20s1_Tumors Sec I.

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CHAPTER

20
Overview
of Tumors
Section I: Clinical Avian Neoplasia and Oncology
Section II: A Retrospective Study of Case
Submissions to a Specialty Diagnostic Service
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Overview of Tumors:
Section I
Clinical Avian Neoplasia and Oncology
TERESA L. LIGHTFOOT, DVM, D ipl ABVP-A vian

Avian neoplasias encountered in practice include cancer CUTANEOUS MASSES

of the skin, oral cavity, sinuses, liver, kidney, reproductive These may be pseudo-neoplastic conditions such as xan-
organs, bones, brain, vascular structures and connective thomas and lipomas, or neoplastic lesions.
tissue. External tumors may be detected by physical
examination and can often be diagnosed by needle aspi- Xanthomas
ration, wedge, punch or surgical biopsy. Internal neo-
These are generally friable, yellow-colored, fatty-appear-
plasias often require radiographs, ultrasound, endoscopy,
ing masses that may be located anywhere on the body,
and biopsy or exploratory surgery to identify, diagnose
but are often seen on the distal wing, in the sterno-
and determine the extent of the neoplastic processes.
pubic area and on the keel (see Chapter 13, Integument).
The origin of xanthomas is unknown, however, dietary
Treatment of neoplastic processes in birds is poorly doc-
improvement, including sufficient vitamin A or vitamin A
umented. Most reports of treatment protocols are either
precursors, has been noted to be curative in less
anecdotal or involve a single patient. Many reports are
advanced cases. Xanthomas tend to be very vascular and
not published, but are to be found in avian veterinary
surgical excision, when necessary, should be undertaken
discussion groups on the Internet.35,36,37
with due attention to hemostasis. Diffuse xanthomas
may be amenable to cryotherapy, but attention must be
The presentation in this text of these anecdotal treat-
paid to maintenance of the vascular supply.35
ments is problematic. Failure to include preliminary
information regarding efficacy and/or clinical response
Lipomas
may reduce the practitioner’s willingness and ability to
recommend treatment. However, future studies may These occur most frequently in budgerigars and are usu-
either reinforce these experimental protocols or they ally located on the keel or in the sterno pubic area. Most
early lipomas respond to modified diet therapy. Lipomas
may demonstrate a lack of efficacy or serious side effects
that cause clinical signs can be addressed via surgical
of these regimes. The ultimate decision will lie with the
excision. Malignant liposarcomas are rare in psittacines.33
knowledgeable practitioner and the well-informed client.

To date, the treatment of avian neoplasia has mirrored Mucoepidermoid Carcinomas

treatment in other domestic species. Generally, solid Mucoepidermoid carcinomas are rarely reported in birds.
tumors are best treated with surgical excision, while In humans, these tumors demonstrate variable degrees of
systemic neoplastic processes (ie, systemic lymphoma, malignancy and surgical resection is often curative.
metastatic conditions) are most effectively managed with Comparable grading of this type of neoplasia has not
use of systemic chemotherapy. Cases in which surgical been established in the avian patient (Figs 20.1.1, 20.1.2).
excision is incomplete or impossible may benefit from
alternative forms of local therapy, including external Fibrosarcomas
beam radiation (Cobalt 60 or linear accelerator), cryo- These can occur anywhere on the body, but are most
therapy, photodynamic therapy or hand-held radiation commonly seen in the oral cavity, associated with long
applicators. bones, or in the abdominal cavity (Figs 20.1.3, 20.1.4).
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Lucy Bartlett
Lucy Bartlett
Fig 20.1.1 | Mucoepidermoid carcinoma. Fig 20.1.2 | Mucoepidermoid carcinoma after resection.

Fig 20.1.3 | Fibrosarcoma on the Fig 20.1.4 | Fibrosarcoma on the wing of Fig 20.1.5 | Squamous cell carcinoma
face of a budgerigar. a lovebird. of the rhamphotheca, and papillomatosis
in an older Timneh grey parrot.

Fibrosarcomas may be subcutaneous or more deeply complete excision is rarely accomplished. Radiation ther-
located in underlying tissue, and often appear fixed and apy has been attempted with some success, however,
proliferative with a nodular, red surface. They tend to be squamous cell carcinoma appears to be an exceptionally
locally invasive and often recur with conservative surgi- radioresistant tumor and long-term control is rare.
cal excision. Therefore, additional local treatment in the Anecdotal reports indicate that radioresistance may be
form of radiation therapy is often indicated for providing even greater in birds than in mammals.19,35 Strontium
long-term local control. As the metastatic rate in other therapy when tumor depth is not a limiting factor has
domestic species ranges from 5 to 15%, local disease shown some promise in selected psittacine cases.35
management is paramount, with metastatic control as a Distant metastasis is rare, therefore chemotherapy is not
secondary concern. Surgical excision followed by both commonly utilized. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has
radiation and chemotherapy has been reported with been attempted in two reported cases. One case of a
some success in a few publications.14 Strontium radiation squamous cell carcinoma in the beak of a hornbill
therapy, although limited by depth of penetration, has showed a positive result in decreasing tumor size, but
been anecdotally reported as efficacious in several failure to eliminate the neoplasia.31 The second case
instances.35 demonstrated a positive response to PDT after each
treatment, but treatments were not able to be adminis-
Squamous Cell Carcinomas tered at regular intervals.28

These also may occur anywhere on the body, being most

prevalent at mucocutaneous junctions of the head (Fig NEOPLASIA OCCURRING IN THE
20.1.5), on the distal wing and on the phalanges. The MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
uropygial (preen) gland also may develop either adeno- Theoretically these include the benign lesions such as
carcinoma or squamous cell carcinoma. (Note that chondroma and hemangioma, and malignant tumors
Amazona spp. do not possess a preen gland). Squamous including osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma and leiomyo-
cell carcinomas tend to be extremely locally invasive and sarcoma. Wide surgical resection or amputation are
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562 C l i n i c a l Av i a n M e d i c i n e - Vo l u m e I I

