 34.645 39.071
Z Factor 0.9999 0.9999 0.9995 0.9073
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 12 13 14 14+15
Description
Upstream Op Quencher.Out1 Quencher.Out0 E-104.Out M-3.Out
Downstream Op E-104.In M-3.In1 Scrubber_1.In0
VapFrac 0.003 1.00 1.00 0.5987
T [C] 200.0 200.0 100.0 74.8
P [kPa] 0.00559 1909.05771 101.325 45.22508
WATER 0.0000 0.00 0.8300 2022.97 0.8300 2022.97 0.79394 3522.97
HYDROGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.00697 17.00 0.00697 17.00 0.00383 17.00
METHANE 0.0000 0.00 0.00307 7.49 0.00307 7.49 0.00169 7.49
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.13721 334.41 0.13721 334.41 0.07536 334.41
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.02274 55.43 0.02274 55.43 0.01249 55.43
cellulose* 1.0000 20.47 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 20.47 1.00 2437.30 1.00 2437.30 1.00 4437.30
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 442.183 257.894 4087.379 8783.928
Energy [W] -2.812E+3 5.537E+5 4.537E+5 -1.224E+6
H [kJ/kmol] -48322.4 14831.7 12152.4 -19139.8
S [kJ/kmol-K] -172.669 180.661 198.022 146.203
MW 97.70 18.14 18.14 19.28
Mass Density [kg/m3] 0.0463 9.4508 0.5963 0.5052
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 327.904 36.993 33.663 54.462
Z Factor 0.0030 0.9346 0.9935 0.5968
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 16 17 18 18+19
Description
Upstream Op Scrubber_1.Out1 Scrubber_1.Out0 M-4.Out
Downstream Op M-3.In0 M-5.In0 M-4.In1 Scrubber_2.In0
VapFrac 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.16377
T [C] 79.0 75.0 75.0 30.4
P [kPa] 45.22508 20821.6497 103.94639 8.93606
WATER 0.7500 1500.00 0.79723 3421.86 0.69687 101.11 0.74641 1601.11
HYDROGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.11717 17.00 0.00793 17.00
METHANE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.05162 7.49 0.00349 7.49
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.07402 317.69 0.11524 16.72 0.00779 16.72
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.01227 52.66 0.0191 2.77 0.00129 2.77
cellulose* 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 2000.00 1.0000 4292.21 1.0000 145.09 1.00 2145.09
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 1.806 4.251 421.675 5130.746
Energy [W] -1.677E+6 -2.452E+6 4.405E+4 -1.713E+6
H [kJ/kmol] -63054.0 -41063.6 10452.7 -55586.7
S [kJ/kmol-K] 63.996 78.255 179.054 74.927
MW 20.88 19.97 9.56 19.34
Mass Density [kg/m3] 1107.5482 1009.6465 0.3441 0.4181
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 85.592 79.533 31.229 77.057
Z Factor 0.0004 0.1852 0.9980 0.1638
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 19 20 21 22
Description
Upstream Op Scrubber_2.Out1 M-5.Out Scrubber_2.Out0
Downstream Op M-4.In0 M-5.In1 C-101.In
VapFrac 0.00 0.00637 0.05673 1.00
T [C] 44.0 30.0 66.9 30.0
P [kPa] 8.93606 101.325 101.325 101.325
WATER 0.7500 1500.00 0.75537 1601.11 0.78339 5022.97 0.0000 0.00
HYDROGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.66759 17.00
METHANE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.29413 7.49
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.00749 15.88 0.05202 333.57 0.03283 0.84
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.00124 2.63 0.00862 55.29 0.00544 0.14
cellulose* 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 2000.00 1.00 2119.63 1.00 6411.84 1.00 25.46
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 1.777 18.020 506.309 222.298
Energy [W] -1.757E+6 -1.840E+6 -4.292E+6 2.092E+4
H [kJ/kmol] -66049.6 -64945.4 -48748.6 8432.1
S [kJ/kmol-K] 55.040 53.076 74.625 153.873
MW 20.88 20.78 20.23 2.85
Mass Density [kg/m3] 1125.2305 117.6272 12.6639 0.1146
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 85.514 84.817 79.315 29.220
Z Factor 0.0001 0.0075 0.0575 1.0002
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 23 24 25
Description
Upstream Op C-101.Out PSA.Out0 PSA.Out1
Downstream Op PSA.In0
VapFrac 1.00 1.00 1.00
T [C] 30.0 30.0 30.0
P [kPa] 912.00 101.325 101.325
Mole Flow [kgmole/h] 8.93 8.43 0.50
MassFlow/Composition Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h Fraction kg/h
WATER 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
HYDROGEN 0.66759 17.00 0.99941 17.00 0.0000 0.00
METHANE 0.29413 7.49 0.00059 0.01 0.88472 7.48
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.03283 0.84 0.0000 0.00 0.09888 0.84
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.00544 0.14 0.0000 0.00 0.01639 0.14
cellulose* 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
SODIUM HYDROXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
SODIUM CARBONATE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 25.46 1.00 17.01 1.00 8.45
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 24.777 209.887 12.395
Std Liq Volume Flow [m3/hr] 0.555 0.527 0.028
Std Gas Volume Flow [SCMD] 5.079E+3 4.7951E+3 2.8386E+2
Energy [W] 2.091E+4 1.952E+4 1.404E+3
H [kJ/kmol] 8426.2 8331.5 10122.0
S [kJ/kmol-K] 135.569 149.745 191.600
MW 2.85 2.02 16.93
Mass Density [kg/m3] 1.0277 0.0810 0.6821
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 29.291 28.795 36.445
Thermal Conductivity [W/m-K] 0.1605 0.1728 0.0355
Viscosity [Pa-s] 9.7458E-6 8.9000E-6 1.1696E-5
Molar Volume [m3/kmol] 2.774 24.887 24.827
Z Factor 1.0020 1.0003 0.9980
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Streams Summary
Name 1A 1B 1C 1D
Description
Upstream Op E-104.OutShell E-104a.OutShell E-103.OutShell
Downstream Op E-104.InShell E-104a.InShell E-103.InShell E-101.In
VapFrac 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.00
T [C] 30.0 100.0 391.0 590.0
P [kPa] 101.325 101.325 101.325 101.325
WATER 1.0000 527.94 1.0000 527.94 1.0000 527.94 1.0000 527.94
HYDROGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
METHANE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
cellulose* 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 527.94 1.00 527.94 1.00 527.94 1.00 527.94
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 0.531 0.551 1594.258 2073.913
Energy [W] -2.777E+5 -2.341E+5 1.854E+5 2.475E+5
H [kJ/kmol] -34113.6 -28763.8 22775.6 30398.8
S [kJ/kmol-K] 72.016 87.901 218.707 228.732
MW 18.02 18.02 18.02 18.02
Mass Density [kg/m3] 994.6923 958.7831 0.3312 0.2546
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 76.004 77.498 37.112 39.555
Z Factor 0.0025 0.0007 0.9984 0.9993
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound
File: F:\sem2_jw _after HI.vmp

