Diode:

Diode is a semiconductor device that allows the current to flow only in one direction. Diodes play an important
role in electronics circuits. They are used mainly in uncontrolled rectifiers to convert AC to fixed DC voltages and
as freewheeling diodes to provide a path for the current flow in inductive loads.

CONSTRUCTION OF POWER DIODES:

Diodes are the simplest semiconductor device having only two layers, two terminals and one junction. The
ordinary signal diodes have a junction formed by p type semiconductor and n type semiconductor, the lead joining
p type is called anode and the other side lead joining the n type is called cathode. The figure below depicts the
structure of an ordinary diode and its symbol.

Power diodes are also similar to signal diodes but have a little difference in its construction.

Diodes Function:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in
which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called
valves.

Forward Voltage Drop:

Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a person pushing through a door
with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage
drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is
almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current-
voltage graph).

Reverse Voltage:

When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a
few µA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing
in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is
exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.

Reverse Bias:

In reverse bias the P-type region is connected to negative voltage and N-type is connected to positive terminal as
shown below. In this condition the holes in P-type gets filled by electrons from the battery / cell (in other words
the holes get sucked out of the diode). The electrons in Ntype material is sucked out of the diode by the positive
terminal of the battery. So the diode gets depleted of charge. So initially the depletion layer widens (see image
above) and it occupies the entire diode. The resistance offered by the diode is very huge. The current that flows in
reverse bias is only due to minority charge which is in nano amperes in silicon and micro amperes in high power
silicon and germanium diodes.

Forward Bias:

In forward bias the P-Region of the diode is connected with the positive terminal of the battery and N-region is
connected with the negative region. During the forward bias the following process occurs. The positive of the
battery pumps more holes into the P-region of the diode. The negative terminal pumps electrons into the N-region.
The excess of charge in P and N region will apply pressure on the depletion region and will make it shrink. As the
voltage increases the depletion layer will become thinner and thinner and hence diode will offer lesser and lesser
resistance. Since the resistance decreases the current will increase (though not proportional) to the voltage. At one
particular voltage level Vf called the threshold / firing / cut-off voltage the depletion layer disappears
(overwhelmed by the charge) and hence from this point on the diode starts to conduct very easily. From this point
on the diode current increases exponentially to the voltage applied.

V-I Characteristics of Power Diodes:

In signal diodes for forward biased region the current increases exponentially however in power
diodes high forward current leads to high ohmic drop which dominates the exponential growth and the curve
increases almost linearly. The maximum reverse voltage that the diode can withstand is depicted by V RRM, i.e.
peak reverse repetitive voltage. Above this voltage the reverse current becomes very high abruptly and as the
diode is not designed to dissipate such high amount of heat, it may get destroyed. This voltage may also be called
as peak inverse voltage (PIV).

The figure below shows the v-i characteristics of a power diode which is almost similar to that of a signal diode.
Principal Ratings of Diode:

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

The peak inverse voltage rating of a diode is the maximum reverse voltage that can be connected across a diode
without breakdown. If the PIV rating is exceeded, the diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction and can be
immediately destroyed. PIV rating extend for tens of volts to several thousand volts, depending on the
construction. The PIV rating is also called the peak reverse voltage (PRV) or breakdown voltage V(BR).

Maximum Average Forward Current (IF (avg)max):

The maximum average forward current is the maximum current a diode can safely handle when forward-biased.
Power diodes are presently available in ratings from a few amperes to several hundred amperes. If a diode is to be
used economically, it must be operated near its maximum forward current rating.