Fig 20.1.6 | Chondroma on the leg of a Fig 20.1.7 | Gross appearance of the Fig 20.1.8 | The bird in Fig 20.1.11,
budgerigar. abdomen in a 9-month-old African grey showing hemangioma encompassing most
parrot with diffuse coelomic hemangioma. abdominal viscera.

generally the suggested methods of treatment, as (see Chapter 13, Integument). Although histopathologi-
benign lesions are often cured with complete excision cally benign, in at least one case in this author’s experi-
and a decrease in tumor burden can be accomplished ence, hemangioma occurred in a juvenile African grey
in malignant lesions. As tumors such as osteosarcoma (Psittacus erithacus) and involved the coelomic cavity,
carry high metastatic rates, additional therapies may be small intestine, liver, lung, air sacs and pericardium.
indicated. Extrapolation from canine and feline oncol- Complete surgical excision could not be accomplished
ogy may suggest other modalities such as radiation ther- and euthanasia was eventually required (Figs 20.1.7,
apy for additional local treatment and chemotherapy for 20.1.8). Treatment of a hemangiosarcoma with radiation
systemic control. therapy has been reported in one case.9

Chondromas Internal Carcinomas

Therapy for chondromas generally involves aggressive These are commonly reported in birds and include ovar-
surgical excision of the affected area (Fig 20.1.6). ian neoplasias (of various cell origins), renal carcinomas,
Radiation and chemotherapy may be considered. hepatic adenocarcinoma, hepatobiliary and pancreatic
adenocarcinoma (related to papillomas in Amazons),
Osteosarcoma splenic and gastric carcinomas. Papillary carcinomas of
Confirmation of osteosarcoma has rarely been reported air sac origin are locally invasive and may present as
in psittacines. Species and anatomic location predilec- external masses. Anecdotal reports exist indicating
tions have not been noted in psittacines. Documentation intralesional carboplatin therapy may be useful in ovar-
of classifiable radiographic changes consistent with ian and renal adenocarcinoma, generally following surgi-
osteosarcoma is not available for birds. cal debulking and confirmation of the neoplasia on
histopathology.18,34 Bile duct carcinoma also has been
A biopsy should be obtained from patients where radi-
treated with carboplatin successfully in one report.38
ographic bony lesions are present. Under inhalant anes-
Toxicity studies with cisplatin in cockatoos indicate that
thesia, a 22- to 20-gauge needle can be surgically intro-
psittacine tolerance for this drug may be greater than
duced into the bone. A sufficient sample is usually
that of mammals.8
obtained and subsequently retained in the hub of the
needle. The sample can then be dislodged with smaller Tamoxifen administration has not been evaluated for effi-
gauge wire and submitted. If a diagnosis of osteosar- cacy in cases of avian ovarian carcinoma, but anti-estro-
coma is received, amputation with follow-up chemother- genic activity was suggested and side effects were mini-
apy is the current recommended protocol extrapolated mal in one drug trial.17 GnRH agonistsa have been effec-
from canine medicine. tive empirically (dosed at 200-800 µg/kg), however, con-
firmation of neoplasia (as opposed to cystic ovarian dis-
INTERNAL NEOPLASIA ease) has not often been confirmed prior to therapy.16,20

Hemangiomas Doxorubicin (adriamycin) is commonly employed in the

These seem to occur more commonly than hemangiosar- treatment of carcinomas in human and canine patients.
comas in birds. Hemangioma may be internal or external The limiting toxic effects of doxorubicin include myelo-
and commonly appears as a red-purple, flat, firm lesion suppression and cardiac toxicity. To date, the degree to
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563

which these concerns will apply to avian cancer patients

has not been determined. Anecdotal reports of both tox-
icity and efficacy of doxorubicin in avian patients are
currently inconclusive.34 Dosages of 50-60 mg/m2 have
been used with no adverse reactions. In several cases
there has been significant tumor regression (Goldsmith,
Lightfoot, unpublished data, 2004).

Carcinomas, generally diagnosed at necropsy, are often

found at the proventricular-ventricular junction. Death
from this neoplasia may be due to hemorrhage, perfora-
tion and sepsis or endotoxic shock, or inanition and

Lucy Bartlett
subsequent wasting. Metastasis to the lungs has been
confirmed in one case report.4

Biliary and pancreatic carcinomas are frequently diag- Fig 20.1.9 | Thymoma in a lovebird,
intraoperatively.
nosed in the genus Amazona and to a lesser degree,
Ara, in conjunction with internal papillomatosis.11,13 A
recent connection to a herpesvirus has been identified
(see Chapter 32, Implications of Viruses in Clinical with conditions related to the pituitary hormone(s) that
Disorders). Carboplatin has been used in several cases are affected. Usually, this will be pronounced polydypsia
with equivocal results, but with no apparent toxicity.7,35,38 and polyuria. Occasional presentations will be that of a
retrobulbar mass and subsequent exophthalmia.27 In
Surgical excision is the treatment of choice with solitary human medicine, surgical resection and radiation ther-
lesions of hepatic cell carcinoma in other species, and is apy (if needed) are utilized for treatment. Size and mon-
the only documented curative treatment in human medi- etary constraints make routine treatment by these meth-
cine. Combinations of chemotherapy and radiation ther- ods unlikely in our small psittacine patients.
apy have been used with equivocal results in people in
an attempt to prevent or limit metastatic disease. In Thyroid
widely disseminated hepatic carcinoma, palliative chemo- Budgerigars that are iodine deficient may develop non-
therapy is often employed. However, extrapolation from neoplastic thyroid hyperplasia that presents as a thyroid
people would indicate that this type of cancer is highly mass, often causing a change in the voice or a respira-
resistant to chemotherapy. The most commonly employed tory squeak.
chemotherapeutic agents in human medicine appear to
be doxorubicin and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), however, Thyroid Tumors
mean survival times do not appear to be statistically These are not as common in birds as they are in domestic
improved in patients with widely disseminated disease. rabbits, but do occur (Fig 20.1.9). They may be intra-
The use of immunotherapy — including interferon, in thoracic or located in the area of the neck. In humans,
conjunction with cisplatin, doxorubicin and 5-FU — has classification according to cell type (medullary, cortical
shown the most promise to date in human patients. and mixed) is a prognostic indicator, with cortical
Unfortunately, interferon is limited in its usefulness by tumors having the highest incidence of recurrence and
cost and availability in veterinary medicine. The effi- malignancy. Thymoma and thyroid adenocarcinoma have
ciency of radiation therapy for carcinomas and other been reported in several psittacine species. Surgical exci-
neoplasias is largely unknown. However, tolerance of sion is the primary treatment recommendation. Adjuvant
radiation therapy has been anecdotally reported as radiation and chemotherapy protocols are being utilized
greater than anticipated. in human medicine. Cisplatin is used in many human
chemotherapy protocols for thymomas and thymic carci-
Endocrine Neoplasia nomas. Limited studies have shown that psittacines may
Neoplasia of endocrine origin is not frequently reported be tolerant of the common side effects induced by cis-
in birds. platin, and this agent may be useful in the treatment of
these neoplasias.
Pituitary Adenomas
These have been documented in multiple avian species, Pancreatic Neoplasias
but are most prevalent in budgerigars and cockatiels. Infrequent accounts of primary pancreatic neoplasia of
Affected animals may present with acute neurologic con- variable cell origin, not associated with internal papillo-
ditions (seizures/opisthotonos). They also may present matosis, have been reported.23
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564 C l i n i c a l Av i a n M e d i c i n e - Vo l u m e I I