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 2 2+6 3 4
Description
Upstream Op E-101.Out M-1.Out E-102.Out
Downstream Op M-1.In0 Gasifier.In E-102.In E-102_1.In
VapFrac 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00
T [C] 627.0 626.4 25.0 150.0
P [kPa] 101.325 101.325 101.325 101.325
WATER 1.0000 527.94 0.39203 527.94 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
HYDROGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
METHANE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
cellulose* 0.0000 0.00 0.60797 818.73 1.0000 818.73 1.0000 818.73
Total 1.00 527.94 1.00 1346.67 1.00 818.73 1.00 818.73
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 2163.012 2771.449 0.548 0.607
Energy [W] 2.594E+5 7.953E+5 -2.228E+5 -1.493E+5
H [kJ/kmol] 31871.1 75974.9 -95705.2 -64136.6
S [kJ/kmol-K] 230.402 231.176 -295.576 -207.982
MW 18.02 35.73 97.70 97.70
Mass Density [kg/m3] 0.2441 0.4859 1495.3933 1349.7752
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 40.034 160.956 212.369 293.853
Viscosity [Pa-s] 3.3692E-5 1.6666E-5 1.0447E+1 8.1341E-2
Z Factor 0.9994 0.9969 0.0104 0.0075
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 6 7 8 9
Description
Upstream Op E-102_1.Out Cyclone.Out1 Cyclone.Out0
Downstream Op M-1.In1 Cyclone.In0 E-103.InTube
VapFrac 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
T [C] 627.0 625.0 627.0 627.0
P [kPa] 101.325 4256.66663 101.325 101.325
WATER 0.0000 0.00 0.38834 522.97 0.0000 0.00 0.54603 522.97
HYDROGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.01262 17.00 0.0000 0.00 0.01775 17.00
METHANE 0.0000 0.00 0.00556 7.49 0.0000 0.00 0.00782 7.49
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.24832 334.41 0.0000 0.00 0.34916 334.41
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.04116 55.43 0.0000 0.00 0.05787 55.43
cellulose* 1.0000 818.73 0.30398 409.37 1.0000 388.90 0.02137 20.47
Total 1.00 818.73 1.00 1346.67 1.00 388.90 1.00 957.77
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 598.427 94.263 284.253 3791.313
Energy [W] 5.359E+5 6.815E+5 2.545E+5 4.392E+5
H [kJ/kmol] 230206.3 44352.8 230206.3 30798.3
S [kJ/kmol-K] 214.222 193.453 214.222 223.946
MW 97.70 24.34 97.70 18.66
Mass Density [kg/m3] 1.3681 14.2863 1.3681 0.2526
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 584.975 80.125 584.975 39.400
Z Factor 0.9693 0.9813 0.9693 0.9999
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 9A 10 10+11 11
Description
Upstream Op E-103.OutTube E-105.Out M-2.Out
Downstream Op E-105.In M-2.In0 Quencher.In0 M-2.In1
VapFrac 1.00 0.99605 0.99845 1.00
T [C] 504.7 225.0 200.4 215.0
P [kPa] 101.325 101.325 101.325 2126.27243
WATER 0.54603 522.97 0.54603 522.97 0.82309 2022.97 1.0000 1500.00
HYDROGEN 0.01775 17.00 0.01775 17.00 0.00692 17.00 0.0000 0.00
METHANE 0.00782 7.49 0.00782 7.49 0.00305 7.49 0.0000 0.00
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.34916 334.41 0.34916 334.41 0.13606 334.41 0.0000 0.00
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.05787 55.43 0.05787 55.43 0.02255 55.43 0.0000 0.00
cellulose* 0.02137 20.47 0.02137 20.47 0.00833 20.47 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 957.77 1.00 957.77 1.00 2457.77 1.00 1500.00
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 3275.674 2086.917 5204.135 143.453
Energy [W] 3.719E+5 2.227E+5 5.784E+5 3.557E+5
H [kJ/kmol] 26078.0 15618.3 15471.1 15380.3
S [kJ/kmol-K] 218.313 201.620 205.541 180.875
MW 18.66 18.66 18.26 18.02
Mass Density [kg/m3] 0.2924 0.4589 0.4723 10.4564
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 37.798 34.634 34.830 39.071
Z Factor 0.9997 0.9946 0.9951 0.9073
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 12 13 13A 14
Description
Upstream Op Quencher.Out1 Quencher.Out0 E-104.OutTube E-104a.OutTube
Downstream Op E-104.InTube E-104a.InTube M-3.In1
VapFrac 0.003 1.00 0.988 0.76409
T [C] 200.0 200.0 168.6 100.0
P [kPa] 0.00559 1909.05771 934.25492 129.36202
WATER 0.0000 0.00 0.8300 2022.97 0.8300 2022.97 0.8300 2022.97
HYDROGEN 0.0000 0.00 0.00697 17.00 0.00697 17.00 0.00697 17.00
METHANE 0.0000 0.00 0.00307 7.49 0.00307 7.49 0.00307 7.49
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.13721 334.41 0.13721 334.41 0.13721 334.41
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.0000 0.00 0.02274 55.43 0.02274 55.43 0.02274 55.43
cellulose* 1.0000 20.47 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 20.47 1.00 2437.30 1.00 2437.30 1.00 2437.30
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 442.183 257.894 501.191 2444.197
Energy [W] -2.812E+3 5.537E+5 5.101E+5 9.058E+4
H [kJ/kmol] -48322.4 14831.7 13665.1 2426.5
S [kJ/kmol-K] -172.669 180.661 183.713 170.009
MW 97.70 18.14 18.14 18.14
Mass Density [kg/m3] 0.0463 9.4508 4.8630 0.9972
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 327.904 36.993 35.985 43.875
Z Factor 0.0030 0.9346 0.9503 0.7586
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 14+15 16 17 18
Description
Upstream Op M-3.Out Scrubber_1.Out1 Scrubber_1.Out0
Downstream Op Scrubber_1.In0 M-3.In0 M-5.In0 M-4.In1
VapFrac 0.46632 0.00 0.00 1.00
T [C] 73.5 79.0 75.0 75.0
P [kPa] 45.22508 45.22508 20821.6497 103.94639
WATER 0.79394 3522.97 0.7500 1500.00 0.79723 3421.86 0.69687 101.11
HYDROGEN 0.00383 17.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.11717 17.00
METHANE 0.00169 7.49 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.05162 7.49
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.07536 334.41 0.0000 0.00 0.07402 317.69 0.11524 16.72
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.01249 55.43 0.0000 0.00 0.01227 52.66 0.0191 2.77
cellulose* 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 4437.30 1.00 2000.00 1.0000 4292.21 1.0000 145.09
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 6818.531 1.806 4.251 421.675
Energy [W] -1.587E+6 -1.677E+6 -2.452E+6 4.405E+4
H [kJ/kmol] -24819.0 -63054.0 -41063.6 10452.7
S [kJ/kmol-K] 129.853 63.996 78.255 179.054
MW 19.28 20.88 19.97 9.56
Mass Density [kg/m3] 0.6508 1107.5482 1009.6465 0.3441
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 60.073 85.592 79.533 31.229
Z Factor 0.4650 0.0004 0.1852 0.9980
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 18+19 19 20 21
Description
Upstream Op M-4.Out Scrubber_2.Out1 M-5.Out
Downstream Op Scrubber_2.In0 M-4.In0 M-5.In1
VapFrac 0.16377 0.00 0.00637 0.05673
T [C] 30.4 44.0 30.0 66.9
P [kPa] 8.93606 8.93606 101.325 101.325
WATER 0.74641 1601.11 0.7500 1500.00 0.75537 1601.11 0.78339 5022.97
HYDROGEN 0.00793 17.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
METHANE 0.00349 7.49 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.00779 16.72 0.0000 0.00 0.00749 15.88 0.05202 333.57
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.00129 2.77 0.0000 0.00 0.00124 2.63 0.00862 55.29
cellulose* 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 2145.09 1.00 2000.00 1.00 2119.63 1.00 6411.84
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 5130.746 1.777 18.020 506.309
Energy [W] -1.713E+6 -1.757E+6 -1.840E+6 -4.292E+6
H [kJ/kmol] -55586.7 -66049.6 -64945.4 -48748.6
S [kJ/kmol-K] 74.927 55.040 53.076 74.625
MW 19.34 20.88 20.78 20.23
Mass Density [kg/m3] 0.4181 1125.2305 117.6272 12.6639
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 77.057 85.514 84.817 79.315
Z Factor 0.1638 0.0001 0.0075 0.0575
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

