VIETNAM STUDIES

Logistic Support

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

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VIETNAM STUDIES

LOGISTIC SUPPORT

by
Lieutenant General Joseph M. Heiser, Jr.

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

WASHINGTON, D.C. 1974

 THE COMMAND AND GENERAL STAFF COLLEGE

LIBRARY

Fort Leavenworth, KS 66027-6900

Call Number

959.704 34 H473L c.?7

Heiser. Joseph M.

Logistic support

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-600389

First Printing

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $2.75 (paper cover)
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 Foreword

The United States Army has met an unusually complex chal­

lenge in Southeast Asia. In conjunction with the other services,
the Army has fought in support of a national policy of assisting an
emerging nation to develop governmental processes of its own
choosing, free of outside coercion. In addition to the usual problems
of waging armed conflict, the assignment in Southeast Asia has
required superimposing the immensely sophisticated tasks of a
modern army upon an underdeveloped environment and adapting
them to demands covering a wide spectrum. These involved help­
ing to fulfill the basic needs of an agrarian population, dealing
with the frustrations of antiguerrilla operations, and conducting
conventional campaigns against well-trained and determined reg­
ular units.
Although this assignment has officially ended, the U.S. Army
must prepare for other challenges that may lie ahead. While cog­
nizant that history never repeats itself exactly and that no army
ever profited from trying to meet a new challenge in terms of the
old one, the Army nevertheless stands to benefit immensely from
a study of its experience, its shortcomings no less than its achieve­
ments.
Aware that some years must elapse before the official histories
will provide a detailed and objective analysis of the experience in
Southeast Asia, we have sought a forum whereby some of the more
salient aspects of that experience can be made available now. At
the request of the Chief of Staff, a representative group of senior
officers who served in important posts in Vietnam and who still
carry a heavy burden of day-to-day responsibilities has prepared a
series of monographs. These studies should be of great value in
helping the Army develop future operational concepts while at
the same time contributing to the historical record and providing
the American public with an interim report on the performance
of men and officers who have responded, as others have through
our history, to exacting and trying demands.
All monographs in the series are based primarily on official
records, with additional material from published and unpublished
secondary works, from debriefing reports and interviews with key
participants, and from the personal experience of the author.
iii
To facilitate security clearance, annotation and detailed bibliog­
raphy have been omitted from the published version; a fully
documented account with bibliography is filed with the Office of
the Chief of Military History.
The reader should be reminded that most of the writing was ac­
complished while the war in Vietnam was at its peak, and the mono­
graphs frequently refer to events of the past as if they were taking
place in the present.
The author of this monograph, Lieutenant General Joseph M.
Heiser, Jr., has been engaged in planning and directing logistical
support to the U.S. Army soldier, other U.S. Services, and the
Armed Forces of Allied Nations since his commissioning as an
officer in the Ordnance Corps in 1943. Having served in the South­
ern Base Sector Command of the European Theater of Operations
from 1943 to 1945, he became a staff officer of the Office of the
Chief of Ordnance. He later served as the Executive Officer of the
Ordnance School and Division Ordnance Officer, 7th Infantry
Division, Korea. He was designated Commanding General, U.S.
Communications Zone Europe in 1965. He then became, succes­
sively, Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff Logistics (Supply and Main­
tenance) , Headquarters, Department of the Army, Commanding
General of the 1st Logistical Command, Vietnam, and Deputy
Chief of Staff for Logistics of the U.S. Army.

Washington, D.C. VERNE L. BOWERS

15 December 1972 Major General USA
The Adjutant General

IV
 Preface
During World War II, Admiral Ernest J. King is alleged to
have said, "I don't know what the hell this logistics is that Marshall
is always talking about, but I want some of it." It's pretty well
known that before that war ended, everyone knew in general terms
what it was that General Marshall was talking about and that
Admiral King had plenty of it.
Knowing in general terms what logistics means is not enough.
The purpose of this monograph is to relate in specific terms what
logisticians did and how they did it in supporting combat forces in
Vietnam. Not only were American soldiers supported, but at the
height of hostilities, in addition to U.S. Forces, the U.S. Army
in Vietnam also provided support to the military forces of the
governments of South Vietnam, Republic of Korea, Thailand,
Australia, New Zealand, and other allied countries.
Probably the best balanced assessment of logistics support in
Southeast Asia is provided in the final report by the Military Opera­
tions Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations,
House of Representatives (Holifield Committee) wherein, after
approximately four years of surveillance of supply support in
Southeast Asia by Congress and the Government Accounting
Office, it was reported that, ". . . supply support in Vietnam has
been a truly remarkable achievement, but the question must be
asked, did it entail unnecessary, hence avoidable, costs? . . ." The
Army, in cooperation with Congress, the Government Accounting
Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense, and the other military
services, began a program called the Logistics Offensive (so named
by General Abrams, the Commander, United States Military As­
sistance Command, Vietnam, in early 1969) to immediately reduce
the cost of providing logistics support and yet increase combat
effectiveness. This program is a continuing one and up through
September 1972, has yielded benefits estimated at 9.3 billion dollars.
Of this total, 6.9 billion dollars have directly impacted on the
preparation of the Army's budget submissions. The difference is
considered to be a bonus, taking into account reduced require­
ments for facilities, personnel, equipment, transportation, and
utilities to support a more efficient logistic system. These savings
have been accompanied with dramatic increases in logistics readi­
ness for that part of the Army not in Vietnam. Based upon unit
reports, equipment on hand increased 44 percent from fiscal year
1968 to fiscal year 1972, while equipment deployability, or
operability, increased 41 percent during the same time period. In
addition, the fine logistics support of the forces in Vietnam was
maintained.
In most human endeavors, history shows a mixture of good and
bad results. Combat support of Vietnam is certainly no exception.
As Congress noted, supply support has been a remarkable achieve­
ment. Also among the good are many overlooked facets, including
the unpublicized constructive efforts which contrast with the pub­
licized destructive ones. For example, construction efforts by U.S.
servicemen on behalf of the Vietnamese in 1968 and 1969 include:
Schools 1,253 Churches 263
Hospitals 175 Dispensaries 422
Market Places 153 Bridges 598
Roads (km.) 3,154 Dwellings 7,099

Much of this was accomplished by American soldiers in their non-

duty time—showing again the humanistic qualities of the American
soldier displayed in other wars.
In addition, because of the vast experience gained, the Amer­
ican Army has a larger group of professional military logisticians
than ever in its history—many of them junior officers and enlisted
personnel—which bodes well for the future. However, we must
insure that lessons learned of what to do are adopted and that
lessons learned of what not to do will result in corrective action so
that those experiences will not recur. It is with this specific thought
in mind that this monograph has been prepared.
Finally, in Vietnam, there was a close and wonderful relation­
ship between the man doing the fighting and the man providing
the support. In part, this was due to the fact that both were ex­
posed to the same dangers and, that unlike World War II and
Korea, there were no safe rear areas in Vietnam. In August 1968,
Sergeant William W. Seay, a truck driver—a logistician—won the
medal of honor by breaking up an ambush against his convoy on
the road to Tay Ninh. This man gave his life to save the lives
of his comrades and supplies for the men fighting in the Tay Ninh
border area. Logisticians are proud of Sergeant Seay and are proud
too of the collective achievements in providing the quality and
quantity of support furnished to the combat forces in Vietnam.
To perpetuate the great support provided the combat soldier
and in memory of the heroic tasks performed by logistics soldiers
such as Sergeant Seay, the "LOGISTICIAN'S CREED" has been
vi
published and distributed to serve as a lasting reminder of what
has been done and as a challenge to what needs to be done by all
Army logisticians serving in the defense of their country.

Washington, D.C. JOSEPH M. HEISER, JR.

15 December 1972 Lieutenant General, U.S. Army

vn
 Acknowledgments
The story of logistic support in Vietnam is one of thousands of
logisticians who worked tirelessly to provide that support. This
volume relates their accomplishments and attempts to do justice
to all the many facets of that complex support operation. Even
documenting their story was not a one man job, and so I wish to
extend my appreciation to all those who participated in this effort
with special thanks to:
The Logistics Monograph Review Team. This "murder board"
was composed of General Frank T. Mildren, Lieutenant General
Jean E. Engler, USA (Ret.), Lieutenant General Oren E. Hurlbut,
USA (Ret.), Lieutenant General John Norton, Lieutenant General
William R. Peers, Lieutenant General Carroll H. Dunn, Major
General Clarence J. Lang, Major General Henry A. Rasmussen,
Major General Richard J. Seitz, Brigadier General Robert W.
Duke, USA (Ret.), and Mr. Joseph P. Cribbins. Their collective
knowledge and first-hand experience were invaluable in providing
background and insight into the logistics story as it unfolded in the
early drafts of the Monograph.
Colonel John M. Miller and Colonel William H. Hoffmann
who analyzed and assessed the historical significance of the
wealth of information contained in the early drafts and provided
day-to-day guidance to the Monograph Team.
Lieutenant Colonel Albert F. Boll who developed the initial
detailed topical outline for the Monograph to direct the efforts of
the staff members of the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for
Logistics.
The members of the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for
Logistics team who painstakingly researched and prepared the
many papers which formed the basis for the Monograph.
The Monograph Team. This team was composed of Colonel
James R. Wilson, USAR, Lieutenant Colonel John B. Crockett, Jr.,
USAR, Major Willard A. Newman, USAR, Major Felix G. Porter,
USAR, and SP5 Felix Ramos, who performed the yeoman task of
researching historical information and editing the separate staff
papers into a single comprehensive volume.
ix
 Lastly, I commend all the logisticians who participated in or
supported operations in Vietnam, for they accomplished the deeds
that are recorded herein.

Washington, D.C. JOSEPH M. HEISER, JR.

15 December 1972 Lieutenant General, U.S. Army
 Contents

Chapter Page
I. INTRODUCTION 3

II. LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 8

Logistic Concept (1965) and In-Country Planning. . . 9

Port Situation in Vietnam 23

Warehousing and Storage Facilities 26

Continental U.S. Production Base 27

Logistic Personnel and Training 30

Security 34

III. SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 37

Repair Parts Supply 38

Short Supply Items 42

Management Techniques 48

Petroleum Support 72

Common Supply Support 82

Financial Controls 85

Procurement 88

IV. AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 106

The Buildup 106

Ammunition Supply Rates 109

Ammunition Reporting I l l

Ammunition Shortages 115

Munitions Procurement 118

Ammunition Units and Personnel 121

Transportation of Ammunition 124

Storage and Handling of Ammunition 127

Security of Ammunition Depots 130

Maintenance and Disposal 131

V. AVIATION LOGISTICS 134

Growth of the Aviation Fleet 134

Growth of Aviation Logistic Support in South

Vietnam 137

Aircraft Maintenance Personnel 139

Facilities 141

xi

Chapter Page

Weapons Systems Requisitioning Techniques 141

Floating Aircraft Maintenance Facility 146

Intensive Management of Critical Assets 146

Closed Loop Support for Aviation 148

Direct Support Maintenance Concepts 149

The Aircraft Readiness, Utilization, and Loss

Reporting Systems 150

Use of Helicopters in Logistic Support 153

Aerial Resupply 155

VI. SERVICE SUPPORT IN VIETNAM: TRANSPOR­

T A T I O N AND MAINTENANCE 157

Transportation 157

Maintenance 175

VII. SERVICE SUPPORT IN VIETNAM: CONSTRUC­

T I O N , REAL ESTATE, AND COMMUNICATIONS 188

Construction and Real Estate 188

Communications 194

VIII. SERVICE SUPPORT IN VIETNAM: SUBSISTENCE

AND MISCELLANEOUS 198

Subsistence 198

Other Support Services 200

Unique Support Missions 215

IX. LOGISTIC SUPPORT OF U.S. ADVISORS AND

SPECIAL FORCES, VIETNAM ARMED AND

PACIFICATION FORCES, AND FREE WORLD

MILITARY ASSISTANCE FORCES 229

Logistic Support of U.S. Advisors 229

Logistic Support of the U.S. 5th Special Forces

Group 231

Logistic Support of Republic of Vietnam Armed

Forces 232

Logistic Support of the South Vietnamese Paci-

fication Program 241

Logistic Support of Other Free World Military

Assistance Forces 245

X. WORLDWIDE IMPACT OF VIETNAM ON

LOGISTIC READINESS 251

Impact on Active Army 251

Impact on Reserve Components 253

xii

Chapter Page
XL LESSONS LEARNED 255
Personnel Lessons Learned 255
Equipment Lessons Learned 256
Policies and Procedures Lessons Learned 257

APPENDIX: COMMANDERS OF 1ST LOGISTICAL

COMMAND, VIETNAM, 1965-1970 265

GLOSSARY 266

INDEX 267
Charts
No.
1. Authorized Troop Level in South Vietnam 13
2. Procurement of Equipment and Missiles for the Army
Contract Awards 28
3. Closed Loop Support Network 55
4. Army Aircraft Inventory and Value 135
5. Secondary Item Inventory Required to Support the Air­
craft Fleet 135
6. Aviation Funding Programs 136
7. Percent of Allocated Army Funds Spent on Aircraft 137
8. Requisition and Supply Flow, 1965 142
9. Requisition and Supply Flow, April 1966 to April 1968 . . . 143
10. Requisition and Supply Flow, April 1968 to September
1969 145
11. Operational Readiness of U.S. Army Vietnam Rotary
Wing Aircraft 152
12. Organization of U.S. Army Vietnam Maintenance
System 178
13. The 1st Logistical Command Maintenance Structure 180
14. Organizational Structure, Marine Maintenance Activity,
Vietnam (August 1969) 185
15. U.S. Army Organization for Facilities Maintenance, South
Vietnam 193
16. Typical Organization for Supply Service, Vietnam,
1968-1970 202
17. Logistics Advisory Directorate 234
18. South Vietnamese Armed Forces Organization for
Logistics 239
19. Reserve Component Equipment Inventory Changes 254
xiii
 Maps

No. Page
1. Major Depots, Support Commands, and Main Supply
Routes 12
2. U.S. Army Pipeline System in South Vietnam 78
3. Deployment of the 34th General Support Group in
Vietnam 140
4. Vietnam Rail System 165
5. Ports, Land Lines of Communication, and Major Logistic
Commands 168
6. Maintenance Support Units 179

Tables
1. U.S. Army and Total U.S. Military Personnel in South
Vietnam 14
2. Push Packages Data 41
3. Countrywide Petroleum Consumption 73
4. Percentage of Fuel Distributed by Commercial and
MSTS 76
5. Direct Fuel Comparisons for Operation and Maintenance,
Army, During the Build-up Period 86
6. Munitions Programs, Fiscal Years 1965-1970 119
7. UH-1 Production Schedule 136
8. Contract Maintenance Manning Level 139
9. Intra-Vietnam Cargo Movement by Air, 1967-1969 154
10. Operational Readiness Rates 177
11. Real Estate Holdings in South Vietnam 192
12. Property Disposal Office Operations 210
13. Property Moved from Pacific Command Property Dis­
posal Offices 212
14. Evacuation by Army Air Ambulances in Vietnam 214

xiv
 Illustrations

Page
Vietnamese Farmer Operates Roto-tiller Alongside Plow

Pulled by Water Buffalo 92

Gun Truck—5 ton M54A2 "Hardened" Vehicle 93

Gun Truck—5 ton M54A2 Mounted with Stripped Down

Hull of Armored Personnel Carrier 93

Field Depot Thu Due Storage Area 5 Miles North of Saigon ... 94

Field Depot Thu Due Storage Area After Improvements 94

Unloading of 2,y2 ton Truck at Saigon Port 95

Fish Market Area in Saigon After Improvements 96

Qui Nhon Logistical Depot 96

Aerial View of Newport 97

Air Drop of Supplies in Operation JUNCTION CITY 98

Armored Personnel Carrier Gives 5,000-gallon Tanker Push

Up Muddy Hill to Fire Support Base 99

Aerial View of Vung Tau, Showing POL Jetty, Tank Farm,

and Air Field 99

POL Storage Farm at Tay Ninh Using Bladders for Storage . 100

Loading of Class I Supplies From Depot at Cholon 100

Refrigeration Containers and Storage Area at Cholon 101

2i/2-ton Truck POL Convoy at Pleiku 101

Ammunition Supply Point Under Construction Near a Fire

Base in Kontum Province, Central Highlands 102

Crane Loading Ammunition on to Transporter for Shipment

to Ammunition Depot 102

Fork Lift With 175mm Shells to Move to the Stock Pile Area,

Vung Ro Bay, Vietnam 103

Bermed Open Storage Complex of the 542d Ammunition Field

Depot, Bien Thu, Vietnam 103

Aerial View of An Ammunition Storage Area, Cam Ranh Bay,

Vietnam 104

Artillery Ammunition Prepared for Sling Loading by Heli-

copter, Bien Thu, Vietnam 104

Fork Lift Unloading Pallets of 105mm Howitzer Rounds From

a Sea-Land Van, Pleiku, Vietnam 105

Goer 8-ton Cargo Carrier, All-terrain, All-weather Amphibious

Cargo Vehicle 218

Goer 8-ton Cargo Carrier Proceeding Cross-country Through

Swampy Area 218

CH-47 Chinook Helicopter Brings in Sling Load of Artillery

Ammunition During Operation BOLLING 219

XV

 Page
Air Delivery by Flying Crane of Ammunition and Artillery
Piece 219
DeLong Pier Complex at Vung Tau with View of Rock Cause­
way and Sand Fill to be Used for Hardstand 220
Use of Sea-Land Vans for Transportation of Ammunition 220
Unloading of Sea-Land Vans by Crane of Cargo Ship at Cam
Ranh Bay 221
Off-loading of Sea-Land Vans by Use of Gantry Crane at Cam
Ranh Bay 222
Civilian Contractor Han Jin Trucks Waiting to be Unloaded . . 222
Army Vessel LTC John U. D. Page Tied Up at South Beach,
Cam Ranh Bay 223
USS Corpus Christi Utilized as a Floating Aircraft Mainte­
nance Facility Anchored Off Coast at Vung Tau 224
Aerial View of Vietnam Railway Service Repair Crews Clear­
ing Right of Way and Installing New Track 224
Use of CONEX Container 225
Loading Laundry Into Dryer at Cam Ranh Bay 225
Maintenance Personnel Removing Engine from 5-ton Truck
for Repair 226
Use of Maintenance Vans in a Motor Pool Operation 226
Operation of Rome Plows in Clearing Trees and Undergrowth
From Areas in Vietnam 227
Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM) Escorts Barge Loaded with
Rock, Fuel, Steel Girders and Other Items on the Vam Co
Tay River 227
Flying Crane Lifts 175mm Gun at Vung Tau 228
Vietnamese Rebuilding Home with Lumber Donated Through
TARP Program in Bien Hoa 249
Dam Built to Improve Irrigation System in the Village Rice
Fields in Thuy Phu, Vietnam 249
MALT Team Head Confers with American Advisor and Local
S-4 of a Vietnamese Supply Maintenance District Support
Logistical Company 250

Illustrations are from Department of Defense files. The painting

on the front cover is "Welcome Relief" by Specialist Kenneth J. Scow-
croft; on the back cover "Convoy on the Mang Yang Pass" by E. C.
Williams.

xvi
LOGISTIC SUPPORT

 CHAPTER I

Introduction

This monograph on logistic support to Vietnam is an historical

account of significant actions and events, and includes discussions
of the logistic environment, decisions, techniques, accomplishments,
and lessons learned during the years 1965 through 1970 and, in
some cases, early 1971.
The monograph describes selected logistic events in order to
assist the Army in its development of future operational concepts
and provides reference material for a comprehensive historical
record.
This document traces the evolution of logistics operations be­
ginning in the period before the extensive U.S. buildup in early
1965. Environmental factors influenced the manner in which the
logistician had to perform his mission—overcrowded ports, lack of
warehousing and storage areas for unloaded supplies, poor security
conditions at existing facilities, and insufficient and inadequately
trained personnel to perform the monumental task of support for
combat operations.
Supply support in Vietnam is discussed from the management
viewpoint, including the particular or significant experience gained
in various types or classes of supply services provided by the logis­
tician such as maintenance, construction, real estate procurement
and management, and transportation support including aviation.
Each is illustrated to present a better understanding of techniques
used and concepts developed which may influence future logistic
support doctrine. A discussion of graves registration, property dis­
posal, bath, laundry, bakery, and food services is also included.
In addition to the support of U.S. Forces, this monograph in­
cludes information on the logistics support to Army of the Republic
of Vietnam, Free World Military Assistance Forces, logistic re­
sponsibilities relative to the Pacification Program, and the effects
on the total logistics efforts throughout the world.
To understand the events and decisions related to logistics in
the Republic of Vietnam, one must evaluate them against a back­
drop of the conditions and problems which prevailed at the time.
Fundamentally, none of the background is new or unique to the
history of combat logistics. Nonetheless, each condition and each
4 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

event had its own impact and posed its own problems. Never
before had the Army's logistic system been tasked with the mission
of supporting large numbers of ground combat troops operating in
a counterguerilla role with a pipeline 9,000-11,000 miles long. The
logistics doctrine developed as a result of years of experience in
conventional ground warfare was not always applicable in the
Vietnam environment. Many of the techniques and assumptions
which were accepted as valid in conventional warfare did not apply
in the harsh, primitive, jungle environment and the isolated sup­
port enclaves. Even so, Vietnam is a story of remarkable logistics
achievement. At no time was logistic support a constraint on a
major tactical operation. This record was made despite the condi­
tions which imposed a fantastic strain on logistics operations and
which offered an enormous challenge to all logisticians.
Bordered on the west by Cambodia and Laos and on the east by
a seacoast of approximately 1,500 miles on the South China Sea and
the Gulf of Thailand, the Republic of Vietnam extends in a
crescent shape along the southeastern side of the Indochina penin­
sula. The land area is dominated by a mountain chain, extending
southward from the republic's northern border to within 60 miles
of Saigon, with peaks ranging in height from 2,000 to 8,000 feet.
The overall topography of Vietnam comprises jungles, deltas,
swamps, plains and mountains. The Mekong Delta, southwest of
Saigon, is a vast alluvial plain fed by the many mouths of the
Mekong River and criss-crossed by a dense network of canals. The
Delta is one of the major rice producing regions of Southeast Asia.
The topography of Vietnam created many difficulties for U.S.
Forces, hindering such activities as construction, transportation
and communications while, at the same time, facilitating the
enemy's type of operations.
The climate of Vietnam is tropical and subject to monsoon
rains. There are two seasons: hot and dry, and hot and rainy.
Highest temperatures and humidity are experienced in the south­
ern delta in April and May, with the rainy season beginning in
late May and continuing through September. In the coastal and
highland areas the highest temperatures and humidities are
experienced during the months of July and August, with the
rainy season beginning in October and continuing through March.
In the highland areas the nights are cool regardless of the season.
Overall, the climate of Vietnam severely hampered all logistical
operations.
The population of the Republic of Vietnam totals approxi­
mately 18 million. The bulk of this population has subsisted
 INTRODUCTION 5

throughout the years by the cultivation of rice on lands irrigated

through the use of primitive pumps and sluices. The majority of
the population lives in the open lowland plains and the rice bearing
deltas. The uplands region has been left to the ethnically alien
and primitive mountain tribes. Although the majority of the
population is ethnically and culturally Vietnamese, there are
significant minorities. This minority population is comprised of
approximately 1 million Chinese (mostly living in the Saigon area),
500,000 Cambodians, and approximately 1 million Montagnard
mountain tribesmen. Buddhism is the predominant religion in
Vietnam, although there are approximately 2 million Roman
Catholics.
Saigon, the capital of the Republic of Vietnam, is the largest
city in the Republic and is located approximately 50 miles inland
from the South China Sea on the west bank of the Saigon River. At
the time the U.S. buildup began in Vietnam, this city was a busy
commercial port, and the only port of significance in the country.
As the population has increased from 2 million people in 1964, to
approximately 3.5 million in early 1971, Saigon (including the
twin city of Cholon) became overcrowded. With the overcrowding
came many problems which impaired facilities for health and
sanitation, transportation, and security. These problems weighed
heavily in the October 1967 decision to move most of the military
facilities located in Saigon to Long Binh which was approximately
20 miles northeast of Saigon.
In 1965, Vietnam was primarily an agrarian country with a very
low level of industrialization. The few industries established by the
French were located in North Vietnam. By the end of 1970, there
were only 82 large or medium manufacturing operations in all of
South Vietnam. Public utilities and services were wholly inade­
quate by western standards. Facilities vital to a modern logistics
base such as ports, terminal facilities, warehouses, communications,
transportation, storage, and maintenance facilities, were either
limited or nonexistent. The lack of industry was naturally ac­
companied by a shortage of technicians and skilled labor. For the
most part, all necessary supplies, equipment, and skills to support
military operations had to be imported, and all necessary facilities
had to be built.
In accordance with the obligation as a member of the South
East Asia Treaty Organization the U.S. supplied military materiel
and equipment at the request of the Republic of Vietnam. A Mili­
tary Assistance and Advisory Group was established to supervise and
coordinate this support program. This commitment for support was
6 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

made by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on 10 October 1954.

In the following year, the Military Assistance and Advisory Group
effort was given authority to organize and train as well as to equip
the armed forces of South Vietnam.
In 1956 the communist organization in South Vietnam (the
Viet Cong) initiated a campaign of terror to undermine the
authority of the central government. This campaign included the
assassination and kidnapping of government officials and supporters.
By 1960 the number of assassinations had reached 1,400 and over
700 kidnappings had occurred. President John F. Kennedy ap­
proved requests for additional aid in 1961. As communist pressure
increased and military requirements increased, the Military As­
sistance Command, Vietnam, was created in February of 1962.
By the end of that year, U.S. advisers were in operational con­
trol of U.S. helicopter missions transporting and supporting South
Vietnamese Army operations. Overall operational authority was
vested in the U.S. Ambassador, with the Embassy handling the
pacification program and Military Assistance Command, Vietnam,
directly responsible to the ambassador for support in all other fields.
In 1963 President Diem was assassinated. A series of coups followed
the assassination. These happenings, in addition to assassinations
and kidnappings by the Viet Cong, seriously weakened the Viet­
namese government. The South Vietnamese Army sustained a
series of defeats. Pacification of the countryside was nearly stopped
and the enemy was found everywhere. By 1965, it became obvious
that a rapid buildup and employment of U.S. combat forces were
needed to prevent the complete collapse of the Government of
South Vietnam.
General William C. Westmoreland, Commander, U.S. Military
Assistance Command, Vietnam, stated that as late as March 1965 no
decision had been taken on U.S. intervention with ground forces,
other than the limited Marine Security force deployed to protect
the Da Nang Airfield. Consequently there was no logistic
system in being, and no development of secure logistic bases,
except the totally inadequate installations associated with South
Vietnamese forces. There were inadequate ports and airfields, no
logistic organization, and no supply, transportation, or maintenance
troops. Due to the grave tactical situation, President Lyndon B.
Johnson directed the deployment of U.S. combat forces. Because of
force level ceilings and the decision not to mobilize the reserves, the
logistical buildup lagged behind the combat force buildup. That
this procedure succeeded, is a tribute to the imagination, deter­
 INTRODUCTION 7

mination, and energy of those officers and men in all the services
who were charged with this almost impossible task.
The Vietnam conflict was quite different from that for which
the Army had trained, and, for that matter, was at variance with
combat dynamics upon which the Army's logistic doctrine was
based. Vietnam was a war fought essentially by small units
(maneuver battalions, companies, and similar forces) in constant
pursuit of an elusive enemy. In stark contrast to World War II and
Korea, Vietnam was characterized largely by small, isolated actions
consisting of ground and air assaults mounted from the numerous
isolated base camps dotting the countryside. There were no fixed
terrain objectives. Even when some key terrain feature was at issue,
it was usually for a limited purpose and a designated time.
There was no neat, linear division between enemy and friendly
forces; no front line; and no rear boundaries. Consequently, there
was neither an Army service area, nor a communications zone. In
fact, the combat zone and the communications zone were one
and the same. At no time were there really "secure" ports, depots,
storage facilities, service areas, or supply routes. The relative
degree of security varied from time to time and place to place.
Attacks on logistic facilities and operations at all levels were
common, even in the later years of the war. These attacks included
major ambushes of supply convoys; harassment by small arms fire;
rocket and mortar bombardment; and vicious sapper attacks against
general depots, ammunition pads, and petroleum tanks. Later in
the war there were some more or less "cleared areas." In 1965,
there was quite literally no "friendly" territory.
 CHAPTER II

Logistics Environment

To understand the problems and conditions that characterized

the logistical effort in Vietnam, one must keep in mind the sequence
of events during the early buildup period. The speed and magni­
tude of the escalation of U.S. combat troop deployments in
response to enemy action and pressure proceeded faster than a
logistic base could be developed to support these units. The
Republic of Vietnam had a low level of industrialization. Modern
logistic facilities were limited or nonexistent. The in-country
logistic system supporting the South Vietnamese Armed Forces
was incapable of supporting major U.S. forces. The small, highly
fragmented system supporting the U.S. advisory effort could do no
more than provide the skeleton for a later logistical system. The
enemy controlled the major part of South Vietnam, either by direct
occupation or through terror tactics. The principal terrain features
as well as land and water arteries were either under enemy
control, or subject to the constant threat of interdiction.
Logistics planning was further complicated by the fact that
logistic troops and units were deployed at about the same rate as
tactical forces rather than in advance of them as desired for the
timely establishment of an adequate logistic base. The chronology
of U.S. unit arrivals in the Republic of Vietnam shows a continu­
ous inflow of detachment- and company-size logistical support units
during practically every month of the period spring 1965 to summer
1966. In addition, logistics units were deployed on a Technical Serv­
ice basis (Table of Organization and Equipment) whereas the
new Combat Service to the Army doctrine had already been
approved, thus causing much agony. Meanwhile, major tactical
forces, to include the bulk of the 1st Infantry Division; the 1st
Cavalry Division (Airmobile) ; the 173d Airborne Brigade; the
1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division; and the 3d Brigade, 25th
Infantry Division (which was later to become the 3d Brigade of
the 4th Infantry Division) were in-country and engaged in battle
by January 1966. The major part of the 25th Infantry Division had
arrived by April of that year and brigade-size elements arrived
practically every month during the period August-December 1966,
to include elements of the 4th, 25th, and 9th Infantry Divisions,
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 9

as well as the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment, and the separate

19th and 199th Light Infantry Brigades. The remaining brigade
of the 9th Infantry Division arrived in January 1967. Meanwhile,
further deployment decisions were made, and the Americal Divi­
sion, the 101st Airborne Division (-), and other units appeared in
Vietnam during the period September 1967 to March 1968.

Logistic Concept (1965) and In-Country Planning

As early as 1962, the need for a centralized U.S. logistical
organization in South Vietnam was foreseen by Commander U.S.
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, Lieutenant General Paul
D. Harkins. The proposal was disapproved, however by Com­
mander in Chief U.S. Army Pacific and Commander in Chief
Pacific, who felt that the requirement was not justified at that time.
The idea was revived in August 1964 by the Military Assistance
Command, Vietnam, J—4, who believed that the current and future
situation would require a logistical command to support activities
in South Vietnam. Accordingly, he saw that a plan was prepared
which included the prompt introduction of a logistical construction
capability. On 21 December 1964, the Joint Chiefs of Staff endorsed
the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, plan and recom­
mended that 230 men be initially dispatched to South Vietnam to
form a logistical command as soon as possible. Secretary of Defense
Robert S. McNamara approved the plan in principle, but stated
that additional justification was needed, particularly for the en­
gineer construction group. However, he felt that the subject was
of sufficient importance to send a special representative to South
Vietnam, and on 31 January 1965, a group from the Office of the
Secretary of Defense arrived in Saigon. After four days of con­
ferences, this group recommended the establishment of a logistical
command with an initial strength of 350 men. The establishment of
an engineer construction group, not recommended initially, was
approved in April as planning for a further buildup developed.
On 25 February 1965, the Secretary of Defense approved the
introduction of a logistical planning group in the Republic of
Vietnam consisting of 17 officers and 21 enlisted men. Colonel
Robert W. Duke was enroute to take command of the 9th Logistical
Command in Thailand. He was intercepted in Hawaii and ordered
to the Republic of Vietnam to take charge of the planning group.
He arrived in Saigon on 6 March 1965. The balance of the officers
and enlisted men for the planning group arrived in Saigon during
the last two weeks of March 1965. On 1 April 1965, the 1st
Logistical Command was activated in Saigon by Commander in
10 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Chief U.S. Army Pacific General Order, using the personnel of

the logistical planning group as its initial strength.
Prior to this time, logistical support in Vietnam had been
fragmented, with the Army providing only Class II and IV items
which were peculiar to the Army, Class V items used by the Army
aviation units, and maintenance of vehicles, armament, and in­
strument calibration by a small Direct Support shop in Saigon. The
rest of the support was provided by the Navy through Head­
quarters Support Activity, Saigon because the Navy had been
designated as the executive agency responsible for supporting the
Military Assistance and Advisory Groups and missions in South­
east Asia.
The mission of the 1st Logistical Command as developed by
Colonel Duke and the initial small planning group was, in broad
terms, that the 1st Logistical Command would assume responsibility
for all logistical support in Vietnam, less that which was peculiar to
the Air Force or Navy. This initial mission included procurement,
medical, construction, engineer, finance and accounting of all U.S.
Army forces in-country, except Military Assistance Command, Viet­
nam, advisors; and excluded communications, aviation, and mili­
tary police support which were retained by U.S. Army Vietnam
(the Army component command under Military Assistance Com­
mand, Vietnam, and over the 1st Logistical Command). Require­
ments beyond direct support and general support maintenance
capability were to be retrograded to Okinawa. Subsequent add-
on missions were planned to be put into effect as the capability
became available. These add-on missions were to: assume support
of Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, advisors from Head­
quarters Commandant, Military Assistance Command Vietnam, a
task accomplished on 1 September 1965, phase-out the Navy supply
activity in Saigon—The 1st Logistical Command started assuming
Headquarters Support Activity Saigon functions in September 1965,
and completed the mission in March 1966—and assume common
item support for all U.S. forces in South Vietnam.
The 1st Logistical Command was authorized direct com­
munications with U.S. Army Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa) on logistic
matters. Logistic requirements were placed there. After screening,
requirements were filled or passed to U.S. Army Pacific. It either
filled them or passed them to Army Materiel Command. This
proved to be very unsatisfactory due to inadequate electrical com­
munications with Okinawa, lack of adequate stocks and personnel
resources in Okinawa as well as U.S. Army Pacific, and the many
headquarters in the logistic chain. Through this chain there was a
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 11

loss in excess of 40 percent of all requisitions submitted in the

initial stages of the buildup. A combat area should be able to sub­
mit requisitions directly to Continental U.S. Continental U.S. could
then direct shipment to the combat area from the nearest source
to that area having the required items in stock.
The 1st Logistical Command, in coordination with Military
Assistance Command, Vietnam, operational planning, developed its
own logistic concept for South Vietnam. The plan provided for
two major base depots and five support commands. (Map 1) The
seas and rivers were initially to be the main supply routes within
Vietnam. However, a change over to road and rail would take
place when the tactical situation permitted. Each support com­
mand would provide all logistic support on an area basis and have
a 15 day stockage. Depots would have a 45 day stockage. The
Saigon Depot would support the Vung Tau and Can Tho Support
Commands. The Cam Ranh Bay Depot would support the Nha
Trang, Qui Nhon and Da Nang Support Commands.
A two depot concept was considered essential due to the
vulnerability of the Saigon River and port to Viet Cong action
and the limited port capacity. Vung Tau was considered an alter­
nate to the Saigon port in the event of loss of Saigon or blockage of
the Saigon River. Cam Ranh Bay was selected as the other base
depot and port due to its excellent deep water harbor, the existing
pier, its central location, and U.S. capability to secure the area from
Viet Cong attack.
This plan by the 1st Logistical Command was implemented
with only two changes; the Marines were landed at Da Nang and,
by Commander in Chief Pacific direction, the Navy was given the
responsibility for both tactical and logistical operations in I Corps.
The Da Nang Support Command was eliminated from the 1st
Logistical Command plan. It was reinstated in 1968. The antici­
pated scale of tactical operations in the Delta area of IV Corps did
not materialize, so the Can Tho Support Command was not
activated. The IV Corps was supported by the Vung Tau Support
Command by sea and air.
The original plan for the refinement of a logistical plan in an
orderly fashion followed by a deliberate and orderly implementa­
tion never came to pass. Instead it quickly turned into a concurrent
planning and implementation process. The Secretary of Defense
approved at the 9-11 April 1965 Hawaiian Conference an Army
Combat force of over 33,000 troops with the first combat troops
(173rd Airborne Brigade from Okinawa) to arrive in South Viet­
nam on 21 April 1965. This was just the beginning of the ac­
 Da Nang