Lori Harrison
Lori Harrison
Fig 20.1.10 | Retrobulbar lymphoma in a young African grey. Fig 20.1.11 | Gross necropsy photo of the liver
from the African grey in Fig 20.1.10. A fine-nee-
dle aspirate of the liver demonstrated that the
lymphoma had spread to involve the hepatic
parenchyma.

Respiratory Neoplasia exist. Some of the chemotherapeutic agents listed may be

Primary respiratory neoplasia is uncommon in psitta- determined to be either ineffectual or contraindicated in
cines.12 An exception seems to be an intrathoracic neo- birds. As documentation of these variables occurs, it is
plasia reported in cockatiels. It is characterized by the hoped that protocols can be developed that will produce
inclusion of two cell types, having both mesenchymal more predictable results in the avian patient.
and epithelial cell components (see Section II of this Chemotherapy Protocols for Canine Lymphoma*
chapter). Few other primary pulmonary neoplasias have
(Current recommended canine dosages can be found in
been reported in the literature.2 Metastatic pulmonary
Plumb’s Veterinary Handbook).
neoplasia may occur, but it is not noted with the same
frequency as is documented in dogs.4 1. Oral Therapies
a. Prednisolone and cyclophosphamide
b. Lomustine (CCNU)
Lymphoma/Lymphosarcoma
2. Injectable Therapy
Numerous reports of exophthalmos in psittacines, par- a. COP-L Protocol
ticularly young African greys, have been diagnosed as i. L-asparaginase injection
retrobulbar lymphoma (Fig 20.1.10). Differential diag- ii. Oral prednisolone (tapering dose)
iii. Oral weekly cyclophosphamide
noses for this condition are pituitary adenoma and iv. Vincristine injections weekly IV
hyperplasia or adenoma of the Harderian gland. b. Single-agent adriamycin injections q 3 weeks IV
Lymphoma may have many presentations in pet birds, c. UW-Madison Cyclic Combination
much as it does in other companion animals (Fig i. L-asparaginase
20.1.11). Chemotherapy is the treatment of choice for ii. Vincristine
systemic disease, and surgery and radiation therapies iii. Cyclophosphamide
iv. Adriamycin
have been successfully employed in cases of solitary lym-
v. Prednisolone
phoma.6,35 To date, no evidence of retroviral activity has
Applicable testing (CBC, biochemistries, cardiac evalua-
been associated with psittacine lymphoma.
tion) should be performed to assess the initial and intra-
therapeutic health of the patient.
The clinician may find it useful to have access to current
protocols for lymphoma that are utilized in canine medi-
*It must be emphasized again that these protocols are
cine. Tracy LaDue, Diplomate ACVIM-Oncology and
designed for canine patients. Extrapolation to avian
ACVR-Radiation Oncology, of Florida Veterinary Specialists
patients must be undertaken with the knowledge that
in Tampa, Florida, US, has generously provided the fol-
efficacy and potential side effects have not been docu-
lowing abbreviated outline of therapeutic options and
mented.
chemotherapeutic agents. These protocols are NOT
established for avian patients, but are provided to give
the practitioner a point of reference when attempting to CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS
design potential therapeutic regimes for birds with lym- Anticancer agents are typically broken into six categories
phoma. Again, species differences in response may well based on their mechanism of action.
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565

1. Alkylating agents such as cyclophosphamide and Most anticancer agents have associated vomiting, diar-
lomustine prevent cell replication by covalently bind- rhea and bone marrow suppression as sequelae. It is
ing to the nucleotide bases of the DNA molecule. important to monitor patients for signs of dehydration
2. Antimetabolites will mimic purine, pyrimidine or or secondary infection as a result of chemotherapy
metabolite precursors of the nucleotide bases, result- administration. Some anticancer agents have particular
ing in non-functional DNA. toxicities known to that drug alone, such as sterile hem-
3. Steroids such as prednisone and prednisolone cause orrhagic cystitis due to cyclophosphamide metabolites in
lympholysis and suppress neutrophil function and dogs and people. Such toxicities are not well reported in
antibody production. avian species and should be monitored for accordingly.
4. Plant alkaloids such as vincristine bind to micro-
tubules to prevent normal formation and function of When confronted with a confirmed diagnosis of neoplasia,
the mitotic spindle. The antibiotics such as adriamycin a current literature search is warranted due to the rapid
intercalate between DNA base pairs to disrupt tran- advances and changes in treatment recommendations.
scription and also cause oxygen free radical damage. Consultation with a veterinary oncologist will increase the
5. Miscellaneous drugs such as the Platinol compounds likelihood of selecting an appropriate treatment regime
(cisplatin and carboplatin) also bind to bases of the and properly administering the chosen therapy.
DNA preventing replication, but have a bifunctional
ability with double attachment to DNA strands. Products Mentioned in Text
a. Depo-Lupron, Pharmaceuticals, Inc, Deerfield, IL USA, 800-622-2011
6. L-asparaginase hydrolyzes asparagine to aspartic acid
and ammonia, resulting in loss of an essential amino
acid for cell function.