Reverse Recovery Time (trr):

The reverse recovery time of a diode is of great significance in high speed switching applications. A real diode not
instantaneously switches from conduction to a non-conduction state. Instead, reverse current flows for a short
time, and the diode does not turn off until the reverse current decays to zero, as shown in Figure 1 below. The
diode initially conducts a current IF, when the diode is reverse-biased, this current decreases and reverse current IR
flows. The time interval during which reverse current flows is called the reverse recovery time. During this time,
charge carriers that were stored in the junction when forward conduction terminated are removed.
Diodes are classified as “fast recovery” or “slow recovery” types based on their reverse recovery times. Recovery
times range from a few microseconds in a PN junction diode to several hundred nanoseconds in a fast recovery
diode like a Schottky diode. The PN junction diode is normally sufficient for rectification of a 60 Hz AC signal.
Fast recovery diodes with low trr are used in high frequency applications such as inverters, choppers, and
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).

Maximum Junction Temperature:

This parameter defines the maximum junction temperature that a diode can withstand without failure. The rated
temperatures of silicon diodes typically range from -40 OC to +200 OC. Operations at lower temperatures
generally results in better performance. Diodes are usually mounted on heat sinks to improve their temperature
rating.

Maximum Surge Current (IFSM):

The IFSM (forward surge maximum) rating is the maximum current that the diode can handle as an occasional
transient or from a circuit fault.

Diodes in Parallel:

If the load current is greater than the current rating of a single diode, then two or more diodes can be connected in
parallel (see Figure 1) to achieve a higher forward current rating. Diodes connection in parallel do not share the
current equally due to different forward bias characteristics. The diode with the lowest forward voltage drop will
try to carry a larger current and can overheat. Figure 2 shows the V-I characteristics of two diodes. If these two
diodes are connected in parallel at a given voltage, a different current flow in each diode. The total current flow is
the sum of ID1 and ID2. The total current rating of the pair is not the sum of the maximum current rating for each
but is a value that can be just larger than the rating of one diode alone.

Figure 1 Figure 2: VI Characteristics

Parallel diodes can be forced to share current by connecting a very small resistor in series with each diode. In
Figure 3, the current sharing resistor R establishes values of ID1 and ID2 that are nearly equal. Although current
sharing is very effective, the power loss in the resistor is very high. Furthermore, it causes an increase in voltage
across the combination. Unless using a parallel arrangement is absolutely necessary, it is better to use one device
with an adequate current rating.
 Figure 3: Parallel Diodes with Resistor

The value of the current sharing resistor can be obtained as follows.

V = VD1 + ID1 x R = VD2 + ID2 x R

Solving for R,

R = (VD2 – VD1) / (ID1 – ID2)

The power dissipated in R is

PR = I2D1 x R + I2D2 x R

The voltage across the diode combination is

V = VD2 + ID1 R = VD2 + ID2 R

Diodes in Series:

The maximum power that can be controlled by a single diode is determined by its rated reverse voltage and by its
rated forward current. In high power applications, a single diode may have insufficient power handling capability.
To increase power capability diodes are connected in series.

Series Connection of Diodes

In very high voltage applications, the reverse voltage rating of a single diode may not be sufficient. A series
connection of two or more diodes (See Figure 1 below), is then used to increase the voltage rating. However, the
reverse voltage may not be equally divided between the two diodes, the diode with the lower leakage current can
have excessive reverse voltage across it. Even if we use same number type diodes, their V-I characteristics may
not be identical, al illustrated in Figure 2. The current rating of the diodes in series is the same as the current
rating of one of the diodes. In the reverse direction both series diodes have the same reverse leakage current but as
shown, the have different values for reverse voltage. In such a case diode D1 may exceed its reverse voltage
rating.
 Figure 1: Series Connection of Diodes Figure 2: V-I Characteristics

Forced voltage sharing can be obtained by connecting voltage sharing resistors of appropriate value across each
series diode. Figure 3 shows the effect of placing resistors across the diode. To be effective the resistors must
conduct a current much greater than the leakage current of the diodes. These sharing resistors will consume power
during revere bias operation, so it is important to use as large a resistance as possible.

In addition, there can be excessive reverse voltage across a diode due to different reverse recovery times. A
capacitor connected in parallel with each diode (see Figure 4 below) will protect the diode from voltage transients.