MAJOR DEPOTS

SUPPORT COMMANDS

AND

MAIN SUPPLY ROUTES

O Support command
0 Base depot
•< Main supply route
15 0 100 MILES
I'/ I I 'I ,' I '—I
25 0 100 KILOMETERS

MAP 1

 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 13

celerated buildup. (See Chart 1 and Table 1.) After the April con­
ference there were a series of other force level planning conferences
in Hawaii, at which Military Assistance Command, Vietnam,
would request forces that were required. However, the number of
troops approved by the office of the Secretary of Defense was
always less than the number requested by Military Assistance
Command, Vietnam.
U.S. Forces were built up in an imbalanced manner. Continued
enemy pressure on the beleaguered government of South Vietnam
and manpower ceilings combined to cause the logistics base to be
inadequate in relation to the total force level.
Each time a new ceiling was established it was announced as
a final ceiling and could not be changed. Therefore, all planning
for future operations had to be based on this number, including
requests by the Office of the Secretary of Defense to Congress for
supporting funds. This series of "final ceilings," and the decision
not to call up a large number of Reserve Component units, es­
tablished a pattern of "too late planning," and "too late determina­
tion of requirements" that affected every facet of the military es­
tablishment from draft quotas to administration, training, equip­
ping, procurement by Army Materiel Command, Defense Supply
Agency, and Government Services Administration. This resulted
in a drawdown of reserve and project stocks to an unacceptable
level.
CHART 1—AUTHORIZED TROOP LEVEL IN SOUTH VIETNAM

Men
600,000r­

,524.5
500,0001- f \ 484.0

Laos

\284.0

1961 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 72

14 iOGISTIC SUPPORT

TABLE 1—U.S. ARMY AND TOTAL U.S. MILITARY PERSONNEL

IN SOUTH VIETNAM

Total U.S. Military

Date U.S. Army Personnel Personnel
Dec 1960 800 900
Dec 1961 2,100 3,200
Dec 1962 7,900 11,300
Dec 1963 10,100 16,300
Dec 1964 14,700 23,300
31 Mar 1965 15,600 29,100
30 Jun 27,300 59,900
30 Sep 7630 132,300
31 Dec 116,800 184,300
31 Mar 1966 137,400 231,200
30 Jun 160,000 267,500
30 Sep 189,200 313,100
31 Dec 239,400 485,300
31 Mar 1967 264,600 420,900
30 Jun 285,700 448,800
30 Sep 296,100 459,700
31 Dec 319,500 485,600
31 Mar 1968 337,300 515,200
30 Jun 354,300 534,700
30 Sep 354,200 537,800
31 Dec 359,800 536,100
*31 Jan 1969 365,600 542,400
31 Mar 361,500 538^00
30 Jun 360,500 538,700
30 Sep 345,400 510,500
31 Dec 330,300 474,400
31 Mar 1970 321,400 448,500
30 Jun 297,800 413,900
30 Sep 295,400 394,100
31 Dec 250,700 335,800
31 Mar 1971 227,600 301,900
3 Jun 197,500 250,900
•Indicates peak strength in South Vietnam
Between 1954-1960 U.S. Military Strength averaged about 650 advisors

The first US Army combat unit to arrive in South Vietnam

(173rd Airborne Brigade) was employed in the Saigon area to
insure retention of Bien Hoa Airfield and to assist in securing
Saigon. It was initially supported directly from Okinawa by a daily
C-130 aircraft flight. Later the support was assumed by the 1st
Logistical Command.
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 15

The second combat unit to arrive was the 2d Brigade of the 1st
Infantry Division. Plans called for their employment at Qui Nhon
to secure that area for future use. From the meager logistic re­
sources in South Vietnam some were deployed to Qui Nhon to
support that unit. Due to the buildup of enemy pressure on Saigon,
Commander, U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, made
the decision two days before the arrival of the 2d Brigade of the 1st
Infantry Division that the 2d Brigade would be employed in the de­
fense of Saigon. This resulted in a scramble to relocate the few U.S.
supplies and ammunition in South Vietnam from Qui Nhon south
some 250 miles to Saigon. Numerous changes were made in tactical
plans in the initial stages of the buildup due to Viet Cong pressure.
Such changes were necessary, but had an adverse effect on orderly
logistical planning and implementation.
As logistical units arrived in South Vietnam they were assigned
to appropriate depots or Support Commands as the tactical situa­
tion directed. In all Support Commands small units and detach­
ments arrived ahead of the command and control units. As a re­
sult officers from the seventeen-man officer staff of the 1st Logistical
Command had to be sent to the Support Command areas to receive,
organize, assign missions, coordinate efforts, and command these
small units and detachments pending arrival of a command and
control headquarters. As an example, a U.S. Army major with a
jeep and a brief case was the complete command and control unit
for the Saigon area. This included finding and securing living
areas and work areas for arriving units. Prior to June 1965, the 1st
Logistical Command operated on a very thin shoestring. As more
staff officers and command and control units arrived in June the
command and control situation improved greatly.
On 11 May 1965, the Commander U.S. Military Assistance
Command, Vietnam, and his staff were briefed on the logistic
plans of the 1st Logistical Command. This briefing included real
estate requirements and requirements for tactical troops for depot
and support command areas at Qui Nhon, Nha Trang, and Cam
Ranh Bay. The plan was approved on 12 May 1965. The first
ship unloading operation at Cam Ranh Bay took place on 15 May
1965. Since Army stevedores had not yet arrived in South Vietnam,
and the South Vietnam stevedore union refused to send civilian
stevedores to Cam Ranh Bay, the first ship was unloaded by a U.S.
transportation lieutenant and a small group of enlisted men as­
sembled through levies on units for anyone with any stevedore or
small boat experience. From such a start Cam Ranh Bay was built
up to a major and efficient port.
16 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

With the arrival of combat forces and the 1st Logistical Com­
mand becoming operational, its small staff could not accomplish
all the planning that was required. A request was placed on U.S.
Army Pacific for assistance. U.S. Army Pacific then provided five
officers on a 90 day temporary duty tour. These officers reported to
the 1st Logistical Command on 23 April 1965 and were given the
task to make a study of the Qui Nhon enclave, Nha Trang enclave,
and the Cam Ranh Bay area, to determine the tactical security re­
quirements and the feasibility of utilizing these areas as included
in 1st Logistical Command's concept, and to refine the logistics
planning for each area to include base development.
These planners prepared a study which proved to be of great
value in base development and the expansion of the 1st Logistical
Command's capabilities. This study with appropriate recommenda­
tions and requests for tactical troops for security of desired areas
was presented to the Commanding General U.S. Army Vietnam and
Commander U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, in May
1965. Approval was received and security was provided as re­
quested at each location, except Qui Nhon. General Westmoreland
approved the security plan for Qui Nhon, but due to Viet Cong
pressure and a shortage of U.S. forces the implementation of the
plan was delayed over a month. Even then the forces available
were not able to push out and secure all of the originally planned
areas. This left the ammunition depot at Qui Nhon exposed
to enemy action.
Upon completion of the enclave study, a new problem faced
the planning group. It was recognized that the continued influx of
troops into the city of Saigon (10,000 in the next 4 months) would
soon exceed its capability to absorb. It was also recognized that
usable real estate and facilities were not available in the Saigon
area. A threefold mission was given to the planning group: develop
a short range plan to absorb the influx of troops into the Saigon
area, develop a long range plan that would ultimately move the
bulk of U.S. Army personnel out of the Saigon area, and develop
detailed plans for the security and logistical development of the
Can Tho areas.
A thorough reconnaissance was made and chosen areas were
selected. In order to relieve the pressure on Saigon facilities, the
Long Binh area was selected for the establishment of a major
logistical and administrative base. A master base development plan
was prepared which provided areas for all activities in Saigon.
General Westmoreland (who was both Commander U.S. Mili­
tary Assistance Command, Vietnam, and Commanding General
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 17

U.S. Army Vietnam) was briefed on the study and approved it in

principle, except he elected to move Headquarters U.S. Army
Vietnam to Long Binh (Headquarters Military Assistance Com­
mand, Vietnam, remained in the Saigon area). The 1st Logistical
Command immediately began implementing the study by locating
the ammunition depot, hospital, engineers, plus direct support and
general support supply and maintenance support at Long Binh. The
movement of headquarters type activities was delayed by the re­
quirement for $2 million to develop an adequate communication
system in the area and by the time required for installation of the
system.
The study on Saigon proved to be of great value. Long Binh
became a major installation in the Republic of Vietnam. The
study on Vung Tau and Can Tho resulted in the elimination of
Can Tho as a support command. The delta area was supported
from Vung Tau and Saigon. The Vung Tau portion of the study
included plans for the development of Vung Tau as a deep draft
port utilizing De Long piers.

Major Logistics Constraints

To the logistician, it is extremely important to have an early
decision establishing theater standards of living. These standards
should determine the basic authorization for post, camp, and
station property, PX stockage of merchandise, whether base camps
are to be constructed, construction standards, the degree of per­
manency for fixed installations, and utilities and services to be
provided. Obviously, such a decision has a tremendous impact on
the logistic system. Construction materials alone constituted some
40 percent of total tonnage of materials coming into South Vietnam
in 1965 and 1966.
Without such established standards to use as terms of reference,
it was impossible to realistically determine requirements for such
items as real estate, supply, storage, maintenance, construction,
electricity and other utilities, as well as the resultant port unloading
capability required. Without such standards, the logistic system has
no grounds for challenging requirements placed upon it. Such a
decision was never made in the early days of Vietnam. Therefore,
every unit independently established its own standard of living,
ordering from supply catalogs as if they were Sears and Roebuck
catalogs. Commanders desiring to give their personnel the very
highest possible levels of comfort and quality of food, requisitioned
air conditioning and refrigeration equipment far in excess of that
authorized by Tables of Organization and Equipment. This had a
18 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

mushrooming effect. Requirements for electrical power generating

equipment were in turn increased to the point that demand ex­
ceeded the capability of Tables of Organization and Equipment
authorized equipment. As the requirement for this equipment in­
creased, the numbers of makes and models proliferated (as sup­
pliers of standard makes and models were unable to keep up with
the rapidly increasing demands). As the quantities of equipment
increased, so did the requirements for repair parts and qualified
maintenance personnel. The repair parts were a problem because
of the many varied makes and models and the resultant lack of
interchangeability among their parts. It was difficult to maintain
full Tables of Organization and Equipment authorized maintenance
strength much less the numbers of personnel required to main­
tain the excess equipment. Therefore, because these personnel were
not readily available in sufficient quantities, back-up equipment
was requisitioned (for emergency use) further burdening an al­
ready heavily taxed logistic system. Finally decisions were made on
a piece-meal basis on such things as construction standards. But
even with established standards, there was flexibility in interpreta­
tion. More often than not, the interpretation did not favor the
most austere construction or equipment requirements. This not
only put a heavy burden on the logistical system, but it also taxed
the Continental U.S. troop base which was not structured in num­
bers or skills to support the construction or equipment installa­
tion and subsequent maintenance requirements which evolved
from the Vietnam buildup.

War Reserve Stocks

The stocks available in March 1965 were totally inadequate.
For example, only one DeLong pier was available while a dozen
could have been used. The timely availability of these piers
would have saved the government large sums of money in ship
demurrage and speeded up the buildup of forces.

Logistical Management Organizations

Logistical management organizations were not available. As an
example, it was a year before a supply inventory control team
arrived in South Vietnam. By the time it had become operational,
its equipment was found to be inadequate and had to be up­
graded. This same situation was common in other areas of logistical
management. In a new theater of operations under combat condi­
tions, there is a pressing need early in the operation for manage­
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 19

merit organizations to be completely mobile, automated, and

self-supporting. Further, these early logistics management organiza­
tions and units were Technical Service oriented even though the
Combat Service to the Army functional doctrine had been approved.
Difficulties were experienced in fitting the Technical Service or­
ganizations into the new doctrine that had not been fully tested
before Vietnam.

Engineer Construction
As the buildup progressed, it became apparent that the en­
gineer construction program was becoming so large it required a
special command to oversee it. In July 1965, the decision was
made to deploy an engineer brigade to the Republic of Vietnam,
and upon its arrival the engineer construction functions were
transferred from the 1st Logistical Command to the Engineer
Brigade.
With increased combat requirements, the priority for logistics
construction projects declined for a period and the construction of
essential port and depot facilities fell behind schedule, adversely
affecting the capability to handle incoming troops, equipment,
and supplies. However, in December 1965, Commander in Chief
Pacific directed that the highest priority be given to port and beach
clearance and depot construction. After this the capability to
handle incoming cargo steadily improved.

Logistic Support Principles

The organization for supply support followed the area support,
"logistical island," concept with the sea being the main supply
route. Field depots were established in each support command to
receive, store, and issue Classes II, IV, VII and IX items, less
aviation, avionics, medical, and missile peculiar items. The depots
provided area support as indicated below:
1. The 506th Field Depot, Saigon (later US Army Depot,
Long Binh) was responsible for III and IV Corps.
2. The 504th Field Depot, Cam Ranh Bay (later US Army
Depot, Cam Ranh Bay) was responsible for the southern part of
II Corps.
3. The 58th Field Depot, Qui Nhon (later US Army Depot,
Qui Nhon) was responsible for the northern part of II Corps.
4. The US Army Field Depot, DaNang was established on 25
February 1968 with the mission of supplying Army peculiar items
20 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

in I Corps. This depot operated as a field depot of the Qui Nhon

base depot.
Virtually all Army tactical operations received logistics sup­
port from 1st Logistical Command elements operating logistical
support activities located at major base camps such as Tay Ninh,
Bearcat, Phuoc Vinh, Can Tho, Pleiku, An Khe, and Chu Lai. When
forces beyond the reach of these facilities required additional sup­
port, temporary forward support activities were deployed.
Initially, medical services and medical supply were organic to
the 1st Logistical Command mission. As the buildup progressed,
the magnitude of the medical mission became greater. A decision
was made to transfer this function from the 1st Logistical Command
to a medical brigade. The 44th Medical Brigade assumed this
function upon arrival in South Vietnam in 1966.
Aviation logistic support was initially provided by the U.S.
Army Support Command, later U.S. Army Vietnam. The 34th
General Support Group (aviation supply and maintenance) was
deployed to South Vietnam in mid-1965 to manage this function.
The Logistical Support Activity was a continuing provisional
activity composed of 1st Logistical Command elements and gener­
ally located in a fixed base camp to provide direct and general
supply, maintenance, and service support to U.S. and Free World
Military Assistance Forces on an area basis. The type and number
of units comprising a Logistical Support Activity was dependent
upon the scope of the support mission. Many of these operations
involved substantial portions of either a supply and service battal­
ion, direct support maintenance battalion, or elements of both
with the senior officer present serving as the Logistical Support
Activity commander. Stockage levels of all classes at a Logistical
Support Activity were determined by the densities of personnel
and equipment supported, considering replenishment capabilities.
Stockage objectives for the various classes of supply varied from 5
to 45 days depending upon the commodities being stocked.
A Forward Support Activity was a provisional organization,
temporary in nature, and deployed in the vicinity of a supported
tactical unit's forward operating base to provide direct supply,
maintenance, and service support. It was deployed to support a
specific tactical operation, when the tactical organic support cap­
ability was not sufficient to provide the support required. Upon
completion of the operation, it was withdrawn from the area of
operations, and its assets and personnel returned to their parent
unit. Personnel and equipment comprising a Forward Support
Activity were drawn from Tables of Organization and Equipment
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 21

and Tables of Distribution and Allowances units assigned to the

parent Support Command of the 1st Logistical Command. Forward
Support Activities could stock Class I, III, V, and limited, fast
moving Class II and IV, if the tactical unit was unable to provide
their own support. Stockage levels were set at a minimum level
consistent with operational requirements (based on troop and
equipment densities, resupply rates, capacity and consumption
experience). Throughput was used to the maximum extent pos­
sible to replace stocks consumed at Forward Support Activities.
Maintenance and services were provided as required depending
upon the supported unit's organic capabilities, tactical deploy­
ment, and densities.
If a Forward Support Activity became a continuing activity,
it was usually redesignated as a Logistical Support Activity. Nor­
mally, a Forward Support Activity which continued operations
over six months was redesignated as a Logistical Support Activity.
The concept of using a Forward Support Activity to provide
combat service support was developed due to the particular en­
vironment in South Vietnam and the manner in which tactical
units operated. Brigade-size units were engaged in search and
destroy operations which in many cases were conducted in areas
located a considerable distance from their base camp and major
support installations.
The 1st Logistical Command did not have separate authoriza­
tion for the personnel and equipment required to operate Forward
Support Activities, although the need for such authorization
existed. Personnel and equipment were drawn from Tables of
Organization and Equipment and Tables of Distribution and
Allowances units assigned to the parent support command or were
provided by the other support commands when the requirement
exceeded the parent support command's capability. The initial For­
ward Support Activity concept envisioned the organization and field­
ing of Forward Support Activities in support of tactical operations
of short duration. Experience showed, however, that some For­
ward Support Activities were required for extended periods of
time resulting in a degradation of the capability of the units
from which personnel or equipment were drawn.
Establishment of permanent brigade base camps and the de­
ployment of non-divisional Tables of Organization and Equipment
supply, service, and maintenance units to these areas reduced the
requirements for Forward Support Activities. In many locations
where Forward Support Activities originally provided support, it
was possible later to provide logistical support by a Logistical
22 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Support Activity with composite support organizations providing

tailored supply, service, and maintenance support on an area basis.
Then when brigades were deployed outside of their normal area
of operations, in most cases, it was possible for the tactical units
to obtain support in their new area from combat service support
units in that area. When required, augmentation of Tables of
Organization and Equipment support units in forward areas
enabled a direct support maintenance battalion, for example,
to provide across-the-board logistical support to all divisional
and non-divisional units in its area of responsibility. Although
the requirement for operation of Forward Support Activities was
significantly reduced, each Support Command maintained on-call
a Forward Support Activity (by specifically designated personnel
and equipment) capable of rapid deployment when a Forward
Support Activity was required by tactical units. The implementa­
tion of the Forward Support Activity and Logistical Support Activ­
ity concept enabled tactical commanders to concentrate on their
primary mission while ranging deep into enemy territory. These
commanders knew that the required logistical support would be
available whenever and wherever required.
As the buildup progressed, the technology for the management
of supplies improved and new and imaginative concepts and proce­
dures were developed. The period 1965-1966 was characterized by
fifteen months of unprecedented growth and development. In­
heriting a fragmented logistics structure consisting of some 16
different systems managed by separate component services, U.S.
Army Vietnam and the 1st Logistical Command pulled these sys­
tems together to form a unified structure. However, even then it
was not feasible to combine all aspects of support into one com­
mand. In this period, the 1st Logistical Command managed all
logistics and support functions for U.S. Army Vietnam except for
aviation supply, maintenance support, and engineer construction.
The logistics island concept and Logistics Support Activity and
and Forward Support Activity support concepts were developed,
and three major support commands were established at Saigon,
Cam Ranh Bay, and Qui Nhon. Major port and depot construction
was undertaken in each area to support the hundreds of thousands
of combat and logistics troops entering the country. In late 1965,
the control of stocks in storage and on order was accomplished by a
laborious manual process. Each depot was considered a separate
entity and requisitioned replacement supplies directly through 2d
Logistical Command in Okinawa. Under this system, there was
no practical accountability of total in-country supply levels. In
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 23

less than three years, this process was replaced by a complex con­
trol system involving the large-scale use of electronic computers.
Coincidentally, procedures were evolved to provide continuous and
up-to-date inventory accounting of all stocks within Vietnam. In
late 1967, a fully automated central inventory control center was
established at Long Binh (handling all type of supplies, except
ammunition, aviation, medical and special forces items), and was
known as the 14th Inventory Control Center.
Modern computer equipment was installed in the 14th In­
ventory Control Center to attempt to bring some order to the sup­
ply chaos in the depot stock inventory. The major problem en­
countered was the tremendous influx of supplies which were over
the beaches and through the port flooding the depots under a
massive sea of materiel and equipment much of which was un­
needed. Push supplies and duplicate requisitions of thousands of
tons of cargo piled up in the depots, unrecorded and essentially
lost to the supply system. In the latter part of 1967, control was
slowly established over the requisitioning system through the use
of automation and the flow of unneeded supplies abated some­
what. Through these improvements in control and accountability,
in-country requirements could be tabulated, interdepot shortages
and excesses balanced, and requisition priorities evaluated.

Port Situation in Vietnam

In the pre-buildup stage, most cargo destined for Vietnam was
shipped directly from Continental U.S. depots and vendors to west
coast military sea or aerial ports. From these ports it was loaded
aboard ships or aircraft and moved either to Vietnam directly or to
Okinawa which provided backup support. Cargo shipped directly
to Vietnam, for the most part, was initially received at the Saigon
water port or the Tan Son Nhut airport. Military cargo was
treated very much as commercial or Agency for International De­
velopment cargo, with little emphasis on specialized development
of surface or air distribution methods, facilities, or equipment.
Between mid-1965 and late 1966, cargo continued to move
primarily by ship. Airlift was used to move the great majority of
troops and priority cargo, which accounted for only a small part of
the total tonnage moved. Surface cargo, during this period, con­
tinued toflowto Okinawa, Vietnam and Thailand causing multiport
discharging, although efforts were made to direct shipments to the
final destination port.
Initially, most waterborne cargo arriving in South Vietnam was
received at the Saigon Port, the only port with deep draft piers
24 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

except for a small two-berth pier at Cam Ranh Bay which had
been constructed in 1964 under the Military Assistance Program.
The Saigon Port was a civilian port under the management control
of the Republic of Vietnam's governmental port authority. It
consisted of ten deep draft berths. U.S. Army cargo was unloaded by
Vietnamese civilian stevedores at berths assigned by the civilian
port authority. Coordination of military cargo unloading and port
clearance was handled by the Navy's Headquarters Support Ac­
tivity Saigon.
When the buildup began, the port continued to operate in
this fashion. Headquarters Support Activity Saigon never knew
from day to day how many berths or which berths would be made
available to them for the unloading of U.S. cargo. In addition,
customs at the Saigon port dictated that cargo discharged from
ships be placed on pier aprons to await port clearance by the cargo
owner. It was up to the consignee to remove the cargo from the
port. Cargo not consigned to U.S. forces remained on the piers
for weeks and sometimes months, creating undesirable and
crowded working conditions which adversely affected port opera­
tions. Repeated efforts to get South Vietnam to clear the piers were
unsuccessful. Some of the cargo being received by South Vietnam
was U.S. Military Aid equipment which became South Vietnam
equipment as it was unloaded. U.S. forces were accused many
times of improper port clearance because this equipment was olive
drab in color. But such equipment frequently proved to belong to
South Vietnam and the U.S. Army had no authority to move it.
The overloaded port facilities and the operational necessity to
selectively discharge cargo to get high priority cargo ashore before
less urgently required items resulted in excessive ship turn-around
time which increased the total number of ships required. This
situation was complicated as cargo was manifested by broad cate­
gories only, for example, general cargo, making it impossible to
locate specific items. Holding the ships for lengthy periods re­
sulted in demurrage charges of from $3,000 to $7,000 per day per
ship. Also the inadequate and insecure railroads and highways
forced the distribution system to rely heavily on shallow draft
vessels for transshipment of cargo between the Saigon Port and other
locations, and intratheater airlift between Tan Son Nhut air
terminal and other locations. The problem was further aggravated
by a shortage of shallow draft vessels both military (LCMs and
LCUs) and civilian assets, which were used for offloading cargo
from deep draft vessels at ports not having adequate berthing
facilities for the larger ships. Civilian lighterage as well as military
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 25

landing craft, primarily LCMs and LCUs were used for this pur­
pose.
The U.S. Army's 4th Transportation Command arrived in South
Vietnam on 12 August 1965. It was given the mission of assisting
Headquarters Support Activity Saigon in U.S. port operations and
assuming that function completely as soon as possible, which it did
in September 1965. In addition, it was charged with providing
technical assistance to port and beach operations at Cam Ranh
Bay and the support commands being established throughout
South Vietnam. As U. S. Army terminal service companies were
received, they were initially employed in unloading of ammunition
at Na Bhe, the central ammunition receiving point just south of
Saigon, and were later employed in Saigon proper. In May 1965, a
request was made to the government of the Republic of South
Vietnam to acquire the three Maritime Marine piers adjacent to the
Saigon port facilities for the exclusive use of U. S. Forces. These
facilities were owned by a French shipping firm. This request ran
into financial and political difficulties, but was finally approved in
December 1965 after the personal intervention of General West­
moreland and the U. S. Ambassador. With the exclusive use and
control of these facilities, port operations improved in efficiency
and volume. The delay in obtaining these piers plus the shortage
of yard and storage space and the lack of a depot structure and
accounting procedures prevented the early establishment of ade­
quate port facilities.
Nevertheless, it was apparent that additional port facilities
would be required in the Saigon area. The 1st Logistical Command
made this known to Commander U.S. Military Assistance Com­
mand, Vietnam, who directed his staff to develop plans for the
facilities now known as Newport. Construction began on this fifty
million dollar facility in early 1966. In April 1967, the first deep
draft vessel was discharged at the Newport facility. Also, during
this period, several other ports throughout Vietnam were in the
construction phase.
By the end of December 1967, the ports in use by the Army
numbered 10; Saigon, Qui Nhon, Cam Ranh Bay, Vung Ro, Vung
Tau, Cat Lai, and Nha Trang were the deep draft ports; Dong
Tarn, Phan Rang and Can Tho were the shallow draft ports. These
improvements in port capabilities brought about a reduction in the
average time a deep draft ship waited for a berth in Vietnam
ports from 20.4 days during the most critical period of 1965 to
the 1970 average of less than two days.
26 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Warehousing and Storage Facilities

Prior to the buildup, warehouses and storage areas were liter­
ally nonexistent, except for limited facilities in the Saigon area.
Supplies were scattered in several locations throughout Saigon, all
of which were substandard and overcrowded; some were only
open storage. At the time the 1st Logistical Command became
operational, there was a construction backlog for the troops already
incountry. Construction of logistics facilities competed with many
other requirements. Since there was never more than $300 million
in annual capability to apply against a total theater program of
close to $2 billion, the construction effort took almost six years to
accomplish.
To initially offset this shortage of facilities, negotiations were
initiated with the United States Overseas Mission to obtain 13 Jap
anese built warehouses with dirt floors and no electrical wiring in
the Fishmarket area in Saigon. Three of these buildings were
obtained by the end of 1965 and the remaining 10 during 1966.
A contract was also let to construct an added 210,000 square feet of
covered storage and to fill an area behind the warehouses that
would serve as hardstand for open storage and a troop cantonment
area. This area housed the 506th Field Depot until a new depot
was constructed in Long Binh in 1968 and the move to the new
facilities was completed 1 July 1969.
By way of comparison, the new depot facilities at Long Binh
provided 1,869,000 square feet of black-topped hardstand and
1,458,000 square feet of covered storage, whereas the depot facili­
ties at the Fishmarket in Saigon had a total of only 670,000 square
feet of covered storage space as late as March 1967.
Additionally, agreement was reached with the United States
Overseas Mission on 16 March 1965 to provide and erect some pre­
fabricated buildings owned by the United States overseas mission
for use as warehouses in the Qui Nhon, Da Nang, Cam Ranh Bay,
Nha Trang, and Saigon areas. These buildings were finally avail­
able for occupancy in February 1966, almost one year after the
agreement. The same basic situation prevailed at Qui Nhon where
substandard and overcrowded facilities were occupied until com­
pletion of the new depot at Long My in 1968.
The United States constructed a major depot and port complex
at Cam Ranh Bay costing over $145 million, $55 million of which
came from Army appropriations. Cam Ranh Bay was an unde­
veloped area located at an excellent natural harbor which when
completed had over 1.4 million square feet of covered storage,
1.2 million square feet of open ammunition storage area, and
bulk storage facilities for over 775,000 barrels (42 gallons per
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 27

barrel) of petroleum products. Construction of this complex was

started early in the buildup period when it was envisioned that the
main war effort would be along the Cam Ranh Bay-Ban Me
Thuot-Pleiku axis. Since the war activity took place to the North
(Qui Nhon and Da Nang) and South (Saigon), the depot was not
utilized to the degree the planners originally anticipated. As a
result, there are some who claim that the war passed Cam Ranh
Bay by. When taken in that particular context, there is some
truth to the claim.
Even though war activity took place in areas different from
those expected, Cam Ranh Bay played an important role in the
logistics picture. A U.S. Army Support Command was established
there as a major logistical command and control element, the
Korean forces were supported almost exclusively from Cam Ranh
Bay throughout the time they were in the II Corps Area, trans­
shipping supplies from ocean going vessels to coastal type shipping
was accomplished there, and marine maintenance was done there.
The excellent and secure ammunition storage areas permitted keep­
ing large stocks of needed ammunition in-country relatively safe
from enemy attack and the cold storage facilities permitted fresh
vegetables to be brought down from Dalat and stored properly
till distributed to our forces. Also having a major storage and
shipping facility close to the major air base operated by the Air
Force was a distinct advantage. At one time it was planned to
move the Headquarters of the 1st Logistical Command there (it
was later decided that the 1st Logistical Command and Head­
quarters U.S. Army Vietnam should remain near Headquarters
U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam) and until fairly
late in residual force planning, Cam Ranh Bay was going to remain
as a major U.S. logistic complex. This too was dropped in favor of
the Saigon-Long Binh area.

Continental U.S. Production Base

At the time the Vietnam buildup began, the Army's industrial
base was operating at a relatively low level. This can be seen from
a comparison of the Procurement of Equipment and Missiles for
the Army contracts awarded before and after the buildup began.
(Chart 2)
Procurement and receipt of equipment lagged behind the in­
crease in Army strength during the buildup. The lag in production
resulted in inadequate quantities of equipment being available to
supply all worldwide needs. Extraordinary actions and manage­
ment techniques were used to obtain the maximum benefits from
the 1965 inventory and assets being produced. These are covered
28 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

CHART 2—PROCUREMENT OF EQUIPMENT AND MISSILES FOR THE ARMY

CONTRACT AWARDS
$ Billions
10 r

62 63 64 65 66 67 68

Fiscal Year

in greater detail in other sections, but in general, items critically

needed in Southeast Asia were taken from reserve component units
and active Army units not in Southeast Asia, and new issues of
certain items of equipment in short supply were centrally con­
trolled by Headquarters, Department of the Army.
There were four main reasons for production lagging behind
equipment and supply requirements:
1. A planning assumption that all hostilities would end by 30
June 1967. During 1965, President Johnson announced the build­
up of forces in South Vietnam. The Army immediately updated its
existing studies to ascertain the ammunition posture—both the
availability of world-wide assets and the U.S. Army Munitions
Command's capability to support combat operations from industry
production. These updated studies became the basis for the supple­
mental fiscal year 1966 budget programs. The fiscal year 1967
Army budget was restated on the assumption that Vietnam support
would continue only through June 1967. Because of this assump­
tion, many planned mobilization producers were not interested in
bidding. Due to production lead times involved, they would be
reaching peak rates at the time production supposedly would be
cut back. Also more profit could be derived from the manufac­
turer's production of consumer goods.
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 29

2. The lack of a full mobilization atmosphere precluded the

full employment of the Defense Production Act of 1950 (as
amended). Since the U.S. itself was not imminently threatened, it
was not felt appropriate to create a crisis situation among
industry and the populace. Therefore, the powers granted by
Congress in the Defense Production Act of 1950, which permit the
Government to direct civilian industries to manufacture those
items needed for national defense in preference to civilian oriented
items, were used very sparingly. This meant that in many cases
civilian industries were unwilling to undertake the manufacture
of defense oriented items at the sacrifice of interrupting their supply
to a flourishing civilian market. However, in the cases where it was
deemed necessary to employ provisions of the Defense Production
Act, the problems were resolved effectively.
3. The "No Buy" restriction placed on the procurement of
major items of equipment for temporary forces (units that were to
be manned only for the duration of the Vietnam conflict) by the
Office of the Secretary of Defense constrained Procurement of
Equipment and Missiles for the Army programs. These procure­
ment restrictions actually made it necessary for certain of these
units to borrow equipment that had been purchased for other units
or for reserve stocks. This resulted in a lessening of the readiness
posture of the unit or reserve stocks for which the equipment
was originally purchased.
4. For some specialized and often high priced items there was
frequently only one source of procurement. This "sole source"
was a hindrance to rapidly increasing the quantities of the items
available. The production facility manufacturing a particular
item, in some cases, could not increase its production fast enough
to meet the rapidly rising military requirements. Also, some man­
ufacturers did not deem it feasible to expand their production
facilities, at great expense, to meet temporarily increased sales
to the government. In addition, for the same reason, new sources
of supply were not easily convinced to enter into production of
these items.
The industrial base utilized by the Army consists of both gov­
ernment owned and privately owned production facilities including
real estate, plants, and production equipment. Private industrial
facilities are of primary importance and are only supplemented by
the Army's resources. However, Army owned facilities are required
to produce military items having no significant commercial demand.
Accordingly, the Army has throughout its history maintained vary­
ing capabilities for production, mostly in the munitions area.
30 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Prior to the buildup for Southeast Asia, only eleven of twenty-

five Army owned munition plants were operating. Immediate ac­
tions were taken to activate whatever additional ammunition
plants were required to support the anticipated consumption. Six
ammunition plants were activated in fiscal year 1966; six more were
activated in fiscal year 1967; and the last plant required to meet
production requirements was activated in fiscal year 1968. Only
one government owned munition facility remained inactive.
One important factor in the rapid improvement of the am­
munition production base was the special emphasis given to muni­
tions. During the latter part of 1965 when the increased tempo in
Vietnam made it apparent that ammunition was going to be re­
quired in larger quantities than the post-Korea stocks would sup­
port, the Secretary of Defense established a relatively small
organization to control air munitions. Shortly thereafter it was sug­
gested to the Secretary of the Army that he establish a similar
organization to control ground munitions. The organization was
activated in the Army Secretariat and staffed by requesting people
with the required expertise. On 15 December 1966, the Office of
Special Assistant for Munitions was established in the Office of the
Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics and at that time the Army
Secretariat relinquished the responsibility and the authority to
the Army staff. However, a close relationship existed between
Office of Special Assistant for Munitions, the Army Secretariat, and
the Ground Munitions Office in the Office of the Secretary of De­
fense because of the intense interest in the ammunition program.
This interest stemmed from the high dollar value of the program
and congressional concern over ammunition matters. Eventually
the Office of the Special Assistant for Munitions became a Director­
ate within the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics
known as the Office of the Director of Ammunition.