References and 10. Hahn KA, Jones MP, Petersen MG: Adenocarcinoma in a Budgerigar. Parrot. J Avian Med Surg 9(4):263-
Metastatic pheochromocytoma in Exotic DVM 4(2):11-12 May 2002. 270, 1995.
Recommended Reading a parakeet. Avian Dis 41(3):751-4, 19. Manucy TK, Bennett RA, 28. Rosenthal K, et al: A Report of
1. Altman RA, et al (eds): Avian 1997. Greenacre C: Squamous cell car- Photodynamic Therapy for
Medicine and Surgery. Phila- 11. Hillyer EV, et al: Bile duct carci- cinoma of the mandibular beak in Squamous Cell Carcinoma in a
delphia, WB Saunders Co, 1997. noma in two out of ten Amazon a Buffon’s macaw (Ara ambigua). Cockatiel. Proc Ann Conf AAV
2. Andre JP, Delverdier M: Primary parrots with cloacal papillomas. J J Avian Med Surg 12(3):158-166, 2001, pp 175-176.
bronchial carcinoma with oseous Assoc Avian Vet 5(2):91-95, 1991. 1998. 29. Schmidt RE: Selected Neoplasia
metastasis in an African grey par- 12. Jones MP, Orosz SE: Pulmonary 20. Morrissey JK: Gastrointestinal of the Avian Integument. Exotic
rot (Psittacus erithacus). J Avian carcinoma with metastases in a Diseases of Psittacine Birds. Sem DVM Vol 4(2):13-14, 2002.
Med Surg 13(3):180-186, 1999. Moluccan cockatoo (Cacatua Avian Exotic Pet Med 8(2):66-74, 30. Sturkie PD, Whittow GC (eds):
3. Burgmann PM: Common moluccensis). J Avian Med Surg 1999. Sturkie’s Avian Physiology 5th ed.
psittacine dermatologic diseases. 15(2):107-113, 2001. 21. Orosz, SE, Ensley PK, Haynes CJ: San Diego, Academic Press,
Sem Avian Exotic Pet Med 13. Kennedy FA, Sattler-Augustin S: Avian Surgical Anatomy. Harcourt Brace and Co, 2000.
4(4):169-183, 1995. Oropharyngeal and cloacal papil- Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 31. Suedmeyer WK: Attempted
4. Campbell TW: Carcinoma of the lomas in two macaws (Ara spp.) 1992. Photodynamic Therapy of
ventriculus with metastasis to the with neoplasia with hepatic 22. Ottinger MA: Neuroendocrine Squamous Cell Carcinoma in the
lungs in a sulphur-crested cocka- metastasis. J Avian Med Surg Regulation of Reproduction in Casque of a Great Hornbill
too (Cacatua galerita), J Avian 10(2):89-95, 1996. Birds and Clinical Applications of (Buceros bicornis). J Avian Med
Med Surg 13(4):265-268, 1999. 14. Lamberski N, Theon AP: GnRH Analogues in Birds and Surg 15(1):44-49, 2001.
5. Clyde VL, Orosz SE, Munson L: Concurrent irradiation and intra- Mammals. Sem Avian Exotic Pet 32. Tell LA, Woods L, Mathews KG:
Severe hepatic fibrosis and bile tumoral chemotherapy with cis- Med 11(2):71-79 April, 2002. Basal cell carcinoma in a blue-
duct hyperplasia in four Amazon platin for treatment of a fibrosar- 23. Rae M: Endocrine Disease in Pet fronted amazon parrot (Amazona
parrots. J Avian Med Surg coma in a blue and gold macaw Birds. Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med aestiva), Avian Dis 41(3):755-9
10(4):252-257, 1996. (Ara ararauna). J Avian Med Surg 4(1):32-38 Jan 1995. Jul-Sep 1997.
6. Coleman CW: Lymphoid neopla- 16(3):234-238, 2002. 24. Ramos-Vara JA: Lymphosarcoma 33. Tully T: Liposarcomas In A Monk
sia in pet birds: A review. J Avian 15. Lennox AM: The Use of Aldara with plasmacytoid differentiation Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus).
Med Surg 9(1):3-7, 1995. (Imiquimod) for the Treatment of in a scarlet macaw (Ara macao). J Assoc Avian Vet 8(3):120-124
7. Degernes LA: Multicystic biliary Cloacal Papillomatosis in Avian Dis 41(2):499-504 Apr-Jun Fall 1994.
adenocarcinoma in a blue-and- Psittacines. Exotic DVM 4(3):34- 1997. 34. Watson CL, Lucroy MD: Primary
gold macaw (Ara ararauna). J 35 July 2002. 25. Ritchie B, Harrison GJ, Harrison Appendicular Bone Tumors in
Avian Med Surg 12(2):100-107, 16. Lightfoot TL: Avian Common LR (eds): Avian Medicine: Dogs. Compend Contin Edu Pract
1998. Clinical Presentations: Neoplastic, Principles and Application. Lake Vet 24(2):128-138 Feb 2002.
8. Filippich LJ: Intravenous cisplatin Toxic, Viral and Miscellaneous. Worth, FL, Wingers Publishing, 35. www.vin.com, Member Search -
administration in sulphur-crested Proc Atlantic Coast Vet Conf, Inc, 1994. Species: Bird, Subject: Neoplasia
cockatoos (Cacatua galerita): 2001. 26. Ritchey JW, Degernes LA, Brown 36. www.exoticdvm.com
Clinical and pathologic observa- 17. Lupu CA: Evaluation of Side TT Jr: Exocrine pancreatic insuffi- 37. www.avianmedicine.net
tions. J Avian Med Surg 15(1):23- Effects of Tamoxifen in ciency in a yellow-naped Amazon 38. Zantop DA: Treatment of bile
30, 2001. Budgerigars, (Melopsittacus (Amazona ochrocephala) with duct carcinoma in birds with
9. Freeman KP: Radiation therapy undulatus). J Avian Med Surg pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Vet carboplatin. Exotic DVM 2(3):76-
for hemangiosarcoma in a 14(4):237-242 Dec 2000. Pathol 34(1):55-7 1997. 78, 2000.
budgerigar. J Avian Med Surg 18. MacWhirter P: Use of Carboplatin 27. Romagnano A, Mashima TY:
13(1):40-44, 1999. in the Treatment of Renal Pituitary Adenoma in an Amazon
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Overview of Tumors:
Section II
A Retrospective Study of Case
Submissions to a Specialty Diagnostic Service
MICHAEL M. GARNER, DVM, D ipl ACVP