The value of the voltage sharing resistor can be obtained as follows:

The source current is

IS = (VD1 / R) + ID1 = (VD2 / R) + ID2

Solving for R,

R = (VD1 – VD2) / (ID2 – ID1)

The power dissipated in R is

PR = I2R1 x R + I2R2 x R
SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER:

A silicon controlled rectifier or semiconductor-controlled rectifier is a four-layer solid-state current-

controlling device. SCRs are unidirectional devices (i.e. can conduct current only in one direction) as opposed to
TRIACs, which are bidirectional (i.e. current can flow through them in either direction). SCRs can be triggered
normally only by currents going into the gate as opposed to TRIACs, which can be triggered normally by either a
positive or a negative current applied to its gate electrode.

CONSTRUCTION:

The silicon control rectifier (SCR) consists of four layers of semiconductors, which form NPNP or PNPN
structures have three P-N junctions labeled J1, J2 and J3, and three terminals. The anode terminal of an SCR is
connected to the p-type material of a PNPN structure, and the cathode terminal is connected to the n-type layer,
while the gate of the SCR is connected to the p-type material nearest to the cathode.

An SCR consists of four layers of alternating p- and n-type semiconductor materials. Silicon is used as the
intrinsic semiconductor, to which the proper dopants are added. The junctions are either diffused or alloyed (alloy
is a mixed semiconductor or a mixed metal). The planar construction is used for low-power SCRs (and all the
junctions are diffused). The mesa-type construction is used for high-power SCRs. In this case, junction J2 is
obtained by the diffusion method, and then the outer two layers are alloyed to it, since the PNPN pellet is required
to handle large currents. It is properly braced with tungsten or molybdenum plates to provide greater mechanical
strength. One of these plates is hard-soldered to a copper stud, which is threaded for attachment of heat sink. The
doping of PNPN depends on the application of SCR, since its characteristics are similar to those of the thyristor.
Today, the term "thyristor" applies to the larger family of multilayer devices that exhibit bistable state-change
behavior, which is, switching either on or off.

The operation of an SCR and other thyristors can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly coupled bipolar
junction transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching action:

MODES OF OPERATION:

There are three modes of operation for an SCR depending upon the biasing given to it:

1. Forward blocking mode (off state)

2. Forward conduction mode (on state)
3. Reverse blocking mode (off state)

Forward blocking mode:

In this mode of operation, the anode is given a positive voltage while the cathode is given a negative voltage,
keeping the gate at zero potential i.e. disconnected. In this case junction J1 and J3 are forward-biased, while J2 is
reverse-biased, due to which only a small leakage current exists from the anode to the cathode until the applied
voltage reaches its breakover value, at which J2 undergoes avalanche breakdown, and at this breakover voltage it
starts conducting, but below breakover voltage it offers very high resistance to the current and is said to be in the
off state.

Forward conduction mode:

SCR can be brought from blocking mode to conduction mode in two ways: either by increasing the voltage across
anode to cathode beyond breakover voltage or by applying positive pulse at gate. Once SCR starts conducting, no
more gate voltage is required to maintain it in the on state. There are two ways to turn it off: 1. Reduce the current
through it below a minimum value called the holding current and 2. With the gate turned off, short out the anode
and cathode momentarily with a push-button switch or transistor across the junction.

Reverse blocking mode:

SCRs are available with reverse blocking capability, which adds to the forward voltage drop because of the need
to have a long, low-doped P1 region. (If one cannot determine which region is P1, a labeled diagram of layers and
junctions can help). Usually, the reverse blocking voltage rating and forward blocking voltage rating are the same.
The typical application for reverse blocking SCR is in current-source inverters.

SCRs incapable of blocking reverse voltage are known as asymmetrical SCR, abbreviated ASCR. They typically
have a reverse breakdown rating in the tens of volts. ASCRs are used where either a reverse conducting diode is
applied in parallel (for example, in voltagesource inverters) or where reverse voltage would never occur (for
example, in switching power supplies or DC traction choppers).