Logistic Personnel and Training

During the period 30 June 1965 through 30 June 1967 a total
of 1,057,900 personnel entered the Army and losses totaled
584,500. The resulting numerical turnover of personnel exceeded
the Army's peak strength. Of the total gains, 977,000 were new
accessions with no prior military experience (616,600 draftees;
360,400 first term enlistees). Another 80,900 were procured from
other sources such as reenlistees within 90 days of discharge. While
the Army's total strength was expanding by almost 50 percent, its
monthly loss of trained personnel averaged over 24,000. These
losses created turbulence, denied the Army the use of immediately
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 31

available trained skills, and required that over one million men
and women be brought on duty to achieve an increase in overall
strength of less than 474,000. Replacing skilled individuals with
personnel of like skills was a serious problem. The Army was
faced not only with the problem of training thousands of personnel
with entry-level skills, but also had to provide additional training
in lieu of skill progression normally acquired by on-the-job ex­
perience.
One of the most significant factors contributing to the personnel
turbulence throughout the Army was the one-year tour for personnel
assigned to South Vietnam. In late 1965, to avoid 100 percent ro­
tation of men in a unit in Vietnam at the end of their 12 month
tour, the Army applied personnel management techniques to in­
sure that not more than 25 percent of a unit would be rotated in
any one month. These techniques included tour curtailments,
short extensions, exchanges of troops with other similar units, and
voluntary extensions of individuals.
The rapid buildup, coupled with the twelve-month tour of
duty, made the replacement program a problem of great magni­
tude. The regular replacement of personnel in the short-tour
areas came close to representing a complete annual turnover.
Rotation after a year boosted individual morale, but it also
weakened units that had to send experienced men home. Further,
personnel turnover often invalidated training previously accom­
plished by a unit. A large portion of the Army's enlisted require­
ments is in skills that are not self-sustaining because the require­
ments for them in long-tour areas are inadequate to provide a
rotation base for short-tour areas. The advantages in morale out­
weighed the disadvantages cited, but the drawbacks to short tours
were there and cannot be glossed over.
In many cases, support personnel assigned to Vietnam did not
have the essential experience in such areas as depot operations,
maintenance, and supply management. There was a shortage of
junior officers and senior non-commissioned officers who had the
logistics experience necessary to supervise "across the board" lo­
gistics for brigade size tactical units at isolated locations. Many of
the supervisory personnel did not have any experience or training
outside of their own branch and were assigned duties and responsi­
bilities above that normally expected of their grade.
Logistic support units deployed to Vietnam were deficient in
unit training. Of significant impact upon mission accomplishment
was the method by which the support units were trained in the
early 1960s. With reorganization from the technical service con­
32 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

cept to the Combat Service to the Army concept, functional train­

ing of units was decentralized in the Continental Army Command
to post, camp and station level. There were no Quartermaster,
Ordnance, or other titular heads looking after the training of their
units. This condition fostered a haphazard incorporation of current
doctrine and procedures in training which was already decentral­
ized.
A program was initiated at Atlanta Army Depot to provide
on-the-job training in depot operations for selected enlisted per­
sonnel enroute to U.S. Army Vietnam. From 1967 through 1970,
4,619 enlisted personnel received this training.
Other special training programs were established to provide
orientation and training for selected officer personnel at the De­
fense Supply Agency Depot at Richmond and at the U.S. Army
Electronics Command, Fort Monmouth, New Jersey.
Beginning in June 1968, the 1st Logistical Command initiated
some fairly extensive training courses in South Vietnam. Project
SKILLS was introduced to provide orientation, indoctrination, spe­
cialist training, and on-the-job training on a recurring basis at all
levels of command. SKILLS I ALPHA was a detailed orientation and
indoctrination of newly assigned colonels and higher key staff
officers and commanders at battalion or higher level, Department
of the Army civilians of equivalent grade, and command sergeants
major. SKILLS I BRAVO was a formal orientation and indoctrination
for enlisted specialists newly assigned to elements of the command.
SKILLS I CHARLIE was an orientation, indoctrination, and formal
continuing on-the-job training of all enlisted personnel. With the
increasing role of local nationals in the 1st Logistical Command, the
need for a local national training program was recognized and
Project SKILLS II was initiated. This program was designed not
only to help get a job done, but also to contribute to the self-
sufficiency of the Republic of Vietnam in the future.
The trained personnel shortage was also alleviated somewhat
by the arrival in-country of Program Six units which were force
packages consisting of Army, Reserves, and National Guard com­
bined by Department of Army and containing many highly edu­
cated personnel who possessed critical skills.
Strategic Army Forces were tapped to meet Vietnam personnel
requirements. The primary mission of Strategic Army Forces is to
maintain combat readiness to respond to contingencies on a world­
wide basis. In April 1965, a substantial drawdown of Strategic
Army Forces personnel began. At that time approximately one-
third of the command was composed of logistic and administrative
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 33

personnel. This was not a balanced force, and under the impact
of drawdowns, the percentage of logistic and administrative per­
sonnel remaining in Strategic Army Forces units was reduced fur­
ther to approximately one-fifth by the end of Fiscal Year 1966.
Unit readiness was further degraded by drastic imbalances in
enlisted grades and military occupational specialties. Logistical
activities in South Vietnam often experienced shortages of per­
sonnel with specific skills and technical training. In some cases,
skill categories were deficient in the numbers required because of
the civilianization of Continental U.S. military activities and the
constant decline in the retention rate of experienced military per­
sonnel. Concurrent with the decision not to call the Reserves was
the determination to continue normal separations. Consequently,
discharges at the end of periods of obligated service, resignations,
and retirements were continued as in peacetime. The Army was
most severely restricted by this policy. There were shortages of
officers in all grades except lieutenant. U.S. Army Europe was also
called on to provide many trained troops and specialists with
critical skills in the combat service support for South Vietnam. As
a result, combat unit personnel in U.S. Army Europe were di­
verted from their intended assignments to perform maintenance,
supply, and housekeeping tasks. Tour length policies and world­
wide distribution of structure spaces caused an enlisted skill im­
balance between short tour areas and the rotation base. For certain
skills (for example helicopter mechanics, electronic maintenance,
and supply personnel) the preponderance of structure spaces was
in short tour areas.
The percentage of support personnel versus combat personnel
in South Vietnam fluctuated. Early in 1965 the percentage of
support personnel was estimated by some authorities to be as low
as 25 percent. At that time supply lines of communication were
not as long as they later came to be. In 1966, as supply lines of
communication had lengthened and a major effort was underway
to alleviate the congested ports and depots, the percentage in­
creased to approximately 45 percent. By 1969, at the height of
our troop strength, the percentage of support personnel had
dropped to 39 percent. However, this percentage rose again as
our strength reductions continued and a greater percentage of com­
bat forces were withdrawn. For example, by the end of March 1971,
the ratio of personnel had changed to 53 percent combat and
47 percent support due to the requirement for support personnel
to retrograde materiel of the departing combat units. These sup­
port percentages include only military personnel. In addition to
34 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

these personnel, civilian workers and contracting firms were em­

ployed for many support services throughout the Vietnam opera­
tion.
In viewing the above percentages, it is important to remember
that the classification of Army units as either combat or support is
not clearcut, and the definitions of these categories are subject to
varying interpretations. For example every infantry unit includes
administrative personnel whose mission is something other than
combat with the enemy; and every supply company contains truck
drivers or helicopter pilots who travel daily to the combat zone
where they are subject to hostile operations and contacts. With
these qualifications in mind, we generally classify the total strength
of each division, plus all other infantry, armor, artillery, and
certain aviation, engineer, and signal units as combat forces. All
other types of units (for example maintenance, supply, military
police, medical, and transportation) are classified in the support
category.
The force structure of the active duty components of the Armed
Forces must be designed to permit adequate logistic support of
ready forces in quick reaction to emergency situations. During
peacetime, emphasis was in some cases placed on the maintenance
of combat and combat support forces without adequate combat
service support units and trained technical personnel. As a con­
sequence, when contingency operations are undertaken and the
Reserves are not called up, serious deficiencies in logistic units and
trained logistic personnel may be expected. There is a need, there­
fore, to enhance readiness to respond promptly to limited war of
scope comparable to the Vietnam conflict without reliance on
national mobilization or callup of Reserves to conduct logistic op­
erations.

Security
Logistic security, including the physical protection of logistic
personnel, installations, facilities, and equipment was one of the
more critical aspects of the logistic effort in Vietnam. Ambushes,
sapper and rocket attacks and pilferage caused logistics com­
manders to be constantly aware of the necessity for strict security
measures. The tactical situation was not always evident or given
consideration during the installation construction planning phase.
There were no "secure" rear areas. Often planning personnel did
not fully appreciate the tactical situation, and some installations
were constructed at the base of unsecured high ground, making
 LOGISTICS ENVIRONMENT 35

the dominant terrain feature a prize for the enemy for observation
purposes as well as offensive action.
Personnel and equipment authorizations for logistic organiza­
tions were inadequate for the additional mission of security. Ra­
dios and field telephones were in short supply. These items were
essential to the security of the installation perimeter, including
the bunkers, towers, patrols, "sweep teams", and reaction forces.
Night vision devices helped but were not available in adequate
quantities.
Pilferage and sabotage were prevalent at many installations.
Some of the means utilized by commanders to minimize these
actions are listed below:
1. Frequent inventories were taken.
2. Continous employee education was conducted.
3. Physical barriers with intrusion delay devices and detection
aids were employed.
4. Employee identification badges were used to control access
to various controlled areas, as well as the installation itself.
5. Access to storage areas for highly sensitive items were
strictly controlled.
6. Management techniques such as spot inspection, spot searches
of personnel, and bilingual signs warning personnel against in­
fractions of rules or theft were used to insure understanding by
workers.
7. Strict controls were implemented on receipts and transfers
of cargo between ports and the first consignees. Transportation
Control and Movement Documents were used extensively for the
transfer of cargo from one storage area to another.
8. On sensitive items such as those highly desired by the enemy,
markings were subdued or obliterated, to prevent identification
by the enemy, and in their place "U.S. Government" was stenciled.
In subdued or obliterated markings, the federal stock number had
to remain visible and legible.
9. Twenty-four-foot-high anchor fences were used around pe­
troleum, oils, and lubricants tank farms to improve security from
sapper attacks and other sabotage efforts by the enemy.
10. Practice alerts were conducted frequently to assure that all
personnel were familiar with their defensive assignments within the
perimeter in case of an enemy attack.
Convoy commanders were continually faced with security prob­
lems in the movement of cargo from one location to another over
the insecure highway system in Vietnam. Support from artillery
36 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

fire support bases and medical units, and military police escorts
were arranged when such was available.
The compelling need to move cargo dictated the "do it your­
self" principle. To help combat the lack of security in this type
of operation, and to monitor the shipments in an effective way,
many safeguards were initiated. Military drivers and trucks were
used to haul post exchange and other sensitive supplies or readily
marketable commodities. Trip ticket controls, road patrols, check
points, radio reports of departures and arrivals, and strict ac­
counting for loading and offloading times were used. Close liaison
with Vietnamese law enforcement agencies along the truck route
was established. Armed security guards were utilized to reduce
the effectiveness of enemy ambushes.
To offset the shortage of armored vehicles available for convoy
escort, transportation units devised the expedient of "hardening"
some cargo type vehicles. The beds of 5-ton trucks were usually
floored with armor plate and sandbagged. The sides and front
of the trucks were also armor plated. The trucks were usually
equipped with M60 and 50 caliber machine guns. One gun truck
was assigned to accompany about ten task vehicles in a convoy. In
1968 the V—100 armored car was sent to South Vietnam and was
exceptionally useful when available for convoy security. Helicopter
gun ships were used to maintain aerial surveillance of convoy
columns. In addition to providing the surveillance function and a
rapid means of response to an enemy attack, these gun ships
presented a visible deterrent to the enemy. Clearing of roadsides
and paving road surfaces to make mining more difficult and mine
detection easier increased security.
Of special help to the logistic commanders were the combat
arms officers on the U.S. Army Vietnam and the Support Command
staffs who advised and assisted them on security matters. With
their guidance, logistic commanders were able to improvise within
their own resources and provide an acceptable degree of security.
Despite the various obstacles involved, the logistic security
mission was in most cases effectively accomplished. Convoys de­
livered their cargos, and defensive measures at logistic installations
repeatedly frustrated enemy attacks.
 CHAPTER III

Supply Support In Vietnam

For the first time in modern history, the U.S. Army was re­
quired to establish a major logistical base in a country where all
areas were subject to continuous enemy observation and hostile fire,
with no terrain under total friendly control. There was no com­
munications zone; in fact, combat and communications zones were
one and the same, and the logistics soldier was frequently and
quite literally right with the front line tactical soldier. There
was no meaningful consumption and other experience data upon
which to base support estimates. As a result, there was an initial
influx of huge quantitities of supplies of every description to
support the tactical troop buildup. This occurred well before the
availability of either a logistic base or an adequate logistical or­
ganization.
Adding to the difficulties in 1965 was the fact that the supply
systems then being used in the United States were either automated
or in the process of being automated. Personnel were being
trained in automated supply procedures. But going into Vietnam
the way we did meant going in with light, non-automated logistic
forces. Actually the Army didn't have the computers and technolog­
ical skills to support the buildup with an automated supply system.
Initial operations in Vietnam involved the use of a manual
system for in-country support. The interface between these sys­
tems, which relied heavily upon punch card operations, and the
more computerized wholesale systems, posed difficulties until in-
country mechanization was expanded.
During the initial year and a half of manual operation, the
sheer volume of traffic and the inability to interface with the
automated Continental U.S. systems resulted in an almost in­
surmountable backlog of management problems that required
two years to untangle. Even though UNIVAC 1005 card proc­
essors were installed in the depots in 1966-67 and replaced with
IBM 7010/1460 computers in 1968, the lead time associated with
the approval process, construction of facilities, writing and de­
bugging computer programs, and making the system operational
was such that, by the time a new system was on line, it was barely
adequate to cope with the continually increasing requirements.
38 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Automatic Data Processing System capability for logistic man­

agement must be introduced in a combat theater as soon as possible
with adequate communications support and with the capability of
interfacing with Automatic Data Processing Systems outside the
combat area.
By 1968 there was an automated supply system operating in
Vietnam. Even at the direct and general support level there was
automation to some degree. At this level there were NCR 500
computer processors to compute repair parts requisitioning ob­
jectives and dues-in and dues-outs.

Repair Parts Supply

Repair parts (Class IX) supply was especially interesting due
to the fact that the number of items authorized for stockage
mushroomed from an insignificant number in 1965 to 200,000 in
October 1966 and then was reduced to 130,000 in May, 1967 and to
75,000 by March 1971. Besides a monumental bookeeping exercise,
there were other dynamics in the system. We had to automate so
that we could manage.
To get items in-country that would be needed by the arriving
forces, Push Packages were used initially. The purpose of this
method of supply was to provide a form of automatic resupply to
meet the anticipated consumption and to support the prescribed
load lists, and the authorized stockage lists of committed units
until normal requisitioning procedures could be established. In
June 1965, when the use of Push Packages began, all types of
supply items were included, but by January 1966 Push Packages
contained only repair parts.
Among the factors entering into the decision to use Push Pack­
ages were:
1. Theater prestockage had not been effected when the Vietnam
buildup commenced except for limited U.S. Army Pacific war
reserve prepositioned equipment in Okinawa and elsewhere.
2. The long order and shipping time from Continental U.S. to
Vietnam precluded the use of normal requisitioning procedures.
3. The rapid introduction of a large number of combat units
into Vietnam was accompanied with an entirely inadequate num­
ber of supply support units and logistic supervisory personnel.
Supply support units, such as Direct Support Units and General
Support Units which would normally have carried the authorized
stockage for supporting the combat units were not available in South
Vietnam.
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 39

4. The tactical concepts of air mobility to be employed in

Vietnam dictated the immediate availability of repair parts for the
great density of helicopters and other types of equipment.
5. Engineer and service type units that were initially employed
anticipated an early need for repair parts due to the primitive
areas in which they would be operating and the resultant high
intensity of equipment usage.
6. Procurement of military supplies was not possible on the
Vietnamese economy.
Packages were made up for all large units and for small units
when combined troop strengths reached approximately 5,000.
These packages were shipped to Vietnam in various increments.
The supplies included in each incremental package were developed
from National Inventory Control data. The first two increments
were shipped directly to the designated unit or force, while the
remaining increments were intercepted at the depots responsible
for supporting the unit or force. The composition of each supply
package was of necessity determined from data not associated with
Southeast Asia operations. World War II and Korean experience
was all that was available. As a result, in some cases the packages
proved to be unbalanced in relation to demand, causing overages
in some items and shortages in others.
Nevertheless these automatic resupply packages served a very
definite and useful purpose in supporting the initial buildup of
combat troops in Vietnam, particularly during 1965 and early
1966. Without this form of resupply, we would not have been able
to support our combat troops within the time frame that we did.
The success of the Push Packages is attested to by the fact that no
major combat operation was ever delayed or hampered by a lack
of supply, A number of problem areas were encountered, how­
ever, which included:
1. The inability of inexperienced unit supply personnel to
sort, identify, and properly issue the volume of items received. In
many cases, the original Push Packages and their individual con­
tents were identifiable only by shipment numbers and Federal
Stock Numbers. Therefore, highly skilled supply personnel were
required for placing these items in the proper bins to make them
readily available for use.
2. A lack of secure warehouse and storage space and sufficient
logistic units at depots. The size of individual Push Package in­
crements arriving in Vietnam initially was too large for the dis­
charge capacity, storage facilities available, and the capabilities of
the supply units at the unloading areas.
40 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

3. In some cases, unit destinations were changed without

changing the destination of the Push Package causing a delay in the
receipt of the package by the intended unit.
4. Inexperienced personnel became accustomed to the "push"
philosophy and failed to evaluate measures for transition to the
normal "pull" system. As a result of the dependence upon external
assistance, units failed to maintain effective demand data or to
initiate measures which would permit stockage at intermediate
support levels.
Because of the problem areas encountered, supplies in many
cases were available in-country, but could not be identified or
located. For example, in mid-1966 (even in 1968) some of the
original Push Package supplies still remained in the depots, un­
binned, unidentifiable and unusable for the purpose for which they
were shipped. This factor together with the overagest resulting from
unbalanced packages had the net effect of generating excess supplies
in various locations in Vietnam.
In future operations, Push Packages may again be required for
initial or special supply support. These packages, as proven by ex­
perience, must be developed on an austere basis and include plans
which permit transition to normal supply support. Push Packages
should be based on the latest experience factors available and
should be scrubbed to exclude those items which are "nice to
have." Push Packages should make maximum use of standard con­
tainers with stocks prebinned and accompanied by locator cards.
These packages should also contain prepunched requisitions to be
introduced into the system in order to establish support stocks at
theater level. Push Packages should be approved only as an interim
relief measure which permits the pull system to again respond to
the unit's needs.
On 10 June 1966, as a result of conferences, communications,
and experience gained during the buildup, Department of the
Army dispatched a message to U.S. Army Pacific and Army
Materiel Command setting forth an automatic supply policy and
procedure which stopped Push Packages and started the process
of normalizing supply support. Essentially supply support of all
forces was to be provided through normal requisitioning procedures
within U.S. Army Pacific, and Army Materiel Command was to
provide equipment density data for projected deployments to
provide an order-ship lead time in excess of 195 days.
Exceptions to the above, were a 90 day package of high
mortality repair parts for the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment,
support for new items of equipment introduced into Vietnam,
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 41
and for any unscheduled arrivals. These exceptions were con­
sidered on a case-by-case basis. Falling into the latter category were
the 9th Infantry Division and the 196th and 199th Infantry
Brigades. However, by January 1967 their stockage position and
supply management capability had improved to such a level that
U.S. Army Vietnam advised that Push Packages were no longer
required for these units. U.S. Army Vietnam requested that any
further preparation on movement of such packages be dis­
continued unless they specifically requested or concurred in such
shipment.

TABLE 2—PUSH PACKAGES DATA

Days
Incre­ Line of
Packages ments Items Units Supply $-Value
1-A 51,000 Log Sup 120 8,745,664
2 15 24,000 Inf Bde 240 21,066,321
3 15 24,000 Airborne Bde 240 19,629,691
4-A 15 75,000 Airmobile Div 240 89,329,697
4-B 15 78,000 Airmobile Sup 240 26,956,335
4-C 15 59,000 Corps Sup 240 12,367,475
5 14 133,000 Inf Div 210 73,182,715
8 14 115,000 Combat Sup Log &Adm 210 47,163,539
9 14 156,000 Combat Sup Log & Adm 210 59,397,912
10 14 50,000 Combat Sup Log &Adm 210 10,194,865
11 4 16,000 Combat Sup Log &Adm 210 3,497,674
12 4 21,000 Combat Sup Log &Adm 210 4,461,050
15 1 12,335 25th Div—1st & 2d Bde 60 611,414
16 1 11,279 25 th Div-3rd Bde 60 588,039
17 16,904 25th Div (Minus) 60 1,546,430
18 8,253 4th Inf Div 60 1,047,092
19 3,732 11th Arm Cav Div 90 931,187
20 2,823 196th Bde 90 253,840
21 5,430 9th Inf Div 90 1,342,413
22 2,950 199th Inf Bde 90 215,897

Total 155 865,706 382,529,250

Cam Ranh Bay
XZJ 1 50,321 Depot Stocks 60 6,411,744
YUH 1 15,200 Hawk Missile Bn 90 1,500,000

~~2 65,521 7,911,744

Grand Total . . . 157 931,227 *390,440,994

•Equivalent of 195,220 short tons.

The above tabulation (Table 2) of Push Packages shipped

to Vietnam indicates packages shipped, number of line items,
and dollar value of each package. Also shown are two special
42 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

applications of Push Packages—the Cam Ranh Bay Depot Stock

package and the special package for a Hawk battalion.
As a result of Vietnam experience, U.S. Army Materiel Com­
mand automatic supply procedures have been revised. The selec­
tion of support items is equipment oriented, rather than force
oriented and employs the principle of repair by replacement of
components and modules (Contingency Operations Selection Tech­
nique) . Also, a technique has been developed for the pre-determina­
tion of austere, essential requirements for automatic supply support
of type units to permit effective planning for receiving, storing, and
handling materiel incident to unit deployment. Another procedure
has been adopted which provides for the computation of re­
quirements for support stocks based upon existing deployable
divisions rather than type forces (Contingency Support Stocks).
Still another technique, under continuing review and refinement,
calls for the containerization of minimum essential items of materiel
needed to support specific quantities of an end item for a specific
period (Container Integrated Support Package). The materiel
included in such support packages would be identified and binned
within the containers to facilitate receipt, storage, issue, and
replenishment actions.

Short Supply Items

Earlier it was noted that equipment to support our forces was
produced after the need or requirement was apparent. Naturally
there were shortages. And the lag between the establishment of
requirements and the availability of sufficient assets existed right
up to 1971 for some items. To satisfy the requirements for forces
being sent to Vietnam and for the replacement of combat and
other losses, equipment was withdrawn from and denied to the
rest of the Active Army and Reserve components. Some items
became so critical that their allocation was controlled by the
Department of the Army through the application of intensive
management techniques.
Satisfying the need for items in short supply was a different
process for each item. Eight situations for eight different classes
or types of equipment follow for illustrative purposes.

Armored Personnel Carriers

It wasn't easy to satisfy the requirements before 1967, but from
1967 through 1969 the demand for armored personnel carriers in
U.S. Army Vietnam jumped dramatically. Tables of Organization
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 43

and Equipment requirements increased approximately 124 per­

cent, while at the same time new operational uses were causing
greater exposure and increased battle losses. To reduce losses,
overhaul was increased; and to minimize shortages, assets were
withdrawn from lower priority units worldwide. Early in 1967,
Army Materiel Command began developing a belly armor for
armored personnel carriers to reduce damage and casualties
caused by mines. A mine protection kit was developed consisting
of belly armor, rerouted fuel lines kits, and non-integral fuel
tanks. By mid-March 1969, U.S. Army Vietnam had tested the
first belly armor and it was enthusiastically accepted by commanders
and crews. U.S. Army Vietnam asked for expedited procurement
to equip all their armored personnel carriers, since high battle losses
were projected and the kits had proven to be effective in reducing
losses.
In August 1967, it was decided that conversion of the armored
personnel carrier fleet from gasoline to diesel power was necessary
to reduce the danger of fire after suffering enemy caused damage.
At that time, 73 percent of the armored personnel carrier fleet in
U.S. Army Vietnam was gasoline powered. An intensive effort was
made to equip the entire U.S. Army Vietnam fleet with diesel en­
gines. All new diesel production was allocated to Southeast Asia;
however, high losses and increased deployments exceeded the pro­
duction rate. It was 1 July 1968 before the total armored personnel
carrier fleet in U.S. Army Vietnam was equipped with diesel
engines.
Beginning in April 1967, a Closed Loop Support program was
developed to retrograde armored personnel carriers needing re­
pairs, repair them, and return them on a scheduled basis. New
techniques were developed in the repair of battle damaged vehicles
in which damaged sections of hulls were cut out and replaced.
Plans were made to expand Sagami Depot, Japan to cover the
requirements of the Eighth Army, U.S. Army Vietnam, and the
Republic of Vietnam Army. Production schedules were increased
and a maximum effort was exerted to recruit additional personnel.
Starting in 1969 Sagami was able to support the U.S. Army Vietnam
rebuild requirements thereby enhancing supply performance.

Ground Surveillance Radars

The AN/TPS-25A ground surveillance radar became a critical
combat support item in 1968. It had proven to be very successful
in locating personnel moving at night in the rice paddies of the
Mekong Delta. Since it had not been produced since 1959, the with­
44 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

drawal of the assets from other major commands and Reserve

Components was necessary. The overhaul and shipment of the
radar sets to meet U.S. Army Vietnam's total requirements was
completed in August 1969.
In order to maintain the inventory of radars in Vietnam at a
high state of operational readiness, they too were included in a
Closed Loop Support Program reducing total requirements
through the integration of transportation, supply management,
and maintenance.

Engineer Construction Equipment

The Line of Communications Program was undertaken in
Vietnam by the 18th and 20th Engineer Brigades. It soon became
apparent that there was not sufficient standard military design engi­
neer construction equipment to complete the road construction pro­
gram within the allotted time frame. Engineer construction equip­
ment is normally associated with long lead times so if the program
was to be accomplished by the desired time not only would large
quantities of equipment be needed, but more operators and
maintenance personnel would be required. Therefore, it was
decided to acquire 31 different types of commercial items, totaling
667 pieces at a total acquisition cost of $23,860,000. A plan pre­
pared by U.S. Army Vietnam called for the procurement of the
equipment with Military Construction Army funds and included
extra major components plus a one-year supply of repair parts.
Deliveries covered the period January-September 1969. Mainte­
nance above the operator level and repair parts beyond the one-
year overpack quantities were provided by civilian contracting
firms.

The M16A1 Rifle

Initially U.S. and allied forces were equipped with either the
M14 or Ml rifle. When the decision was made to equip all forces
in Southeast Asia with the M16A1 rifle, we were faced with a
limited, but growing, production capacity and ever increasing re­
quirements. In country, it was merely a matter of establishing
priorities to distribute the rifles as they were received and pro­
viding for the turn in of the Ml and M14 rifles for reissue or
retrograde. In the Continental U.S. however, a central point of con­
tact was established in the Department of the Army in December
1967, specifically the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Logis­
tics, to monitor and control funding, procurement, modification,
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 45

distribution, and maintenance of this rifle. This office functioned

through December 1970.

Electric Generators
The increased usage of electrically powered equipment by the
Army in Vietnam resulted in the requirements for electricity far
exceeding that required during World War II. During that war,
the average consumption per soldier was i/2 kilowatt hour per day.
In Vietnam the average consumption was 2 kilowatt hours per
day, a four fold increase.
Large capacity generating equipment was needed, because the
Vietnamese local power sources were incapable of supplying our
requirements. Some of the power requirements were satisfied by
converting eleven T-2 petroleum tankers to power barges and by
erecting fixed plants throughout Vietnam. The fixed plants were
operated by contractors (either the Vinnel Corporation or Pacific
Architects and Engineers) since military personnel are not trained
in the operation of such commercial type equipment.
Other requirements were met through the diversion of small
tactical generators from their normal use. This meant that many
small generators were used to perform a task better accomplished
with a single large capacity piece of equipment.
With increased requirements came many procurement actions
resulting in an extensive number of makes and models in the
theater. At the peak of the buildup, there were about 145 makes
and models in the 1.5 kilowatt to 100 kilowatt range.
Because of the around-the-clock utilization, age of the assets,
lack of parts, lack of an adequate maintenance float, and the
numerous makes and models, requirements were generated so
rapidly that authorizations documentation could not keep pace,
resulting in difficulty in accounting for actual assets on hand. With
time and strong management efforts the situation improved.
Power requirements were met through additional inputs, a re­
duction in requirements, and the washing out of some of the
non-standard equipment. However, complete standardization will
not be possible until the introduction of the Military Standard
Family which is programed forfiscalyear 1973.

The M107 Self-Propelled Gun Tube

The M107 Self-Propelled Gun, mounting the 175-mm Ml 13
gun tube, was introduced into South Vietnam by artillery units
arriving in late 1965. This weapon posed significant operational
46 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

readiness problems in early 1966. Due to inadequately trained

maintenance personnel and a shortage of manuals, there was a 30
percent deadline rate. The rate of fire of these weapons was
consuming tubes on the average of one tube per gun every 45
days. Since this far exceeded the planned consumption rate, the
Commanding General, U.S. Army Materiel Command initiated a
worldwide cross leveling action to provide the U.S. Army Vietnam
requirements. At the same time, he advised U.S. Army Vietnam
of the results of a test utilizing a titanium dioxide additive, sup­
plied in a cloth sleeve, which had doubled the 175-mm gun tube
life expectancy. This increased tube life was expected to ease the
critical supply posture in the 175-mm gun tubes. However, in
July 1966 a catastrophic failure of a 175-mm gun occurred in U.S.
Army Vietnam and the Commanding General, U.S. Army Materiel
Command, directed that no tubes, even with the additive, would
be fired beyond 400 rounds at equivalent full charge.
The supply situation on gun tubes remained critical and Con­
tinental U.S. airlift was employed to satisfy most of the U.S. Army
Vietnam requirements of this item through July 1967. In Septem­
ber, gun tube shipment by surface transportation was begun. The
U.S. Army Vietnam stockage objective was attained in December
1967 and in January 1968 the U.S. Army Vietnam tube consump­
tion stabilized.

Tropical Combat Uniforms and Combat Boots Under FLAGPOLE

During the period August 1965 to August 1966, the Office of the
Secretary of Defense originated a system for reporting items con­
sidered essential to the Army Buildup by U.S. Army Vietnam field
commanders under the code name FLAGPOLE. This was a technique
used by Secretary of Defense McNamara to be kept advised of
the status of selected critical items.
Two of the items which came under FLAGPOLE were tropical
combat uniforms and tropical combat boots because at the onset
of the conflict these items were in short supply. Procurement
and distribution of these items was controlled by the Joint Ma­
teriel Priorities Allocation Board established by the Joint Chiefs of
Staff who allocated monthly production to the services.
During the period of critical short supply, all Army deliveries
of tropical combat uniforms and boots, relatively new items in the
supply system, were airlifted from producer to U.S. Army Vietnam
without the need for the command to requisition on the Conti­
nental U.S. Automatic air shipments continued through May
1967. Pending availability of tropical combat uniforms and boots
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 47

in the Continental U.S., Department of the Army established a

policy in September 1965 whereby personnel deployed from the
Continental U.S. with four utility uniforms and two pairs of leather
combat boots. The tropical combat items were subsequently ob­
tained by the individual in Vietnam. This policy continued until
a sustained supply position was reached. Effective 1 July 1967, units
deployed were equipped at home station with five combat uni­
forms and two pairs of combat boots. On 1 August 1967, personnel
replacements enroute to Vietnam (excluding E-9s, W-4s, and field
grade) were issued four tropical combat uniforms and one pair of
combat boots at the Continental U.S. Personnel Processing Centers;
E-9s, W-4s, and field grade, because of direct call to aerial port, re­
ceived these items in Vietnam. The distribution of lightweight
tentage, lightweight ponchos, collapsible canteens and canteen
covers was also controlled by Joint Materiel Priorities Allocation
Board. Air deliveries were made from contractor source to U.S.
Army Vietnam without the need for the command to requisi­
tion on the Continental U.S. The "push" method of supply for
these items ended in May 1967, at which time the availability was
adequate for U.S. Army Vietnam to requisition on the Continental
U.S.

Dry Battery Supply and Storage

The supply system provided dry batteries designed with the
assumption that adequate refrigerated space would be available
to prevent deterioration in the extreme temperatures common to
Vietnam. However, there was not enough refrigerated space avail­
able in Vietnam to provide the protection for the required stock
levels. The combination of the lack of refrigerated storage space,
the temperatures in Vietnam, and an overtaxed supply system re­
sulted in a system of expedited battery resupply out of Japan
known as Project "Orange Ball." It was initiated in 1968 and in­
volved the use of 20' x 8' x 8' refrigerated containers delivered
in frozen condition every ten days to U.S. Army Vietnam depots.
Project "Orange Ball" was designed to modify the supply system
so that smaller quantities of batteries were provided to the user
at more frequent intervals. To provide the batteries faster under
Project "Orange Ball," units that required batteries handcarried
requests for a two or three days supply to their Class I supply
points. On their next scheduled visit to the supply point, two or
three days later, they drew the batteries they had requested on
their previous visit along with their rations, and at the same time
submitted another request for two to three days supply of dry
48 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

batteries which they would pick up on their next scheduled visit.

From this specialized system, a direct delivery system of dry bat­
teries from Continental U.S. to U.S. Army Vietnam was instituted.
Exclusive dedicated transportation by refrigerated container ves­
sels (Sea and Land) was utilized. By this method, dry batteries for
U.S. Army Vietnam were shipped direct from the Continental U.S.
contractor plants to Oakland Army Terminal on a bi-weekly
basis. Dry batteries were then shipped by the refrigerated vessels
to depot facilities in U.S. Army Vietnam. Upon their arrival in
Vietnam, established "Orange Ball" procedures were used.

Management Techniques
There were three main phases of the conflict in Vietnam:
buildup, sustaining, and phasedown. Each phase required special
management techniques.
During the buildup phase, emphasis was placed on getting
equipment and supplies into Vietnam without regard for the lack
of a sufficient number of logistic units in-country to account for
and effectively manage the incoming items. This of course was
necessitated by the rapidity of the buildup and the tactical require­
ment to increase the combat strength in South Vietnam as rapidly
as possible. As a result, supplies flowed in ahead of an adequate
logistics base, preventing the orderly establishment of manage­
ment and accounting operations.
The sustaining and drawdown phases can be considered to­
gether. During the sustaining phase, there were enough logistics
units to start managing the supplies in Vietnam, to identify ex­
cesses, to retrograde unnecessary stocks, and to create order out of
chaos. What was started during the sustaining phase was not only
carried over in the drawdown, but was intensified and added to.
Interestingly enough some of the management devices used to sup­
port the buildup were useful in the latter two phases and were
adopted for worldwide use.
To support the buildup, many intensive management systems
were employed. Eight of the most significant are described in the
following paragraphs. They are as follows: the HAWK Stovepipe,
Red Ball Express, the Department of the Army Distribution and
Allocation Committee, Quick Reaction Assistance Teams, EN­
SURE, Closed Loop Support, Retrograde of Equipment—KEY­
STONE, and the Morning Line of Communications Briefings,
Vietnam.
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 49

Hawk Stovepipe
The 97th Artillery Group (Air Defense), equipped with the
Hawk missile system, was deployed to Vietnam in September
1965. This was the first occasion for the Army to deploy a complex
missile system into an active theater, and much attention was
given to its support. Since there was no Army Hawk logistic support
system in Vietnam at the time of deployment and since this was
the only Army using unit, an opportunity existed to establish a
logistic system to support this weapon with operational readiness
being the paramount consideration (the U.S. Marines had Hawk
and a logistic system which was later changed to rely on the Army
for parts support).
The support system developed for the Hawk battalions used a
logistic line from the United States supplier directly to the using
Hawk organization, thus the name Hawk Stovepipe. The Vietnam
end of Stovepipe was the 79th General Support Unit which stocked
all repair parts, both common and peculiar, required for support
of Hawk. The United States end of the Stovepipe was the Army
Missile Command's National Inventory Control Point. All echelons
between the inventory control point and the 79th were bypassed.
The inventory control point was the single point of control over all
requisitions received. Requisitions flowed from a Hawk battery
to its battalion direct support platoon, to the 79th, then daily via
U.S. air mail to the National Inventory Control Point. Usually with­
in two hours after receipt, the inventory control point took action
and materiel release orders were issued. Requisitions for other
Continental U.S. National Inventory Control Points of the Army
Materiel Command, Defense Supply Agency, or Federal Supply
Service (General Services Administration) were sent to the Missile
Command National Inventory Control Point for rerouting to the
supplying National Inventory Control Point. Follow-up action was
taken by the Missile Command National Inventory Control Point
on all requisitions, relieving the 79th General Support Unit of this
administrative burden. Transportation was coordinated by a Mis­
sile Command transportation officer within the terminal areas
at Fort Mason and Travis Air Force Base, California. The major­
ity of shipments were flown to the Tan Son Nhut Air Base, located
a short distance from the 79th General Support Unit's Hawk
support element.
As a result of this system, high priority requisitions for parts
were filled within eight days of receipt and lower priority requisi­
tions were filled within 17—18 days of receipt. Another measure
of the success of the Stovepipe system in Vietnam was the Hawk
50 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

system's operational readiness rate which averaged 90 percent.

This was well above the readiness rate of Hawk units in the
rest of the world. The Hawk Stovepipe's success in Vietnam
prompted its adaptation to missile systems in other theaters.