The occurrence of various types of avian neoplasia has prevalence of neoplasia over the 7-year period was high-
been comprehensively reviewed.6 This section documents est in Anseriformes (ducks, geese, swans), Galliformes
the prevalence of neoplasms in 22 avian orders submit- (poultry, pheasants), Strigiformes (owls) and
ted to a specialty diagnostic service (Northwest ZooPath, Cuculiformes (cuckoos, turacos).
Monroe, WA) from 1994 to 2002. Cases were selected
based on histologic diagnosis. Cysts, hyperplastic Tables 20.2.3 and 20.2.4 list the tumor submissions by
processes, fibromatous polyps and poxvirus-related pro- type and biological behavior. The most common types of
liferative lesions were not included. Cases diagnosed as tumors were cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma, multi-
neoplastic based on cytology alone also were excluded. centric lymphoma, cutaneous soft tissue sarcoma, biliary
Although potentially reversible and not considered true adenocarcinoma and ovarian/oviduct adenocarcinoma.
neoplasms, adenomatous polyps and papillomas were
included because of the known association of these
lesions with concurrent neoplasia in psittacine birds.4 Neoplasia by Avian Order
Type, location, biological behavior and patient outcome
are addressed. Apparent trends for particular types of
neoplasms in some orders or species also are identified
PSITTACIFORMES
and discussed. For the purposes of this manuscript, Order Psittaciformes (parrots and related species) had
prevalence refers to a given percentage within the study 3545 representatives and 220 neoplastic processes
population, and the study population comprises the (prevalence = 6.2%) (see Table 20.2.2), slightly higher
cases submitted to the service. The prevalence of these than the average prevalence for tumor submissions from
neoplasms in the populations from which these birds other orders. Table 20.2.5 summarizes the most common
originated is not known. presentations of neoplasms within this order. Trend crite-
ria were based on total number of tumor types in a
Table 20.2.1 lists the tumor submissions by site and bio- species (two or more), and percent of total for all tumors
logical behavior. Skin was the most common site for in a species (10% or greater). Using these criteria, numer-
tumor development, followed by alimentary tract, repro- ous trends were observed within this order. For cock-
ductive tract and liver. In all locations except alimentary atiels (Nymphicus hollandicus), trends were identified in
tract, malignant tumors were more common than soft tissue sarcoma, squamous cell carcinoma, ovarian/
benign tumors; the large numbers of cloacal and oral oviduct adenocarcinoma, fibrosarcoma and seminoma.
papillomas and adenomatous polyps in psittacine birds For Amazon parrots (Amazona spp.), trends were identi-
account for this variation in behavior. fied for squamous cell carcinoma, cloacal adenomatous
polyp, cloacal papilloma and biliary adenocarcinoma. For
Table 20.2.2 summarizes total numbers of submissions macaws (Ara spp.), trends were identified for cloacal
and total numbers of tumors for each order. For the adenomatous polyp, cloacal papilloma and biliary adeno-
study period, 9574 avian samples were submitted, repre- carcinoma. For cockatoos (Cacatua spp.), trends were
senting 22 orders; 557 neoplastic processes were identi- identified for soft tissue sarcomas and cloacal adenoma-
fied, for an overall prevalence of 5.8%. The overall tous polyps. For budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus),
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567

Table 20.2.1 | Tumor Submissions by Table 20.2.3 | Epithelial, Gonadal and Bimorphic Neoplasmsa: Total Numbers,
Site and Biological Behavior Biological Behavior and Patient Outcome
Location Total Malignant Benign Tumor Tumor Invasive Lymphatic Meta- Death Death Excised Lost to
Type # Behavior invasion stasis Due to Due to follow
Skin 120 92 28
Tumor Other up
Alimentary 67 32 35
Malignant neoplasms
Reproductive 64 59 5
Squamous cell 48 48 1 4 16 0 3 29
Liver 54 45 9 carcinoma
Kidney 28 17 11 Biliary 29 29 0 5 28 0 0 1
Respiratory 20 20 0 adenocarcinoma

Intracoelomic 17 16 1 Ovarian/oviduct 28 28 2 9 19 2 0 7
adenocarcinoma
Pancreas 13 12 1
Renal 16 16 0 1 15 0 0 1
Endocrine 13 6 7 adenocarcinoma
Uropygial gland 8 7 1 Seminoma 15 15 0 0 5 8 3 3
Musculoskeletal 7 7 0 Pancreatic 13 13 0 7 13 0 0 0
Thymus 5 4 1 adenocarcinoma
Conjunctiva 5 2 3 Intracoelomic 12 12 0 5 12 0 0 0
adenocarcinoma
CNS 3 3 0
Hepatocellular 11 11 0 3 10 1 0 0
Spleen 2 1 1 carcinoma
Heart 2 2 0 Proventricular 10 10 0 4 10 0 0 0
adenocarcinoma
Air sac 9 9 1 4 8 0 0 1
Table 20.2.2 | Total Submissions and adenocarcinoma
Prevalence of Neoplasia by Order
Pulmonary 6 6 0 0 6 0 0 0
Order Cases Tumors % adenocarcinoma
Anseriformes 1024 119 11.6 Ventricular 5 5 1 1 5 0 0 0
adenocarcinoma
Strigiformes 131 13 9.9
Cloacal 4 4 0 0 1 0 0 3
Galliformes 783 74 9.4
adenocarcinoma
Cuculiformes 62 5 8.1
Sertoli cell tumor 4 4 1 1 1 3 0 0
Psittaciformes 3545 220 6.2
Bimorphic 4 4 0 1 4 0 0 0
Columbiformes 294 17 5.8 pulmonary tumor
Sphenisciformes 204 11 5.4 Thyroid 3 3 0 0 3 0 0 0
Phoenicopteriformes 265 13 4.9 adenocarcinoma