Asymmetrical SCRs can be fabricated with a reverse conducting diode in the same package. These are known as
RCTs, for reverse conducting thyristors.

THYRISTOR TURN ON METHODS:

1. forward-voltage triggering
2. gate triggering
3. dv/dt triggering
4. temperature triggering
5. light triggering

Forward-voltage triggering occurs when the anode–cathode forward voltage is increased with the gate circuit
opened. This is known as avalanche breakdown, during which junction J 2 will break down. At sufficient voltages,
the thyristor changes to its on state with low voltage drop and large forward current. In this case, J1 and J3 are
already forward-biased

V-I Characteristics of SCR:

In his article we will draw and explain the V-I characteristics of SCR in detail. It is the curve between anode-
cathode voltage (V) and anode current (I) of an SCR at constant gate current.

V-I characteristics of a typical SCR .

Important Points about The V-I Characteristics of SCR

Forward Characteristics:

When anode is positive w.r.t. cathode, the curve between V and I is called the forward characteristics. In fig.,
OABC is the forward characteristics of SCR at IG=0. If the supply voltage is increased from zero, a point reached
(point A) when the SCR starts conducting. Under this condition, the voltage across SCR suddenly drops as shown
by dotted curve AB and most of supply voltage appears across the load resistance RL. If proper gate current is
made to flow, SCR can close at much smaller supply voltage.

Reverse Characteristics:

When anode is negative w.r.t. cathode, the curve between V and I is known as reverse characteristics. The reverse
voltage does come across SCR when it is operated with a.c. supply. If the reverse voltage is gradually increased,
at first the anode current remains small (i.e. leakage current) and at some reverse voltage, avalanche breakdown
occurs and the SCR starts conducting heavily in the reverse direction as shown by the curve DE. This maximum
reverse voltage at which SCR starts conducting heavily is known as reverse breakdown voltage.

SCR in Normal Operation:

In order to operate the SCR in normal operation, the following points are kept in view:

1. The supply voltage is generally much less than breakover voltage.

2. The SCR is turned on by passing appropriate amount of gate current ( a few mA) and not by breakover
voltage
3. When SCR is operated from a.c. supply, the peak reverse voltage which comes during negative half-cycle
should not exceed the reverse breakdown voltage.
4. When SCR is to be turned OFF from the ON state, anode current should be reduced to holding current.
5. If gate current is increased above the required value, the SCRwill close at much reduced supply voltage.

Important Terms In The V-I Characteristics of SCR:

The following terms are much used in the study of SCR :

1. Breakover voltage
2. Peak reverse voltage
3. Holding current
4. Forward current rating
5. Circuit fusing rating
Breakover Voltage:

It is the minimum forward voltage, gate being open, at which SCR starts conducting heavily i.e. turned on. Thus,
if the breakover voltage of an SCR is 200 V, it means that it can block a forward voltage (i.e. SCR remains open)
as long as the supply voltage is less than 200 V. If the supply voltage is more than this value, then SCR will be
turned on. In practice, the SCR is operated with supply voltage less than breakover voltage and it is then turned on
by means of a small voltage applied to the gate. Commercially available SCRs have breakover voltages from
about 50 V to 500 V.

Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV):

It is the maximum reverse voltage (cathode positive w.r.t. anode) that can be applied to an SCR without
conducting in the reverse direction. PRV is an important consideration while connecting an SCR in an a.c. circuit.
During the negative half of a.c. supply, reverse voltage is applied across SCR. If PRV is exceeded, there may be
avalanche breakdown and the SCR will be damaged if the external ciruit does not limit the current. Commercially
available SCRS have PRV ratings upto 2.5 kV.

Holding Current:

It is the maximum anode current, gate being open, at which SCR is turned OFF from ON condition. When SCR is
in the conducting state, it cannot be turned OFF even if gate voltage is removed. The only way to turn off or open
the SCR is to reduce the supply voltage to almost zero at which point the internal transistor comes out of
saturation and opens the SCR. The anode current under this condition is very small (a few mA) and is called
holding current. Thus, if an SCR has a holding current of 5mA, it means that if anode current is made less than 5
mA, then SCR will be turned off.