Red Ball Express

Red Ball Express was a special supply and transportation pro­
cedure established by direction of the Office of the Assistant Secre­
tary of Defense (Installations and Logistics) on 1 December 1965.
Red Ball Express was designed to be used in lieu of normal pro­
cedures exclusively to expedite repair parts to remove equipment
from deadline status. Reserved and predictable airlift directly
responsive to General William C. Westmoreland was made avail­
able for this purpose.
Weekly reports were provided to Secretary of Defense Robert
S. McNamara, on the not operationally ready-supply rates of
specific critical items that he selected for review. The Red Ball
Express system, as described below, was highly successful in reduc­
ing and maintaining deadline rates to acceptable levels.
A Red Ball Control Office was established in Saigon with the
Logistics Control Office, Pacific designated as the focal point in
the Continental U.S. for system control. Travis Air Force Base
was used as the Aerial Port of Entry for all Red Ball Express
shipments. Special Red Ball sections were established at each Con­
tinental U.S. supply source.
Red Ball Express requisitions were prepared by the using units
and placed on the nearest Direct Support Unit for supply. If the
Direct Support Unit could not fill the requirements, the requisition
was forwarded to the supporting depot. If the depot could not satisfy
the request, it was forwarded to the Red Ball Control Office in
Vietnam, where in-country assets were searched for available stocks.
If the requisition could not be satisfied in-country, it was then
forwarded to the Logistics Control Office, Pacific for forwarding
to the appropriate Continental U.S. supply source. The Logistics
Control Office, Pacific also contacted U.S. Army Vietnam for addi­
tional information, verification of stock numbers, quantities, or
other missing or incorrect information to preclude the requisi­
tion from being rejected. Continental U.S. supply sources furnished
the Logistics Control Office, Pacific with snipping information
on Red Ball Express requisitions. All Red Ball Express shipments
were sent to Aerial Port of Entry, Travis Air Force Base,
California, via premium transportation or air parcel post depend­
ing on the size and weight of the shipment. At Travis Air Force
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 51

Base, Red Ball Express shipments were segregated according to

their intended destination. When Red Ball Express materiel was air
lifted, the Logistics Control Office, Pacific was furnished copies
of aircraft manifest pages together with the tail numbers of the
aircraft and in turn these data were furnished the Red Ball Control
Office, Vietnam via telephone or teletype.
The final report submitted as of 31 July 1970 indicated approxi­
mately 927,920 net requisitions were processed from inception. Of
this total, 98.1 percent or 909,998 requisitions representing 66,985
short tons were airlifted to Vietnam. The Red Ball Express Hi-Pri
requisition rate in relation to the Army's worldwide demands placed
on Continental U.S. sources averaged 2.2 percent for the period
fiscal year 1968 throughfiscalyear 1970.
In 1968-69, Department of the Army objectives were reoriented
toward a streamlined system designed to improve response to the
customer. Department of the Army Circular 700-18, published
in November 1969, advanced these objectives by providing guid­
ance on an INVENTORY-IN-MOTION principle of non-stop
support direct from Continental U.S. to the Direct Support Unit
level. The circular tasked Army Materiel Command to position
stocks in theater oriented depot complexes and to develop the
logistics intelligence to control the system. The circular laid the
ground work for the Army's current worldwide Direct Support
System. Red Ball program characteristics, to include the integra­
tion of supply, transportation, and maintenance activities into a
single system, the positive control of requisitions from inception at
the Direct Support Unit until materiel is delivered to country and
the generation and application of management data were applied
in the design of the Direct Support System. Since July 1970, Direct
Support System has been changing the image of large overseas depot
operations. It is supporting the Army in the field directly from the
Continental U.S. wholesale base, bypassing theater depots and
break bulk points. The overseas depots have gradually assumed
the role of advance storage location for War Reserve, Operational
Project Stocks as a safety level.

Department of the Army Distribution and Allocation Committee

It was clear in 1965 that depot stocks of major items and assets
coming from production would be inadequate to satisfy the de­
mands of the buildup and other worldwide requirements. If every­
thing were to go to Vietnam (as its priority would have permit­
ted) , the readiness posture of the rest of the Army could have
been degraded to an unacceptable degree. For this reason, the
52 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Department of the Army Distribution and Allocation Committee

was established to control the distribution of short-supply end items.
This was to insure that the Army's available assets would be al­
located in such a way that the Army would realize the maximum
benefits.
The committee was chartered under Army Regulation 15-9
which established it as an agency of the Department of the Army
staff and gave it sole responsibility for the items under its con­
trol. It was chaired by the Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Logis­
tics (Supply and Maintenance) and had as participants members
of the Department of the Army staff, U.S. Army Materiel Com­
mand, National Inventory Control Points, and major Army com­
mands such as U.S. Army Pacific, U.S. Continental Army Com­
mand, and U.S. Army Europe. Participation by major commands
was helpful in that the asset situation and distribution options
could be understood and appreciated by all concerned at the same
time.
Since its founding the concepts and functions of the committee
have undergone an evolutionary change. While insuring that
the requirements of Vietnam were satisfied, it was at the same
time instrumental in restricting and stopping the influx of excess
equipment to that theater in 1969. This was possible because of
visibility of unit status and authorizations at the Department of the
Army level. Other uses of the Department of the Army Distri­
bution and Allocation Committee were to monitor long range dis­
tribution plans, to provide data available within Department of
the Army for response to quick reaction queries concerning the
Army's capability to support alternative organizational concepts
or assistance programs, and to override procedures that would nor­
mally be correct but that would be unwise for a particular situa­
tion.

Quick Reaction Assistance Teams

To provide prompt response to requests for assistance from
Vietnam, the Department of the Army directed the Army Materiel
Command to form quick reaction assistance teams. By mid-
February 1966, Army Materiel Command had established a roster
of Department of the Army civilian specialists who were prepared
to depart from the Continental U.S. on 48 hours notice and remain
in the theater up to 90 days to provide the expertise the under­
sized logistics force lacked. The roster consisted of over 300 person­
nel in various grade and skill levels within approximately 40 func­
tional areas of supply and maintenance operations. These individ­
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM
53

uals were issued passports and visas for Vietnam (required at that
time). They also received the necessary medical inoculations,
so when their particular skills were required, they were able to
provide quick reaction assistance.

ENSURE
The ENSURE project encompassed procedures for Expediting
Non-Standard Urgent Requirements for Equipment and was initi­
ated on 3 January 1966. The purpose was to provide a system to
satisfy operational requirements for non-standard or developmental
materiel in a responsive manner and bypass the standard develop­
mental and acquisition procedures. Materiel items were developed
and procured either for evaluation purposes (to determine
suitability and acceptability) or for operational requirements.
The procedure was applicable to materiel required by either U.S.
Army forces or allied forces, or both. The Assistant Chief of Staff
for Force Development was designated the principal Department
of the Army staff member to control the ENSURE project. All
ENSURE requests were sent to his staff for initial evaluation. Con­
currently these requests were also provided Commanding Gen­
eral U.S. Army Materiel Command, Commanding General U.S.
Army Combat Developments Command, and Commander in Chief
U.S. Army Pacific for their evaluation as well.
A total of 394 ENSURE projects have been initiated since the
beginning of the program in 1966. As of February 1971, 44 of this
total were in the process of being evaluated, 159 had been cancelled
and 191 were completed. Completion of an ENSURE project is ac­
complished when the equipment is type classified as either Stand­
ard A or Standard B.
Logistic support of an ENSURE item, after type classification,
follows the normal support procedures associated with any other
standard piece of equipment. During the period an ENSURE item was
under evaluation, logistic support was provided by the appropriate
National Inventory Control Point using the development and pro­
curement support package developed when the items were approved
for acquisition and evaluation.

Closed Loop Support

During December 1966 another special intensive management
program was developed to control theflowof serviceable equipment
to Vietnam and the retrograde of unserviceable assets to repair
facilities. Closed Loop supplements the controls inherent in the
54 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

normal supply and maintenance system. In January 1967, the pro­

gram was initiated for management of selected Materials Handling
Equipment, Communications and Electronics Equipment, the
M48A3 Tank, the Ml 13 and M113A1 Armored Personnel Carrier
and related major assemblies and components.
The objectives of Closed Loop Support were to insure timely
response to the needs of operational units, to exert more effective
control of critical serviceable and unserviceable assets in the
logistics pipeline, to reduce the backlog of unserviceables at all
levels, to insure the timely availability of reparable assets at depot
maintenance overhaul facilities, and to i^vi /ove asset control of
the flow of controlled items throughout the system. This integrated
program provided better asset visibility for che Army materiel man­
agers to plan, program, fund, and operate the Army logistic sys­
tem more efficiently.
Closed Loop Support is a totally integrated and controlled
special management program in which Department of the Army
designated major end items of equipment and secondary items
are intensively managed through the supply, retrograde, and over­
haul process to and from respective commands providing positive
control and prescribed levels of logistics readiness.
Fundamental to the Closed Loop Support system is the Closed
Loop Support network, an Army-wide functional grouping of con­
trolled activities, supply, maintenance, and transportation elements
through which the Closed Loop Support system is operated and con­
trolled. (Chart 3)
The following criteria governed the selection of items nomi­
nated for intensive management under the Closed Loop Support
system: items whose high unit cost and/or complex nature limits
normal logistical support; items essential to a particular mission;
items in short supply that impact most severely on operational
readiness of a given command; items in a critical worldwide asset
position; and items considered critical by a major Army com­
mander. Some of the criteria were the same as those used in select­
ing an item for Department of the Army Distribution and Alloca­
tion Committee control. Indeed many Closed Loop items were
controlled by Department of the Army Distribution and Allocation
Committee. Therefore, at the Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics
level, Department of the Army Distribution and Allocation Com­
mittee and Closed Loop staff responsibilities were in the same staff
element.
Within Department of the Army Distribution and Allocation
Committee the new or repaired assets are the "managed" items.
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 55
CHART 3—CLOSED LOOP SUPPORT NETWORK
Overseas Continental
U.S.
Overseas

Storage Re supply

Area

Second
Major
Aviation Systems
Command 71
Using Theater Electronics Command .35
Unit Rebuild Mechanized Command .46
Tactical Command 10
Weapons Command 31

Total 193

Direct Support Unit-

General Support Unit Reparable
in Country Ship Activity

Closed Loop differs in that the repairable assets constitute the life
blood of the system. Army management, at all levels, gave special
attention to predicting and controlling the flow of unserviceable
items to and from repair and overhaul facilities. To provide incen­
tives for local commanders to turn in operating equipment sched­
uled for repair, it was necessary to have a replacement item avail­
able for direct exchange. The concept was simple and basic, but
smooth operation of the concept in a system as large as the Army's
requires more than routine controls.
Once an item was selected as a candidate item, a detailed re­
view process was conducted at a Closed Loop Support Conference.
Representation at the Closed Loop Support Conference included
representatives from the interested commands and activities,
for example Department of the Army, Army Materiel Command,
Major Commands, National Inventory Control Points, National
Maintenance Points, Project Managers, Defense Supply Agency and
others as appropriate. Conferees analyzed the allowances for equip­
ment (Tables of Allowances and modified Tables of Allowances,
Special Authorizations, Tables of Organization and Equipment and
Modified Tables of Organization and Equipment); stock status of
56 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

equipment on hand by condition code previous transaction history;

maintenance capability of direct and general support units, in-
country depots, in-theater depots, Continental U.S. depots and con­
tractor capability and availability; current repair and overhaul
schedules; and procurement delivery schedules. After being ap­
proved as a Closed Loop Support item, the item was intensively
managed and controlled at all logistic levels.
Closed Loop project officers were appointed at Department of
the Army and in each major command, agency, or activity by func­
tional commodity or weapons system. These project officers were
the principal points of contact in the network. They performed
their Closed Loop Support duties in addition to their other duty
assignments.
Each Closed Loop Support item was assigned a project code.
This project code was then the trade mark of that particular item
providing a ready identifier for that item on all documentation (in­
cluding transportation and handling), in all communications, and
on all packaging and crating.
The following three types of reports were used by the system:
1. A monthly Closed Loop Support summary which was a
resume of programed versus actual performance. This report was
compiled by Army Materiel Command from information received
from Logistical Control Offices, supply and maintenance depots,
supported commands, and any other activity which may have had
an assigned function in carrying out the Closed Loop Support pro­
gram.
2. Problem Flasher messages which provided warnings of
potential deviations from the scheduled movements of serviceable
input, retrograde materiel, and material to be overhauled. Problem
Flashers also described actions being taken to compensate for pro­
gram deviations, gave the anticipated recovery date, and informa­
tion as to any assistance required.
3. Real-Time reports were dispatched by priority message by
transceiver for each serviceable item shipped from or received by
Continental U.S. and overseas air and water terminals. These re­
ports provided notification of lift and receipt data to interested
activities. The Closed Loop concept was initiated to provide critical
item management for U.S. Army Vietnam. However, from this
origin, the system has been expanded to the remainder of the U.S.
Army.
Retrograde of Equipment—KEYSTONE
In mid-June 1969, the President of the United States announced
the first incremental withdrawal of U.S. Forces from the Republic
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 57

of Vietnam. This initial redeployment withdrawal phase was given

the project name KEYSTONE EAGLE.
The initial KEYSTONE increments identified problem areas in
the classification and disposition of equipment generated by rede­
ploying units. The standard technical inspection required exten­
sive technical expertise and was time-consuming. Concurrently,
the KEYSTONE processing points were experiencing a large backlog of
equipment while requests for disposition and/or claimants were
processed.
Two management techniques evolved in support of KEYSTONE
Operations. The classification of materiel was modified to reflect
the level of maintenance required to upgrade the materiel for
issue. SCRAM was the acronym used to identify Special Criteria
for Retrograde of Materiel. SCRAM 1 materiel can be issued "as-is"
or requires minor organizational maintenance. SCRAM 2 materiel
requires Direct Support or General Support maintenance prior to
issue. SCRAM 3 materiel must be evacuated for depot maintenance.
SCRAM 4 is unserviceable or economically unrepairable and is proc­
essed to property disposal.
The second technique provided the KEYSTONE processing centers
with disposition instructions in anticipation of equipment being
turned in. The "predisposition instructions" were prepared based
on estimates of quantities of equipment as well as estimates of the
condition of equipment to be released by redeploying units. This
asset projection was matched against other claimants for the serv­
iceable equipment; unserviceable equipment was reviewed against
approved maintenance programs. Generally, available items were
used first to satisfy Southeast Asia requirements, then other U.S.
Army requirements. The primary considerations in the preparation
of these instructions were to preclude the transshipment of
equipment, to reduce shipping costs wherever feasible, and to
preclude the retrograde of materiel not required elsewhere.

Morning Line of Communications Briefings—Vietnam

Major General Charles W. Eifler, who was the Commander
of the 1st Logistical Command in Vietnam from January 1966 to
June 1967, developed a system for reviewing the status of stockage
for Classes I, III, and V types of supply. The system involved the
daily review with his seven Directors and three staff officers along
with their senior advisers of the stockage status for these classes
of supply. The review utilized charts which covered every Depot,
Supply Point, and every Supply Area in support of combat opera­
tions in Vietnam. The daily review covered significant data for
58 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

the number of troops supported and established stockage objec­

tives which were compared with the Receipts and Issues for the
preceding twenty-four hours. An analysis of the stock balance was
made each day and management action was taken on the spot when
any area appeared to be in a critical position. It was an extremely
effective management tool and there was seldom a day without a
significant management action being taken on one of these classes
of supply.
Other areas that could be critical were also reviewed at the
same morning sessions. Examples are: the number of artillery pieces
deadlined with the reasons and actions being taken, and the status
of port facilities with particular emphasis given to number of ships
awaiting discharge and the number programed for the next thirty
days. To put the logistic picture in the proper perspective a de­
tailed review of the tactical situation was conducted every morning.

Project for the Utilization and Redistribution of Materiel

During late 1967, after the Vietnam buildup had been largely
completed, excess began to attract serious attention. Secretary of
Defense McNamara took unprecedented action and directed that
action begin immediately to redistribute excesses prior to the con­
clusion of the conflict, so as to assure their application against
approved military requirements elsewhere in the military supply
system. This action was designed to preclude a recurrence of
the history of excesses and surpluses following past conflicts. In
his memorandum of 24 November 1967, establishing the Project
for the Utilization and Redistribution of Materiel, the Secretary
of Defense designated the Secretary of the Army as the executive
agent for the Department of Defense and further directed that an
Army general officer be designated as the Project Coordinator. The
Commander-in-Chief, Pacific was directed to establish a special
agency to maintain an inventory of excess materiel, supervise redis­
tribution or disposal of such materiel within his area, and report
the availability of materiel which could not be utilized in the Pacific
area to other Defense activities in accordance with procedures
developed by the Project Coordinator.
The Commander in Chief, Pacific established the agency di­
rected under the 2d U.S. Army Logistical Command on Okinawa.
The agency was known as the Pacific Command Utilization and
Redistribution Agency.
Pacific Command Utilization and Redistribution Agency ini­
tiated operation on 1 April 1968 on a semi-automated basis which
continued until 30 June 1968 at which time it was fully automated.
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM
59

Pacific Command Utilization and Redistribution Agency has under­

gone some major improvements to increase utilization of the ex­
cess materiel. In July 1968, a special off-line teletype screening
procedure was developed and implemented in the Pacific Com­
mand Utilization and Redistribution Agency operation to expedite
the screening of bulk-lot items by Continental U.S. inventory
managers and supply activities in the Pacific Command in 21 days.
This procedure provided rapid disposition instructions to the
owning service in order to open up critically needed storage space.
In November 1968, the funding policy was revised to permit the
transfer of specific categories of service excesses between Pacific
Command component commanders on a nonreimbursable basis at
field level. In December 1968, a team of merchandising specialists
was sent to Okinawa to develop an intensified merchandising pro­
gram. The task was to produce a catalog on high dollar value items
which could be distributed to the Pacific Command Utiliza­
tion and Redistribution Agency customers. The catalog provides
visibility, interchangeability and substitute capability. In May 1969,
a controlled free issue program was implemented in Pacific Com­
mand Utilization and Redistribution Agency, whereby materiel
designated by Defense Supply Agency and Government Services
Administration as not returnable to the Continental U.S. wholesale
level could be issued without charge to the Pacific Command mili­
tary customers. The free issue program was expanded in July
1969 to include selected expendable and shelf-life items.
In July 1969, Commander in Chief Pacific initiated a study to
redesign the Pacific Command Utilization and Redistribution
Agency operations and Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense
(Installations and Logistics) directed implementation of some of
the major concepts included in the Commander in Chief Pacific
study, which were designated as Quick Fix improvements. These
improvements included increased military service and other Fed­
eral agency participation, Closed Loop status reporting, up-grade of
the Pacific Command Utilization and Redistribution Agency auto­
matic data processing equipment, and a reduced screening time
concept. The Pacific Command Utilization and Redistribution
Agency Quick Fix improvements were implemented on 1 October
1970. These improvements had a significant impact in the Depart­
ment of Defense excess screening cycle by reducing the screening
time from about one year to about 75 days.
During the period 1 April 1968 through January 1972, the
Military Services nominated $2.1 billion worth of excess to Pacific
Command Utilization and Redistribution Agency for screening.
60 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Of this $306 million worth was redistributed in the Pacific Area

and other overseas commands and $710.3 million worth was re­
turned to the Continental U.S. wholesale system, resulting in
utilization of $1.03 billion, or approximately 48 percent utilization.
The balance of this material was declared Department of Defense
excess and returned to the owning Services.

Managing the Logistics System

During the buildup and into the Spring of 1967, management
emphasis was on getting the supplies to the combat units. The
influx of logistics units to Vietnam; the need to establish depots,
ports, and organizational structures; and just coping with a rapidly
expanding system needing more resources than were available
relegated anything not related to the top priority effort to the
status of a back burner project. Excesses accumulated, but were
not recognized, and requisitions continued to be submitted to Con­
tinental U.S. for items that were already in excess in Vietnam.
The nature of operations was such that authorizations did not
necessarily represent the needs of units. Units often needed more
or different items than were authorized and the requisitioning sys­
tem honored such requisitions. The Army Authorization Document
System was not able to keep up with the needs. Equipment a unit
had in excess of its authorization was not reported in its inventory
reports (Army Regulation 711-5).
Frequently documentation on incoming supplies was either
lost or illegible upon arrival of the supplies and the contents of
containers was unknown. Unqualified supply personnel set aside
these containers to be identified later, which frequently extended
beyond the rotation date of the individual who had knowledge
of the circumstances.
Failures of the supply system to locate, identify, and provide
a required item undoubtedly degraded supply discipline at the
using unit level which in turn made a substantial contribution to
further breakdown in control and to increasing excesses. Rather
than using normal follow-up procedures, it was common for the
requesting unit to re-requisition the needed items one or more
times, thereby bringing unneeded items into country as well as
creating inflated demand data at the supporting units and depots.
In the spring of 1967, concern about the numbers of high prior­
ity requisitions being received from Vietnam caused a number of
National Inventory Control Points, U.S. Army Pacific Headquarters,
and other commands in the requisitioning channel to challenge
requisitions. Later the program was formalized under the name
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 61

Project CHALLENGE, which required unit commanders to verify the

priority of the requirement. Project CHALLENGE reduced premium
transportation and handling costs and started to reinstate some de­
gree of control on the requisitioning process.
In addition to the excesses created by the Push Packages ar­
riving in-country prior to the arrival of adequate logistics units,
the deterioration of identification markings on packages added even
more excesses as the unidentified items on hand were re-requisi­
tioned.
The personnel assigned as warehousemen were generally un­
trained and inexperienced in supply operations which added to
the confusion. To attempt to rectify this lack of experience and
training, the Department of the Army instituted Project COUNTER.
Early in 1967 a group of supply assistance personnel from
U.S. Army Materiel Command organizations went to Vietnam
on temporary duty, under the code name Project COUNTER. These
people provided formal instruction in supply procedures and as­
sisted in-county personnel in performing location surveys, conduct­
ing inventories, identifying and classifying materiel, reviewing and
improving prescribed load lists and authorized stockage lists, and
generally assisted in supply management activities. In all, a total
of four Project COUNTER teams were provided during 1967-1968
and proved extremely helpful in upgrading the technical com­
petence of supply personnel in Vietnam.
In order to direct attention and effort to the many tasks that
had to be performed once there was a satisfactory logistic base
in Vietnam, the Commanding General of the 1st Logistical Com­
mand established an extensive command and control program
for logistics management in 1968. The program was formalized
into a number of objectives, performance statements, and progress
reports, which were incorporated in a command publication re­
ferred to as the Pink Book. This was given wide distribution within
the 1st Logistical Command and tied together short and long
range projects in all logistics areas to increase efficiency, to bring
stock levels down, and to identify and reduce excesses.
Early in 1969, during a meeting at Phu Bai including General
Abrams, Commander U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam,
the Commanding General of the 1st Logistical Command and others,
General Abrams used the term Logistics Offensive to describe what
was required of the Army logistics system in Vietnam. While Gen­
eral Abrams meant it as a compliment for the progressive improve­
ment being made in all areas of logistics, in reality he had issued
a resounding challenge to all professional Army logisticians to in­
62 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

stitute a series of actions with follow-up attention, similar to those

employed by tactical commanders in launching offensive operations.
Soon after this, the 1st Logistical Command's Pink Book be­
came known as the Logistics Offensive Program. This program
was adopted by Department of Army for Army-wide application in
September 1969. By 31 March 1971 this program had grown
to include over 130 different projects. The following list contains
some of the projects contained in the Logistics Offensive Program.

Sample Projects of the Logistics Offensive Program

1. Inventory in Motion
2. VERIFY
3. STOP/SEE
4. CONDITION
5. CLEAN
6. Vietnam Asset Reconciliation Procedures (VARP)
7. SEE MOVE
8. KEYSTONE
The concept of Inventory in Motion was first applied to ammuni­
tion and is discussed in some detail in the ammunition chapter.
As applied across the board, inventory in motion was a supply
management program that had as its goal integrating supply and
transportation to reduce the requirement for stock levels in
Vietnam and other storage areas.
Integrated planning and control of the movement of supplies
resulted in responsive resupply and smaller local inventories. Hav­
ing fewer supplies on hand meant reduced care and preservation
efforts, smaller storage areas to protect, and easier inventory man­
agement. Basically stocks in transit or in the pipeline were con­
sidered as being part of the inventory.
The use of the inventory in motion concept for ammunition
and bulk petroleum was facilitated by the relatively small number
of different items and predictable consumption rates. Likewise,
consumption of subsistence was relatively stable, being pretty
much in proportion to troop strength. The effectiveness of applying
inventory in motion procedures to other supplies such as repair
parts, clothing and individual equipment, administrative and house­
keeping supplies and equipment, principal items, and packaged
petroleum products was more difficult because of the large number
of items and varying demand rates. One of the major problems was
the lack of data announcing that truck convoys, airplanes, or vessels
were scheduled to arrive on given dates. Consequently, advance
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 63

planning at storage activities was limited and materiel actually in

transit could not be considered as assets.
It became apparent that an interface between supply and trans­
portation data was necessary to achieve the desired asset visability
of intransit materiel. A conference was held in September 1969 with
representatives of U.S. Army Pacific, U.S. Army Vietnam, 1st Logis­
tical Command, and the U.S. Army Logistics Control Office Pacific
which resulted in creating a Logistics Intelligence File. Through
the Logistics Intelligence File, U.S. Army Vietnam and the Cen­
tral Financial Management Agency, Ft. Shafter, Hawaii, were able
to have daily updated information on each open requisition. This
gave U.S. Army Vietnam the capability to determine where any
requisition was at any time, e.g., in process at the Continental U.S.
National Inventory Control Point depot, intransit to the terminal,
or in the terminal awaiting lift, as well as the lift data (such as
transportation control number, carrier, and estimated time of ar­
rival) . Through use of the Logistics Intelligence File, the concept
of inventory in motion has been applied to most commodities in
Vietnam.
Another management program, Project VERIFY, was estab­
lished in Vietnam to study the management procedures and sta­
tistical data used by the 1st Logistical Command to describe and
evaluate its logistic efforts. The aim of Project VERIFY was to pro­
duce standardized management procedures, statistical terms, and
usable standards that could be expressed as management objectives.
The project concerned itself with the movement of supply items
through the depots. It also was concerned with theflowof paperwork
pertaining to these supplies—noting the paths of the various copies
in order to determine the control measures used. Data were sought
to determine the time frames involved in the various processes.
These data were analyzed and corrective actions were taken when
deficiencies or inefficiences were found. This helped to implement
other projects designed to speed up the movement of supplies to
the requesting units.
During 1968 it was becoming apparent that items were being
requisitioned on a routine basis that were not actually needed in
Vietnam. What the situation needed was some degree of personal
attention to prevent the shipment of these items. In June 1968,
Project STOP was initiated in U.S. Army Vietnam for the purpose
of preventing shipping of supply items from Continental U.S. that
were not needed in Vietnam. All possible actions were taken from
cancelling requisitions not yet filled to stopping shipments up to the
point where items were loaded on board ship. In addition, related
64 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

procurements were terminated, stretched out, or diverted to other

uses. Stops on requisitions started with the 1st Logistical Command's
submission of requests for cancellation of specific items by Federal
Stock Numbers. Items stopped were either stocked in Vietnam in
quantities excess to the requirements there, or in quantities exceed­
ing the depot system's capacity to handle and store.
In September 1968, Project SEE began with teams established
at each major post in U.S. Army Vietnam to devote full time
to physically examining (seeing) bulk items in storage at depots,
on the piers, and being unloaded from ships. These teams initiated
immediate action to determine whether the items aboard ships
should continue to be unloaded, or whether they should be diverted
elsewhere (in country or out of country). When an item not de­
sired was located, action was initiated to have the appropriate Fed­
eral Stock Number broadcast to all supply agencies involved includ­
ing Army Materiel Command, Defense Supply Agency, and 2d
Logistical Command in Okinawa, so that action could be taken
throughout the system to stop movement of this item to Vietnam.
In late September 1968 Project STOP and Project SEE were
merged into one project which was given the code name of Project
STOP/SEE. Under this concept 1st Logistical Command designated
items on a STOP/SEE listing by Federal Stock Number and nomen­
clature which were in long supply, items deleted from the theater
authorized stockage list, or luxury and convenience items. When an
item appeared on one of these listings, 1st Logistical Command sus­
pended requisitioning by blocking the computers in country and
sending copies of these listings to Continental U.S. Inventory Man­
agers. These Managers then took steps to locate and cancel all open
requisitions for these items and to frustrate shipments through
STOP procedures.
Project STOP /SEE EXPANDED was a further extension of Project
STOP /SEE and was initiated 19 November 1968. The Commanding
General U.S. Army Vietnam, in accordance with Project STOP pro­
cedures, requested blocking action by Federal Supply Class with
Federal Stock Number exceptions. Under this program, the ma­
jority of Federal Stock Numbers within a Federal Supply Class were
blocked at the Defense Automatic Addressing System Office and all
low priority requisitions (IPD 09-20) for Vietnam were cancelled
and the shipments were frustrated. High priority requisitions (IPD
01-08) continued to be honored. The U.S. Army Inventory Control
Center Vietnam (formerly the 14th Inventory Control Center) then
provided a standardized list of Federal Stock Numbers, by Federal
Supply Class in card deck format, to the Logistics Control Office,
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 65

Pacific for use in completing Project STOP actions. By the end of

February 1971, $644 million of requisitions had been cancelled
through the use of STOP/SEE techniques.
Project CONDITION was first implemented in the 1st Logistical
Command in February 1969. It was implemented because of condi­
tions found to exist when Project COUNT I (reliability of the loca­
tion system and inventory) and Project COUNT II (100% cyclic
inventory) were conducted during the period September 1968
to January 1969. The intent of Project CONDITION was to purify
condition data of materiel assets at each depot. It consisted of two
basic phases. Phase I was the separation of all stock counted into
two categories; first, that stock which was obviously condition A,
and second, all other stock which was designated as Code J. Phase
II consisted of the condition coding of all incoming depot stocks
as either Code A or K. Code K identified all receipts which were
obviously not Code A. Quality control technicians inspected
and determined the requirements and recommended priorities for
care and preservation.
Project CONDITION was extended to Army Materiel Command
and other major commands as an integral part of the Logistics
Offensive. The objectives were to provide visibility of the actual
condition of the inventory worldwide (not in the hands of troops)
and to identify and monitor progress on that portion which re­
quired care and preservation.
Project CLEAN was established as an integral part of the in­
ventory-in-motion concept to eliminate excess supplies from the
Army supply system by determining what supplies were on hand
in the field but were no longer required for mission accomplishment,
and then to redistribute them to where they were required, retro­
grade them to maintenance activities, or dispose of them through
disposal channels. During fiscal year 1970 and 1971, supplies
valued at almost $1.5 billion were eliminated from oversea stocks.
In these years, U.S. Army Vietnam alone retrograded over 671,000
short tons of supplies. The authorized stockage list for Vietnam
was reduced from a high of 297,000 different items in July 1967 to
74,900 items in March 1971, without any loss of the high
quality of support provided to the combat forces.
The Vietnam Asset Reconciliation Procedures was a program
developed in December 1969 to cope with the problem of excesses.
A bit of background data reveals that during the buildup and sus­
taining phases, U.S. Army Vietnam was given first priority for the
fill of all major item requisitions. U.S. Army Vietnam requisitions
were processed and filled with little regard as to whether formal
66 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

authorization existed. In general, U.S. Army Vietnam requirements

were not questioned and requisitions on the wholesale supply sys­
tem were accepted at face value. This policy was necessary because
formal authorization documents could not keep pace with the
rapidly changing situation. As a result of this policy, U.S. Army
Vietnam developed excess positions for many items. While some of
these excesses were real, others were only apparent in that the items
on hand were actually required for mission performance, but the
need for them had never been recognized in an authorization docu­
ment. Vietnam Asset Reconciliation Procedures was intended to
establish control over excess assets in the hands of U.S. Army Viet­
nam units, obtain visibility over the actual requirement situation in
U.S. Army Vietnam, and reconcile differences between U.S. Army
Vietnam recorded quantities and National Inventory Control
Point shipped quantities.
Vietnam Asset Reconciliation Procedures was unique and con­
stituted a departure from conventional asset control and accounting
procedures. Under Vietnam Asset Reconciliation Procedures,
units reported to U.S. Army Vietnam those assets on hand which
were in excess of written authority; however, there was no penalty
for reporting these excesses. Reporting units were allowed to re­
tain them on loan provided they were required for mission accom­
plishment. U.S. Army Vietnam reviewed the loans every 180 days
as a minimum. Assets on loan to units were accounted for through
the depot reporting system (Army Regulation 711—80)) rather
than the unit reporting system (Army Regulation 711-5). Assets
within unit tabular authority continued to be reported through
the regular unit reporting system. As of 31 December 1970, ap­
proximately $160 million (at budget costs) of previously unre­
ported assets had been accounted for under Vietnam Asset Recon­
ciliation Procedures.
Project SEE/MOVE was begun in July 1969, and sent to U.S.
Army Pacific to assist the commands in understanding existing
disposition instructions; to provide on-the-spot disposition; and to
effect the necessary communication between the sub-commands,
Department of the Army, and the appropriate Continental U.S.
agencies to obtain rapid disposition instructions (note the rela­
tionship with CLEAN) . Later the teams turned their efforts to
rendering management assistance to U.S. Army Pacific in such
areas as interpretation of Department of the Army, Army Materiel
Command, and Defense Supply Agency regulations, policies and/or
disposition priorities and instructions and effecting communication
and co-ordination with U.S. Army Pacific, Department of the Army
and/or other appropriate Continental U.S. agencies. Also, they pro­
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 67

vided U.S. Army Pacific with guidance and on-the-spot disposition

instructions for categories of excess materiel not otherwise covered
by instructions.
The teams were headed by a representative from Deputy Chief
of Staff for Logistics with members provided by Defense Supply
Agency, U.S. Army Pacific, and U.S. Army Materiel Command.
In-country U.S. Army Materiel Command technical assistance
personnel were also utilized. Rotation of personnel was at the
discretion of the agency concerned. The teams operated under the
overall direction of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics and
under the control of U.S. Army Pacific. They were deployed to
Vietnam and Okinawa in February 1970 and terminated their opera­
tions on 15 June 1970. During this period, one team was also sent
to Europe.
KEYSTONE was the name given to the program for the with­
drawal of the U.S. Forces from South Vietnam. In mid-June 1969,
the President of the United States announced the first incremental
withdrawal of U.S. Forces. This initial redeployment phase was
given the project name KEYSTONE EAGLE.
KEYSTONE EAGLE began on 19 June 1969, and was initially
planned as a unit redeployment, with 9th Infantry Division (less
one brigade and provisional supporting elements) scheduled to
redeploy to Hawaii to reconstitute the Pacific Command reserve.
The redeployment was scheduled to be completed on 27 August
1969 to meet the Presidential commitment of having the initial
troop withdrawal of 25,000 personnel completed by 1 September
1969. Department of the Army published a Letter of Instruction
for the redeployment of United States Army Forces from South
Vietnam on 21 June 1969, providing general logistics and per­
sonnel policies governing the redeployment. The redeploying units
were authorized to redeploy with all Modified Tables of Organi­
zation and Equipment equipment, less selected U.S. Army Vietnam
designated "critical" items (such as radars and M16 rifles), which
were to be retained in-country to satisfy existing shortages within
U.S. Army Vietnam units.
The 1st Logistical Command was tasked by Lieutenant Gen­
eral Frank T. Mildren, Deputy Commanding General, U.S. Army
Vietnam to provide assistance to the Commanding General 9th
Infantry Division and the mission was assigned to the Saigon Sup­
port Command. This mission was ultimately expanded to include
the provision of complete logistics support of the division during
the final 30 days of the redeployment phase. This entire support
operation was unique in that it represented the first time in U.S.
Army history a unit, actively engaged in combat, was disengaged
68 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

from its mission, withdrawn to a base camp and required to prepare

itself for redeployment. The logistic support of this unit redeploy­
ment was extremely complex because of the need to continue to
support other units still engaged in combat operations while simul­
taneously inspecting, preparing, packing and shipping the redeploy­
ing unit's Table of Organization and Equipment equipment.
The problem was compounded by the fact that the majority
of the personnel turning in the division's equipment were not
redeploying with their parent unit, but would be reassigned in-
country for completion of their twelve month tour. This personnel
policy alone taxed the command and control element to the maxi­
mum.
Finally, the complexity of this initial redeployment was further
compounded by the lack of procedures and materiel to process Table
of Organization and Equipment equipment for overseas redeploy­
ment to meet the strict U.S. Public Health Service and U.S.
Department of Agriculture sanitation and entomological require­
ments. To assist U.S. Army Vietnam in overcoming these prob­
lems, the Commanding General U.S. Army Materiel Command
assembled a team of forty civilian personnel and deployed them
to South Vietnam in early 1969. Additionally, a Composite Service
Maintenance Company (604th Composite Service Company) and
a Transportation Detachment (402d Transportation Corps Detach­
ment) were organized in the Continental U.S. and deployed
to South Vietnam to assist in unit redeployment. The 604th
Composite Service Company was specifically organized to assist
in inspection, packaging and preparing equipment for redeploy­
ment and the Transportation Detachment was organized to assist
with required documentation.
Because KEYSTONE EAGLE was planned primarily as a unit re­
deployment, the Department of the Army logistics guidance was
minimal. This situation changed drastically on 8 August 1969
when Department of the Army directed that the redeploying units
of the 9th Infantry Division would be deactivated in South Vietnam.
The logistics impact of this decision, almost two-thirds of the way
through the redeployment was traumatic. Approximately one-
third of the redeploying units' equipment was already enroute to
Hawaii. Another one-third was at the Port of Newport awaiting out-
loading, while the remaining one-third was being staged for move­
ment to the port. Property accountability could not be maintained
because the Property Book Officers were already in Hawaii with the
advance party, and two-thirds of their equipment was frustrated in
South Vietnam.
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 69