Customer: JobNo:
Project:
Prepared by:
Name 22 23 24 25
Description
Upstream Op Scrubber_2.Out0 C-101.Out PSA.Out0 PSA.Out1
Downstream Op C-101.In PSA.In0
VapFrac 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
T [C] 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0
P [kPa] 101.325 912.00 101.325 101.325
WATER 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
HYDROGEN 0.66759 17.00 0.66759 17.00 0.99941 17.00 0.0000 0.00
METHANE 0.29413 7.49 0.29413 7.49 0.00059 0.01 0.88472 7.48
CARBON MONOXIDE 0.03283 0.84 0.03283 0.84 0.0000 0.00 0.09888 0.84
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.00544 0.14 0.00544 0.14 0.0000 0.00 0.01639 0.14
cellulose* 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.0000 0.00
Total 1.00 25.46 1.00 25.46 1.00 17.01 1.00 8.45
Volume Flow [m3/hr] 222.298 24.777 209.887 12.395
Energy [W] 2.092E+4 2.091E+4 1.952E+4 1.404E+3
H [kJ/kmol] 8432.1 8426.2 8331.5 10122.0
S [kJ/kmol-K] 153.873 135.569 149.745 191.600
MW 2.85 2.85 2.02 16.93
Mass Density [kg/m3] 0.1146 1.0277 0.0810 0.6821
Cp [kJ/kmol-K] 29.220 29.291 28.795 36.445
Z Factor 1.0002 1.0020 1.0003 0.9980
Surface Tension
Speed of Sound