Forward Current Rating:

It is the maximum anode current that an SCR is capable of passing without destruction. Every SCR has a safe
value of forward current which it can conduct. If the value of current exceeds this value, the SCR may be
destroyed due to intensive heating at the junction. For example, if an SCR has a forward current rating of 40 A, it
means that the SCR can safely carry only 40 A. Any attempt to exceed this value will result in the destruction of
the SCR. Commercially available SCRs have forward current ratings from about 30A to 100A.

Circuit Fusing (I2t) Rating:

It is the product of square forward surge current and the time of duration of the surge i.e., Circuit fusing rating
=I2t. The circuit fusing rating indicates the maximum forward surge current capability of SCR. For example,
consider an SCR having circuit fusing rating of 90 A2s. If this rating is exceeded in the SCR circuit, the device
will be destroyed by excessive power dissipation.

APPLICATIONS:

SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of high power, possibly coupled with high voltage, is
demanded. Their operation makes them suitable for use in medium- to high voltage AC power control
applications, such as lamp dimming, power regulators and motor control. SCRs and similar devices are used for
rectification of high-power AC in high-voltage direct-current power transmission. They are also used in the
control of welding machines, mainly MTAW (metal tungsten arc welding) and GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding)
processes similar.
SCR In Parallel:

The maximum power that can be controlled by a single SCR is determined by its rated forward current and rated
forward blocking voltage. To maximize one of these two ratings, the other must be reduced. Although SCR’s are
currently available with very high voltage ratings, in many applications, such as transmission lines, the required
voltage rating exceeds the voltage that can be provided by a single SCR. Then it is necessary to connect two or
more SCR’s in series. Similarly, for very high current applications, SCR’s must be connected in parallel. For
high-voltage, high-current applications, series-parallel combinations of SCR’s are used.

SCR's in Parallel:

When the load current exceeds the rating of a single SCR, SCR’s are connected in parallel to increase their
common current capability. If SCR’s are not perfectly matched, this results in an unequal sharing of current
between them. Figure 1 shows the V-I characteristics of two SCR’s, SCR1 and SCR2. The ratings of the SCR’s
are the same. When these SCR’s are connected in parallel, they will have equal voltage drops VSCR across them.
However, due to their mismatch in characteristics. SCR2 is carrying the rated current (I2), while SCR1 is carrying
a current I1, which is much less than its rated value. The total rated current of the parallel connection is only I1 +
I2 instead of 2l2.

Figure 1: Current sharing between two parallel SCR’s

Here the following categories of phase controlled rectifiers will be studied in detail.

1. Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with R Load.

2. Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load.
3. Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Freewheeling Diode.
4. Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with R Load.
5. Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load.
6. Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Freewheeling Diode.
7. Single Phase Full Wave Half Controlled Rectifier (Semi Converter).
8. Three Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier.
9. Three Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with R Load:

 The circuit consists of a thyristor T, a voltage source Vs and a resistive load R.

 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristor T becomes forward biased but it does not
conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When the thyristor is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load.
 During the negative half cycle, the thyristor T gets reverse biased and becomes tuned OFF.
 So the load receives voltage during the positive half cycle only.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output current and voltage
across thyristor.
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load:

 The circuit consists of a thyristor T, a voltage source Vs, an inductive load L and a resistive load R.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristor T is forward biased but it does not
conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When the thyristor is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the inductor present in the
load, the current through the load builds up slowly.
 During the negative half cycle, the thyristor T gets reverse biased but the current through the thyristors is
not zero due to the inductor.
 The current through the inductor slowly decays to zero and when the load current (i.e the current through
the thyristor) falls below holding current, it gets turned off.
 So here the thyristor will conduct for a few duration in the negative half cycle and turns off at ωt = β. The
angle β is called extinction angle.
 The duration from α to β is called conduction angle.
 So the load receives voltage only during the positive half cycle and for a small duration in negative half
cycle.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output current and voltage
across thyristor.
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Freewheeling Diode:

 The circuit consist of a thyristor T, a voltage source Vs, a diode FD across the RL load, an inductive load
L and a resistive load R.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristor T is forward biased but it does not
conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When the thyristor is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the inductor present in the
load, the current through the load builds up slowly.
 During the negative half cycle, the thyristor T gets reverse biased. At this instant i.e at ωt = π, the load
current shift its path from the thyristor to the freewheeling diode.
 When the current is shifted from thyristor to freewheeling diode, the thyristor turns OFF.
 The current through the inductor slowly decays to zero through the loop Rfreewheeling diode-L.
 So here the thyristor will not conduct in the negative half cycle and turns off at ωt = π.
 So the load receives voltage only during the positive half cycle.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output current and voltage
across thyristor.
Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with R Load

 The circuit consist of four thyristors T1, T2, T3 and T4, a voltage source Vs and a R Load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristors T1 & T2 is forward biased but it does not
conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristors T1 & T2 at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When the T1 & T2 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load through the path VsT1-Load-T2-Vs.
 During the negative half cycle, T3 & T4 is forward biased, the thyristor T1 & T2 gets reverse biased and
turns OFF
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T3 & T4 at ωt = π+α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When T3 & T4 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load Vs-T3-Load-T4-Vs.
 Here the load receives voltage during both the half cycles.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output current and voltage
across thyristor.
Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load

A. MID POINT CONVERTER

 The circuit consist of two thyristors T1 and T2, a center tap transformer, a voltage source Vs and a RL
Load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristor T1 is forward biased but it does not
conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T1 at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When the thyristor T1 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the inductor present in the
load, the current through the load builds up slowly through the path A-T1-Load-N-A.
 During the negative half cycle, T2 is forward biased, the thyristor T1 gets reverse biased but the current
through the thyristor T1 is not zero due to the inductor and T1 does not turns OFF
 The current through the inductor begins to decay to zero and T1 conducts for a small duration in negative
half cycle.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T2 at ωt = π+α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When the thyristor T2 is ON, the load current shifts its path from the T1 to T2 and thyristor T1 turns OFF
at ωt = π+α.
 When T2 is ON, the current through the load builds up slowly through the path B-T2- Load-N-B.
 So here both the thyristor will conduct for a few duration in the negative half cycle.
 The load receives voltage during both the half cycles.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output current and voltage
across thyristor
B. BRIDGE CONVERTER

 The circuit consist of four thyristors T1, T2, T3 and T4, a voltage source Vs and a RL Load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristors T1 & T2 is forward biased but it does not
conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristors T1 & T2 at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When the T1 & T2 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the inductor present in the
load, the current through the load builds up slowly through the path Vs-T1-Load-T2-Vs.
 During the negative half cycle, T3 & T4 is forward biased, the thyristor T1 & T2 gets reverse biased but
the current through them is not zero due to the inductor and does not turns OFF
 The current through the inductor begins to decay to zero and T1 & T2 conducts for a small duration in
negative half cycle.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T3 & T4 at ωt = π+α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When the thyristor T3 & T4 is ON, the load current shifts its path to T3 & T4 and turns OFF T1 & T2 at
ωt = π+α.
 When T3 & T4 is ON, the current through the load builds up slowly through the path Vs-T3-Load-T4-
Vs.
 So here all the thyristor will conduct for a few duration in the negative half cycle.
 The load receives voltage during both the half cycles.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output current and voltage
across thyristor.
Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Freewheeling Diode.