Coraciiformes 192 9 4.7 Interrenal cell 2 2 0 1 2 0 0 0

carcinoma
Unknown 44 2 4.5
Nephroblastoma 2 2 0 0 1 1 0 0
Gruiformes 249 11 4.4
Benign neoplasms
Falconiformes 272 10 3.7
Papilloma 21 0 0 0 0 2b 1 18
Ciconiiformes 307 11 3.6
Adenomatous 17 0 0 0 0 5c 1 11
Struthioniformes 111 3 2.7 polyp
Charadriiformes 240 6 2.5 Renal adenoma 12 0 0 0 6 6 0 0
Coliiformes 51 1 2.0 Hepatoma 4 0 0 0 2 1 0 1
Piciformes 198 4 2.0 Thyroid adenoma 4 0 0 0 1 3 0 0
Passeriformes 1441 27 1.8 Interrenal cell 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0
Pelecaniformes 58 1 1.7 adenomad
Apodiformes 19 0 0.0 Biliary adenoma/ 3 0 0 0 0 4 0 1
cystadenoma
Procellariiformes 6 0 0.0
Granulosa cell 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
Gaviiformes 63 0 0.0 tumor
Caprimulgiformes 15 0 0.0 Folliculoma 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Totals 9574 557 5.8
a. For all tumors represented two or more times in the study. Tumors represented only once not
included.
b. One psittacine cloacal papilloma was associated with concurrent fatal biliary adenocarcinoma, and
one psittacine ingluvial papilloma underwent transformation to fatal squamous cell carcinoma.
c. Four psittacine cloacal adenomatous polyps transformed locally to adenocarcinomas. Two
psittacines with cloacal adenomatous polyps had concurrent fatal biliary adenocarcinoma, and two
psittacines with cloacal adenomatous polyps had concurrent fatal pancreatic adenocarcinoma.
d. The function of interrenal cells (cells of the avian adrenal gland) is analogous to cortical cells of the
mammalian adrenal gland.
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Table 20.2.4 | Mesenchymal Neoplasmsa: Biological Behavior and Patient Outcome

Tumor Type Tumor # Invasive Lymphatic Metastasis Death Due Death Due Excised Lost to
Behavior Invasion to Tumor to Other follow up
Malignant tumors
Lymphoma 40 40 0 36b 36 0 0 4
Soft tissue sarcoma c
36 33 1 4 15 2 6 13
Fibrosarcoma 19 19 0 0 6 2 1 10
Hemangiosarcoma 11 11 0 3 9 0 1 1
Osteosarcoma 6 6 0 1 5 0 1 1
Myelolipoma 5 5 0 0d 5 0 0 0
Nerve sheath 4 4 0 0 0 0 1 3
Melanoma 4 4 0 2 3 1 0 0
Thymoma 4 4 0 0 1 0 0 3
Liposarcoma 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2
Lymphoproliferative disease 2 2 0 1* 2 0 0 0
Benign tumors
Lipoma 16 0 0 0 0 0 3 13
Hemangioma 8 0 0 0 1 1 2 4
Myelolipoma 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
*multicentric
a. For all tumors represented two or more times in the study. Tumors represented only once not included.
b. Lymphoma is generally a multicentric process. In 35 birds, the tumor was considered multicentric rather than metastatic, based on the
presence of neoplastic cells in at least two different tissue types. In only one dead bird with full tissue evaluation was lymphoma
detected in only one tissue (thymus). The remaining four cases were single tissue biopsies that were lost to follow-up, but also were
likely multicentric tumors. Two cases had apparent concurrent lymphoid leukemia, based on histologic evaluation.
c. Tumors were classified as soft tissue sarcomas if they were undifferentiated or had too much anaplasia to determine the cell of origin.
Likely differentials were fibrosarcoma, leiomyosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, synovial sarcoma, neurofibrosarcoma, myxosarcoma and
amelanotic melanoma.
d. Intracoelomic myelolipomas were invasive and infiltrated many visceral tissues. It was difficult to determine if some visceral foci were
extensions of the invasive process or represented metastatic lesions.

Table 20.2.5 | Prevalence of Most Common Types of Neoplasms in Psittacine Birds

Species and Total # of Tumors
Tumor Type and Cockatiel Amazon Macaw Cockatoo Budgerigar Lovebird African Rosella
% of Total Psittacine Cases (220) (39) (30) (28) (25) (25) (19) Grey (8) (3)
Soft tissue sarcoma - 23 (10.5%) 6 (15%) 0 2 (7% ) 4 (16%) 4 (16%) 4 (21%) 1 (12.5%) 0
Squamous cell carcinoma - 22 (10%) 7 (18%) 3 (10%) 1 (4%) 0 5 ( 20%) 0 2 (25%) 2 (67%)
Cloacal adenomatous polyp - 15 (6.8%) 0 4 (13%) 4 (14%) 4 (16%) 0 0 1 (12.5%) 0
Ovarian/oviduct adenocarcinoma - 13 (5.9%) 7 (18%) 0 1 (4%) 2 (8%) 0 1 (5%) 0 0
Cloacal papilloma - 12 (5.5%) 0 4 (13%) 7 (25%) 0 0 0 1 (12.5%) 0
Fibrosarcoma - 11 (5%) 2 (5%) 0 0 2 (8%) 4 (16%) 2 (11%) 0 0
Biliary adenocarcinoma - 11 (5%) 0 4 (13%) 3 (11%) 0 0 1 (5%) 0 0
Lymphoma - 8 (3.6%) 0 2 (7%) 1 (4%) 0 1 (4%) 3 (16%) 1 (12.5%) 0
Seminoma - 7 (3.2%) 3 (7.6%) 0 1 (4%) 0 1 (4%) 0 0 0
Renal adenocarcinoma - 6 (2.7%) 0 0 1 (4%) 1 (4%) 4 (16%) 0 0 0

