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    First-Generation Programming Languages Second-Generation Programming Languages

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    Jack Swagger
    Very early computers were programmed without stored programs by manually modifying circuitry or controls. Later, machine language allowed numeric instructions to be read from cards or tape, but still required low-level programming. In the 1950s, early high-level languages like FORTRAN and FLOW-MATIC were developed, introducing functional implementations that compiled symbolic code instead of numeric machine instructions. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, major programming language paradigms emerged like object-oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming.

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    First-Generation Programming Languages Second-Generation Programming Languages

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    Jack Swagger
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    Very early computers were programmed without stored programs by manually modifying circuitry or controls. Later, machine language allowed numeric instructions to be read from cards or tape, but still required low-level programming. In the 1950s, early high-level languages like FORTRAN and FLOW-MATIC were developed, introducing functional implementations that compiled symbolic code instead of numeric machine instructions. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, major programming language paradigms emerged like object-oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming.

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    Very early computers were programmed without stored programs by manually modifying circuitry or controls. Later, machine language allowed numeric instructions to be read from cards or tape, but still required low-level programming. In the 1950s, early high-level languages like FORTRAN and FLOW-MATIC were developed, introducing functional implementations that compiled symbolic code instead of numeric machine instructions. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, major programming language paradigms emerged like object-oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    15 views2 pages

    First-Generation Programming Languages Second-Generation Programming Languages

    Uploaded by

    Jack Swagger
    Very early computers were programmed without stored programs by manually modifying circuitry or controls. Later, machine language allowed numeric instructions to be read from cards or tape, but still required low-level programming. In the 1950s, early high-level languages like FORTRAN and FLOW-MATIC were developed, introducing functional implementations that compiled symbolic code instead of numeric machine instructions. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, major programming language paradigms emerged like object-oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming.

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    Very early computers, such as Colossus, were programmed without the help of a stored program,

    by modifying their circuitry or setting banks of physical controls.

    Slightly later, programs could be written in machine language, where the programmer writes
    each instruction in a numeric form the hardware can execute directly. For example, the
    instruction to add the value in two memory location might consist of 3 numbers: an "opcode"
    that selects the "add" operation, and two memory locations. The programs, in decimal or binary
    form, were read in from punched cards, paper tape, magnetic tape or toggled in on switches on
    the front panel of the computer. Machine languages were later termed first-generation
    programming languages (1GL).

    The next step was the development of the so-called second-generation programming languages
    (2GL) or assembly languages, which were still closely tied to the instruction set architecture of
    the specific computer. These served to make the program much more human-readable and
    relieved the programmer of tedious and error-prone address calculations.

    The first high-level programming languages, or third-generation programming languages


    (3GL), were written in the 1950s. An early high-level programming language to be designed for
    a computer was Plankalkül, developed for the German Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and
    1945. However, it was not implemented until 1998 and 2000.[26]

    John Mauchly's Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one of the first high-level languages ever
    developed for an electronic computer.[27] Unlike machine code, Short Code statements
    represented mathematical expressions in understandable form. However, the program had to be
    translated into machine code every time it ran, making the process much slower than running the
    equivalent machine code.

    At the University of Manchester, Alick Glennie developed Autocode in the early 1950s. As a
    programming language, it used a compiler to automatically convert the language into machine
    code. The first code and compiler was developed in 1952 for the Mark 1 computer at the
    University of Manchester and is considered to be the first compiled high-level programming
    language.[28][29]

    The second autocode was developed for the Mark 1 by R. A. Brooker in 1954 and was called the
    "Mark 1 Autocode". Brooker also developed an autocode for the Ferranti Mercury in the 1950s
    in conjunction with the University of Manchester. The version for the EDSAC 2 was devised by
    D. F. Hartley of University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in 1961. Known as EDSAC
    2 Autocode, it was a straight development from Mercury Autocode adapted for local
    circumstances and was noted for its object code optimisation and source-language diagnostics
    which were advanced for the time. A contemporary but separate thread of development, Atlas
    Autocode was developed for the University of Manchester Atlas 1 machine.

    In 1954, FORTRAN was invented at IBM by John Backus. It was the first widely used high-
    level general purpose programming language to have a functional implementation, as opposed to
    just a design on paper.[30][31] It is still a popular language for high-performance computing[32] and
    is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world's fastest supercomputers.[33]
    Another early programming language was devised by Grace Hopper in the US, called FLOW-
    MATIC. It was developed for the UNIVAC I at Remington Rand during the period from 1955
    until 1959. Hopper found that business data processing customers were uncomfortable with
    mathematical notation, and in early 1955, she and her team wrote a specification for an English
    programming language and implemented a prototype.[34] The FLOW-MATIC compiler became
    publicly available in early 1958 and was substantially complete in 1959.[35] FLOW-MATIC was
    a major influence in the design of COBOL, since only it and its direct descendant AIMACO
    were in actual use at the time.[36]

    Refinement

    The increased use of high-level languages introduced a requirement for low-level programming
    languages or system programming languages. These languages, to varying degrees, provide
    facilities between assembly languages and high-level languages. They can be used to perform
    tasks that require direct access to hardware facilities but still provide higher-level control
    structures and error-checking.

    The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language
    paradigms now in use:

     APL introduced array programming and influenced functional programming.[37]


     ALGOL refined both structured procedural programming and the discipline of language
    specification; the "Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 60" became a model for
    how later language specifications were written.
     Lisp, implemented in 1958, was the first dynamically typed functional programming language.
     In the 1960s, Simula was the first language designed to support object-oriented programming; in
    the mid-1970s, Smalltalk followed with the first "purely" object-oriented language.
     C was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a system programming language for the Unix
    operating system and remains popular.[38]
     Prolog, designed in 1972, was the first logic programming language.
     In 1978, ML built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering statically typed
    functional programming languages.

    Each of these languages spawned descendants, and most modern programming languages count
    at least one of them in their ancestry.

    The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of structured programming,
    and whether programming languages should be designed to support it.[39] Edsger Dijkstra, in a
    famous 1968 letter published in the Communications of the ACM, argued that Goto statements
    should be eliminated from all "higher level" programming languages.[40]

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