 The circuit consist of four thyristors T1, T2, T3 and T4, a voltage source Vs, a RL Load and a
freewheeling diode across the load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristors T1 & T2 is forward biased but it does not
conduct until a gate signal is applied to it.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristors T1 & T2 at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When the T1 & T2 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the inductor present in the
load, the current through the load builds up slowly through the path Vs-T1-Load-T2-Vs.
 During the negative half cycle (at ωt = π), T3 & T4 is forward biased, the thyristor T1 & T2 gets reverse
biased.
 The current shifts its path to the freewheeling diode and circulates through the loop FD-R-L-
T1 & T2 turns off at ωt = π
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T3 & T4 at ωt = π+α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When T3 & T4 is ON, the current through the load builds up slowly through the path Vs-T3-Load-T4-
Vs.
 During the next positive half cycle (at ωt = 2π), T1 & T2 is forward biased, the thyristor T3 & T4 gets
reverse biased.
 The current shifts its path to the freewheeling diode and circulates through the loop FD-R-L-FD.
 Thus T3 & T4 turns off at ωt = 2π
 So here all the thyristor will conduct only in the positive half cycle.
 The load receives voltage during both the half cycles.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output current and voltage
across thyristor.
Single Phase Full Wave Half Controlled Rectifier (Semi Converter)

 The circuit consist of two thyristors T1 & T2, two diodes D1 and D2, a voltage source Vs, a RL Load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the thyristors T1 & D1 is forward biased but it does
not conduct until a gate signal is applied to T1.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristors T1 at ωt = α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When the T1 & D1 is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load but due to the inductor present in the
load, the current through the load builds up.
 During the negative half cycle (at ωt = π), T2 & D2 is forward biased, the thyristor T1 & D1 gets reverse
biased.
 The current shifts its path to D2 and T1 in case of symmetrical converter (D1 & D2 in case of
asymmetrical converter) and circulates through the load.
 When a gate pulse is given to the thyristor T2 at ωt = π+α, it gets turned ON and begins to conduct.
 When T2 & D2 is ON, the current through the load builds up.
 During the next positive half cycle (at ωt = 2π), T1 & D1 is forward biased, the thyristor T2 & D2 gets
reverse biased.
  The current shifts its path to D1 and T2 in case of symmetrical converter (D1 & D2 in case of
asymmetrical converter) and circulates through the load.
 The load receives voltage during both the half cycles.
 The average value of output voltage can be varied by varying the firing angle α.
 The waveform shows the plot of input voltage, gate current, output voltage, output current and voltage
across thyristor.

Single Phase Semi Converter (symmetrical semi converter)

NATURAL COMMUTATION:

Generally, if we consider AC supply, the current will flow through the zero crossing line while going from
positive peak to negative peak. Thus, a reverse voltage will appear across the device simultaneously, which will
turn off the thyristor immediately. This process is called as natural commutation as thyristor is turned off naturally
without using any external components or circuit or supply for commutation purpose.

Natural commutation can be observed in AC voltage controllers, phase controlled rectifiers and cyclo converters.

Forced Commutation Methods

1. Class A: Self commutated by a resonating load

2. Class B: Self commutated by an LC circuit
3. Class C: C or L-C switched by another load carrying SCR
4. Class D: C or L-C switched by an auxiliary SCR
5. Class E: An external pulse source for commutation
6. Class F: AC line commutation

Class A: Self Commutated by a Resonating Load

Class A is one of frequently used thyristor commutation techniques. If thyristor is triggered or turned on, then
anode current will flow by charging capacitor C with dot as positive. The second order under-damped circuit is
formed by the inductor or AC resistor, capacitor and resistor. If the current builds up through SCR and completes
the half cycle, then the inductor current will flow through the SCR in the reverse direction which will turn off
thyristor.
Class B: Self Commutated by an L-C Circuit

The major difference between the class A and class B thyristor commutation techniques is that the LC is
connected in series with thyristor in class A, whereas in parallel with thyristor in class B. Before triggering on the
SCR, the capacitor is charged up (dot indicates positive). If the SCR is triggered or given triggering pulse, then
the resulting current has two components. The constant load current flowing through the R-L load is ensured by
the large reactance connected in series with the load which is clamped with freewheeling diode. If sinusoidal
current flows through the resonant L-C circuit, then the capacitor C is charged up with dot as negative at the end
of the half cycle.