The combat situation at the former division base camp (Dong

Tam), as well as the scheduled transfer of this facility to South
Vietnam dictated that the equipment be moved, and the equipment
was diverted to a holding area at Long Binh Depot, north of
Saigon. Port clearance at Newport dictated that the materiel await­
ing outloading be moved, and it also was moved to the Long Binh
area. Because of the lack of documentation, this materiel was
ultimately capitalized in the depot account and redistributed to in-
country requirements. The KEYSTONE EAGLE incremental phase-
down was completed on 28 August, although redistribution of all
the materiel was not completed until mid-October. The KEYSTONE
EAGLE project provided an indication of what was to come, and it
was recognized at Department of the Army that Department of the
Army level control over the redistribution of assets generated from
these phase-downs was essential.
In late September 1969 the second KEYSTONE withdrawal was
announced. This was KEYSTONE CARDINAL, which was a troop space
reduction of 40,500 personnel. The principal large Army unit in­
volved was the 3rd Brigade of the 82d Airborne Division. Units in­
volved in this withdrawal were to be brought to zero strength in
South Vietnam by 15 December 1969. None were to be redeployed
intact to the Continental U.S.
To provide control over the redistribution of the assets gen­
erated from these unit inactivations, Department of the Army pro­
vided logistics guidance in the form of an Annex to the Department
of the Army Letter of Instruction for redeployment of U.S. Forces
from South Vietnam published on 1 October 1969. This logistics
guidance included instructions on property accountability, cancel­
ing of requisitions, processing of materiel, inspection and main­
tenance standards and, perhaps most important, it established a
reporting procedure for both obtaining and tracking disposition
of materiel turned in during KEYSTONE CARDINAL. This reporting
procedure involved the establishment of a telephone conversation
between U.S. Army Vietnam, U.S. Army Pacific, and Department
of the Army on a daily basis. The intent of this telephone con­
versation was to provide to U.S. Army Vietnam, on a twenty-four
hour basis, the disposition for selected items of equipment turned
in (Department of the Army Distribution and Allocation Com­
mittee and Department of the Army High Interest Items). This
telephone conversation system also provided Department of the
Army with visibility of assets redistributed in and outside of
South Vietnam. Although this system did provide the desired
controls it was not responsive to U.S. Army Vietnam requirements.
70 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

The 24-hour turn-around of disposition requests at Department of

the Army equated to 8-10 days delay at the turn-in location and
caused materiel to stack up with attendant storage and account­
ability problems.
During KEYSTONE CARDINAL, a new maintenance inspection
procedure was implemented to expedite processing of materiel.
This procedure, referred to as SCRAM (Special Criteria-Retrograde
of Army Materiel), included a much simplified inspection pro­
cedure which permitted classification of equipment into one of
four categories. It also included maintenance expenditure and
transportation cost data which could be utilized to determine
ultimate disposition of materiel. This new SCRAM procedure was
extensively tested during KEYSTONE CARDINAL and adopted for
future KEYSTONE operations. KEYSTONE CARDINAL was completed
on 17 December 1969 and the logistics support procedures de­
veloped in KEYSTONE EAGLE were polished and refined in KEY­
STONE CARDINAL, providing for publication of a U.S. Army Vietnam
redeployment guide for logistics support. By the end of KEYSTONE
CARDINAL, however, the requirement for complete predisposition
instructions for materiel being turned in was recognized as essential
for future withdrawals.
In early January 1970 KEYSTONE BLUE JAY, the third KEYSTONE
withdrawal was announced. This was the largest increment to
date—50,000 personnel. The principal units involved were the 1st
Infantry Division and one brigade of the 4th Infantry Division.
This increment was scheduled for the period 20 February through
15 April 1970. Logistic guidance was again published in a logistics
annex to a Department of the Army Letter of Instruction. The
predominant theme of these instructions was to retain all materiel
required by U.S. Army Vietnam in-country to preclude Continental
U.S. shipment. The predisposition instruction problem had not
been completely resolved at the beginning of the increment so
the telephone conversation procedure continued to be employed.
In early March 1970, however, Department of the Army did
develop and publish predisposition instructions for equipment
forecasted to become available during the third increment. This
list included all Department of the Army Distribution and Alloca­
tions Committee items and additional selected items referred to
as Department of the Army High Interest Items.
Because of the size of this increment, and the extremely short
time frame, another critical problem surfaced—the cleanliness
standards required for equipment retrograde. This problem had
been anticipated and washing facilities had been constructed to
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 71

accommodate the expected workload. It soon became apparent,

however, that the pacing operation in unit stand-down and equip­
ment turn-in was cleaning the equipment to meet U.S. Public
Health Service and U.S. Department of Agriculture standards for
retrograde. Special equipment providing extremely high water
pressure jets were procured in the Continental U.S. under ENSURE
provisions and the special wash areas were operated around the
clock to keep abreast of the work load.
The massive size of this third increment also had a dramatic
effect on depot operations throughout U.S. Army Vietnam. At the
same time that force reductions were reducing the size of the
supported forces, the evacuation of materiel back to depots posed
an awesome workload. Recoup operations had to be significantly
expanded to accommodate this materiel being returned while at the
same time the depots were in a massive retrograde operation of
their own, purging stocks of identified excesses. The Commanding
General 1st Logistical Command initiated an intensive, command
wide, retrograde program not only to identify and move excesses
but to do it with correct packing, preservation and true identifica­
tion. The entire logistics effort of U.S. Army Vietnam was now
focused on both responsive combat service support to the combat
elements and on retrograde of both serviceable and unserviceable
materiel from the combat zone.
Three times as much effort is required to process materiel
for retrograde as to receive incoming materiel and accomplish issue;
nevertheless, this task was accomplished by a logistic force re­
duced in size in equal proportions to the combat elements.
KEYSTONE BLUEJAY was the beginning of an intensive effort to
satisfy Army of the Republic of Vietnam requirements from
assets being generated by U.S. unit inactivations in-country. To
assist in this effort, the Commanding General 1st Logistical Com­
mand established the 79th Maintenance Battalion as a KEYSTONE
Battalion. This unit was assigned the mission of receiving materiel
from KEYSTONE designated units, repairing it to meet Army of the
Republic of Vietnam transfer standards, and accomplishing the
issue to Army of the Republic of Vietnam. KEYSTONE BLUEJAY
concluded on 15 April 1970 and the ultimate disposition of the
generated materiel was completed in mid-June 1970.
The fourth increment, KEYSTONE ROBIN, was announced on 1
July 1970. This title was designated to encompass all troop with­
drawal increments scheduled in fiscal year 1971. The first phase,
ALPHA, extended from 1 July 1970 through 15 October 1970 with
a total projected troop strength reduction of 50,000 personnel.
72 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

With the experience gained in the three preceding KEYSTONE

increments, the preparations and preliminary planning for KEY­
STONE ROBIN were well documented in the Department of the
Army Letter of Instruction, U.S. Army Pacific, and U.S. Army
Vietnam implementing instructions. The two most significant im­
provements made in logistics planning were:
1. Predisposition instructions for Department of the Army
Distribution and Allocation Committee and Department of the
Army High Interest Items were provided in early August covering
the entire ALPHA phase of KEYSTONE ROBIN.
2. U.S. Army Vietnam developed a computer based accounting
system for establishing an audit trail on all transactions generated
from KEYSTONE actions. The ALPHA phase of KEYSTONE ROBIN
terminated on 15 October 1970 and the BRAVO phase began im­
mediately.
Because KEYSTONE ROBIN phases were scheduled to occur almost
back-to-back, it was decided at Department of the Army to develop
equipment and predisposition instructions for the two remaining
KEYSTONE ROBIN phases and publish them in one document.
Additionally, it was decided to expand the coverage of these
predisposition instructions to include all Procurement of Equip­
ment and Missiles for the Army principal items forecasted to be
generated during the remainder of the fiscal year 1971 KEYSTONE
redeployment and inactivations. The document was published late
in October 1970 and forwarded to U.S. Army Pacific in early
November. KEYSTONE ROBIN BRAVO concluded on 31 December
1970.
Petroleum Support
The supply of and the policies relating to bulk petroleum are
under the purview of the Department of Defense and the Unified
Commanders. Headquarters Military Assistance Command, Viet­
nam, received consumption data and demand forecasts for the
four major products (motor gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel, and
aviation gasoline) from the three component commands and
forwarded it through the Joint Petroleum Office at Headquarters
Commander in Chief Pacific to the Defense Fuel Supply Center
for procurement and shipping action. The Army in Vietnam was
responsible for receiving, storing, distributing and accounting for
all bulk petroleum in II, III, and IV Corps. The Navy was
responsible in the I Corps area with Headquarters Military As­
sistance Command, Vietnam, coordinating tanker arrivals between
the two commands. When U.S. Army Vietnam took over logistical
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 73

responsibility from the Navy in I Corps in June 1970 it also took

over petroleum operations.
A big petroleum storage construction effort was necessary to
support the supply of petroleum. The Army and Navy con­
structed approximately 1.6 million barrels of fixed storage facilities;
the bulk of these were in port areas such as Cam Ranh Bay, Qui
Nhon and Da Nang. The Air Force had about 350,000 barrels
of storage at air bases, and there was also slightly less than one
million barrels of commercial storage (Shell, Esso, Caltex). About
90 percent of the commercial storage was located at Nha Be, not
far from Saigon, and was the sole source of petroleum supply
for the III and IV Corps areas. Military storage facilities in these
areas were filled from products that had first been delivered to one
of the three commercial facilities.
TABLE 3—COUNTRYWIDE PETROLEUM CONSUMPTION
(IN THOUSANDS OF BARRELS)
Date Quantity Date Quantity
1964 2,700 1968 43,650
1965 6,785 1969 41,725
1966 21,850 1970 36,450
1967 36,280

Table 3 shows the consumption of petroleum in thousands of

barrels. When related to consumption, the in-country storage
capacity shows that after 1966, the maximum possible number of
days of supply on hand at any one time was 30. However, this
does not take into consideration the fact that storage facilities
are rarely full due to the need for flexibility in distribution and
receiving times. After considering this factor, it is more accurate to
conclude that 20 days of supply was the normal maximum quantity
on hand. In order to deliver 100 gallons to a troop unit, more
than 100 gallons had to be delivered by tanker to care for normal
handling and evaporation losses, enemy caused losses, and pilferage.
These losses probably were as high as 3 percent of the quantity
actually consumed (or 5.7 million barrels).
Prior to 1965, requirements were small and although there
were no refineries in Vietnam, three international oil companies
(Shell, Esso, Caltex) had adequate storage and delivery capabilities
for Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, demands. These cap­
abilities were sufficient until early 1965 when the petroleum supply
and distribution system in Vietnam was supplemented by military
equipment in III and IV Corps areas, and a predominantly
military system was established in other areas of the country.
74 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Even though procedures had been developed for a military supply

system, it was decided in 1965 to augment the existing commercial
storage and distribution network with military facilities thereby
reducing the number of facilities required.
Contracts with the in-country firms prior to 1965 provided for
delivery, as required, of the products specified into designated
locations in Vietnam. The military used only 2,700,000 barrels in
1964. In 1965, however, consumption jumped to 6,785,000 barrels.
As a result of the increased tempo and shifting combat operations,
monthly requirements changed frequently. Requests for purchases
were submitted to Defense Fuel Supply Center on a piecemeal basis
for deliveries at new locations as dictated by the need. Sometimes
the requirement was received after the product had been ordered,
accepted, and used. The Defense Fuel Supply Center contracting
officer ratified such agreements by contract amendments.
Often quantities purchased for delivery to certain locations
were not called forward because shifts in the fighting to other
locations had eliminated the specific requirement. As the require­
ments increased and locations became more numerous, frequent
small-emergency procurements and contract changes were neces­
sary. As the delivery capabilities of the oil companies became ex­
tended, contracting in the normal manner became difficult. Effec­
tive competition had disappeared, and often one contractor had to
be called upon to make delivery to locations covered under another
contractor's contract. Moreover, price analysis became next to im­
possible, and the urgency of the situation did not allow adequate
time for negotiation.
Assigned to Headquarters Military Assistance Command, Viet­
nam, the Sub-Area Petroleum Officer, Vietnam, sent each change in
requirements by message through Commander in Chief Pacific
to Defense Fuel Supply Center and to the appropriate Service
inventory control points. Defense Fuel Supply Center was not
authorized to take contractual action until furnished the authen­
ticating Military Interdepartmental Procurement Request by the
Service Inventory Control Point. Notwithstanding these conditions,
no contract administrator was assigned to Vietnam, and direct-
communication between Headquarters Military Assistance Com­
mand, Vietnam, and the contracting officer was not authorized.
The problems associated with contract administration included
duplicate billing, improper pricing guides and inadequate controls.
These and other problems were evident in such areas as: govern­
ment-owned product in custody of contractors, commercial delivery
procedures, and uncalibrated tanks and barges. As late as June
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM
75

1968, the contractors' operations and records were not reviewed on

a continuing and systematic basis. There were instances in which
the contractor billed twice for the same product, and/or had borrow
and loan transactions involving commercial and U. S. fuel out­
standing as long as six months beyond the contract period. Control
over the requests for delivery of petroleum, oils, and lubricants
from commercial sources to authorized users was not established.
Requests were often placed directly on commercial oil companies
by various individual users throughout Vietnam, and as a result,
the full quantity of petroleum products ordered from and delivered
by the contractors was not known at one centralized location.
It was apparent that in this environment, drastic changes were
needed in the kind of contracts used and in the contracting
procedure employed. It was also apparent that contracts had to be
more flexible to be manageable, and some better means was
necessary to analyze the overall pricing structure to obtain for the
Government a fair and equitable price.
Defense Fuel Supply Center took steps beginning in early 1965
to initiate the innovations that were needed. Some of the steps
that were taken are as follows:
Estimated requirements of each product to be supplied through
in-country contractor terminals at each ocean terminal for one year,
by six month periods, were obtained.
The quantity of each product to be supplied or services to be
performed by each contractor during a given period were covered
by a single contract.
Locations to which ultimate delivery was to be made were
covered in more than one contract. No contract limitations were
placed on amounts to be supplied from each terminal or to each
destination, though the total contract quantity was not to be
exceeded.
Deliveries to unspecified locations or deliveries by circuitous
routes to specified locations (due to enemy interdiction) were
covered by pricing on the basis of mileage traveled.
Specific provisions were developed to cover vessel delays or
diversions.
Prices were broken down by price components showing com­
ponents for product Free On Board refinery, transportation to
Singapore area, handling in Singapore area, transportation to Viet­
nam, handling in-country, transportation in-country, drumming
services, and into-plane delivery. Contracts provided for delivery
Free on Board refinery to avoid Saudi-Arabian taxes.
76 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

In-country war risk charges and charges for tie-up of contrac­

tor's inventory were eliminated.
The coastal vessels to be provided and the conditions governing
their use were specifically set forth in contracts.
Defense Fuel Supply Center furnished guidance, in the form of
product allocations, to Commander in Chief Pacific as to the
volumes of each product to be supplied by each in-country con­
tractor and Military Sea Transportation Service at each terminal,
on the basis of proposed contract awards.
Defense Fuel Supply Center included provisions requiring the
contractors to handle Government-owned products delivered by
Military Sea Transportation Service at contractors' terminals north
of Nha Be. Nha Be, the main terminal, was not included, because
the contractors declined to permit Military Sea Transportation
Service to make delivery into their facilities there. Apparently
they feared enemy attacks on military ships might result, and
effectively close out the terminals. However, the enemy did not
attack commercial shipping to any degree.
The extent to which we depended on the three in-country
commercial distributors for resupply and distribution is illustrated
by the percentages of fuel supplied by them versus that supplied
by the Military Sea Transportation Service. (Table 4)
TABLE 4—PERCENTAGE OF FUEL DISTRIBUTED BY COMMERCIAL
AND MSTS
Date MSTS
1965 0
1966 13
1967 39
1968 43
1969 31
1970 57

Facilities in Vietnam were, vulnerable to enemy action. The

large commercial contractors Shell, Esso and Caltex had contiguous
petroleum, oils, and lubricants facilities at Nha Be which were
particularly vulnerable to mortar attack and other hostile acts.
In addition, access to the facilities by tankers would have been in
jeopardy if one or more vessels had been sunk at a strategic
point in the channel leading to Nha Be. Since 1965, there have
been a number of attacks on commercial facilities at Nha Be,
Tan Son Nhut, Qui Nhon and Lien Chieu. The most significant
losses were at the Shell Nha Be Terminal in 1967 which amounted
to approximately $3.5 million.
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 77

No single in-country contractor had adequate facilities and

equipment to handle the entire military requirement. It was
necessary to award concurrent contracts to all three companies
(Esso, Shell and Caltex). Moreover, because of the large and rapid
increase in demand after 1965, all three suppliers together were
unable to furnish the additional product that was required.
Insufficient quantities of tank trucks both commercial and
military and the Army's ability to install military Victualic pipe-
lines (constructed by joining 20 foot lengths of 6" steel pipe with
bolted couplings) resulted in the decision to install these pipe-
lines wherever they were most needed and they could be protected.
Map 2 shows the locations of these pipelines throughout Vietnam.
The Army was successful in effectively operating all of these lines
with the exception of II Corps—primarily the Qui Nhon area
where losses ran as high as 2.5 million gallons per month due
mostly to enemy action. The important lesson to be learned here
is that if assets are not available to protect and secure the pipeline
(although it can easily be repaired), it is more efficient to re-
supply fuel by truck, rail, and barge.
The large volume, the long supply lines, and the uncertainties
in schedules resulted in significant disruption in the worldwide
tanker schedules of the three in-country contractors. Consequently
they were unwilling to commit more tankers than were ab-
solutely necessary to support the military requirements. While we
never ran out, there were times when the tankage at Nha Be was
uncomfortably low.
To overcome the lack of storage ashore, the expensive ex-
pedient of using tankers as floating storage to supplement the on-
shore storage was implemented. In addition, tankers making deliver-
ies often incurred substantial amounts of demurrage and made
extensive backhauls from Vietnam to Singapore or other Pacific
military discharge areas (Korea, Japan, Thailand). Initially most
of the floating storage tankers and tankers delivering petroleum,
oils, and lubricants to Vietnam were provided by the in-country
commercial suppliers. In February and March of 1968 these were
supplemented or replaced by Military Sea Transport Service tank-
ers.
The complexity of the commercial and military distribution
system and the difficulties affecting accounting and reimbursement
are indicated in the following paragraphs by examples in the
Saigon area in 1968.
In the Nha Be commercial storage site, Esso and Caltex re-
ceived US Government-owned product as well as their own. Shell
 QUINHON-AN KHE

5OMILES-6INCH

QUI NHON­
PHU CAT A.F.B.
I7MILES-6 INCH

AN KHE-PLEIKU

59MILES-6INCH

VUNG RO BAY-TUY HOA

I8MILES-6 INCH

18 MILES-8 INCH

PARALLEL

POL PIER-CAM RANH BAY A.F. B

6MILES-6INCH-2 EACH

15 MILES-I2INCH

PHAN RANG-PHAN RANG A.F. B.

IOMILES-6INCH-2 EACH
... Cam
P Ranh
Bay
Phan Rang

Tan Son Nhut^'^SAIGON

DONG NAI-LONG BINH
4MILES-6INCH-3EACH

SAIGON RIVER-TAN SON NHUT A.FB.

6MILES-6INCH-2EACH

U.S. ARMY PIPELINE SYSTEM

IN
SOUTH VIETNAM

100 KILOMETERS

MAP 2

 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 79

(Asiatic Petroleum) received only their own product in their

tankage. Bulk petroleum, oils, and lubricants was outloaded into
either industry- or Army-controlled barges or tankers for water
delivery and into contractor or U. S. Army tank trucks for highway
delivery. Vietnamese army trucks also picked up bulk petroleum,
oils, and lubricants or packaged bulk from commercial suppliers at
Nha Be.
An Army-controlled boat or barge picked up JP-4 fuel and
delivered it to the Binh Loi barge site for delivery through the
Army pipeline to Tan Son Nhut Air Base. That pipeline delivered
the product to Shell, Esso, U. S. Air Force and U. S. Army tankage
at the base. The product was received into whatever tankage was
available. Aviation, motor gasoline and diesel fuel was delivered
to the base by military or commercial tank trucks.
At Tan Son Nhut, aircraft from all four U. S. Services and
allied forces (for example, Vietnamese, Thai, Australian) were
refueled. Additionally, commercial charters of American, Braniff,
Continental, Flying Tigers, and Southern Air Transport were re­
fueled there. Esso, Shell, the U. S. Air Force, and U. S. Army, all
participated in refueling operations from the storage facilities
mentioned above.
To support Bien Hoa Air Base, Army-controlled (Army or
commercial) barges delivered JP^t fuel from Nha Be to Bu Long
where it was pumped into Air Force-controlled tankage at Bien
Hoa Air Force Base. Aviation, diesel, and motor gasoline were
normally delivered by Army and commercial trucks.
Large quantities of 55-gallon drums and 500-gallon collapsible
bags of all types of product were airlifted to upcountry terminal
locations. Delivery of these containers was to Army, Marine, Navy,
Air Force, or Allied Forces as required, and was subsequently
issued to Army, Navy, or Air Force as needed at the point of
delivery. It was not unusual for the Army to package JP-4 in 500­
gallon bags out of Army storage, and for the Air Force to then
deliver the bags to Pleiku, Phu Bai, or Dong Ha where Army,
Navy, Marines, or Air Force would use it. In the 3-month siege of
Khe Sanh, for example, the Army air-dropped fuel to the Marines
for which signed receipts were obviously impossible to obtain.
Supplementing all of the above, the U. S. Air Force bladder-
birds out of Tan Son Nhut or Bien Hoa at times flew as much as a
million gallons of jet fuel a month to areas isolated or cut off
from a ground line of communication and rarely obtained signa­
tures for fuel delivered.
Financial accounting procedures were not used by Army Class
80 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

III supply points because of the decision not to extend the stock
fund into Vietnam. Signed receipts were many times impossible
to obtain from consignees because of the following reasons:
1. Tank trucks loaded with product enroute to Forward Sup­
port Areas were destroyed or damaged by enemy action.
2. Deliveries by air were air-dropped if aircraft were unable to
land because of enemy fire.
3. All shipment to Forward Support Areas were consigned to
Army activities although the Air Force could have been the
predominant user of the product.
4. At supply points within Forward Support Areas product was
stored and dispensed from rubber bladders and 500-gallon drums
with no means to measure quantities delivered to consumers.
5. Self-service supply points were set up and no issue documenta­
tion was made at these points even when the consumer was a
reimbursable customer.
6. It was impossible to get all reimbursement issue documents
collected and forwarded to a central accounting office because of
communication difficulties.
A number of steps were taken to reduce the reimbursement
accounting problems. The most-far reaching of these is thq Memo­
randum of Understanding between the three Services, wherein the
Services were billed and reimbursed for bulk petroleum, oils, and
lubricants issues in Vietnam on the basis of the Military Assistance
Command, Vietnam, Monthly Bulk Fuels Report, modified to
include documented base-level issues and prorated handling losses.
All Army agencies have indicated satisfaction with this system.
However, the Army Accounting System differs from that of the
Navy and Air Force in that financial accountability was not ex­
tended by the Army into Vietnam. The Department of the Army
had granted a deviation from accounting in accordance with
Army Regulation 735-5:
The accounting problems that were encountered in POL support in
Vietnam were primarily the result of a requirement for detailed finan­
cial accounting for reimbursement procedures based on the bulk fuels
report. However, many of the problems of a combat area will be solved
only with the assignment of a qualified Contracting Officer's Repre­
sentative in-country.
The Vietnam experience clearly demonstrated that, in an unstable
area, the extent of financial accounting and the method of reimburse­
ment should be decided early in the operation, preferably prior to de­
ployment of forces.
A joint field assistance team would have been of great value in
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 81

Vietnam in lessening problems in accounting as well as in assisting in

the area of contractor relations and contract administrations.
The relationships and responsibilities of the Defense Supply Agency/
Defense Fuel Supply Center and other Department of Defense (DOD)
activities were not clearly defined as to their respective roles in contract
administration for POL overseas in DOD Dirctive 4140.25, Management
of Petroleum Products, January 6, 1965, and the implementing instruc­
tions thereto.
Much of the joint Service participation in POL policy making was
lost with the inactivation of the Directorate, Petroleum Logistics Policy,
Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Installations and Logistics),
in 1966. A high-level Joint Petroleum Committee with representation
from the Services. Defense Supply Agency, and Joint Chiefs of Staff
would fill the void left by the inactivation of the Directorate in 1966
and would enhance overall POL logistics.
Pilferage was a problem. About 5.7 million barrels of fuel was
"lost" through pilferage, evaporation and enemy actions. At 15
cents per gallon that is about $36 million. On the Vietnamese
economy, it might be three times that amount. The drivers of
commercial trucks were generally poor men and carrying 3,000
gallons or more of fuel in a truck was a temptation. Many
methods were devised to divert fuel illegally and sell it on the
economy. Truck drivers installed false bottoms on tanks, had
separate hidden compartments constructed, tampered with seals,
forged documents, and took other devious measures to pilfer
quantities of fuel from every delivery. A great deal of effort and
educating of U.S. military personnel was required to eliminate
such practices.
The above ground cross country steel bolted pipelines could be
easily uncoupled with a wrench or pliers allowing fuel to be
carried away in cans and buckets as it leaked from the line. This
usually occurred in areas where villages were close to the pipeline.
Some of the fuel taken from pipelines was used for cooking.
Several large fires which caused considerable damage were started
by such actions.
To assure that the U. S. Government received the full measure
of its assets in the custody of commercial suppliers as well as
accurate receipts of commercial products from in-country procure­
ments, the following steps were taken in II, III, and IV Corps. A
file of authorized customer signature cards was established at each
call-forward office. All customers were required to forward one
copy of each delivery ticket to the call-forward office. Special im­
printing devices were issued to all major customers for imprinting
delivery tickets with a coded impression. Contractors were re­
quired to log all truck shipments to each customer, each month,
82 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

in numerical sequence. Contractors were required to submit

delivery summaries with supporting delivery tickets to the ap­
propriate call-forward office for verification of deliveries prior to
submission of Form DD 250 for billing purposes. Meters were
installed at receiving activities. Standard Operating Procedures
with check lists were made available to customers for use in
receiving contractor deliveries. Training classes for personnel in­
volved with receiving contractor deliveries were conducted. Similar
procedures were established by the Navy in I Corps.
Despite the shortcoming the dual distribution system (military
and civilian) may have had, it did provide the required support.
Without the cooperation and dedication of personnel employed by
the commercial contractors, petroleum resupply to U. S. Forces in
Vietnam could have been degraded in such a manner as to limit
and drastically curtail military operations.

Common Supply Support

The situation facing Army, Navy, and Air Force logisticians in
Vietnam during the early days of the build-up was such that no
one Service was particularly anxious to support another. Nonethe­
less, it was recognized as far back as 1962 that overall economies
could be realized through Common Supply Support.
Common Supply Support in Vietnam began with the introduc­
tion of the U. S. Military Assistance Advisory Group and the
assignment of responsibilities to the Navy in 1962 as the designated
administrative agency to provide logistic support to the Military
Assistance Advisory Group. As advisory forces grew, the support
tasks soon grew well beyond that of an administrative agency. Com­
mon supply items were issued directly to Army, Air Force, and
Marine Corps units, the U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group
staff and to the senior logistics advisers in the four corps tactical
zones for further distribution to advisers in the field. Included
were subsistence, clothing, and general supplies totaling 3,500
items that were primarily for housekeeping, maintenance, and
administration. This system was barely sufficient for the limited
initial U. S. involvement.
Primary logistics functions in the northernmost corps tactical
zone in Vietnam were assigned to the Navy in October 1965, and
to the Army (1st Logistical Command) in the other three corps
tactical zone in April 1966. This system continued through the
build-up and into the post build-up period.
The biggest drawback of Common Supply Support throughout
the Vietnam era was the lack of a definitive list of items for this
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 83

support. Where common use was a criterion, none of the lists de­
veloped for common item support constituted more than a relatively
small portion of the total line items stocked by the Military Serv­
ices in Vietnam. They were, however, in many cases, high-volume
demand items.
Efforts by the Department of Defense, Joint Chiefs of Staff, and
the Services during these periods to establish a single common
supply system in Vietnam were singular in their lack of accom­
plishment. In November 1965, the Department of Defense had
approved a Joint Chiefs of Staff study that recommended a single
supply system and tasked the Army with establishment and opera­
tion of the proposed system. The Army plan called for implementa­
tion in four phases over a twelve month period. The final impact
of this plan would have made the Army the sole source of common
supply items in the entire theater. While General Westmoreland
felt that a single system would be the most economical for re­
sponsive long-term support, the peculiar situation in I Corps (pre­
dominately Navy-Marine forces ashore and uneasiness of the tactical
situation) dictated that the existing system be continued as being
least disruptive and most responsive for the short-term support.
As a result of Commander in Chief Pacific recommendations
and General Westmoreland's comments, the Department of De­
fense disapproved the plan in December 1966 and concluded that
required procedures for operating integrated depots in South Viet­
nam were not sufficiently advanced to accommodate a large ex­
pansion in common supply at that time. Until further planning
could be accomplished and the I Corps assignment could be shifted
to the Army, the Navy was to continue to provide I Corps support.
Again, in March 1968, a modified expansion plan was submitted
for implementation but again disapproved citing the disruptive
effect of such an expansion, the reported poor response ex­
perienced by the Air Force for common supply items in II, III, and
IV Corps, and the continued low demand satisfaction provided by
the 1st Logistical Command depots.
Thus, common supply, as it existed in Vietnam throughout the
post buildup period, amounted to a continuation of the interim
arrangements set up in 1966 among the Services for the support
of common items.
The Army implementation in II, III and IV Corps of Common
Supply Support was limited initially to the 1965 Navy list of
3,500 items. Late in the post buildup period, Army depots at
Long Binh, Cam Ranh Bay, and Qui Nhon were stocking between
2,550 and 2,650 of these items. The system required that Navy
84 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

and Air Force requests for common supply items in the II, III and
IV Corps be submitted to one of the three Army Depots. If stock
was not available at the depot receiving the requisition, it was
passed via the Inventory Control Center to whichever other in-
country depot had stock available. The Services did not have a list
of common supply items which showed acceptable substitutes.
When stock was not available, in-country requisitions were
normally forwarded to the Continental U.S. via 2d Logistical Com­
mand, Okinawa. Due to an early poor record of fill, the Navy
and Air Force elected to requisition from the Army on a fill or kill
basis. When requisitions were killed by the Army source, the Air
Force and the Navy then would re-requisition through their
particular service supply system. This situation continued until
mid-1969, when both the Navy and Air Force either stopped or
substantially reduced the use of fill or kill procedures, indicating
that the Army-run common supply system was effective.
Upon the transfer of the logistical support mission from the
Naval support activity in Da Nang to the U.S. Army, the 1st Logis­
tical Command directed rescreening of all items declared surplus
and excess prior to final disposal action. Over $6 million worth of
property was physically moved to the U. S. Army property disposal
activity at Da Nang from the Naval support activity. It took twelve
months to complete the screening and redistribution of the majority
of the items. The bulk of the items were transferred to the Viet­
namese Army based on valid requisitions they had outstanding and
a U.S. advisor validation of the requirements prior to transfer.
The U. S. Army supported other elements besides the military
services. Many of the contractors performing services for the Army
were supported by the Army supply system. Many repair parts
items used by contractors were either available or could be made
available through the Army supply system. U. S. Government con­
tractors in South Vietnam, however, experienced a great deal of
difficulty in obtaining support from the U. S. Army supply system.
Whether this is a result of the contractors not effectively meshing
with the supply system or the supply system's failure to anticipate
the nature and extent of contractors' requirements is not com­
pletely clear. Nonetheless, there are several factors which are
readily apparent.
Contractors were used in Vietnam because construction and
service requirements were beyond the capabilities of the assigned
military units. Ordinarily a contractor procures his own supplies,
but this was not feasible in Vietnam. Therefore, contractors were
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 85

added to the supply system as a "using unit." In theory this works

well, but from a practical viewpoint, it did not work satisfactorily.
The contractor, because of his large scale operation, should not
be classified as a normal "using unit." Experience revealed that
the direct support unit was unable to handle the multitudinous
flow of needed support for the contractor, therefore the attempt to
do so resulted in delay and inefficient support to the contractor.
To prevent this happening in the future, all large contractors
should receive support for their requests directly from the depot.
Contractor operations were different from normal military
operations and usually required non-standard supplies. An example
was the generator problem. The Vinnell Corporation and Pacific
Architects and Engineers operated a number of 1500 kilowatt
generators, which supplied electrical power to facilities in South
Vietnam. Parts for these generators were incorporated into the
supply system as non-standard repair parts and given Federal
Stock Numbers. Unfortunately these parts did not move through
the depot system fast enough to satisfy the contractors' needs. Since
the items often were not available through the Army supply
system, the more responsive (and more expensive) contractor pro­
curement sources were frequently used.

Financial Controls
In order to get supplies to Vietnam during the buildup and to
stop them once the drawdown began, an appreciation of the
funding, in-country procurement activity, and management tech­
niques that were employed in Vietnam and in the United States is
necessary.
The Planning, Programing, and Budgeting System was the
basic financial management vehicle used by the Army during the
early phase of the war in Vietnam to support operations.
The Operations and Maintenance, Army appropriation financed
that portion of the logistics system devoted to the procurement,
supply management, storage, handling, and second destination
transportation of materiel. It also provided the framework for
budgeting for consumer funds which were utilized for purchasing
operating supplies and equipment to support the deployed forces
in Vietnam. The Army decided not to extend the stock fund to
Vietnam feeling that the management constraints were too burden­
some in a combat environment.
In fiscal year 1966, Operation and Maintenance, Army funds
received by U.S. Army Pacific for support of U.S. Army Vietnam
were issued to General Accounting Office 86 in U.S. Army Ryukyu
86 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Islands. This was due to a shortage of qualified accounting per­

sonnel and adequate automatic data processing capability in Viet­
nam and further it was an attempt to relieve the U.S. Army Vietnam
Commander of the added burden of financial reporting.
By mid fiscal year 1967 the Army approved establishment of
the Centralized Financial Management Agency in Hawaii. This
agency was given the responsibility for maintaining control over all
funds extended to U.S. Army Pacific in support of Vietnam except
those allotted in-country and funds allocated to U.S. Army Ryukyu
Islands for Okinawa support activities. Table 5 shows Operation
and Maintenance, Army, direct fund comparisons.
Establishment of the Centralized Financial Management Agency
centralized control and accounting of funds for support of U.S.
Army Vietnam out-of-country requirements. The system provided
for centralized obligation of funds upon receipt of billing from
the supplier. The basic concept of the system was that fund re­
servations were to be established at Centralized Financial Man­
agement Agency based upon receipt of an image copy of all out-of­
country requisitions. Essentially there was a policy of free flow of
requisitions from U.S. Army Vietnam with dollar accounting and
control established at Centralized Financial Management Agency.
The weakness of the system was that Centralized Financial Man­
agement Agency was not in the requisition channel and con­
sequently was bypassed on numerous requisitions. As a result, bills
were received for material without fund reservations having been
established at Centralized Financial Management Agency. It was
difficult to determine at a given point in time the status of funds
TABLE 5—DIRECT FUND COMPARISONS FOR OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE, ARMY DURING THE BUILD-UP PERIOD
(IN THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS)
Funds FY 1965 FY 1966 FY 1967 FY 1968 FY 1969

Appropriated 3,482,910 4,594,200 7,148,477 6,995,132 7,986,310

Basic 3,439,000 3,483,600 5,122,427 6,942,375 7,805,000
Pay Supplemental 43,910 33,400 93,000 52,757
Southeast Asia +85,000
Supplemental 1,077,200 1,933,050
Appropriation Transfers 96,310
& Reprogramming +63,042 +258,899 + 142,571 + 1,134,904
Southeast Asia +65,700 + 139,600 +45,135 + 1,255,234 -1,835
Other -2,658 + 119,299 +97,436 -120,330
Total Non-obligated Appro­ -1,835
priations Available 3,545,952 4,853,099 7,291,048 8,130,036 7,984,475
Total Obligated 3,545,952 4,853,099 7,290,438 8,129,992 7,984,475
Unobligated 610 44
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 87

and fund requirements. To alleviate this situation, Centralized

Financial Management Agency proposed that a central control
point be established through which all Military Standard Re­
quisitioning and Issue Procedures transaction documents would
flow for supply and fund management purpose. The Inventory
Control Center, Vietnam, the Aviation Materiel Management
Center, and 32d Medical Depot were to play active parts. The
3S (Standard Supply System), which U.S. Army Pacific installed,
mechanized supply and financial information for Vietnam and
assisted in resolving this problem.
Centralized Financial Management Agency was the proponent
of a monthly report (RCS CSCAB—254) which served as the
primary source of financial information. However, this occurred
at the end of the buildup phase (31 October 1967). During the
early years (1965-1967) only limited information was available.
If the total financial picture was desired, information had to be
requested from U.S. Army Vietnam, U.S. Army Pacific, Army
Materiel Command, U.S. Army Ryukyu Islands, Logistics Control
Office, Pacific and the Comptroller of the Army.
Centralized Financial Management Agency used tapes ror trans­
action report information or requisition copy images but found
that by using this method, reconciliation of supply and fiscal re­
cords was virtually impossible. In the first reconciliation, 49,608
requisitions were outstanding.
Since U.S. Army Vietnam had no capability to determine or
project funding requirements for procurement of either consump­
tion or stockage items, U.S. Army Pacific provided budget esti­
mates based on the best available records and assumptions. Using
historical data to produce costs per man year supported and flying
hour costs, U.S. Army Pacific projected materiel costs based on the
force structure as provided by Department of the Army.
Budgets for Operation and Maintenance, Army supply opera­
tions were based on a combination of U.S. Army Pacific forecasts
of materiel requirements, historical costs of supporting military
man years in country, and approved changes in the force structure.
It can be seen that a solid financial management plan was not
implemented until after the buildup phase in Vietnam. In
fact, the Army did not elect to financially account for in-country in­
ventories until 1969 when a system for financial inventory ac­
counting was established for depots. Until that time all formal
appropriation accounting for the initial buildup requirements was
done at a location outside of Vietnam.
Experience gained in Vietnam proved that financial manage­
88 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

ment must receive concurrent attention and priority with logistics

management. When this occurs, effective and efficient materiel
management can follow.