APPENDIX C
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
i Process Flow Diagram Before Heat Integration

ii Process Flow Diagram After Heat Integration
P-101 water pump E-102 biomass dryer R-101 gasifier E-103 heat exchanger V-102 spray tower C-101 compressor V-105 PSA
E-101 superheated SC-102 screw conveyor T-102 cyclone V-101 quencher V-103 spray tower
steam generator E-104 cooler E-105 heat exchanger
T-101 biomass crusher
SC-101 screw conveyor 15
Faculty of Engineering and
24 Built Environment
Department of Chemical
hydrogen and Process Engineering
11 16 19
NaOH Project Title:
5 9 10
Production of Hydrogen and
V-105 Methane
7
4
E-103 13
3
22 methane Drawing Title:
biomass 18 Process Flow Diagram of
SC-101 25 Production of Hydrogen and
T-101 E-102 Methane Without Heat
6
23 Integration
14
T-102 V-101 Prepared By:
E-104 Group 7
V-102 V-103 C-101
Group Members:
SC-102 12 Muhammad Hafiz bin

Abd Wahab A122618
17 20
8
R-101
Tan See Gin A122623
Fatin Syahida
21
bt Agusalim A122465
waste water
Soo Kok Hoe A122268
Tar + waste Pua Soh Hoon A122186

water
water Drawn By:

2 ash and solid Muhammad Hafiz bin
E-101 particulate Abd Wahab A122618
P-101
Date:
20 March 2012
Scale:
Flow Stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Not to Scale
T (° C) 30 625 30 30 100 100 625 620 620 225 30 200 200 100 30 30 75 75 30 35 35 30 30 30 30
P (kPa) 101.32 250 101.32 101.32 101.32 101.32 200 180 180 180 101.32 160 160 101.32 101.32 101.32 101.32 140 101.32 101.32 101.32 130 912 725 725
Phase liquid vapor solid solid vapor solid Solid/vapor solid vapor vapor liquid Solid/liquid vapor vapor liquid liquid liquid vapor liquid liquid liquid vapor vapor vapor vapor Drawing No.:
Enthalpy -280816.91 259441.0 -222781.48 -149296.54 23826 525871.54 681525.35 439192.9 254539.67 228351.04 355723.75 -2812.22 553677.52 453656.52 -45043.57 -702716.13 -1569840.0 -280816.91 -720444.06 -764497.27 -840411.93 20923.27 20910 19518.11 1403.75
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
GRP7/H2/PFD/H.I. 1
Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 0 0 818.73 818.73 0 818.73 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 5027.94 527.94 204.68 204.68 204.68 0 522.97 0 522.97 522.97 1500 0 2022.97 2022.97 0 1500 0 101.15 1500 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 17 17 0 0 17 17 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 17 17 17 0 Revision.:
Methane 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.49 0 7.49 7.49 0 0 7.49 7.49 0 0 0 7.49 0 0 0 7.49 7.49 0.01 7.48 REV 04
Carbon Monoxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 334.41 0 334.41 334.41 0 0 334.41 334.41 0 0 0 16.72 0 0 0 0.84 0.84 0 0.83
Carbon Dioxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 55.43 0 55.43 55.43 0 0 55.43 55.43 0 0 0 2.77 0 0 0 0.14 0.14 0 0.14
Ash and Particulate 0 0 0 0 0 0 388.90 388.90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Checked by:
Tar 0 0 0 0 0 0 20.47 0 20.47 20.47 0 20.47 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Waste Water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4292.17 0 0 2119.66 6411.84 0 0 0 0 PROF DR ABDUL AMIR
NaOH 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1000 500 0 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 HASSAN KADHUM
P-101 water pump E-102 biomass dryer R-101 gasifier E-103 heat exchanger E-104 heat exchanger V-102 spray tower C-101 compressor V-105 PSA
E-101 superheated SC-102 screw conveyor T-102 cyclone V-101 quencher E-104a heat exchanger V-103 spray tower
steam generator E-105 cooler
T-101 biomass crusher
SC-101 screw conveyor 15
24 Built Environment
11 16 19
NaOH Project Title:
1c
5 1b
9 Production of Hydrogen and
Methane
7 V-105
3
4 E-103 9a
13
biomass 18
Drawing Title:
SC-101 25 Process Flow Diagram of
10
T-101 E-102 methane
22 23 Methane With Heat Integration
6 E-105
13a 14
T-102 V-101 Prepared By:
E-104 C-101 Group 7
E-104a V-102 V-103
Group Members:
SC-102 12 Muhammad Hafiz bin