The total current flowing through the SCR becomes zero with the reverse current flowing through the SCR
opposing the load current for a small a small fraction of the negative swing. If the resonant circuit current or
reverse current becomes just greater than the load current, then the SCR will be turned OFF.

Class C: C or L-C Switched by another Load Carrying SCR

In the above thyristor commutation techniques we observed only one SCR but in these class C commutation
techniques of thyristor there will be two SCRs. One SCR is considered as main thyristor and the other as auxiliary
thyristor. In this classification both may act as main SCRs carrying load current and they can be designed with
four SCRs with load across the capacitor by using a current source for supplying an integral converter.
If the thyristor T2 is triggered, then the capacitor will be charged up. If the thyristor T1 is triggered, then the
capacitor will discharge and this discharge current of C will oppose the flow of load current in T2 as the capacitor
is switched across T2 via T1.

Class D: L-C or C Switched by an Auxiliary SCR

The class C and class D thyristor commutation techniques can be differentiated with the load
current in class D: only one of the SCR‟s will carry the load current while the other acts as an auxiliary thyristor
whereas in class C both SCRs will carry load current. The auxiliary thyristor consists of resistor in its anode
which is having resistance of approximately ten times the load resistance.

By triggering the Ta (auxiliary thyristor) the capacitor is charged up to supply voltage and then the Ta will turn
OFF. The extra voltage if any, due to substantial inductance in the input lines will be discharged through the
diode-inductor-load circuit. If the Tm (main thyristor) is triggered, then the current will flow in two paths:
commutating current will flow through the CTm-L-D path and load current will flow through the load. If the
charge on the capacitor is reversed and held at that level using the diode and if Ta is re-triggered, then the voltage
across the capacitor will appear across the Tm via Ta. Thus, the main thyristor Tm will be turned off.

Class E: External Pulse Source for Commutation

For the class E thyristor commutation techniques, a transformer which can not saturate (as it is having a sufficient
iron and air gap) and capable to carry the load current with small voltage drop compared with the supply voltage.
If the thyristor T is triggered, then the current will flow through the load and pulse transformer

An external pulse generator is used to generate a positive pulse which is supplied to the cathode of the thyristor
through pulse transformer. The capacitor C is charged to around 1v and it is considered to have zero impedance
for the turn off pulse duration. The voltage across the thyristor is reversed by the pulse from the electrical
transformer which supplies the reverse recovery current, and for the required turn off time it holds the negative
voltage.
Class F: AC Line Commutated

In class F thyristor commutation techniques, an alternating voltage is used for supply and, during the positive half
cycle of this supply, load current will flow. If the load is highly inductive, then the current will remain until the
energy stored in the inductive load is dissipated. During the negative half cycle as the load current becomes zero,
then thyristor will turn off. If voltage exists for a period of rated turn off time of the device, then the negative
polarity of the voltage across the outgoing thyristor will turn it off.

Here, the duration of the half cycle must be greater than the turn off time of thyristor. This commutation process
is similar to the concept of three phase converter. Let us consider, primarily T1 and T11 are conducting with the
triggering angle of the converter, which is equal to 60 degrees, and is operating in continuous conduction mode
with highly inductive load. If the thyristors T2 and T22 are triggered, then instantaneously the current through the
incoming devices will not rise to the load current level. If the current through the incoming thyristors reaches the
load current level, then the commutation process of outgoing thyristors will be initiated. This reverse biasing
voltage of thyristor should be continued until the forward blocking state is reached. Thyristor can be simply called
as a controlled rectifier. There are different types of thyristors, which are used for designing power electronics
based innovative electrical projects. The process of turning on thyristor by providing triggering pulses to gate
terminal is called as triggering. Similarly, the process of turning off thyristor is called as commutation.