Procurement
Early in the buildup, it became apparent that to conserve
resources and to meet demanding deadlines it would be necessary
to contract for much of the support traditionally provided by
military organizations. Thus, the United States Army Procure­
ment Agency, Vietnam was born. During the peak fiscal year
1968—fiscal year 1969 time frame, this Agency awarded and ad­
ministered contracts valued at approximately one-half billion dol­
lars. Performing these contracts required contractors to employ
over 52,000 people.
The first Army procurement organization was established
in Vietnam during February 1962. This was the Purchasing and
Contracting Office which was assigned to the U.S. Army Support
Group, Vietnam. On 1 April 1965, this office was redesignated as
the Purchasing and Contracting Division of the 1st Logistical Com­
mand. As a result of the build-up of forces, the procurement
effort was expanded and on 10 May 1966 the activity was again
reorganized and designated as the U.S. Army Procurement Agency,
Vietnam and was assigned to the 1st Logistical Command. The
commanding officer of U.S. Army Procurement Agency, Vietnam
also served on the 1st Logistical Command Staff as the Director
of Procurement. The mission of the U.S. Army Procurement
Agency, Vietnam was to:
1. Provide responsive procurement support to the combat and
combat support elements of the United States Military Assistance
Command, Vietnam, the United States Army Vietnam, Free World
Military Assistance Forces, and elements of other military or
civilian services as directed.
2. Assist the Civil Operations and Revolutionary Develop­
ment, support the Agency for International Development, and
support the U.S. Embassy in the survey and development of
industrial, service, and agricultural sources and capabilities to pro­
vide increased production in the Republic of Vietnam.
In performance of this mission, the U.S. Army Procurement
Agency, Vietnam executed and administered a variety of contracts
for supplies, subsistence, and services such as repair and utilities
services, electrical power generation and distribution, stevedoring,
transportation, equipment maintenance as well as laundry and
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 89
miscellaneous services. The following table depicts the dollar value
of these procurements:
PROCUREMENT PROGRAMS BY FISCAL YEAR
(MILLIONS OF DOLLARS)

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Supplies $ 6.9 $ 11.2 $ 6.7 $ 6.9 $ 2.3
Subsistence 12.0 13.6 22.2 19.8 23.0
Services 156.4 234.3 207.1 210.8 163.7
Totals $175.3 $259.1 $236.0 $237.5 $189.0

Although these contracts were solicited, negotiated, executed, and

administered in a combat zone, all of the procurement actions
taken were in accordance with the Armed Services Procurement
Regulation and pertinent Army procedures and instructions.
There were no unusual authorities or deviations granted the U.S.
Army Procurement Agency, Vietnam. Their contracts, organiza­
tion, and operations were reviewed and audited in the same manner
as procurement activities in other overseas areas and in the
continental U.S.
The largest contract, measured in the number of contractor
personnel and dollar value, was the contract for Repair and
Utilities services. The concept of tactical operations in Vietnam
called for the construction of base camps throughout the country
from which tactical operations were conducted. Each base camp con­
sisted of temporary and semipermanent structures which provided
living areas, supply areas, and a base of operations. These base
camps were similar to posts, camps, and stations throughout the
world and required similar Post Engineer services. In addition to
providing Repair and Utilities services, the contractor was also
responsible for the backup maintenance and supply functions to
support the Repair and Utilities mission.
The Repair and Utilities contractor also provided field mainten­
ance and repair parts support for installed equipment such as gen­
erators, air conditioners, refrigerators, and pumps, as well as
operating the Class IV supply yards for construction materials. Ob­
taining Repair and Utilities services by contract was not a new
undertaking. This technique has been utilized in Korea, under
peacetime conditions, for a number of years. The scope and rapid
growth of the Vietnam requirement resulted in situations which
had not previously occurred. The lack of skilled labor in Vietnam,
for example, resulted in the contractor hiring large numbers of
U.S. and Third Country Nationals to maintain the desired level of
performance.
90 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

In addition to organizing for performance of the Repair and

Utilities mission, the contractor had to perform several functions
not usually allied with normal Repair and Utilities activities. In
supporting the growth of the Repair and Utilities requirement,
available military transportation was insufficient to move the con-
tractor's supplies and materials. The contractor and subcontractor
had to use their own resources. In addition, communications
throughout Vietnam posed a significant control problem; therefore
a separate radio network was established and operated. It was there­
fore necessary for the contractor to establish a procurement organi­
zation to supplement government resources. In each of these in­
stances, the magnitude of the requirement was not envisioned
sufficiently in advance to allow in-depth planning that would result
in efficient utilization of resources.
The power requirements for military operations in Vietnam
were unique compared to previous military operations. In Vietnam,
practically all areas were illuminated by floodlights at night for
security reasons. The hot, humid climate required a heavy usage
of electrical refrigeration and cooling equipment to protect food,
medical supplies, and other weather-sensitive materials. Further,
the Army's sophisticated communication, transportation, and weap­
ons systems also require increased quantities of electrical power.
During the summer and fall of 1965, the U.S. Forces in Vietnam
began to experience a critical shortage of utility type electric
power generating equipment. Due to the long lead time in
procurement of large generators and the immediate need for
electrical power generation, a plan was conceived to send standard
size (T-2) petroleum tankers from the mothball fleet to Vietnam
and convert them into electrical power generating barges when
moored on site. In March 1966, a contract was executed to provide
for rehabilitating, manning, and provisioning the ships, then sailing
them to Vietnam and mooring them on the planned sites. The
turbo-electric generators of the vessels were connected to a trans­
mission cable which led to a transmitter station on shore for
further distribution to land line systems. Subsequent contracts
were executed to provide for land based power generating facilities
to replace these power barges.
The procurement of supplies and equipment in Vietnam was
limited, with certain exceptions, to combat emergency require­
ments. There were two basic reasons for this policy; it acted as a
control against inflation by limiting the flow of dollars into the
economy and was a supporting factor in the U. S. Balance of Pay­
ments Program. Further, the poor quality of Vietnamese manu­
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 91

factured end items compatible with U. S. military requirements

made it impractical to consider the local purchase of most equip­
ment.
The variety and magnitude of the services provided U. S. and
Free World Forces by contract augmented the logistic system very
effectively. The successful techniques and procedures developed
by U.S. Army Procurement Agency, Vietnam in providing these
procurement services, in the combat zone, will be the basis for
contract logistical support in future conflicts.
92 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

VIETNAMESE FARMER OPERATES ROTO-TILLER ALONGSIDE PLOW PULLED

BY WATER BUFFALO
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 93

GUN TRUCK—5-TON M54A2 "HARDENED" VEHICLE, ABOVE; GUN TRUCK—

5-TON M54A2 MOUNTED WITH STRIPPED DOWN HULL OF ARMORED
PERSONNEL CARRIER, BELOW.
 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

FIELD DEPOT T H U Due STORAGE AREA 5 MILES NORTH OF SAIGON, ABOVE;

FIELD DEPOT T H U Due STORAGE AREA AFTER IMPROVEMENTS, BELOW.
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 95

UNLOADING OF 2I/ 2 -TON TRUCK AT SAIGON PORT.

96 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

FISH MARKET AREA IN SAIGON AFTER IMPROVEMENTS, ABOVE; Q U I NHON

LOGISTICAL DEPOT, BELOW.
SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 97

AERIAL VIEW OF NEWPORT

 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

AIR DROP OF SUPPLIES IN OPERATION JUNCTION CITY

 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 99

ARMORED PERSONNEL CARRIER GIVES 5,000-GALLON TANKER PUSH U P

MUDDY H I L L TO FIRE SUPPORT BASE, ABOVE; AERIAL VIEW OF VUNG
T A U , SHOWING POL JETTY, TANK FARM, AND AIR FIELD, BELOW.
100 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

POL STORAGE FARM AT T A Y N I N H USING BLADDERS FOR STORAGE, ABOVE;

LOADING OF CLASS I SUPPLIES FROM DEPOT AT CHOLON, BELOW.
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 101

REFRIGERATION CONTAINERS AND STORAGE AREA AT CHOLON, ABOVE;

21/2-TON TRUCK POL CONVOY AT PLEIKU, BELOW.
 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

AMMUNITION SUPPLY POINT UNDER CONSTRUCTION NEAR A FIRE BASE

IN KONTUM PROVINCE, CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, ABOVE; CRANE LOADING
AMMUNITION ON TO TRANSPORTER FOR SHIPMENT TO
AMMUNITION DEPOT, BELOW.
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 103

FORK L I F T W I T H 175MM SHELLS TO MOVE TO THE STOCK PILE AREA,

VUNG Ro BAY, VIETNAM, ABOVE; BERMED OPEN STORAGE COMPLEX
OF T H E 5 4 2 D A M M U N I T I O N FIELD D E P O T , BIEN T H U ,
VIETNAM, BELOW.
104 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

AERIAL VIEW OF AN AMMUNITION STORAGE AREA, CAM RANH BAY,

VIETNAM, ABOVE; ARTILLERY AMMUNITION PREPARED FOR SLING
LOADING BY HELICOPTER, BIEN T H U , VIETNAM, BELOW.
 SUPPLY SUPPORT IN VIETNAM 105

FORK L I F T UNLOADING PALLETS OF 105MM HOWITZER ROUNDS FROM A

SEA-LAND VAN, PLEIKU, VIETNAM.
 CHAPTER IV

Ammunition Logistics

This chapter identifies the problems that developed in am­

munition support. Ammunition is considered to be a "stovepipe"
commodity in that it is requisitioned and reported on through a
single channel. The high degree of ammunition support provided
to the combat elements in Vietnam was the result of intensive
management at Department of Defense, Department of the Army,
and Theater level, and the dedicated efforts of men in am­
munition units in the ammunition depots and supply points in
Vietnam.
The buildup in Southeast Asia impacted on the entire spectrum
of ammunition logistics: design and development, procurement
and production, budgeting, distribution, transportation, storage,
personnel and units, reporting procedures, command and control,
security, maintenance and disposal.

The Buildup
In March of 1965, the only U.S. Army ammunition stocks in
Vietnam were those belonging to the 5th Special Forces units based
in Nha Trang and the armed helicopter units based at Tan Son
Nhut.
The former was a mixture of modern, World War II and for­
eign munitions, all in limited quantities re-supplied monthly from
Okinawa. The latter was essentially helicopter ammunition: 7.62 =
mm, 40-mm Grenade, 2.75" Rocket, and various signal flares and
smoke grenades.
The stockage on hand fluctuated around 1,500 short tons at Tan
Son Nhut which was stored in an old French storage site on the
Airbase. Even this quantity was too much for the facility which had
safe storage capacity of approximately 900 short tons under a waiver
due to its proximity to fuel storage, napalm mixing sites, and the
main airbase runway.
Elsewhere in the Pacific Theater, U.S. Army Pacific had am­
munition reserves stored in Korea, Japan, Hawaii, Okinawa, and
Thailand plus a limited supply in the Department of the Army
Forward Floating Depot in the Philippines. These stocks were for
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 107

the most part reserved for Commander in Chief Pacific con­

tingency plans and were earmarked for deployment with U.S.
Army Pacific units. The contingency plan for Southeast Asia stated
that units would carry their basic loads and would be supported
for the first 180 days by Push Packages of ammunition snipped
from Continental U.S. depots.
Based on the decision at the 9-11 April 1965 Hawaii Con­
ference to deploy combat units to Vietnam, several ammunition
related actions were implemented: ammunition depot and supply
point locations were selected, real estate was acquired, ammunition
units were included in force requirements plans, and a stockage
objective of 60 days in-country was planned in conjunction with a
30-day off-shore reserve to be established on Okinawa. The 60-day
in-country stockage objective was to consist of 45 days at Qui Nhon,
Cam Ranh Bay and the Saigon area, and 15 days in Ammunition
Supply Points.
Concurrent with this planning and, perhaps a portent of
things to come, the 1st Logistical Command requisitioned from the
2d Logistical Command on Okinawa a 15-day supply of ammuni­
tion to support the 173d Airborne Brigade which was earmarked
for early deployment to Vietnam. However, this requisition was
canceled by the 2d Logistical Command as the Push Packages
from Continental U.S. would sustain the deploying units until
normal pipeline operations could be established. Things didn't
work quite that well. The 173d Airborne Brigade deployed rapidly
and immediately commenced combat operations and the Push
Packages, delivered in 30-day increments were far short of the
quantity being consumed and also contained obsolete ammunition
such as anti-tank mines, 3.5" rockets, and anti-tank munitions for
90-mm tank guns and 100-mm recoilless rifles. As a consequence,
the 1st Logistical Command requisition was purified and initiated
anew. This time ammunition, approximately 225 tons, was im­
mediately airlifted from Okinawa to Tan Son Nhut. This action
tied up all the available transport aircraft in the theater for a 7­
day period and also dangerously overloaded the ammunition stor­
age site at Tan Son Nhut, as this input coupled with the Push
Packages totaled more than 4,000 short tons.
From April through June, the ammunition picture was chaotic
at best. Push Packages arrived before units, units were diverted
from their scheduled debarkation points where their ammunition
was offloaded, and ammunition piled up on the beach at Cam
Ranh Bay and aboard leased sampans and barges on the Saigon
River. The problem was compounded by the delayed arrival of
108 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

transportation terminal units and Ammunition Companies to

clear the port and manage the receipt, storage, issue, and requisi­
tioning of ammunition.
With the establishment of Headquarters U.S. Army Vietnam
in July 1965, some order began to appear in the ammunition logis­
tics picture. The arrival of the 182d Ammunition Stock Control
Detachment along with one ammunition company and several
detachments also helped although difficulties were still experi­
enced in the next six months. These centered around the lack of
ammunition command and control units, the lack of senior am­
munition officers and staffs at Headquarters U.S. Army Vietnam
and the 1st Logistical Command, and the malassignment of the
182d Stock Control Detachment to the Saigon Area Support Com­
mand. The 182d, through co-ordination with the few ammunition
units that had by then arrived in Vietnam (one company and two
detachments) began the task of establishing an ammunition sup­
port system. Based on estimates of the ammunition on the ground
and on unofficial counts of weapons densities, stockage objectives
were computed and requisitions were initiated to maintain the
60-day stockage objective in-country.
With the buildup proceeding, the 182d Stock Control Detach­
ment, without direct access to the 1st Logistical Command Am­
munition Staff Office, continued to manage the ammunition sup­
port program. Requisitions were developed and passed to the 2d
Logistical Command who in turn either filled the requisitions
from stocks on hand or passed them to Headquarters U.S. Army
Pacific. If Headquarters U.S. Army Pacific was unable to fill the
requisitions from other theater assets, the requisitions were passed
on to the Ammunition Procurement and Supply Agency. It didn't
take long—three months—to exhaust available U.S. Army Pacific
assets. By then it was clear something else had to be done. Consump­
tion rates were higher than planning had foreseen and weapons
density calculations were inaccurate.
Improvements were made, some almost immediately, others
later. Some of the delays in the requisitioning system were elimi­
nated when, in July 1965, Okinawa was by-passed. Requisitions then
flowed directly to Ammunition Procurement and Supply Agency
with information to Headquarters U.S. Army Pacific's Inventory
Control Point, who filled requisitions to the extent possible and
notified Ammunition Procurement and Supply Agency of those
requisitions on which U.S. Army Pacific had taken action. Even so,
improvement in reporting was warranted to the extent that the
Secretary of the Army dispatched a team of ammunition experts
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 109

to Vietnam to examine the problems incident to the validity and

timeliness of the U.S. Army Vietnam "U.S. Army Worldwide
Ammunition Reporting System (WARS), RCS CSGLD-1322"
feeder report.
The findings and recommendations of this team represented a
critical upturn in ammunition logistics and are synopsized as fol­
lows:
1. Immediately implement the doctrine for Ammunition Serv­
ice in the Theater of Operations (FM 9-6) throughout the theater.
2. Organize an Ammunition Staff headed by a full colonel,
reporting to the G-4, U.S. Army Vietnam.
3. Establish an Ammunition Group as quickly as possible to
provide operational control and management over ammunition
and ammunition units.
4. Reassign the 182d Stock Control Detachment to G-4, U.S.
Army Vietnam.
5. Assign all ammunition units to include the 182d Stock Con­
trol Detachment to the Ammunition Group upon its establish­
ment.
While these recommendations were never fully implemented,
the extent to which they were resulted in an overwhelming im­
provement for ammunition logistics. An operational staff headed
by a full colonel was activated at Headquarters U.S. Army Viet­
nam. The 52d Ammunition Group Headquarters and Headquarters
Company was activated, sent to Vietnam in February 1966, and used
as the nucleus of the Directorate of Ammunition at 1st Logistical
Command. The 182d Stock Control Detachment was assigned to
the Ammunition Directorate at 1st Logistical Command. Command
and Control of Ammunition Units was obtained through the ex­
pedited arrival of Battalion Headquarters and Headquarters Com­
panies and the establishment of Directors of Ammunition at each
of the Area Logistics Commands. Of equal importance, a system
was developed whereby the G-3, U.S. Army Vietnam provided
valid weapons densities to the 182d Stock Control Detachment.

Ammunition Supply Rates

The overriding issue during the time frame January—June
1966, (more important than the port thru-put of ammunition
which will be addressed later) was that of determining valid supply
rates. The supply rates had far-reaching implications in that they
impact on the length of time D to P stocks would last. (D to P
stocks are those war reserves of ammunition which are stocked in
110 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

peace time to provide the necessary reservoir of ammunition to

sustain combat operations until such time that the planned produc­
tion base can be activated and producing at a rate which equals
consumption. The designation "D" signifies deployment date or
the date that hostilities commence and "P" signifies production
day, hence D-P stocks.) Supply rates are also a factor in determining
when, in what quantities, and at what rate production of ammuni­
tion should be established. For these reasons, it was virtually neces­
sary that realistic supply rates be determined and approved, so
that necessary funds could be provided in the revised fiscal year
1966, 1967, and 1968 budgets.
Prior to the onset of the buildup in Vietnam, the authorized
ammunition expenditure rates (supply rates) were published in
Supply Bulletin 38-26. These rates had been derived from his­
torical data generated from World War II and the Korean conflict
and modified by subsequent studies and war gaming exercises.
The alarming scale at which most of these consumption rates
were being exceeded in Vietnam, due to the unique environ­
mental conditions and operational concepts, resulted in a dramatic
drawdown of reserve ammunition stocks.
Headquarters U.S. Army Pacific in coordination with Head­
quarters U.S. Army Vietnam and Department of the Army con­
currence, issued U.S. Army Pacific Regulation 710-15 on 9 June
1966, titled Theater Required Supply Rates for Ammunition—SEA.
Essentially, this regulation provided for two rates; one being the
Theater Stockage Objective Rate which provided the basis for
determining U.S. Army Vietnam's Stockage Objective; and the
other rate being the Required Supply Rate for the authorized ex­
penditure rate which was the basis for requisitioning replacement of
combat consumption. Provisions were made for necessary rate
changes and the regulation was updated semiannually. These
rates, in rounds per weapon per day or rounds per unit per day,
when multiplied by the applicable weapons or unit density deter­
mined a day of supply. This day of supply for each line item was
utilized in computing stockage objectives and requisitioning ob­
jectives.
At the October 1967 Munitions Conference at Headquarters
U.S. Army Pacific, the dual rate was discontinued and a single
Required Supply Rate based on the highest six months consump­
tion period was substituted to bring rates in line with the latest
consumption experience data. Subsequent semi-annual ammunition
conferences were held at Headquarters U.S. Army Pacific for pur­
poses of revising rates to insure their validity and to resolve
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 111

ammunition maintenance problems. In the 1968 fall conference,

the rates were again revised to reflect two rates, an Intense Combat
Rate and a Theater Sustaining Rate. These changes were the out­
come of the consumption experienced in the 1968 Tet offensive
and resulted in a significant tonnage reduction in the U.S. Army
Vietnam Stockage Objective and in the Offshore Reserve. The 60­
day in-country stockage objective was based on 30 days at the In­
tense Combat Rate and 30 days at the Theater Sustaining Rate
whereas the offshore reserve was based on 30 days at the Intense
Combat Rate. During fiscal year 1969 three ammunition confer­
ences were held at Headquarters U.S. Army Pacific wherein joint
Department of the Army-U.S. Army Pacific revisions to the Re­
quired Supply Rates were hammered out. The fact that flexibility
was allowed contributed significantly to the success of the overall
ammunition support in the Vietnam conflict.
Subsequent to the initiation of expenditure rates for U.S. and
Free World Forces in Vietnam, similar rates were approved by
Commander in Chief Pacific for Vietnamese Forces which were
integrated into the separate ammunition supply system in support
of the South Vietnamese Army. This system, known as the Vietnam
Ammunition Procedures, had been established in 1964. Essentially,
it began as a "push" system, but later in conjunction with rate in­
tegration became a "pull" system. The system was managed by
Ammunition Procurement and Supply Agency who received from
J-4, Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, a forecast of the en­
suing 120 days consumption. The effectiveness of this system is
attributed to its small scope and intensive management efforts by
both Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, and Ammunition
Procurement and Supply Agency as the increase in the tempo of
the South Vietnamese Army combat effort increased.

Ammunition Reporting
Ammunition stock status reporting also played a significant role.
The ammunition logistics system demands a comprehensive and
timely report, but such a report did not exist at the onset of the
buildup in Vietnam. However, the necessity for such a report was
soon evident, and a program was initiated to establish a meaningful
report.
The ammunition reporting systems in effect on 1 January 1965
were peacetime oriented and were adequate for that environment.
Within the Pacific Theater two reports existed. For management
of munitions within the U.S. Army Pacific Theater, an Asset Balance
Report was prepared and furnished monthly to the U.S. Army
112 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Pacific Inventory Control Point by each subordinate command to

include U.S. Army Support Command Vietnam. The report was
prepared manually or by computer, dependent on the capability of
each subordinate command. It contained the data pertinent to peace­
time management and was adequate for a peacetime environment.
The second report was the Ordnance Ammunition Stock Status
Report. This was called the ORD 26 report due to its unique re­
ports control symbol—ORD 26 Rl and was used by the Munitions
Command for worldwide management of ammunition. This report,
submitted on a quarterly basis, was consolidated at major command
levels except in the U.S. Army Pacific theater where each subordi­
nate command submitted individual reports direct to the National
Inventory Control Point at Ammunition Procurement and Supply
Agency (Ammunition Procurement and Supply Agency was estab­
lished as an ammunition procurement supply agency under the
munitions command). The exception was based on the fact that all
ammunition assets stored in the theater were not theater-owned
assets but included stocks in Department of the Army ownership
accounts over which the theater had no control. These assets were
primarily in the Department of the Army Forward Depot and De­
partment of the Army Forward Floating Depot ownership accounts.
The excessive manual effort and time required to prepare this
report limited its usefulness to a historical record. It consisted of
data for each line item typed on 12 by 18 inch preprinted forms
and, depending on the subordinate command, consisted of up to
300 pages with as many as 60 pages of clarifying notes. The prepara­
tion efforts resulted in a submission date of about 60 days sub­
sequent to the cutoff date. The content of this report, coupled
with its frequency and age of data at submission, negated its
value as a wartime management tool (although it did provide the
National Inventory Control Point with the necessary munitions data
for asset and distribution planning and determination of procure­
ment objectives in peacetime).
Prior to the onset of the buildup, the ORD 26 report posed
an almost impossible task for the limited resources of the small
ammunition detachment of the US Army Support Command. With
the establishment of U.S. Army Vietnam and the advent of the
buildup, the task of preparing this report was a nearly impossible
one for the 182nd Stock Control Detachment, and the report
failed to provide necessary and timely information to the National
Inventory Control Point. Relief from the requirement for U.S.
Army Vietnam was sought by Headquarters U.S. Army Pacific in
mid-1965 and was reluctantly granted in July 1965. Meanwhile, De­
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 113

partment of the Army was involved in a program to develop a

replacement report for the ORD 26 report. In July 1965, the efforts
of this program resulted in the Worldwide Ammunition Reporting
System, the 1322 report due to a new reports control symbol
(RCSGLD 1322 (Rl)). The intial implications of establishing
this report were that there would be relief for the preparing ele­
ments in that it was desired on a semi-monthly frequency and
required 98 elements of data for each line item.
Based on recommendations from Commander in Chief U.S.
Army Pacific to Department of the Army and prior to the initiation
of the 1st report in September 1965, the report was revised to the
extent that the frequency was changed to monthly, the cutoff date
was changed from the last day of the month to the 26th of the
month, and the due date in Ammunition Procurement and Supply
Agency for the theater rollup was moved back from the 5th of
the following month to the 15th.
The Inventory Control Point at U.S. Army Pacific responsible
for rolling up the sub-command feeder reports into a single theater
report was faced with a dilemma in that the Theater Asset Balance
Report did not contain all the necessary input for the 1322 report.
Alternatively, the input data for the 1322 report did not provide
all the necessary information required for management of theater
assets.
Confining the comments to U.S. Army Vietnam, the problem
was overcome by a complex but workable system. The report data
was assembled each month and a member of the 182d Stock
Control Detachment hand carried it to the Inventory Control
Point at U.S. Army Pacific. There the courier provided the neces­
sary interpretation for the theater rollup, then accompanied an
Inventory Control Point courier to Ammunition Procurement and
Supply Agency to assist that agency in further interpreting the
data.
The necessity for a courier continued as the buildup progressed
and the reporting system went through a period of purification.
With the establishment of the Directorate of Ammunition in the
1st Logistical Command in late 1965 and the organizational re­
location of the 182d Stock Control Detachment as an integral part
of that office, the situation improved. Physically, the Detachment
moved from a warehouse in downtown Saigon to take up residence
in two pyramidal tents on the front lawn of the 1st Logistical Head­
quarters. While this move served to improve the communications
between the Directorate and the Stock Control Detachment, the
environment subjected stock records files to constant ruination
114 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

by humidity, rain, mud, and dust. This situation continued until

late in 1966 when the total Directorate Office moved into newly
erected Quonset huts adjacent to the 1st Logistical Headquarters.
Crucial not only to the management of ammunition logistics
in Vietnam, but to the reporting system as well was the amount
of ammunition in-transit to and within Vietnam. Obtaining visi­
bility of this ammunition was slowly but effectively overcome
through the improvement in the communications system and by the
then formalized structure of the Directorates of Ammunition in
each of the Area Support Commands.
The situation was further improved in 1st Logistical Command
by the arrival of two Department of the Army civilian manage­
ment and reporting experts dispatched by the Munitions Command
at U.S. Army Vietnam's request. These two civilian personnel made
a significant contribution during their six-month stay. By the time
they departed, just prior to mid-1966, the 1st Logistical Command
was capable of not only managing ammunition assets in a pro­
fessional manner, but were also producing an acceptable 1322 re­
port. By mid-1966, the volume of the report and its related prepara­
tion had reached unforeseen proportions. The U.S. Army Pacific
Inventory Control Point, newly reorganized and titled the Materiel
Management Agency, was hard put to roll up such a voluminous
report for the theater.
The problem was magnified at the National Inventory Con­
trol Point not only by the turbulence in ammunition stock status
in the Pacific Theater but also by the reverberations experienced
in all other major commands as the result of significant shifts and
activity in their stock status which occurred from their contribution
of ammunition to Vietnam.
As a consequence, the Munitions Command initiated a program
to automate the preparation of the 1322 Report. In essence each
major command was to input by card or tape the information that
heretofore had been typed on blank formats for the 1322 report.
A Munitions Command team visited Headquarters U.S. Army
Pacific in late 1966 to present the program and discuss input re­
quirements. As the requirement unfolded, it was apparent that the
conversion of the theater rollup to cards would entail a greater ef­
fort than the manual production of the reports. U.S. Army Pacific
non-concurred in this program at the time. However, in early
1967, in recognition of the need for improving and automating
ammunition management within the theater, Headquarters U.S.
Army Pacific established a team to accomplish this objective.
The objective was two-fold: develop a computer program that
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 115

would provide the optimum in ammunition management and that

would also provide theater input directly to the National Inventory
Control Point for the 1322 report. The concept was developed
and implemented within six months.
Included in the system design were the necessary programs
for each subordinate command (Korea, Japan, Hawaii, and Viet­
nam) , taking into consideration the peculiarities of operations
and available computer equipment. Teams were dispatched to
each subordinate command to implement the system. The team
dispatched to U.S. Army Vietnam carried completely developed
programs for application to the UNIVAC 1004/1005. The imple­
mentation progressed smoothly and within two weeks time the
system was installed and operating on shared time with a locally
adjacent Machine Record Unit across the street from the 1st
Logistical Command.
However, this was only an interim measure and subsequently
the system was reprogrammed for application to the IBM 360/50
equipment at the 14th Inventory Control Center. The initial re­
port was key-punched and airmailed to the U.S. Army Pacific In­
ventory Control Point in September 1967. Once the installation
of the autodin transceiver system was completed in 1967, the cards
were dispatched via autodin direct from the terminal drop in
U.S. Army Vietnam to U.S. Army Pacific. The team had developed
and was prepared to implement automation of depot stock control
which would not only further improve the management of am­
munition at the depot level, but would also provide directly daily
input of management information and monthly 1322 input data
to the 182d Stock Control Detachment. However, other overriding
priorities for available computer time, coupled with the pressure
of day to day commitments at the Ammunition Supply Depots
precluded the application of automation to the management of
depot operations. As a consequence the total automated manage­
ment information system was not accomplished.

Ammunition Shortages
Almost from the onset ammunition shortages developed. Some
shortages initially evolved from port thru-put problems and in-
country distribution problems. The effects of these shortages
were blunted to a degree in some instances by application of Avail­
able Supply Rates and by airlift of ammunition from the offshore
reserve on Okinawa. These shortages were generally short lived
and correctable within the capability of the system. However long
term shortages also developed which were not easily overcome.
116 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

On the one hand were those long term shortages which pre­
vailed from the onset. On the other hand were those shortages
which developed in late 1966 which were attributed to the un­
foreseen high consumption rates and the inability of the Conti­
nental U.S. production base to expand at a pace consistent with the
buildup of forces in Vietnam.
In the former category were shortages related to ammunition
items which were: developed for, or highly applicable to, South­
east Asia, were either still in the research and development
or product improvement phase, or so newly into production that
required production schedules had not been attained. Examples
of items in this category were the 40-mm ammunition for the M75
helicopter armament system, M557 Fuze for 81-mm Mortar, the
new family of antipersonnel artillery ammunition, the 2.75" rocket,
and the M564/M565 family of Mechanical Time, Superquick and
Mechanical Time artillery fuzes. Most of these shortages were
ultimately resolved through adherence to controlled expenditures
or Available Supply Rates, and temporary use of substitute items.
In the latter category, an entirely different situation existed.
Certain ammunition items were being expended at such a high
rate that D to P stocks, as well as all other available assets, would be
consumed to the extent that the situation would culminate in a
zero balance in-country before production could catch up to ex­
penditures (P-day). A reevaluation was made to encourage a
reduction in the Required Supply Rate and application of stringent
Available Supply Rates where necessary to preclude additional
leadtime for production expansion. Commander U.S. Military As­
sistance Command, Vietnam, immediately conducted a detailed
analysis of the worldwide asset status contained in the 1322 report
and notified Commander in Chief Pacific on 7 September 1966 that
eight ammunition items would reach zero balance in the near future
and the situation would not be alleviated even with immediate
increases in production due to order and shiptime limitations.
Concurrently, Commander in Chief U.S. Army Pacific's analysis
revealed that 21 additional items would also reach zero balance
in forthcoming months.
At an ammunition conference at Commander in Chief Pacific
in October 1966, the correlation of data and a review of the facts
emphasized the gravity of the situation. Immediate action was initi­
ated at the highest levels of the Department of Defense and the
Department of the Army to bring the situation under control.
At the Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics level, the Office of Special
Assistant for Munitions, headed up by Brigadier General Henry A.
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 117

Rasmussen was informally established on 14 November 1966 and for­

mally chartered on 15 December 1966 for the express purpose of
putting the necessary resources together to provide intensive over­
all management of forty combat critical high dollar value ammuni­
tion items. A corollary action involved the establishment of the
Department of the Army Allocation Committee Ammunition in
September 1966. This committee, under the control of Deputy
Chief of Staff for Logistics, was concerned with the allocation,
distribution and redistribution of all allocable ground ammunition.
Ammunition was designated as allocable when actual or potential
demand was determined to be greater than supply availability.
The number of allocable items increased steadily from the initial
eight items to ninty-seven by late 1969. Initially, the Department
of the Army Allocation Committee Ammunition met almost daily.
However, the frequency soon stabilized to a monthly schedule
and by February of 1970, the Committee was meeting bi-monthly.
The task undertaken by these two agencies was successful in alle­
viating the gravity of the envisioned shortages to the extent that
no combat operations failed or were unduly influenced in their
outcome by lack of adequate ammunition.
It soon became apparent that multi-service implications for
certain ammunition items indicated a need for resolution at the
joint Service level. In recognition of this problem, the Deputy
Chief of Staff for Logistics on 27 January 1967 forwarded a Memo­
randum of Understanding to the Logistics Chief of each of the
other Services, recommending the establishment of the Military
Services Ammunition Allocation Board. On 20 April 1967, with the
concurrences of the Chiefs of Staff of the Army and the Air Force,
the Chief of Naval Operations, and the Commandant of the Marine
Corps, this Board was formally approved. The Military Services
Ammunition Allocation Board charter provided for the allocation
and control of the distribution and redistribution on a worldwide
basis of selected items of ground ammunition common to two or
more services. The Office, Special Assistant for Munitions, was re­
organized into the Directorate of Ammunition, Office of the Deputy
Chief of Staff for Logistics, in early 1968 (with expanded mission to
cover all ammunition items) and continues in existence at this
writing. Three examples of short supply ammunition and actions
taken to resolve the shortages follow:
The first item is the 2.75 inch Rocket. This rocket was originally
designed as an air to air weapon, however circumstances in Vietnam
led to the weapon being used primarily in an air to ground role.
The increased number of aircraft employed using the 2.75 inch
118 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

rocket increased the demand to a degree that production capability

and production capacity was not available to meet the demand.
The Army was designated as the service manager for the 2.75 inch
rocket procurement. The Army accordingly established a project
manager for the rocket in December 1965. The initial task for the
project manager was to find commercial contractors with the cap­
ability and capacity to produce quality components and deliver
the quantities desired by the Services. Contracts were terminated
with producers who could not meet delivery schedules and incentive
awards were offered for production above scheduled quantities.
These measures were successful in obtaining the required stock
of rockets and cost reductions from $88 to approximately $39 per
rocket. Since 1965, over 27 million 2.75 inch rockets have been
produced. In addition, rocket reliability was improved from 80
percent to over 99 percent, a 17 pound High Explosive warhead
with increased lethality and cost effectiveness has been produced,
a proximity fuze and flechette warhead have been produced and
fielded, and safety devices have been developed.
The second item, the 4.2 inch high explosive cartridge saw
production lagging behind usage till February 1968. This was
due to poor forecasting. After improving this fault, production
rates actually equaled or exceeded the usage rates.
The third item, the 105-mm cartridge, both the high explo­
sion and illuminating types, was in critical status through April
of 1967. This situation was primarily caused by the continuing
deployment of troop units not included in support programs and
the lead time required for the production base to accelerate to
meet these increased requirements.