trends were identified for soft tissue sarcoma, squamous (Cacatua spp.), an African grey, a thick-billed parrot
cell carcinoma, fibrosarcoma and renal adenocarcinoma. (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) and a Patagonian conure
Interestingly, although lipomas are recognized as a com- (Cyanoliseus patagonus). This distribution is similar to
mon tumor in budgerigars,6,12 a trend was not identified that of retrospective studies of this condition.4,14 Malig-
in this analysis of submissions. This may be because clini- nant transformation of cloacal “papillomas” has been
cians easily recognize these tumors, thus biopsies are not described in psittacine birds.6,14 In this study, four cloacal
routinely submitted. For lovebirds (Agapornis spp.), adenomatous polyps (two macaws, one amazon parrot
trends were identified for soft tissue sarcoma, fibrosar- and one cockatoo) underwent local transformation to
coma and lymphoma. For African greys (Psittacus eritha- adenocarcinoma, although no metastases were seen.
cus) and rosellas (Platycercus spp.), trends were identi- Adenomatous polyps also were noted in the proventricu-
fied for squamous cell carcinoma. lus of a cockatoo and on the eyelid of a cockatiel. Two
cloacal adenomatous polyps were associated with con-
Cloacal Adenomatous Polyps and Papillomas current biliary adenocarcinoma and two with concurrent
Cloacal adenomatous polyps were common in Amazon pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Cloacal papillomas also
parrots and macaws, and also were seen in cockatoos were common in macaws and Amazon parrots, and one
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was seen in an African grey. Concurrent or isolated GALLIFORMES

oral/choanal papillomas were occasionally seen. Only
Order Galliformes (chickens, turkeys, pheasants, pea-
one of the cloacal papillomas was associated with con-
fowl) had 783 representatives and 74 tumors (9.5%) (see
current biliary adenocarcinoma, and none were associ-
Table 20.2.2), considerably higher than the average for
ated with malignant transformation in the cloaca.
tumor submissions from other orders. Table 20.2.6 sum-
Proliferative lesions of the cloacal mucosa of psittacine marizes the most common presentations of neoplasms
birds are well recognized.4,6,14 Although typically referred within this order. Trend criteria were based on total
to as papillomas, there are different morphologic presen- number of a tumor type in a species (two or more), and
tations: a papilliform proliferation of squamous mucosal percent of total for all tumors in a species (10% or
epithelial cells resembling a typical papilloma; and an greater). Using these criteria, numerous trends were
adenomatous proliferation of glandular and villous observed within this order. For chickens, trends were
mucosa more typical of a polyp, perhaps best termed an identified for lymphoma, ovarian/oviduct adenocarci-
adenomatous polyp. Although the morphologic features noma and squamous cell carcinoma. These tumors are
of cloacal adenomatous polyps and papillomas differ, it is well recognized in poultry.2,10,11,16 Some of these tumors,
possible that these represent different morphologic vari- particularly the lymphoid malignancies, may have been
ants of the same disease process. Both have similar site associated with or induced by viral infection.2,10,11,16 The
and species predilections, and both are sometimes asso- only identifiable trend in pheasants was for interrenal
ciated with concurrent pancreatic and biliary malignan- cell adenoma, an otherwise uncommon tumor in birds.
cies. However, the distinction between cloacal adenoma- For guinea fowl, trends were identified for squamous
tous polyps and papillomas may not be purely academic. cell carcinoma, seminoma and hepatocellular carcinoma.
Based on this collection of the two cloacal phenotypes, The only trend identified in peafowl was lymphoma. For
the adenomatous polyps appear to have the most poten- turkeys, trends were identified for ovarian/oviduct ade-
tial for undergoing malignant transformation in the nocarcinoma and lymphoma. Herpesviruses and retro-
cloaca, and for being associated with concurrent pancre- viruses have been identified as important causes of neo-
atic or biliary neoplasia. Cloacal papillomas have been plasia in gallinaceous birds, particularly chickens and
associated with herpesvirus gene sequences.5,13 turkeys,2,10,11,16 and it is possible that viral oncogenesis
was a factor in many of the cases within this order; how-
Bimorphic Pulmonary Neoplasms of Cockatiels ever, serologic and other ancillary testing for viral causes
was not routinely performed on case submissions, so
Four separate cases of an unusual malignant pulmonary
viral status of affected birds was generally not known.
neoplasm were seen in cockatiels. The birds presented
with a history of dyspnea and usually had a radiographi-
cally apparent mass in the thoracic region of the coelomic ANSERIFORMES
cavity. Microscopically, the tumor involved the lung and Order Anseriformes (ducks, geese, swans) had 1024 rep-
spread by extension to serosal surfaces of viscera, espe- resentatives and 119 tumors (11.6%) (see Table 20.2.2),
cially heart and air sacs. One case of possible metastasis considerably higher than the average for tumor submis-
to the endocardial surface also was seen. The tumor sions from other orders. All the birds were adults or aged
appeared to arise within the pulmonary parenchyma, and most tumors likely occurred spontaneously. Trend cri-
around the parabronchi. These neoplasms have unusual teria were based on total number of a tumor type in a
cell morphology and are characterized by densely cellu- species (two or more), and percent of total for all tumors
lar sheets of round to elongate cells with large vesicular in a species (10% or greater). Using these criteria, only
to amphophilic smudged nuclei. The cells stain posi- two trends were identified: lymphoma and biliary adeno-
tively for mammalian vimentin, a mesenchymal cell carcinoma in ducks, although a broad spectrum of neo-
marker, and have cytoplasmic intermediate filaments plastic processes was represented in this group.
consistent with vimentin, suggesting that the cells are of
mesenchymal origin. The cells stain negatively for mam-
malian epithelial pan cytokeratins; however, desmo- PASSERIFORMES
somes, a feature of epithelial cells, are occasionally seen Order Passeriformes (songbirds) had 1441 representa-
between adjacent cells. The cell of origin is poorly tives and only 27 tumors (1.9%) (see Table 20.2.2), con-
understood, but the tumors appear to be “bimorphic” siderably below the average for other orders, suggesting
with mesenchymal and epithelial cell components. The that spontaneous neoplasia in passerine birds is rela-
nuclear characteristics of the neoplastic cells resemble tively uncommon. All birds were adults, a broad spec-
the inclusions caused by polyomavirus, but no virus has trum of neoplastic processes was represented and
been detected by electron microscopy, in situ hybridiza- tumors likely occurred spontaneously in most cases.
tion or PCR (M.M. Garner, unpublished data). One possible trend was observed: two mynahs had
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Table 20.2.6 | Prevalence of Most Common Types of Neoplasms in Galliform Birds