Abd Wahab A122618
17 20
8
R-101
2
Tan See Gin A122623
Fatin Syahida
21
bt Agusalim A122465
waste water
Soo Kok Hoe A122268
1d Tar + waste Pua Soh Hoon A122186

E-101 water
1a
1
water Drawn By:

ash and solid Mow Jiun Wei
particulate A122616
P-101
Date:
30 March 2012
Scale:
Flow Stream 1 1a 1b 1c 1d 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9a 10 11 12 13 13a 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Not to Scale
T (° C) 30 30 100 391 590 625 30 30 100 100 625 620 620 504.7 225 30 200 200 168.6 100 30 30 75 75 30 35 35 30 30 30 30
P (kPa) 101.32 250 250 250 250 250 101.32 101.32 101.32 101.32 200 180 180 180 180 101.32 160 160 140 101.32 101.32 101.32 101.32 140 101.32 101.32 101.32 130 912 725 725
Phase liquid liquid liquid vapor vapor vapor solid solid vapor solid Solid/vapor solid vapor vapor vapor liquid Solid/liquid vapor vapor vapor liquid liquid liquid vapor liquid liquid liquid vapor vapor vapor vapor Drawing No.:
Enthalpy (W) -280816.9 -277700 -234100 185400 247500 259441.0 -222781.5 -149296.5 23826 525871.54 681525.35 439192.9 254539.67 371900 228351.04 355723.75 -2812.22 553677.52 510100 453656.5 -45043.57 -702716.1 -1569840 -280816.9 -720444.1 -764497.3 -840411.9 20923.27 20910 19518.11 1403.75
GRP7/H2/PFD/H.I. 2
Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 0 0 0 0 0 0 818.73 818.73 0 818.73 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water 5027.94 527.94 527.94 527.94 527.94 527.94 204.68 204.68 204.68 0 522.97 0 522.97 522.97 522.97 1500 0 2022.97 2022.97 2022.97 0 1500 0 101.15 1500 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hydrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 17 17 17 0 0 17 17 17 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 17 17 17 0 Revision.:
Methane 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.49 0 7.49 7.49 7.49 0 0 7.49 7.49 7.49 0 0 0 7.49 0 0 0 7.49 7.49 0.01 7.48 REV 04
Carbon Monoxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 334.41 0 334.41 334.41 334.41 0 0 334.41 334.41 334.41 0 0 0 16.72 0 0 0 0.84 0.84 0 0.83
Carbon Dioxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 55.43 0 55.43 55.43 55.43 0 0 55.43 55.43 55.43 0 0 0 2.77 0 0 0 0.14 0.14 0 0.14
Ash and Particulate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 388.90 388.90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Checked by:
Tar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20.47 0 20.47 20.47 20.47 0 20.47 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Waste Water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4292.17 0 0 2119.66 6411.84 0 0 0 0 PROF DR ABDUL AMIR
NaOH 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1000 500 0 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 HASSAN KADHUM
APPENDIX D
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM
i Piping and Instrumentation Diagram Before HAZOP

ii Piping and Instrumentation Diagram After HAZOP
P-101 Water Pump E-102 Biomass Dryer R-101 Gasifier E-103 Heat Exchanger E-104 Heat Exchanger
E-101 Furnace SC-101 Screw Conveyor T-102 Cyclone V-101 Quencher E-104a Heat Exchanger
T-101 Biomass Crusher SC-102 Screw Conveyor E-105 Cooler