Munitions Procurement
Of the many facets of ammunition logistics, the role of design,
development, and product improvement were especially significant.
The adverse weather and terrain, new combat concepts, and
triple canopied jungle growth seriously influenced the storage and
explosive effects of ammunition. The situation also dictated the
hurried design and development of special purpose munitions such
as the tunnel destruction kit or extensive product improvement
as in the case of the 2.75 inch rocket. In the latter example, the
size of the warhead more than doubled, the types of warheads
expanded, the fuzes were completely redesigned, and the overall
reliability increased from 80 percent to 97 percent.
To further compound the overall situation, Department of the
Army had estimated ammunition expenditures for fiscal year 1966
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 119
to be the sustaining rate, 54 percent of the U.S. Army Pacific
rates set forth in SB 38-26, and the fiscal year 1966 budget was
constrained initially by this factor. This constraint was removed by
supplemental budget action, but valuable leadtime had been lost.
To support the ammunition consumption and stockage re­
quirements during 1965-1970, the munitions procurement pro­
grams increased as shown in Table 6.
TABLE 6—MUNITIONS PROGRAMS, FISCAL YEARS 1965-1970
(IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS)
Fiscal Year Army Total Army Southeast Asia
1965 338 303
1966 1313 853
1967 1329 1007
1968 2328 2266
1969 2913 2719
1970 1731 1456

These programs provided for support of U.S. Army Vietnam

and South Vietnamese Army forces as well as other Free World
Forces which were supported from U.S. Army assets. The require­
ments on which the programs were based included ammunition con­
sumed, on hand, in off-shore reserves, and in the pipeline, and
provided for the building of U.S. combat divisions to a peak
strength in fiscal year 1969.
With the buildup in Southeast Asia, munitions requirements
increased significantly. This placed considerable strain on pro­
curement agencies of the military departments since they were
operating at peacetime personnel levels and under peacetime
constraints. Required resources were not mobilized, as they were
in previous wars, to support the increased munitions procurement
activity. Although sufficient flexibility was provided in the Armed
Services Procurement Regulations to allow timely contract place­
ment through negotiation, there was a tendency to tighten rather
than relax pre-contract administrative controls. This anomaly was
heightened by the emphasis at the highest levels of government
on obtaining maximum competition through the means of formal
advertisement; or alternatively, if negotiated procurements were
utilized, competition was required. This tightening of controls,
coupled with the emphasis on competition, created a serious ob­
stacle to the timely execution of contracts. Contracting for am­
munition was further inhibited by a lack of interest by private
enterprise, shortages in trained procurement personnel, dependency
on foreign sources for certain munitions components, time required
120 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

for processing Secretarial determinations and findings, cancella­

tion of administrative leadtime, fluctuating requirements, and
limited capability of the production base. A few of these factors
are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Considering the impact of large expenditures of munitions on
the national economy and to ensure that the procurement actions
were properly executed with maximum competition, Secretary
McNamara promulgated a directive in July 1965 requiring cer­
tain approvals for all contracts awarded in support of Southeast
Asia operations, when the basis of procurement was shifted from
competitive to noncompetitive. This directive required "before
the fact" Service Secretarial approval for awards over one million
dollars and Assistant Secretary of Defense (Installations and Lo­
gistics) approval of awards in excess of ten million dollars. If the
exigency was such that extraordinary procurement actions were
utilized to ensure continuity of production, then an after-the-fact
review and notation was required. In 1969, in recognition of the
fact that the buildup had been accomplished and that the above
control had been established during a period of increasing pro­
curement activity and was based on a concern that the exigencies
of this activity tended unnecessarily to cause a shift from com­
petitive procurement, this control was rescinded. This recision
highlighted the need for continued maximum emphasis on com­
petitive procurement.
The established mobilization plans included the provision
of production of munition metal parts by planned mobilization
producers in private industry. In response to the munitions re­
quirements generated from the buildup in Southeast Asia, the
necessity for rapid acceleration of munitions production developed
almost overnight. In the absence of full mobilization of national
resources, these planned producers did not feel a strong obligation
to respond to the needs of the Department of Defense.
Historically, the decisions pertinent to the production of muni­
tion metal parts have culminated in situations whereby contract
delivery schedules ran out in February of a given year. To main­
tain continuity of production, thus avoiding shut-down and start­
up cost, follow-on procurement needed to be placed in the pre­
ceding July-August time frame. However, since funds were not
normally available until the July-August time frame, the muni­
tions program could not be released as a total package at that
time. Therefore, munitions items were required to be broken out
by component for procurement. The time available precluded
the letting of all the necessary contracts in a manner designed to
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 121

ensure the best interest of the government. Experience indicated

that a minimum of six months administrative leadtime was re­
quired to accomplish quality procurement and a minimum of three
months was essential for reorder leadtime. To circumvent this
lack of adequate leadtime, shortcuts were taken in the form of
letter contracts, utilization of option clauses, and non-competitive
procurements; or alternatively, production schedules were extended
to retain continuity of production and bridge the delay. These
shortcuts and alternatives were costly to the Army.

Ammunition Units and Personnel

Just as contingency plans depended on mobilization of private
enterprise to augment in-house ammunition production capability,
so too, did they envision mobilization of reserve forces. Since the
number of ammunition support units required in time of war
greatly exceed the number required in peacetime, these contin­
gency plans provided for the selective activation of ammunition
support units to accompany large scale deployments of combat
units. Mobilization of reserve units did not take place and the
peacetime ammunition support structure was grossly inadequate
for the task. A Continental U.S. training base for military per­
sonnel was almost non-existent as Continental U.S. depots and
post, camp, and station storage areas were largely civilianized.
This same condition prevailed at the National Inventory Control
Point. In short, the Army's ammunition qualified military person­
nel and organic units were fully committed to peacetime support
operations. Additional necessary support existed only in reserve
units and they were essentially inaccessible for the conflict at
hand. This shortage delayed the activation and deployment of
ammunition units to Vietnam and resulted in a shortage of am­
munition management skilled officers, warrant officer, and enlisted
men to staff the various headquarters and operating units. For
example a detachment, deployed in late 1965, was formed at Fort
Devens with the detachment commander being a master sergeant
with no ammunition experience whatsoever, being instead a trans­
portation Non Commissioned Officer with a truckmaster's Military
Occupation Specialty. None of his personnel were experienced in
ammunition renovation either. Although all were ammunition
handlers, MOS 55B, less than 10 percent were school trained.
The detachment had a renovation capability in name only and
required civilian augmentation to provide on-site training.
At the beginning of the Vietnam buildup, the Army was in
the process of converting the logistics support system to the Combat
122 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Support To The Theater Army concept. Under this concept,

ammunition support is accomplished as an Army-wide service
with the command and operational control of ammunition and
other commodity oriented systems vested in a Group or Brigade
Headquarters as appropriate. Since the total conversion was incom­
plete and untried in combat a decision was made to remain with
the Logistical Command concept in Vietnam as opposed to as­
signing all ammunition units to the command and control of the
52d Ammunition Group. Ammunition battalions, once they ar­
rived in-country were, for control purposes, assigned to a General
Support Group or Field Depot Command or direct to Army Sup­
port Commands as separate battalions. Hence, the ammunition
channel of communication was from an Ammunition Battalion to
a Group or Depot Command to the Director of Ammunition at
the appropriate Area Logistics Command to the Director of Am­
munition at 1st Logistical Command.
The buildup of ammunition support units continued to lag
behind the increase in combat and combat support units to the
extent that a balanced ratio of ammunition support units to units
supported was not achieved until 1967. The initial ammunition
supply units to deploy to Vietnam were two ammunition supply
detachments which arrived in May 1965. By Tables of Organiza­
tion and Equipment, these units had little or no equipment and
were designed to be attached to a conventional Tables of Orga­
nization and Equipment 9-17 ammunition company where they
could augment the handling capability of the company by 150
short tons per day. By August 1965, the number of ammunition
units had increased to four supply detachments, one ammunition
company, and one stock control detachment. In September, three
additional ammunition companies had arrived while the supported
force had increased to two and two-thirds division equivalents. The
first ammunition battalion Headquarters and Headquarters Com­
pany 3d Ordnance Battalion, arrived in November 1965 and as­
sumed command of the subordinate units and became the 3d
Ordnance Battalion (Ammo). The battalion immediately moved
to Long Binh to assume operational control of the Long Binh
Ammunition Supply Depot and the two companies and detach­
ments already on hand. The second battalion to arrive, the 191st,
moved to Cam Ranh Bay, was assigned to the 504th Field Depot,
and assumed the operational control of the Cam Ranh Bay Am­
munition Supply Depot and command of the two companies and
two detachments on hand. Subsequently, the 3d and last ammuni­
tion Battalion Headquarters to arrive, the 184th, moved to Qui
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 123

Nhon, and was assigned directly to the Qui Nhon Area Logistics
Support Command as a separate battalion. The Battalion assumed
the operational responsibility of operating a U.S. depot within
a South Vietnamese depot until late 1966 when a wholly owned
U.S. depot was developed at a separate location. The Da Nang
Area Logistics Command in the I Corps area did not receive an
Ammunition Battalion Headquarters and Headquarters Company
at first. The three ammunition companies and one detachment in
the Da Nang Area were among a number of reports units assigned
directly to the 80th General Service Group until the 336th Ord­
nance Battalion (Ammo) Headquarters and Headquarters Com­
pany, a National Guard unit, was activated and deployed to
Vietnam in July 1968 as an aftermath of the 1968 Tet offensive.
This battalion was deactivated and redeployed in July 1969. At
that time the 528th Ammunition Battalion (Provisional) was
formed and remained as the command and control element for
ammunition units in support of I Corps. In September 1970 the
528th Headquarters and Headquarters Company was redeployed
and the ammunition units split up among the 26th and 80th
General Support Units where they were assigned to various types
of battalions for command and control. In early 1971 when the
command and control of ammunition for the Laotian incursion
indicated a need for these units to be assigned to an ammunition
battalion another provisional battalion Headquarters and Head­
quarters Company was formed and all ammunition units assigned
to it.
While this overall organization provided for the systematic
and orderly processing of ammunition matters, there was room
for improvement. The capabilities of the battalion staff were never
fully exercised and the delays incident to processing actions
through these unrelated supply channels comprised of staffs and
commanders unfamiliar with ammunition logistics resulted in un­
warranted time-consuming delays. This observation is borne out
by the operations of the 3rd Ordnance Battalion during the in­
cursion into Cambodia in early 1970 unencumbered by a unique
organizational relationship as a separate battalion reporting direc­
tly to the Saigon Support Command with free access to the Director
of Ammunition at G-4, U.S. Army Vietnam. (1st Logistical Com­
mand was de-activated in early 1970) . The successes achieved in
this operation were instrumental in de-activating the Saigon Sup­
port Command (Directorate of Ammunition) shortly after the
successful completion of this operation.
The revision of the 9-17 Table of Organization and Equip­
124 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

ment to change the ammunition company magazine platoon leaders

from commissioned officers, MOS 4514, to Warrant Officers, MOS
411 A, resulted in a significant drawdown on the skilled senior
non-commissioned officer corps as this was the source from which
this sudden demand was filled. The majority of the ammunition
personnel who were instrumental in developing and operating
the ammunition logistics system completed their one year tours and
redeployed. Not only were there few if any qualified personnel
to replace them, but the turnover was so complete over such a
short time span that many lessons learned through experience
had to be learned again. While the impact of each subsequent
cycle was lessened, the initial cycle re-emphasized the need for
a continuing Continental U.S. training base.

Transportation of Ammunition
The quantity of ammunition moved to Vietnam averaged
slightly under 40,000 short tons per month in 1966, approximately
75,000 short tons per month in 1967, and just under 90,000 short
tons per month in 1968. In February and March of 1968, receipts
exceeded 100,000 short tons per month.
The problems in Continental U.S. ports encompassed an initial
lack of adequate ship bottoms, the glutting of ports with am­
munition cargo, and an inadequate number of berthing facilities.
The resolution of these difficulties was relatively easy when com­
pared to those faced in Vietnam.
The lack of adequate ports and port facilities in Vietnam
required initially that all ammunition had to be offloaded onto
barges and lighters for transport to shore. From the shore it was
moved by truck.
Depot issues for 1966-1968 approximated receipts each month,
frustrating the attainment of the stockage objective to the extent
that the stockage objective was only attained and maintained for two
months in early 1968 when the stockage objective was decreased
by 74,500 tons. Had the capability existed to routinely offload each
ammunition ship as it arrived, the stockage objective could have
been maintained to the extent of availability of assets from Con­
tinental U.S. almost from the beginning. The situation was com­
pounded by the Army's responsibility for offloading Air Force
munitions at Cam Ranh and Saigon. In 1965 Air Force tonnage
alone increased from 2,576 short tons in January to 23,000 Short
tons in December 1965. Air Force munitions requirements also
increased each year.
There were three major ports for offloading ammunition; Da
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 125

Nang, Cam Ranh Bay, and Saigon. Other ports that played a
lesser role in ammunition offloading were Qui Nhon and Vung
Tail.
At Da Nang, the amount of ammunition offloaded for the
Army by the Navy was relatively small when compared to that of
the Air Force and the Marine Corps. The total stockage objec­
tive was slightly under 20,000 tons. With the redeployment of the
3rd Marine Division in late 1969 the situation changed to the
extent that the Army became the largest user and the stockage
objective increased to approximately 45,000 short tons. The am­
munition was largely distributed among 7 Ammunition Supply
Points. Initially all ships were offloaded in the outer harbor,
although an isolated LST ramp was constructed and used for
redistribution up and down the coast.
At Qui Nhon all ammunition ships were offloaded off-shore
as sand bars at the river mouth precluded bringing oceangoing
ships even into the outer harbor until 1967. In adverse weather
with high seas running ammunition ships could not discharge and
had to put to sea for safety. (This same condition existed in Da
Nang until a breakwater was constructed in 1968). An LST ramp
was also available inside the harbor for coastal movement.
At Cam Ranh Bay, a natural harbor, ammunition ships were
offloaded in the outer reaches of the harbor, and the ammunition
was barged or lightered ashore just as at Da Nang and Qui Nhon.
A DeLong pier was implaced specifically for ammunition in late
1966. Here too LST ramps were available for coastal movements
of ammunition. Only at Cam Ranh Bay was an optimum opera­
tional arrangement established. However, the logistical remoteness
of this location to the supported units and the need for transhipment
of ammunition to more active ammunition depots precluded more
effective utilization.
At Vung Tau, ammunition for the Delta region was offloaded.
A pier was available, however the depth of the water precluded
fully loaded vessels from offloading ammunition and the facility
saw little use. Ammunition was largely discharged into barges for
direct movement to the delta while the overflow to those needs was
stored in a large Ammunition Supply Point at Vung Tau.
Saigon was the most active of all the ammunition ports. This
is attributed to the stockage objective at Saigon Support Com­
mand being almost double that of any other support command, all
South Vietnamese Army ammunition initially being offloaded there,
and the Air Force requirement there exceeding that of all other
126 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

locations. Ammunition was discharged in mid-stream at Cat Lai,

barged to a river port at Cogido, and then trucked to the depot.
All of the major and most of the minor ports were operated
by mixed military and civilian contractor contingents. In some
instances the contractor discharged the ship, barged the ammunition
ashore, moved the ammunition over-land, and even offloaded it in
the depots. At Saigon the contractor was restricted to discharging
and barging to shore. From the shore the ammunition was trans­
ported overland by Army Transportation Units and offloaded by
depot personnel.
Until mid-1966, the discharging of ammunition ships was con­
strained by the fact that ammunition was removed from pallets
at Continental U.S. outloading ports and loaded aboard ship by
individual boxes and projectiles. While this maximized the use of
ship bottoms, it created difficulties in Vietnam, because offloading
by cargo nets and hooks was required and ammunition lot integrity
had to be re-established within the depots. (Management of am­
munition dictates that ammunition be stored and accounted for
by lot number).
At the request of the Commanding General 1st Logistical Com­
mand this practice was halted and all ammunition shipped to
Vietnam was palletized. Lot integrity was maintained by ships'
holds to the maximum extent practicable. This decision improved
the discharge rate of ammunition ships almost 100 percent, al­
lowing discharge offloading time to be decreased from seven days
to four days.
Prior to this improvement in December 1965 52 ammunition
ships with an estimated 165,000 short tons aboard were awaiting
discharge. This predicament was an outgrowth of the effort to
build up to the stockage objective while concurrently supporting
the demands of combat units. A further factor was the necessity
for selective discharge of certain ammunition items that were in a
short supply status in the depots. This situation required manifests
and stowage plans to be reviewed so that certain ships could
be moved on berth for partial discharge. The ships would then
be returned to a holding area while other ships were called in for
selective discharge. Steps were taken to relieve the backlog in
December 1965 by redistributing the ships to Da Nang, Qui Nhon,
and Cam Ranh Bay.
This situation added impetus for the installation of the De-
Long Pier at Cam Ranh Bay and general improvements in over-the­
shore offloading at other ports. However, ammunition ships con­
tinued to have to await discharge and the number of days spent
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 127

waiting for an empty berth remained serious until a general down­

ward trend began in January 1968. For example, 12 ammunition
ships were offloaded in December 1967, but eleven of them had
spent some time in a hold category. The total number of days for
all eleven ships totaled 71. January 1968 was the turning point
and improvement continued thereafter.
During the period October-December 1968, management tech­
niques were applied to ammunition movements which made
possible the reduction of ammunition stockage on-the-ground in
Southeast Asia. This new management technique identified as
Inventory in Motion made possible a significant reduction from
approximately 285,000 S/tons of ammunition to approximately
one-half that amount. This was achieved without reduction in unit
readiness by providing the theater with total visibility of ammuni­
tion on-the-ground, ammunition in-transit-to-theater, and in-transit­
in-theater, that is, a transparent pipeline. With this visibility, the
stockage objectives were reduced from 113 percent in October
1968 to only 81 percent of the total United States Army Vietnam
and the South Vietnamese Army objective being on the ground in
Southeast Asia in February 1971.
In order to establish the Inventory in Motion concept it was
necessary to study order and ship time and regulate issuance of
requisitions to ensure prompt shipment of the needed items.
Unnecessary delays had to be precluded at all points in the ship­
ment. Management controls involved a teletype forecast of heavy
tonnage items being received in Vietnam on the first of each month
so that scheduling could be accomplished. This was followed by a
transmittal of requisitions for the balance of ammunition items to
arrive at Joliet, Illinois on the 10th of each month. These actions
permitted planning for ships to be placed on berth over an entire
30-day span. This permitted direct shipments from a place of pro­
duction to the eventual destinations within a 30-day period and
provided for an even workload at the discharge point.
Inventory in Motion was originally applied to U.S. Army Viet­
nam forces and was broadened to include South Vietnamese Army
ammunition as well.

Storage and Handling of Ammunition

The criteria for selection of an ammunition storage site are
subordinated to the overriding factor of ensuring that surrounding
facilities are a safe distance from the storage site. The determina­
tion of this safe distance is a general function of the quantity of
net explosive weight and the allowable safe distance to adjacent
128 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

facilities. Another constraint is that of hazard class which deter­

mines what ammunition items can be stored together or adjacent
to each other. Any deviation from these criteria requires a waiver
of safety requirements. Once the stockage objective for each line
item has been determined, its hazard class established, and net
explosive weight computed then the unwaivered size of the storage
site can be determined. If ammunition is stored strictly in accord­
ance with this criteria, the probability of an explosion on a single
storage pad causing explosions on other storage pads is remote.
Even though available expertise and time would have permitted
calculating storage area sizes, the results would have been negated
as the size of the buildup and the magnitude of the stockage ob­
jectives were not envisioned at the time real estate was acquired.
Gross estimating techniques were utilized and, based on the
envisioned deployment strength in 1965, real estate was acquired
to provide unwaivered storage capacity for approximately 85,000
short tons of ammunition. However by the end of 1966, the stockage
objective had climbed to 231,000 short tons and by the end of
1967 had reached a peak of 284,500 short tons.
The expansion of ammunition depots stabilized in about mid­
1968 with a capacity of approximately 238,000 short tons. The
capacity above this figure was vested in Ammunition Supply Points.
The number of Ammunition Supply Points fluctuated with the
tactical situation; in mid-1968, there were eight Ammunition Supply
Points wTith a capacity in excess of 50,000 short tons.
At Da Nang, there was no major Army Ammunition Supply
Depot. Army stocks were essentially maintained in three Am­
munition Supply Points at Da Nang, Dong Ha, and Chu Lai, and
co-located with U.S. Marine Corps storage in Da Nang. The number
of Ammunition Supply Points increased with the redeployment
of the 3d Marine Division in late 1969. These Ammunition Sup­
ply Points were under adverse waivers as they were, for security
reasons, inside secure cantonment areas. They, like most of the
Ammunition Supply Points, literally developed in their locations
because that was where the ammunition was offloaded by units on
hand. While the risk associated with these heavily waivered Am­
munition Supply Points was known and accepted, the trade off
for security of the Ammunition Supply Point against enemy
infiltration was necessary.
At Qui Nhon, the Ammunition Supply Depot was initially
co-located with a South Vietnamese Army Ammunition Supply
Point. However, the demand for additional capacity dictated the
development of a new U.S. Army Ammunition Supply Depot which
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 129

was established at Phu Tai in early 1966 and was operated by the
184th Ordnance Battalion. From the standpoint of safety, the site
and the layout of the depot were excellent. It was located in a
bowl-shaped valley surrounded on three sides by high ridges. The
open side provided entrance to the main highway between Qui
Nhon and Pleiku. It had minimum waivers, but had two serious
drawbacks: Ammunition offloaded from ships had to be trucked
through the city, and the security of the depot was not good. Enemy
attacks on the depot could be easily mounted by merely directing
recoilless rifle, rocket, and mortar fire from the surrounding high
ridges. The terrain lent itself to an easy approach for enemy
sapper teams. As a result of this Phu Tai suffered more enemy
attacks than any other depot. The two Ammunition Supply Points
at Pleiku and An Khe supported by this depot were relatively good
and reasonably secure. However, they were subject to the same
waivers as those in the Da Nang Support Command because of
their being within heavily populated cantonment areas.
The Ammunition Supply Depot established at Cam Ranh
Bay in early 1965, operated by the 191st Ordnance Battalion, was
initially well located and required limited waivers for its location.
However, subsequent location of petroleum storage facilities on the
high ground behind the Ammunition Supply Depot and the ad­
jacent location of the Air Force ammunition storage site even­
tually resulted in having to obtain waivers for its operation. The
most adverse aspect of this depot was posed by the sandy terrain.
It was not uncommon for a storage pad to be inundated overnight
by constantly shifting dunes. Also, the soft sand all but prohibited
the orderly movement of vehicle traffic. Ultimately, approximately
two-thirds of the depot underwent a major upgrading consisting
of concrete storage pads with berms stabilized by the applica­
tion of peni-prime, a petroleum based product that formed a
hardened crust over the sand to preclude its movement by wind
action. Road networks were also stabilized to a degree by ap­
plication of latterite, a clay-gravel combination that was locally
available. The battalion's inherent capability for maintaining
berms and road nets, two bulldozers in each ammunition company,
was unequal to the task of properly maintaining this Ammunition
Supply Depot.
The largest field Ammunition Supply Depot in Vietnam was
at Long Binh. While the site was well located at first, it suffered
the same encroachment as other Ammunition Supply Depots in
that it was ultimately surrounded on three sides by other activities
and units within the Long Binh cantonment area. However, by the
130 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

time the encroachment had subsided, the Ammunition Supply De­

pots had expanded from an initial capacity of approximately 35,000
short tons to 100,000 short tons in early 1968.
At the peak of combat operations, it was not uncommon for
receipts and issues within a 24-hour period at an Ammunition
Supply Depot to exceed 5,000 short tons. The workload associated
with this effort can be appreciated by the fact that for every ton
of ammunition received an average of three tons of ammunition
must be re-warehoused—moved from the rear of the pad to the
front so that oldest stocks could be issued first. Further, lot integ­
rity had to be maintained.

Security of Ammunition Depots

In the initial months of the buildup, security of Ammunition
Supply Depots was of minor importance in that stocks of am­
munition were relatively small and were stored in secure areas.
However, as permanent sites were developed and occupied in late
1965, security became significant. The first attack on an ammunition
depot occurred at Qui Nhon in April 1966. This attack established
the extreme vulnerability of the ammunition depots and over the
ensuing four-year period no less than 31 incidents at Ammunition
Supply Depots were recorded.
The greatest danger was the threat posed by enemy sapper
teams. This threat was a constant one and required aggressive
defensive measures twenty-four hours a day. The other threat was
from enemy rocket and mortar attacks with the only defense against
this being recurring tactical sweeps of the outer perimeters con­
ducted by combat security forces.
Prior to enemy sapper attacks vegetation had been cleared out
from the storage sites to a distance of approximately 100 meters,
a single row of coiled barbed wire installed, and anti-personnel
mines, in some instances, implanted. Guard posts were established
along with roving patrols. The increasing tempo of enemy probing
actions culminating in three closely spaced attacks against Long
Binh in late 1966 emphasized the necessity for more stringent
security measures.
At the Qui Nhon Ammunition Supply Depot, extra land clear­
ing was initiated, coiled barbed wire interlaced with trip flares was
installed, perimeter lighting and guard towers were constructed,
and the number of guards was increased. However, due to the
terrain surrounding the Qui Nhon Ammunition Supply Depot,
it still remained a vulnerable target for enemy attacks.
At Cam Ranh Bay, the Ammunition Supply Depot was afforded
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 131

much security by its location on the peninsular arm of land encir­

cling the bay and its security was further assured by land clearing
and minimal fencing.
Long Binh Ammunition Supply Depot, by far the largest storage
depot, was probably the most lucrative target. During the period
1966 through 1971, Long Binh Ammunition Supply Depot suffered
seven successful enemy attacks; three in 1966, one in 1967, two in
1968, and the last one in 1969. After the initial attacks, it was
evident that the single row of coiled barbed wire backed up by
anti-personnel mines was inadequate. A crash program was under­
taken to clear the jungle vegetation 300 meters out from the perim­
eter and the perimeter fencing was increased from a single row
of coiled barbed wire to three rows triple stacked. All three rows
were interlaced at 10 meter intervals with trip flares. The neces­
sity for keeping the vegegation cleared out of, as well as between
the rows of wire required the removal of the mines. Observation
towers, 44 in all, were built, with fighting bunkers at their bases,
and perimeter lighting installed. By 1968 the increase in sapper
attacks against all Ammunition Supply Depots resulted in a plan
for installing sensing systems. However, this was delayed until
1969. The only available sensing devices were pressure sensitive
and they were largely ineffective. During the 1968 time frame,
the Long Binh Post perimeter was expanded to the extent that
the eastern border of the Ammunition Supply Depot was no longer
the post perimeter but was now approximately two miles inside
the overall perimeter. No successful attacks were carried out against
the Long Binh Ammunition Supply Depot subsequent to March
1969. The use of ammunition personnel as security guards for
Ammunition Supply Depots proved to be ineffective for two rea­
sons: (1) it detracted from their efficiency in ammunition opera­
tions and (2) the security of such critical installations required a
professionally trained and operated security force to include sentry
dogs and the best available electronic sensing equipment.

Maintenance and Disposal

Maintenance of ammunition in a combat zone is normally a
routine function. In past conflicts, trained military renovation
personnel were available to perform this function. However in the
Vietnam conflict, the largely civilianized operation of ammunition
facilities had precluded the availability of adequately trained
military personnel or units skilled in maintenance of ammunition.
The degradation of ammunition stocks due to the environmental
132 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

conditions in Vietnam established the maintenance problem as

one requiring more than a routine effort.
Early in 1966, it became apparent that some maintenance capa­
bility was required and each ammunition battalion was provided
with a renovation detachment. However these units, each of ap­
proximately seventy men, were not provided with the necessary
Ammunition Peculiar Equipment to perform renovation, but they
did have sufficient tools to perform preservation and packaging.
Munitions packaging deficiencies were the first major problem as
wooden boxes, pallets, and containers deteriorated rapidly in the
South Vietnam climate. Each Ammunition Supply Depot established
a local "box shop," augmented with local labor, to produce these
items. By early 1967, each battalion had an improvised renovation
line where repackaging and some very limited renovation was
performed.
Unit returns and long term stockage items kept all detach­
ments busy inspecting, repainting, and remarking where possible,
and condemning where required. Typical missions assigned these
detachments were: inspecting all 40-mm (duster) munitions for
fuze tightness; inspecting the 81-mm High Explosive plastic con­
tainers for moisture damage to the rounds, derusting projectiles,
mines, and rockets; repainting and restenciling as required; and
continual repackaging. Some mortar fuze and ignition cartridge
replacements were also performed. However, lack of components
restricted any large scale renovation by U.S. depots in South
Vietnam.
The disposal of condemned ammunition has been a special
problem in every conflict. For this reason, highly skilled, thoroughly
trained Explosive Ordnance Disposal teams were available from a
well organized peacetime training base. These teams in Vietnam
worked under the command and control of a detachment assigned
to the Director of Ammunition at 1st Logistical Command and
subsequently to Headquarters U.S. Army Vietnam. They were
equipped to respond almost immediately to any situation and
provided support in the following areas:
1. Destroying deteriorated ammunition.
2. Destroying enemy damaged ammunition in storage. Explo­
sive Ordnance Disposal personnel were also responsible for return
of storage locations to operational use as soon as possible.
3. Assisting in the recovery of downed gunships and other air­
craft, clearing booby-traps, and rendering safe the ordnance
aboard these aircraft.
4. Clearing of heavily booby-trapped and mined facilities and
 AMMUNITION LOGISTICS 133

areas, disposing of discovered caches, and rendering U.S. sites un­

usable prior to abandonment.
5. Clearing of dud munitions and time delay munitions in
operational and support areas.
6. Training combat troops on the enemy booby-traps and mines.
All depots and forward support activities had personnel assigned
or attached to destroy ammunition. Normally disposal was by
detonation or burning at an approved disposal site. Care had to be
taken in disposal shot site selection to prevent damage to nearby
friendly real estate. Disposal shot size was determined by real
estate and surroundings, but calculations were not always perfect;
for example, one shot at Long Binh, during a low cloud ceiling,
jarred buildings severely and broke several windows. Prior to any
in-countrv disposal actions, efforts were made to return the muni­
tions to Okinawa or Continental U.S. for renovation or demilitariza­
tion. At the Ammunition .Supply Depots, condemned munitions
were disposed of by the battalion Explosive Ordnance Disposal
sections. In the forward areas, Explosive Ordnance Disposal person­
nel from area assigned Explosive Ordnance Disposal detachments
disposed of hazardous munitions on an as required basis.
In an effort to assure Class V support to the combat arms,
each Ordnance ammunition battalion provided Technical Assis­
tance Contact Teams to advise and assist on maintenance, storage,
and safety in the Forward Support Areas and Fire Base areas. The
184th Ordnance Battalion (Ammo) at Qui Nhon was a leader in
this effort and its assistance program was copied by the other
units of the 1st Logistical Command. This technical assistance
program was extended in mid-1969 to the South Vietnamese Army
and to Republic of Korea Forces Vietnam through the 1st Logistical
Command's Project BUDDY. Major assistance was given South
Vietnamese Army units in and around Nha Trang by the 191st
Ordnance Battalion (Ammo).
 CHAPTER V

Aviation Logistics

Growth of the Aviation Fleet

Since 1965, the Army Aviation Program has experienced an
unprecedented and unprogrammed acceleration of aircraft pro­
duction, deployments, and utilization. During this time, it was
frequently necessary to support the program with inventories of
repair parts, components, and engines that in pre-Vietnam war
years would have been thought completely inadequate. At the same
time aviation operating and support units in the field reached and
maintained levels of operational readiness and flying hour rates that
many believed were beyond reach with the "state-of-the-art" heli­
copters deployed to Southeast Asia. In order to meet operating
requirements, it was necessary to improvise, innovate and in some
cases revolutionize logistic support systems. As so often happens
with emergency improvisations, when they work they become part
of the system and yesterday's emergency often becomes tomorrow's
norm.
From a relatively evenly balanced inventory of fixed wing and
rotary wing aircraft in fiscal year 1960 (totaling some 5,528 air­
craft) the Army has progressed to over 12,000 aircraft in 1970,
most being rotary wing. The acquisition value of the inventory,
which in fiscal year 1960 totaled $600 million, increased five times
during this period. (Chart 4) The dollar value of secondary items
required to support the aircraft fleet increased from $261.4 million
to $2.2 billion, or eight times, as compared to the fivefold increase
for the end item inventory. (Chart 5)
Chart 6 outlines fiscal year 1961-1970 Army aviation funded
programs. The Procurement of Equipment and Missiles progres­
sion was significant during the 1966-1968 time frame. During this
period the Army was procuring and deploying large numbers of
aircraft and Procurement of Equipment and Missiles secondary
items for support of increased inventories and flying hours. The
latter were essentially "Life of Type Subsystems." After the initial
procurement, requirements were met from overhaul programs.
Repair parts for Army aviation have been provided for in the
Army Stock Fund since 1963. However, prior to that time air­
 AVIATION LOGISTICS 135
C H A R T 4 — A R M Y AIRCRAFT INVENTORY AND V A L U E
FISCAL YEAR 1960-1970
Aircraft
Inventory
12,000 2.8
2.0 2241
Fixed Wing 1<9 2290
Rotary Wing\r 2408
1.4 \ 2546
8,000
1.2
Billion 1.0 2527
$.6 -7
2611
2816 9328
2836 2841 2954 8239
4,000— 2895
7115

H
60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Fiscal
Year
CHART 5—SECONDARY ITEM INVENTORY REQUIRED TO SUPPORT THE
AIRCRAFT FLEET
$ Millions
250Q.
2187.3
2000- _1969.2_
"1894.8"

1543.4
1500-
1228.2

1000-

585.6 588.9
500^ -436.3.
353.3
261.4

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Fiscal Year
craft repair parts were purchased with Operation Maintenance
Army funds. Since the inclusion of aircraft repair parts in the
Army Stock Fund, the Operation Maintenance Army account has
136 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

CHART 6—AVIATION FUNDING PROGRAMS

Million $
2000- Total
Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation
Depot Maintenance
1600
Stock Fund

1200 Procurement of Equipment and Missiles for

Procurement of
Equipment and Missiles for the Army-

61 62 63 64 65 67 68 69 70
Fiscal Year

provided only those dollars required to overhaul aircraft engines,

components, and associated equipment (avionics, armament sys-
tems, and so forth) at depot level. The amount funded for
Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation remained relatively
stable. The total funding program for Army aviation reached a
high of $1.8 billion in fiscal year 1966.
Chart 7 shows the percent of total Army funds spent on air-
craft during the period 1969-1971. A major problem was caused
by rapidly changing requirements for particular aircraft, both in-
creases and decreases. Table 7 shows the monthly UH-1 production
TABLE 7—UH-1 PRODUCTION SCHEDULE
Month 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Jan 57 74 150 85 73 100

Feb 58 81 150 82 82 100
Mar 58 87 155 80 89 94
Apr 60 93 152 85 100 74
May 63 99 150 80 100 73
Jun 66 100 143 66 44 74
J»l 68 102 139 65 100 71
Aug 67 114 120 65 101 67
Sep 70 109 110 65 101 67
Oct 71 125 106 65 101 64
Nov 74 133 98 65 101 66
Dec 75 142 85 53 101 67
 AVIATION LOGISTICS 137
CHART 7—PERCENT OF ALLOCATED ARMY FUNDS SPENT ON AIRCRAFT
FISCAL YEAR 1969-1971
Percent
ioo ——-— .

75­

60o/0

50- -450/0­

25­

10%

Procurement of Procurement of Stock Depot

Equipment Equipment
and missiles and missiles

Fund Maintenance
for the Army for the Army

End Items Secondary

schedule since 1965, which is illustrative of the general turbulence

that was experienced.
Airframes have a relatively easily identifiable basis of issue, and
requirements and assets can readily be computed. A major dif­
ficulty, and one which resulted in problems and shortages through­
out the period was the determination of requirements for ancillary
equipment such as avionics, armament and ammunition, tools, and
test equipment.