Tumor Type Total # of Tumors per Species
and % of Total Galliform Cases
Chickena Pheasant Guinea fowl Peafowl Turkey
(74)
(37) (5) (8) (5) (10)
Lymphoma - 12 (16.2%) 6 (16%) 0 0 2 (40%) 4 (40%)
Squamous cell carcinoma - 9 (12.1%) 4 (11%) 0 3 (38%) 1 0
Ovarian/oviduct adenocarcinoma - 8 (10.8%) 6 (16%) 0 0 0 2 (20%)
Renal Adenocarcinoma - 4 (5.4%) 2 (5%) 1 (20%) 0 0 1 (10%)
Pancreatic adenocarcinoma - 4 (5.4%) 3 (8%) 0 0 0 1 (10%)
Seminoma - 4 (5.4%) 0 0 2 (25%) 0 1 (10%)
Interrenal cell adenoma - 3 (4.1%) 0 2 (40%) 0 1 (20%) 0
Hepatocellular carcinoma - 3 (4.1%) 1 0 2 (25%) 0 0
a. Includes chickens, roosters, jungle fowl

hepatic malignancies and concurrent hemochromatosis, with myelolipomas were from the same zoo.
suggesting iron storage in the liver may precipitate
malignant transformation in this species, as alluded to SPHENISCIFORMES
by other authors.8,9
Order Sphenisciformes (penguins) had 204 representa-
tives and 11 tumors (5.4%) (see Table 20.2.2), about
PHOENICOPTERIDAE average compared to submissions from other avian
Suborder Phoenicopteridae (flamingos) had 265 repre- orders. Over half of the tumor submissions (6, 55%)
sentatives and 13 tumors (4.9%) (see Table 20.2.2), were squamous cell carcinomas, occurring in four differ-
suggesting that the overall prevalence of neoplasia in ent species of penguins. These data suggest that, in gen-
the family/suborder is about average. Interestingly, liver eral, penguins may be predisposed to development of
tumors accounted for slightly less than half of the tumor this form of neoplasm.
submissions (see Table 20.2.1), suggesting that hepatic
neoplasia may be over-represented in captive flamingos. CICONIIFORMES
These birds typically store large amounts of iron in the Order Ciconiiformes (herons, storks, ibises, spoonbills,
liver7,15 and all the flamingos with hepatic neoplasia in New World vultures) (see Table 20.2.2) had 307 represen-
this study had iron deposition; however, no overt tatives and 11 tumors (3.6%), indicating the overall inci-
changes were noted morphologically in relation to the dence of neoplasia in this order was slightly below the
iron, such as cirrhosis seen in mynahs, toucans or birds submitted average. Eight of the tumor submissions were
of paradise,3,7,15 so the significance of the iron deposition in roseate spoonbills (Ajaia ajaja) and seven of the
relative to the neoplasia is undetermined. Two flamingos tumors in this species were focal or multicentric renal
had squamous cell carcinomas on the pads of the feet, adenomas, a tumor that was otherwise uncommonly
and had previous and ongoing protracted episodes of encountered in avian submissions. These data indicate
bumblefoot, which may have predisposed to neoplastic that roseate spoonbills may be predisposed to developing
transformation. this form of neoplasia. Although benign, four of these
tumors contributed directly to the cause of death.
STRIGIFORMES
Order Strigiformes (owls) had 131 representatives and 13 MISCELLANEOUS ORDERS
tumors (9.9%) (see Table 20.2.2), suggesting that overall Several orders had no apparent trends in neoplastic dis-
prevalence of neoplasia in this order may be relatively ease. These include Columbiformes (pigeons, doves),
high compared to other orders in the study. Six of the Gruiformes (cranes, related species), Falconiformes
owls were burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia), suggest- (eagles, hawks, falcons, Old World vultures), Charadrii-
ing that these birds may have a higher than average formes (shorebirds), Coraciiformes (kingfishers, mot
prevalence of neoplasia. Three hepatocellular neoplasms mots, hornbills), Cuculiformes (turacos, cuckoos), Pici-
were noted in this order, all in burrowing owls. Myelo- formes (woodpeckers, toucans, barbets), Struthioni-
lipoma, an unusual neoplasm in birds, appears to be formes (ratites), Coliiformes (mousebirds) and Pelecani-
over-represented in owls, occurring in three cases in the formes (pelicans, cormorants). Two birds of undeter-
study. All were intracoelomic neoplasms that were exten- mined species also had neoplastic processes. Four orders,
sively invasive and of undetermined origin. Interestingly, Gaviiformes (grebes, loons), Procellariiformes (fulmars),
the two affected snowy owls (Nyctea scandiaca) were Caprimulgiformes (tawny frogmouths) and Apodiformes
pen mates for most of their lives and died from these (hummingbirds) were represented in low numbers and
tumors within months of each other. All three of the owls had no neoplastic processes (see Table 20.2.2).
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