15
Built Environment
and Process Engineering
V-105
Project Title:
NaOH
11
TRC
Methane
PRC
5
TT
PT TT
3 4
TRC
Drawing Title:
E-102 To S-15 Piping and Instrumentation
V-110
biomass 7 TRC
V-108 9 E-103 Diagram Before HAZOP
SC-101
T-101 6 TT
1b
V-101
9a
Prepared By:
13
Fuel Group 7
Heat E-105
TT
10 E-104 Group Members:
TRC
T-102
13a Muhammad Hafiz bin
Abd Wahab A122618
V-101 LT
SC-102 TT 1c
12 Mow Jiun Wei A122616
8 V-111
E-101 R-101
I-29
14 Tan See Gin A122623
To V-102
RT Fatin Syahida
TT FT
FT V-109 E-104a V-104
bt Agusalim A122465
TRC
V-103
TRC V-106 Soo Kok Hoe A122268
FRC
RRC 2
Flue gas Pua Soh Hoon A122186

TT
R TRC
1d Tar + waste
V-107
FT
water Drawn By:
1
FRC
Muhammad Hafiz
1a
water bin Abd Wahab
A122618
V-102
P-101 Date:
ash and solid
particulate 2 APRIL 2012
Scale:
Not to Scale

T (° C) 30 30 100 391 590 625 30 30 100 100 625 620 620 504.7 225 30 200 200 168.6 100 30 30 75 75 30 35 35 30 30 30 30 Drawing No.:
P (kPa) 101.32 250 250 250 250 250 101.32 101.32 101.32 101.32 200 180 180 180 180 101.32 160 160 140 101.32 101.32 101.32 101.32 140 101.32 101.32 101.32 130 912 725 725
Phase liquid liquid liquid vapor vapor vapor solid solid vapor solid Solid/vapor solid vapor vapor vapor liquid Solid/liquid vapor vapor vapor liquid liquid liquid vapor liquid liquid liquid vapor vapor vapor vapor
GRP7/H2/PID/HAZOP2
453656.5
Enthalpy (W) -280816.9 -277700 -234100 185400 247500 259441.0 -222781.5 -149296.5 23826 525871.54 681525.35 439192.9 254539.67 371900 228351.04 355723.75 -2812.22 553677.52 510100
2
-45043.57 -702716.1 -1569840 -280816.9 -720444.1 -764497.3 -840411.9 20923.27 20910 19518.11 1403.75
Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 0 0 0 0 0 0 818.73 818.73 0 818.73 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Revision.:
Water 5027.94 527.94 527.94 527.94 527.94 527.94 204.68 204.68 204.68 0 522.97 0 522.97 522.97 522.97 1500 0 2022.97 2022.97 2022.97 0 1500 0 101.15 1500 0 0 0 0 0 0 REV 03
Hydrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 17 17 17 0 0 17 17 17 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 17 17 17 0
Methane 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.49 0 7.49 7.49 7.49 0 0 7.49 7.49 7.49 0 0 0 7.49 0 0 0 7.49 7.49 0.01 7.48
Carbon Monoxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 334.41 0 334.41 334.41 334.41 0 0 334.41 334.41 334.41 0 0 0 16.72 0 0 0 0.84 0.84 0 0.83
Checked by:
Carbon Dioxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 55.43 0 55.43 55.43 55.43 0 0 55.43 55.43 55.43 0 0 0 2.77 0 0 0 0.14 0.14 0 0.14
Ash and Particulate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 388.90 388.90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 PROF DR ABDUL AMIR
Tar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20.47 0 20.47 20.47 20.47 0 20.47 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 HASSAN KADHUM
Waste Water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4292.17 0 0 2119.66 6411.84 0 0 0 0
NaOH 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1000 500 0 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0
V-102 Spray Tower V-103 Spray Tower C-101 Compressor V-105 PSA

Built Environment
24 Department of Chemical
From S-15 Project Title:

Methane
19
TRC
Drawing Title:
From S-14 16
Piping and Instrumentation
TT
V1 V2 V3 V4 Diagram Before HAZOP
V-112 V-105
FRC PT
FT
Prepared By:
V-115
Group 7
PRC Group Members:
TRC
22 23 25
methane Muhammad Hafiz bin

TT V-117 Abd Wahab A122618
18
C-101 Mow Jiun Wei A122616
PT Tan See Gin A122623

V-103 LT
Fatin Syahida
PRC
bt Agusalim A122465
V-116
LRC
waste water
Soo Kok Hoe A122268
V-114
LT
V-102
V-113 20
LRC
17
21
Drawn By:
Muhammad Hafiz
bin Abd Wahab
A122618
Date:
2 APRIL 2012
Scale:
Not to Scale

T (° C) 30 30 100 391 590 625 30 30 100 100 625 620 620 504.7 225 30 200 200 168.6 100 30 30 75 75 30 35 35 30 30 30 30 Drawing No.:
P (kPa) 101.32 250 250 250 250 250 101.32 101.32 101.32 101.32 200 180 180 180 180 101.32 160 160 140 101.32 101.32 101.32 101.32 140 101.32 101.32 101.32 130 912 725 725
Phase liquid liquid liquid vapor vapor vapor solid solid vapor solid Solid/vapor solid vapor vapor vapor liquid Solid/liquid vapor vapor vapor liquid liquid liquid vapor liquid liquid liquid vapor vapor vapor vapor
GRP7/H2/PID/HAZOP2
453656.5
Enthalpy (W) -280816.9 -277700 -234100 185400 247500 259441.0 -222781.5 -149296.5 23826 525871.54 681525.35 439192.9 254539.67 371900 228351.04 355723.75 -2812.22 553677.52 510100
2
-45043.57 -702716.1 -1569840 -280816.9 -720444.1 -764497.3 -840411.9 20923.27 20910 19518.11 1403.75
Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 0 0 0 0 0 0 818.73 818.73 0 818.73 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Revision.:
Water 5027.94 527.94 527.94 527.94 527.94 527.94 204.68 204.68 204.68 0 522.97 0 522.97 522.97 522.97 1500 0 2022.97 2022.97 2022.97 0 1500 0 101.15 1500 0 0 0 0 0 0 REV 03
Hydrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 17 17 17 0 0 17 17 17 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 17 17 17 0
Methane 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.49 0 7.49 7.49 7.49 0 0 7.49 7.49 7.49 0 0 0 7.49 0 0 0 7.49 7.49 0.01 7.48
Carbon Monoxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 334.41 0 334.41 334.41 334.41 0 0 334.41 334.41 334.41 0 0 0 16.72 0 0 0 0.84 0.84 0 0.83
Checked by:
Carbon Dioxide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 55.43 0 55.43 55.43 55.43 0 0 55.43 55.43 55.43 0 0 0 2.77 0 0 0 0.14 0.14 0 0.14
Ash and Particulate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 388.90 388.90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 PROF DR ABDUL AMIR
Tar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20.47 0 20.47 20.47 20.47 0 20.47 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 HASSAN KADHUM
Waste Water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4292.17 0 0 2119.66 6411.84 0 0 0 0
NaOH 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1000 500 0 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0
TAL – Temperature Alarm Low
P-101 Water Pump E-102 Biomass Dryer R-101 Gasifier E-103 Heat Exchanger E-104 Heat Exchanger TAH – Temperature Alarm High
PAL – Pressure Alarm Low
PAH – Pressure Alarm High
E-101 Furnace SC-101 Screw Conveyor T-102 Cyclone V-101 Quencher E-104a Heat Exchanger LAL – Level Alarm Low
LAH – Level Alarm High
CV – Check Valve
T-101 Biomass Crusher SC-102 Screw Conveyor E-105 Cooler PSV – Pressure Relief Valve
DV – Drain Valve
15
XV – Isolation Valve
Built Environment
V-105
Project Title:
TAL-R101 PAL-R101
NaOH TAH-R101 TAL-E103 11 TAL-V101 PAL-V101
TAH-E103 TAH-V101 PAH-V101
5
TRC
Methane
PRC
TT
PT
3 4
TAL-E104
Drawing Title:
E-102 V-110
To S-15 Piping and Instrumentation
biomass 7 TRC TAH-E104
V-108 9 E-103 Diagram After HAZOP
SC-101 TT
PSV-
T-101 6
R101 PSV- TT
TRC V101
V-101
9a
Prepared By:
13
Fuel E-105 CV-V101-2 Group 7
Heat 1b
Group Members:
TRC
TT
10
CV-V101-1 E-104
T-102
TAL-E101 PAL-E101 TAL-E104a Muhammad Hafiz bin
TAH-E101 PAH-E101 TAH-E104a Abd Wahab A122618
V-101 LT
13a
SC-102 TAL-E105
TT 1c
PSV-E101
TAH-E105 DV-V101 12 Mow Jiun Wei A122616
8 V-111
E-101 R-101
LRC
14 Tan See Gin A122623
To V-102
RT Fatin Syahida
TT FT V-109 E-104a V-104
bt Agusalim A122465
TRC
V-103
V-106
TRC FRC Soo Kok Hoe A122268
RRC 2
Flue gas Pua Soh Hoon A122186
TT
R 1d TRC
Tar + waste
V-107
water Drawn By:
1 FT
FRC
1a Muhammad Hafiz
water XV-
bin Abd Wahab
XV-P101-1 P101-2 A122618
V-102
P-101 ash and solid Date:
particulate 5 APRIL 2012
Scale:
Not to Scale
Drawing No.:
GRP7/H2/PID/HAZOP1
Revision.:
REV 01
Checked by:
PROF DR ABDUL AMIR
HASSAN KADHUM
TAL – Temperature Alarm Low
TAH – Temperature Alarm High
V-102 Spray Tower V-103 Spray Tower C-101 Compressor V-105 PSA PAL – Pressure Alarm Low
PAH – Pressure Alarm High
LAL – Level Alarm Low
LAH – Level Alarm High
CV – Check Valve
PSV – Pressure Relief Valve
DV – Drain Valve
XV – Isolation Valve
Built Environment
24 Department of Chemical
From S-15 Project Title:

PSV- PSV-
V105-1 V105-2
PSV-
V105-V1
PSV- PSV-
Methane
PSV-
V105-V2 V105-V3 V105-V4
19
TRC
Drawing Title:
From S-14 16
Piping and Instrumentation
TT V2 V3
V1 V4 Diagram After HAZOP
V-112 V-105
FRC PT
FT
Prepared By:
V-115
Group 7
PSV- PRC Group Members:
TRC V103
TAL-V103 22 23 25
CV-V105
TAH-V103
methane Muhammad Hafiz bin
TAL-V102 TT V-117 Abd Wahab A122618
TAH-V102
C-101 Mow Jiun Wei A122616
PSV-V102 18
CV-V103
PT Tan See Gin A122623

V-103 LT
Fatin Syahida
CV-V102 PRC
DV-V103 bt Agusalim A122465
V-116
LRC
waste water
Soo Kok Hoe A122268
V-114
V-102 LT
DV-V102
V-113 20
LRC
17 21
Drawn By:
Muhammad Hafiz
bin Abd Wahab
A122618
Date:
5 APRIL 2012
Scale:
Not to Scale
Drawing No.:
GRP7/H2/PID/HAZOP1
Revision.:
REV 01
Checked by:
PROF DR ABDUL AMIR
HASSAN KADHUM
APPENDIX E
MECHANICAL DRAWING
i Reactor R-101
ii Furnace E-101
iii Quencher V-101
iv Cooler E-104
v Spray Tower V-102
vi PSA V-105
APPENDIX F
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

T-101 Equalization tank F-101 Flow Water V-101 Flocculation Tank T-102 Primary Sedimentation V-102 Chlorine
T-103 Aeration tank T-104 Settling tank
Tank Contact Chamber
VF-101 Vacuum
Filtration V-105 Chemical Conditioning V-104 Elutriation Vessel
Vessel

Built Environment
Chlorine
Project Title:

Methane
Inffluent
2 3 4 5 6
1 Drawing Title:
Wastewater Treatment
Water F
P-101
F-101
T-101
V-101 T-102 T-103 T-104 Prepared By:
V-102 Group 7
Group Members:
Effluent Muhammad Hafiz bin Abd

Wahab A122618
Tan See Gin A122623
Fatin Syahida bt Agusalim

A122465
Soo Kok Hoe A122268
P-1 Pua Soh Hoon A122186
V-105 Drawn By: Soo Kok Hoe

VF- 101 V-103
V-104
Landfill
Date: 10 April 2012
Scale:
Not to Scale
Drawing No.:
GRP7/H2/WWTP
Revision.:
REV 01
Checked by:
PROF DR ABDUL AMIR HASSAN
KA DHUM
APPENDIX G
PLANT LAYOUT

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

CHEMICAL AND PROCESS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

KKKR 4814 PROCESS PLANT DESIGN PROJECT

SUPERVISOR: PROF. DR ABDUL AMIR HASSAN KADHUM

Muhammad Hafiz Bin Abd Wahab A122618

DUE DATE : 18th APRIL 2012

18th APRIL 2012 MUHAMMAD HAFIZ BIN ABD WAHAB

FATIN SYAHIDA BT. AGUSALIM

MOW JIUN WEI

TAN SEE GIN

SOO KOK HOE

PUA SOON HOON

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvi

CHAPTER 1 PRODUCT ANALYSIS

CHAPTER II PROCESS DESIGN CONCEPT

CHAPTER III HEAT INTEGRATION

3.4 Final Heat Integration 95

CHAPTER IV PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION ANALYSIS

CHAPTER V DETAILED PROCESS DESIGN

5.4.1 Introduction 147

CHAPTER VI MECHANICAL DESIGN

6.3.6.4 Torsional shear stresses 195

6.6.4.2 Cylindrical shell 239

CHAPTER VII UTILITY DESIGN

CHAPTER VIII POLLUTION AND CLEANER PRODUCTION

8.5.3 Chemical conditioning 274

CHAPTER IX ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

CHAPTER X SAFETY, RISK ASSESSMENT AND LOST

10.4.2 Methane 310

CHAPTER XI PLANT LOCATION

Table No. Page

2.19 Data for Economy Potential Design Level 2 51

4.1 Letter code for instrument symbols (based on ISA-5-1984 99

6.29 Summary table of mechanical design of heat exchanger, E-104 221

9.6 Estimation of utility cost 285

Figure No. Page

2.15 Cycles of Adsorber Vessels in PSA Unit 75

11.1 Land Beside UKM Transportation Unit 360

Table 1.1: Physical Properties of Hydrogen

Source: MSDS Hydrogen

Figure 1.1: Methane

Table 1.2: Physical Properties of Methane

Source: MSDS Methane

Methane is used in industrial chemical processes and may be transported as a

1.2 SOURCE OF RAW MATERIAL

Table 1.3: World Producer of Palm Oil

Producer Capacity (000 tonnes)

Source: United States Department of Agriculture

1.3 PROPERTIES OF EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH (EFB)

Table 1.4: Properties of EFB

Source: journal of Physical Science, Vol. 22(1), 1-24, 2011

1.4 PRODUCT USAGE

1.4.1 Hydrogen Usage

The major usage of hydrogen is as a fuel especially for transportation. Fuel

i) 20 buses will travel 4180.8 km per day

Table 1.5: Comparison of energy of fuels

Type of fuel Energy content per gallon (kW)