Growth of Aviation Logistic Support in South Vietnam

From an austere beginning when two helicopter companies
arrived in Vietnam on 11 December 1961, the total number of
U.S. Army aircraft increased to 510 by 1 January 1965 and then
further increased to a peak of 4,228 by September 1969. When the
buildup commenced in 1965, the U.S. Army Support Command
Vietnam had one aircraft maintenance and supply battalion (765th
Transportation Battalion) to provide backup direct and general
support for all Army aircraft in-country. This battalion was located
at Vung Tau and consisted of direct support companies and one
general support company. The three direct support companies were
located at Vung Tau, Saigon, and Nha Trang. They provided back­
138 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

up support for separate aviation companies having their own

organic or attached direct support and they provided direct sup­
port for small aviation detachments that lacked this capability.
The one general support company was located with the bat­
talion headquarters at Vung Tau. An aviation supply point in
Saigon, operated by the aviation detachment of U.S. Army Support
Command Vietnam, provided aviation-peculiar supplies for all
Army aircraft in Vietnam.
In 1965 the Commanding General, U.S. Army Support Com­
mand Vietnam established a committee to devise a plan to support
a large influx of Army aircraft. Basic criteria for the plan were
that it should provide for one-stop supply and maintenance service,
and provide for an expansion of this service commensurate with
increases in aircraft densities. Consideration of the operational
structure to be supported led to the development of plans for three
prime alternative organizations. These were as follows:
1. Aircraft supply and maintenance units integrated in an avia­
tion brigade, which was planned as a control element for all
non-divisional aviation activities.
2. Aircraft supply and maintenance units integrated in the 1st
Logistical Command, which had been recently activated.
3. A separate headquarters commanding all non-divisional air­
craft supply and maintenance units, assigned to the Aviation
Brigade, assigned to the 1st Logistical Command, or a separate com­
mand under U.S. Army Vietnam.
The decision reached was to establish a separate headquarters
under the direct command of U.S. Army Vietnam. This basic
organizational structure has operated throughout the Vietnam Era
with only one minor variation. Originally, the command was under
the staff supervision of the U.S. Army Vietnam G-4. In October
1967, staff supervision was changed to the U.S. Army Vietnam
Aviation Officer.
Following the September 1965 decision to establish a separate
command, the next two months were spent in developing an or­
ganizational structure and preparing the necessary authorization
documents. In November 1965, a group headquarters was estab­
lished on a provisional basis and finally, on 17 January 1966,, a U.S.
Army Pacific General Order was published activating the 34th
General Support Group.
As previously stated, the total Army aircraft density increased to
a high of 4,228 in September 1969. The deployed aircraft were
assigned to a total of 142 company-sized units plus a number of
miscellaneous smaller detachments. Of the 142 companies, 63 were
 AVIATION LOGISTICS 139
organic to division, brigades, or squadrons and had their own
organic direct support supply and maintenance capability. The
remaining company-sized units were supported by cellular direct
support detachments. The 34th General Support Group provided
backup support to these company sized units as well as direct support
and general support for all aviation activities in U.S. Army Viet­
nam.
The 34th General Support Group as displayed in Map 3,
ultimately had 2 depot companies, 5 general support companies,
11 direct support companies, 4 aviation electronics companies, and
the Aviation Materiel Management Center with which to accom­
plish its mission.

Aircraft Maintenance Personnel

Qualitative personnel problems in supply and maintenance were
particularly critical for aircraft because of the nature of the
materiel maintained. Civilian contractors were used to augment
the military capability in critical skill areas, particularly in the
areas of sheet metal and structural repairs. Table 8 shows strength
authorizations byfiscalyear for contractor personnel.
TABLE 8—CONTRACT MAINTENANCE MANNING LEVEL
Company FY 65 FY 66 FY 67 FY 68 FY 69 FY 70
Lockheed _ _ 100 232 287
Lear Siegler 457 624 832 733
Dynalectron 34 239 550 847 1056 872
TOTAL 34 239 1007 1571 2120 1892

The Aviation Systems Command provided either Department of

the Army civilians or manufacturer's field service representatives
to advise and assist in problem areas arising from the operation of
complex and sophisticated equipment in the field. In the summer
of 1969, 151 field service representatives were authorized. These
field service representatives were in addition to the new equip­
ment training teams sent into Vietnam upon introduction of a new
equipment item. Project COUNTER team, discussed in another
section, were also provided to the 34th General Support Group.
This augmentation with contract labor and the employment of
field service representatives and other teams to provide instruc­
tion was necessitated, to a large degree, by the fact that there was
not an adequate military rotational base in Continental U.S. from
which to draw upon for such critical skills as sheet metal and
structural repair workers. Because of Vietnam priorities, nearly
 DEPLOYMENT OF 34th GENERAL

SUPPORT GROUP IN VIETNAM

•I-"'! • '

MAP 3

 AVIATION LOGISTICS 141

all first line Army aircraft were located in Vietnam. This further
reduced the military experience base. Also, as in the electronics
area, trained aircraft maintenance personnel were highly suscep­
tible to incursions from industry, making retention in the Service
difficult.
Facilities
Facilities problems associated with the support of Army air­
craft were largely related to the development of storage and
maintenance facilities. Overall operation of the system was not
significantly affected by port and Line of Communications limita­
tions.
Some deterioration of packaging and damage to supplies oc­
curred as a result of delays in expanding storage facilities at
Saigon, but the impact was not comparable to that in the general
supply depots.
Construction of aircraft maintenance facilities presented more
serious problems because of the sensitivity of aircraft components
to the elements. Maintenance tents provided as organizational
equipment were not only shortlived in the tropical climate and
expensive to replace, but generally were too small for the volume
of work, resulting in a significant loss of valuable man-hours.
These man-hours were consumed in moving aircraft in and out.
In addition, shop vans proved too small to handle sheet metal
work on bulky cowling and also for balancing blades. Construction
of permanent facilities to offset these problems proved time con­
suming. For example, the 604th Direct Support Company moved
into Pleiku in March 1966, and an adequate hangar facility for
them was not completed until the summer of 1969. Although
available statistics are inadequate to allow precise measurement,
the weight of evidence indicated that a lack of adequate main­
tenance facilities appreciably degraded the efficiency of mainte­
nance operations.
Weapons Systems Requisitions Techniques
During 1965, aircraft repair parts were provided by the air­
craft supply point at Tan Son Nhut. This supply point was operated
by personnel of the U.S. Army Support Command, Vietnam Avia­
tion Detachment and augmented by the supply platoon of the
330th General Support Company and about 70 local national em­
ployees. All requisitions from operating units, general and direct
support companies, other Services, and free world forces were
submitted directly to the supply point which provided a retail
142 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

service. Items not available within the 8,000 item Authorized

Stockage List were requisitioned from Okinawa. At Okinawa the
requisitions were filled if the items were available. However, if
they were not available the requisitions were passed through
U.S. Army Pacific to the appropriate Continental U.S. National
Inventory Control Point. Chart 8 shows this requisition and
supply flow.
CHART 8—REQUISITION AND SUPPLY FLOW, 1965

Continental U.S.
National Inventory
Control Points

Continental U.S.
U.S. Army Pacific Depots
Inventory Control
Points

Other U.S.
Army Pacific
Depots

Aircraft Supply

Point

\
General Support Free World
Companies Military Assistance
Forces,
Other Services &
Air Vietnam
for Government
Operational
Furnished Property
Units & Maintenance
Contract
Detachments

'REQUISITION
•SUPPLY
• — - • • MATERIEL RELEASE ORDER
 AVIATION LOGISTICS 143
Following activation of the 34th General Support Group, sev­
eral changes were made in the basic supply system. Chart 9 shows
the requisition and supply flow beginning in April 1966. Major
changes included the following:

CHART 9—REQUISITION AND SUPPLY FLOW, APRIL 1966 TO APRIL 1968

Continental U.S.

National Inventory

Control Points

Continental
U.S. Depots
U.S. Army
Pacific Inventory
Control Points

Other U.S.

Army Pacific

Depots

Okinawa

Aviation Materiel

Management

Center

Air Vietnam
I Qui Nhon |
Direct Support I Depot j
Government Furnished
Companies
Property Contract ~(after~1967)

Other
Operational Services

General Support Units &

Companies Maintenance

Detachments

Free World

Military

Assistance Forces

•REQUISITION Note: Excludes project managed aircraft

repair parts for which Okinawa and
•SUPPLY Hawaii were phased out beginning
April 1966.
MATERIEL RELEASE* ORDER
144 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Establishment of the Aviation Materiel Management Center

using resources of the 58th Transportation Battalion. Resources
of this battalion continued to be used for this purpose until
February 1968 when an Aviation Materiel Management Center
Table of Distribution was approved and the 58th was assigned to
I Corps. The Aviation Materiel Management Center served as
an inventory control center for all aviation materiel and provided
centralized accountability for all depot stocks. Inventory control
was converted from a manual operation to the use of an IBM 407
Electronic Accounting Machine in early 1966, to a UNIVAC 1005
at the end of 1966, to an IBM 1460 in March 1968, and to an
IBM 360/50 in mid-1969.
In April 1966, the Saigon Aviation Depot was removed from
retail operations. After this, all requisitions passed through direct
support companies except those for the U. S. Air Force and Air
Vietnam. Beginning in late 1966 direct support companies were
equipped with NCR 500 equipment to enable them to furnish
data and interface with Aviation Materiel Management Center.
An increased density of aircraft supported, together with in­
creasing delays in obtaining supplies through the Okinawa U.S.
Army Pacific route, resulted in the third major change in the
supply system. (Chart 10) Beginning in July 1966, Okinawa and
Hawaii were bypassed for all aircraft parts. This introduced the
stovepipe system whereby Aviation Materiel Management Center
passed all requisitions directly to the Aviation Systems Command
in St. Louis, with only an information copy to U.S. Army Pacific
for billing purposes. In addition to a reduction in a high-dollar
pipeline, this stovepipe system (Weapons System Requisitioning)
greatly improved communications between the consumer in Viet­
nam and the National Inventory Control Point in the Continental
U.S.
In September 1969, weapons systems requisitioning procedures
were further modified. Techniques were introduced to permit
Aviation Materiel Management Center requisitions for aviation
items to be routed through the Defense Automatic Addressing
System with an image copy of all transactions being passed to
the Aviation Systems Command. A weapons system project code and
the Aviation Systems Command distribution code were used to
identify aviation item traffic. With minor variation, this procedure
is being standardized for use by all Army weapons systems world­
wide.
Overall, the aviation repair parts system has been effective and
responsive as was indicated by the low percentage of aircraft in the
 AVIATION LOGISTICS 145
not operationally ready supply category (a 5.2 percent rate as of
31 December 1970 compared with a standard of 7 percent) and a
demand satisfaction rate consistently around 65 percent. From an
authorized stockage list of 8,000 lines in 1965, stockage increased
to a high of 46,000 lines late in 1968.

CHART 10—REQUISITION AND SUPPLY FLOW, APRIL 1968 TO SEPTEMBER

1969

U.S. Army
Aviation Materiel
Command
Other National
Inventory Control
Points
\

U.S. Army
Pacific Inventory
Control Points Continental
Z
U.S. Depots

Info for
Funding
Aviation
Materiel Management
Center

Saigon
Depot

Qui Nhon
Depot

Air Vietnam
for Government Other Direct Support
Furnished Property Services Companies
Contract

Free World
Operational Units
General Support Military
& Maintenance
Companies Assistance
Detachments
Forces

REQUISITION
SUPPLY
MATERIEL RELEASE ORDER
146 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

In line with the objectives of the Logistics Offensive, they

were subsequently reduced to 25,495 lines by December 1970 with­
out adverse effect on supply effectiveness.
There was some item duplication in stockage lists of the
Aviation Materiel Management Center and the 1st Logistical Com­
mand. The items were primarily industrial bulk materiel items
used in repair operations and certain items of common hardware.
The value of providing aviation units with a single point for obtain­
ing aircraft repair parts outweighed the cost of multiple stockage.

Floating Aircraft Maintenance Facility

In April 1966, the Army deployed a Floating Aircraft Main­
tenance Facility to Vietnam. This was the USNS Corpus Christi
Bay. This ship had been converted from a seaplane tender at the
Navy yard in Charleston, S.C. in 1965. The Floating Aircraft
Maintenance Facility was designed for use in contingency opera­
tions, initially for backup direct support and general support and
provided a limited depot capability for the repair of aircraft com­
ponents. It was equipped to manufacture small machine parts and
also to repair items requiring extensive test equipment operating
in a sterile environment such as avionics, instruments, carburators,
fuel controls, and hydraulic pumps. The mobility offered by the
ship also contributed to the effectiveness of aircraft support since
it could move from one deep water port to another as the density of
aircraft units shifted with changing tactical situations.
Through the return of components to a serviceable condition,
the issuance of parts from its shop stock in direct response to
user requests, and the fabrication of hard-to-get repair parts, the
Floating Aircraft Maintenance Facility was responsible for re­
moving a substantial number of aircraft from a not operationally
ready supply condition.

Intensive Management of Critical Assets

Prior to Vietnam, it was believed that an overseas pipeline of
13 months would be required for aircraft engines (8 months for
engines at wholesale level in Continental U.S. depot stocks and
overhaul facilities plus 5 months in transit and in stock overseas).
One month of pipeline is the equivalent of the number of unserv­
iceable engines generated in 30 days. At the peak of operations,
each day of pipeline was worth $1.16 million, while 13 months
would require spare engines in the value of $452.4 million.
Through intensive management and the use of air transporta­
 AVIATION LOGISTICS 147

tion, actions were taken to reduce the pipeline time first to 914
months, then 8 months, 7 months, and by December 1970 to 614
months. Some of the methods and techniques used to keep the avia­
tion inventory in motion included better asset visibility and control,
weapons system management, closed loop/direct exchange, and
retrograde control.
Early in 1967, a reporting system was established to account
for worldwide assets of the T53 and T55 gas turbine engines.
This system, known as the Aircraft Component Intensive Manage­
ment System, provided a postcard report to the Aviation Systems
Command for each engine by serial number and gave every
change in condition, location, or status, whether the engine was
installed or was a spare. The reporting system later was broadened
to cover 45 Aviation items including both engines and components
representing a value of $1.3 billion.
For critical and high-value items required for Vietnam, Avia­
tion Systems Command established a system known as Aircraft
Intensively Managed Items. This system, which in March 1971
included 227 items and extended worldwide, required that a fore­
cast of monthly requirements be submitted to Aviation Systems
Command each quarter. The customers and Aviation Systems
Command met and "negotiated" monthly levels. Levels were based
upon forecasts of consumption (replacement) with minimal safety
levels to preclude running out of stock. The customer requisitioned
once a month, and Aviation Systems Command shipped the items
by air to arrive in-country 15 days in advance of the month in
which required.
By May 1968 partly as a result of the Tet Offensive the require­
ment for T53 engines for Huey and Cobra helicopters and T55
engines for the Chinook helicopter (CH-47) increased greatly.
Since production and overhaul programs were behind schedule,
a major problem developed. The only way to meet this problem
was to reduce the pipeline further. Elements in the pipeline with
the potential for providing an early response were the intransit
time, and the in-country unserviceable engines. Accordingly, a com­
bined ground and air transportation system was established. All new
or overhauled T53 and T55 engines were accumulated at the
Army Aeronautical Depot Maintenance Center, Corpus Christi,
Texas, for direct air shipment to the Republic of Vietnam three
times a week by special mission aircraft. At the same time, un­
serviceable engines authorized for repair in Vietnam were reduced
to those that could be repaired in 15 days; the remaining unserv­
iceable engines were returned for repair to the Continental U.S.
148 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

by the special mission aircraft. This system flushed out large

quantities of unserviceable engines, reduced transportation costs,
and provided a closed loop/direct exchange program with U.S.
Army Vietnam. This program was so effective that since early
June 1968 there were no not operationally ready supply problems
for these engines in spite of the reduced pipeline.

Closed Loop Support for Aviation

The first Aviation Closed Loop Support Conference was held
at Headquarters U.S. Army Pacific in March 1967. Through
1970, nine Aviation Closed Loop Conferences were held. Initially
Closed Loop Support was limited to U.S. Army Vietnam, but as
aircraft became available for other commands the program was
expanded worldwide. In addition to providing a means of con­
trolling the distribution of assets and providing visibility of equip­
ment returning to Continental U.S. for overhaul, the Closed Loop
Support program provided a forum for presenting and resolving
problems in aviation logistics operations worldwide.
From September 1969 to June 1970, the Army was confronted
with a large backlog of unserviceable first line aircraft consisting
principally of the UH-1, AH-1G, CH-47 and OH-6. This situation
not only denied aircraft to army units in the field, but also
placed the Army in the position of needing to buy new aircraft
while having a backlog of unserviceable aircraft on hand. A
critical analysis was made of the mandatory time between over­
hauls for aircraft; and based on Vietnam experience during the
previous year (when 85 percent of all hightime Hueys returned
to Continental U.S. averaged 2,140 hours), it was agreed by
Closed Loop Support conferees that the Huey (UH-1) Time Be­
tween Overhauls could be increased from 2200 hours to 3300 hours.
Appropriate increases in Time Between Overhauls were also made
for other aircraft. In this manner, aircraft utilization was increased
by delaying returns to Continental U.S. for overhaul. Transporta­
tion and depot maintenance requirements were reduced, increas­
ing the number of serviceable aircraft in the inventory at the
least cost. This life extension program was carefully monitored to
preclude any adverse impact on safety-of-flight or materiel readiness.
Also during the September 1969 Closed Loop Support Con­
ference, attendees evaluated the requirement for modifying the
CH-47C helicopters (equipped with the T55-1-7C engine) to a
full "C" configuration with the -11 engine. This requirement
included 27 separate modifications and required approximately
3,500 manhours to accomplish. During the Closed Loop Support
 AVIATION LOGISTICS 149

conference, it was determined that the work could be done by Air

Vietnam at less cost and in less time than if the helicopters were
returned to the U.S. In January 1970, the modification effort began
with Air Vietnam performing the work. This program required
approximately two years at a cost of about $2.6 million versus an
estimated $10.2 million, if the aircraft had been returned to the
Continental U.S. Also the aircraft were out of action for only 90
days rather than the 150 days that would have been required, if
the work had been done in the Continental U.S.
Prior to the March 1970 Closed Loop Support conference, it
had been planned to deploy 23 CH-54B's, the modified "Flying
Crane," to U.S. Army Vietnam. However, after consultation with
the U.S. Army Vietnam representative, and recognizing the po­
tential phaseout of "Flying Cranes" in the next 18 months, it
was agreed that such a transfer would be costly and was un­
necessary since the CH-54A's in U.S. Army Vietnam were ac­
complishing the required mission in a satisfactory manner. Ac­
cordingly, the CH-54A's were retained in U.S. Army Vietnam,
except for those hightime and crash-damaged aircraft that had to
be returned. The CH-54B's were assigned elsewhere in the Army.
This program reduced both transportation and depot mainte­
nance overhaul costs that would have been incurred, if the CH-
54A's had been returned to the Continental U.S.
For aviation it was found practicable and in many cases more
economical to ship by air nearly all aircraft support including the
aircraft as well as the supporting repair parts, components and
engines.

Direct Support Maintenance Concepts

Three separate concepts of direct support aircraft mainte­
nance were employed in Vietnam. The infantry divisions central­
ized the aircraft direct support capability in the aircraft mainte­
nance company of the maintenance battalion; the airmobile
divisions centralized the capability in the transportation aircraft
maintenance battalion; and the 1st Aviation Brigade company-
sized units were authorized an attached direct support aircraft
maintenance detachment.
Through the extensive operational experience in Vietnam it
was found that conventional organizational maintenance organiza­
tions supported by centralized direct support units did not pro­
vide the desired level of availability to meet tactical require­
ments. As a result various methods of maintenance support were
tried in an attempt to increase readiness. The concept employed by
150 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

the 1st Aviation Brigade was found to provide 10 percent higher

readiness with 12 percent higher utilization when compared with
units not having a direct support capability. In February 1968, as
a result of an analysis made by Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics
the Chief of Staff approved the concept of integrating the direct
support detachments into the aviation companies of the 1st Aviation
Brigade. U.S. Army Vietnam was also requested to apply the con­
cept to the infantry and airmobile division.
Within the 1st Cavalry Division and the 101st Airborne Divi­
sion a combined total of nineteen detachments were organized,
utilizing the resources of two of the divisions' four direct support
aircraft maintenance companies. The detachments were initially
attached to the aviation units with an objective of integrating them
at a later date if the concept proved to be practicable.
A test was conducted in the 9th Infantry Division to determine
the feasibility of adopting the decentralized direct support con­
cept to all infantry divisions. Although this was highly successful
in improving aircraft operational readiness rates, agreement could
not be reached on additional personnel requirements for the
decentralized organizations.
The major aspect of the integrated system was that both
organizational and direct support maintenance became the re­
sponsibility of a single commander. This responsibility permitted
the commander to accomplish all functions associated with sched­
uled maintenance to include component replacement and minor
battle damage repair. The increased organic maintenance capabil­
ity for aviation units permitted the units to schedule maintenance
according to their operational requirements, without an unaccept­
able degradation of tactical deployment capability. Backup direct
support maintenance units were still required to take care of
extensive crash damage repairs; operational readiness float sup­
port; and repair parts storage, receipt and issue requirements.

The Aircraft Readiness, Utilization, and Loss Reporting Systems

The reporting system and techniques employed to monitor
aircraft readiness, utilization, and losses have undergone several
major revisions since 1960. Changes were made to improve the
accuracy, timeliness, and scope of information collected in order to
have greater visibility over aviation inventories and to promptly
highlight logistic support problems.
Initially the Army's reporting system included three major
categories. These were (1) aircraft inventory, (2) flying hours,
and (3) days in commission. It provided for the monthly reporting
 AVIATION LOGISTICS 151

of worldwide army aircraft by serial number, unit assignment,

flying hours accomplished during the month, and the operational
readiness rate (which was variously known as aircraft in com­
mission or aircraft available). Readiness data were compiled on
the basis of the total number of days in commission and out of
commission during the month reported and the reasons (that is
supply, maintenance, other) for being out of commission. The
number of days in commission for four plus hours was counted as
being operationally ready for the 24-hour period. Conversely, air­
craft out of commission for more than four hours were reported as
being not operationally ready during the entire day and the
downtime was charged to supply, maintenance, or other. Report­
ing criteria allowed a wide range of interpretation and there
were no aircraft readiness standards showing the degree of readi­
ness to be maintained.
In 1962 a supply bulletin, "Army Aircraft Maintenance Man-
hour Factors and Availability Norms," was published. It pro­
vided the factors and formulas needed to compute aircraft main­
tenance manpower requirements. It also gave guides to be used
as a yardstick in measuring aircraft availability rates. This supply
bulletin was not directive in nature but was widely used as con­
taining the best data available. Readiness standards placed little
demand on the commands, permitting down times for supply in
excess of 10 percent and an average maintenance down time for
the fleet as high as 26 percent. Because of the low standards, there
was little emphasis in the field or in the logistics system for improv­
ing aircraft readiness.
In early 1963 Department of the Army Project 35, "Availability
and Downtime Rates for Army Aircraft," was established. Project
35 had as its objectives to establish and maintain realistic world­
wide aircraft availability standards; to assure that aircraft readiness
was compatible with mission requirements and priority of assign­
ment; and to provide to the Department of the Army information
on the maximum potential use of its aircraft consistent with
manning, materiel and money. All major commands and Depart­
ment of the Army staff agencies were represented. Separate stand­
ards were set for aircraft with significant differences in mission
requirements and logistic support capabilities; for example, the
UH-1A in the training base versus UH-1 elsewhere. While Project
35 was getting underway, the Office of the Secretary of Defense had
established a working group to develop a uniform equipment
readiness reporting system. This resulted in Department of De­
fense Instruction 7700.5, which became effective in January 1964.
152 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

This Instruction prescribed standard readiness definitions: opera­

tional ready, not operational ready-supply, and not operational
ready-maintenance. The services were directed to establish stand­
ards and to report aircraft readiness and down time to the
nearest hour in a 24-hour day. Department of the Army Project 35
was well on the way to accomplishing all these things, and in
January 1964 a new army regulation (AR 710-12) was published
implementing the Department of Defense Instruction.
The Army's application of the Office of the Secretary of De­
fense system retained reporting aircraft utilization (flying hours).
Later changes added reporting of the time accumulated Qn in­
stalled gas turbine engines by serial number. This information
has proved extremely valuable in forecasting engine replacement
requirements. Loss reporting is also included in the Army's re­
porting system.
Chart 11 shows helicopter readiness rates of U.S. Army Viet­
nam for the period fiscal year 1965 until the 1st half of fiscal
year 1971. A sharp decline in fiscal year 1965 was attributed to
buildup activities. Inventories of helicopters in U.S. Army Viet­
nam increased more than ten times during the period and a
readiness rate in excess of 70 percent was maintained despite
the fact that these aircraft had toflyin excess of the programmed
hours. In May 1970, following a Project 35 Committee review,
U.S. Army Vietnam standards were adjusted upward because

CHART 11—OPERATIONAL READINESS OF U.S. ARMY VIETNAM ROTARY

WING AIRCRAFT

100­
Not Operationally Ready Supply

Not Operationally Ready Maintenance

; ;
75 - ^ # ^ JIP_STD 1500
- •"" \ Operationally Ready
N
^ Flying Hours Average Per Month
50- -3000

25- -1500

OR & FLYING HR RATE (LEFT SCALE) INVENTORY (RIGHT SCALE)

I 1 | I I | | | | 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0
Dec 65 May 70 FY FY FY FY FY FY FY 71
STD STD 65 66 67 68 69 70 10 20 Jan
7 5 NORS 4.6 9.2 9.4 7.6 7.0 4.8 5.0 5.3 4.3
21 < • 2 0 NORM 12.8 18.8 20.3 22.1 21.2 21.3 19.0 18.8 19.6
72 75 OR 82.6 72.0 70.3 70.3 71.8 73.9 76.0 75.9 76.1
PROG 65.5 FHAM 56.1 48.0 58.5 65.7 67.3 69.2 64.6 53.9 53.5
 AVIATION LOGISTICS 153

experience showed that logistic support operations permitted the

attainment of higher goals. The new goals decreased Not Opera­
tional Ready—Supply from 7 percent to 5 percent and Not Op­
erational Ready—Maintenance from 21 percent to 20 percent.
Despite the aging of the fleet and the high utilization rates, these
new standards were met.

Use of Helicopters in Logistic Support

Significant to operations in Vietnam was the use of helicopters
in the logistic support role. Their use freed the Army from a
complete dependence on surface transportation. The helicopter
became an indispensible link in the forward area of operation
because of its ability to operate in virtually any weather condition,
day or night, with little or no preparation of landing sites.
The majority of the logistic missions were carried out by
UH-1, CH-47, and CH-54 aircraft. The UH-l's and CH-47s were
primarily to support the forward areas and delivered such diverse
types of cargo as hot food, medical supplies, ammunition, consum­
able supplies, and repair parts.
The UH-l's operated forward to the platoon level, while the
CH-47's transported heavier and more bulky loads to battalions
and companies. The CH-54's were primarily employed to lift
larger items of equipment to otherwise inaccessible locations and
for evacuation of heavy lifts from the combat area to the support
area. Extensive use was made of the external sling load concept.
This required only the time to fasten the load to a cargo hook
suspended beneath the aircraft. By employing the sling load tech­
nique, it was not uncommon for the CH-47 to airlift 100 tons of
supplies a day within a 10 mile radius. The significance of the
helicopter role in combat support is further substantiated by data
shown in Table 9.
In addition to the daily combat service support and resupply
missions, the larger helicopters, the CH-47 and CH-54, developed
a major capability in the recovery of other aircraft, vehicles and
equipment requiring removal to the rear. Through extensive
experience, procedures were developed whereby aircraft and other
equipment and materiel could be rigged for pick-up by heli­
copters in a matter of minutes, even in enemy territory under
fire. To date, helicopters have accounted for the recovery of over
10,000 aircraft, belonging to all of the services, valued in excess
of $2.5 billion.
 TABLE 9—INTRA-VIETNAM CARGO MOVEMENT BY AIR, 1967-1969

Monthly

1967 1968 1969 Total

Common Common
Common Common
Service Service
Service Service
Airlift Airlift
Airlift Airlift
Month System Helicopters System
Helicopters System Helicopters System Helicopters

Jan. .. 59,000 40,000 78,721 82,602 78,250 98,968 215,971 221,570

Feb. . . 55,000 41,000 75,012 77,362 70,727 95,356 200,739 213,718
Mar. . 65,000 50,000 92,483 80,750 73,086 120,697 230,569 251,447
Apr. . 65,400 55,000 88,948 94,387 69,382 110353 223,730 259,740
May . 64,700 66,000 85,374 98,181 69,209 111,822 219,283 276,003
June . 64,800 60,500 83,967 108,176 58,620 114,407 207,387 283,083
July.. 64,700 65,000 82,937 110,800 57,026 103,479 204,663 279,288
Aug. . 65,000 81,000 80,945 97,546 61,311 111342 207,256 289,888
Sep. .. 64,700 81,500 81,703 91,421 61,686 110,564 208,089 283,485
Oct. .. 74,800 106,000 81,723 87,322 62,923 102,559 219,446 295,881
Nov. . 64,900 68,500 83,182 89,929 62,023 98,116 210,105 256,545
Dec. . 72,000 113,500 82,179 104,547 67,442 99,460 221,021 317,507
Total 780,000 828,000 997,174 1,123,032 791,685 1,277,123 2,568,859 3,228,155

Note: Helicopter tonnages are for Army and Marine Corps rotary wing aircraft. Army tonnages include air assault and tactical operations passenger and
cargo movements. Marine tonnages do not include tactical operations tonnages. Common Service Airlift System includes C-7A dedicated movements.
 AVIATION LOGISTICS 155

Aerial Resupply
To test the feasibility and effectiveness of an intensive aerial
resupply campaign, Operation Task Force Remagen was formed
and a test of aerial resupply was conducted during the period 16
March through 29 April 1969. Task Force Remagen was conducted
by troops from the 1st Infantry Brigade, 5th Infantry Division
(Mechanized).
The Task Force was composed of an armored battalion and a
mechanized infantry battalion cross-reinforced, with the mission
to prove or disprove that an armored and mechanized force could
operate effectively over extended distances without a ground line
of communication. For 47 days Task Force Remagen operated at
a distance of between 40-60 kilometers from its base at the U.S.
Marine Corps Vandergrift Combat Base, and relied entirely on
helicopters for resupply.
Requests for supplies and repair parts were forwarded to the
Forward Support Element, who in turn forwarded the requests
to the 75th Support Battalion Logistic Operations Center at Quang
Tri. The requested supplies were assembled overnight and either
flown or sent by convoy the next morning to the Forward Support
Element for further delivery to the task force by air.
Both battalions involved in the task force maintained combat
trains consisting of tracked maintenance and resupply vehicles.
All replacement parts were flown to the units in their field loca­
tions, exchanged for the defective part and installed on the spot.
Defective parts were then returned to the support element for
repair. Over 1000 tons of cargo were moved by helicopters from
the forward element supply base at Vandergrift Combat Base
during the course of the operation.
During this operation the task force received an average of
thirteen helicopter sorties per day. It was estimated that with an
average of thirty minutes per round trip, four helicopters could
have met Task Force Remagen's average daily resupply require­
ments.
Looking to the future, a project known as Log Lift has been
established to incorporate current and future helicopters into the
logistic system in order to help in carrying out the aims of the In­
ventory In Motion and Maintenance Support Positive programs.
Under Project Log Lift, the Army will analyze experience gained
in Vietnam in order to develop future policy, practices and pro­
cedures. Log Lift will also evaluate the use of existing helicopters
and will project into the future when the Army plans to have a
heavy lift helicopter with a payload of at least twice that of the
156 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

currently available Chinooks and Cranes. This greater lift capabil­

ity will reduce requirements for stocking of supplies and equip­
ment in the forward area of the combat zone and will further
assist in retrograding equipment and materiel requiring heavy
maintenance and returning them to the user in minimal time;
permit ship-to-shore operations any place in the world; and en­
hance the overall mobility of the Army by providing a logistic
support system as mobile as the combat arms being supported.
 CHAPTER VI

Service Support in Vietnam:

Transportation and Maintenance

Service support described in the next three chapters include

the transportation, maintenance, construction, facilities engineer­
ing, real estate, communications and aviation elements logistics.
Also service support includes food service, graves registration,
laundry, bath and property disposal activities. There is also a
brief discussion of other support missions unique to the Vietnam
war.
Staggering amounts of supplies of all types (construction,
maintenance, communication, aviation, transportation, and per­
sonal items for the soldier) traveled along extensive sea and air
routes across the Pacific to Vietnam ports, into depots and storage
areas, finally down primitive roads and an almost non-existent
rail network to supply points where they were finally delivered to
the individual soldier or unit.
Service support followed the same trail and to meet the
challenge service support units also had to institute special manage­
ment techniques.

Transportation
Between 1965 and 1969 over 22 million short tons of dry cargo
and over 14 million short tons of bulk petroleum were transported
to Vietnam. In addition to the cargo there was also the require­
ment for transporting personnel. Approximately 2.2 million peo­
ple were transported to Vietnam and approximately 1.7 million
were returned to the U.S. during this period. All the petroleum
and more than 95 percent of the dry cargo were transported by
ship. The remainder of the dry cargo and 90 percent of the pas­
sengers travelled by air.
Because of the similarities in military and commercial trans­
portation operations, the transportation corps had a good base of
professional knowledge to draw upon. For the most part, trans­
portation personnel sent to Vietnam, both officers and enlisted
personnel, had been in the business before.
158 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Transportation Buildup—1965-1966
This period was characterized by a rapid increase in combat
troop strength and the tremendous influx of supplies and equip­
ment for their support. The transportation units that arrived
during the May to August 1965 period were company and detach­
ment sized-units which were stationed along the coast.
They were occupied primarily with their mission performance,
their daily existence, security, and improvement of their canton­
ment areas. The 11th Transportation Battalion (terminal) arrived
in Saigon on 5 August 1965 to assume control of the Saigon
military port from the U.S. Navy. Two days later, the 394th
Transportation Battalion (terminal) arrived at Qui Nhon to
assume command of transportation units in that area and plan for
the September arrival of the 1st Cavalry Division at An Khe. On
23 September, the 10th Transportation Battalion (terminal) ar­
rived at Cam Ranh Bay to assume responsibility for the Cam Ranh
Bay terminal.
The 4th Transportation Command (terminal Command) was
the first senior transportation command and control unit to arrive
in Vietnam. It arrived on 12 August 1965 and was given technical
and operational control of all land and water transportation units
assigned to the 1st Logistical Command. Included in this mission
were the operation of the Saigon port, the water terminals at Cam
Ranh Bay, Qui Nhon, Phan Rang, Nha Trang and Vung Tau, and
operation of the Army Air Terminal at Tan Son Nhut.

Transportation Expansion—1966-1969
By early 1966, the Saigon, Qui Nhon, and Cam Ranh Bay
Support Commands were established. Each was given responsibility
for complete logistic support within its area of operation. This
included the control and operation of all common user land
transportation and port and beach facilities within the area. The
Saigon area was an exception with the 4th Transportation Com­
mand retaining responsibility for port operations under the oper­
ational control of the Commanding General, 1st Logistical Com­
mand. The 4th Transportation Command was thereby relieved of
its South Vietnam-wide transportation command mission, and
concentrated on the Saigon Port proper. Although the 4th was
not organized or manned to perform a theater level transporta­
tion command mission, the Command had done the job well. To
assist the support commands in managing port operations, the 5th
Transportation Command (terminal A) was assigned to Qui Nhon
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 159

Support Command, and the 124th Transportation Terminal Com­

mand (terminal A) was assigned to Cam Ranh Bay in August 1966.

Movement Control Within South Vietnam

Until September 1965 no co-ordinated movement control
agency existed in South Vietnam. Air transportation was managed
at the local level by individual Air Traffic Coordinating Offices
located at the various aerial ports. Water transport requirements
were sent directly to the Military Sea Transport Service, Far East.
Highway transport needs were met by local support elements. As
a result of such localized, decentralized traffic management, trans­
port resources were either wasted or ineffectually employed and
management data were not exchanged. There was no overall
knowledge of the capability of country-wide transportation facil­
ities.
In September 1965, Commander U.S. Military Assistance Com­
mand, Vietnam, established a jointly staffed Traffic Management
Agency under his operational control and the staff supervision of
the J-4. The agency became fully operational in early 1966 and
was assigned the mission to: 1. direct, control and supervise all
functions incident to the efficient and economical use of freight
and passenger transportation service required for movement of
all Department of Defense sponsored personnel and cargo within
the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, area of responsibility
(this was later expanded to include U.S. Agency for International
Development requirements); 2. serve as a point of contact for all
users of military highway, railway, inland waterway, intra-coastal
and troop carrier and cargo airlift capability as made available
by the component commander; 3. arrange for movement; 4. advise
and assist shippers and receivers to insure that such transport
capability is effectively utilized; 5. prepare and maintain current
plans in support of contingency plans and prepare other Military
Assistance Command, Vietnam, plans as directed; 6. operate Mili­
tary Assistance Command, Vietnam, Traffic Coordination Offices;
7. control movement of cargo and passengers into terminals through
coordination with terminal operators; 8. maintain liaison with
transport agencies of the host nation, host nation military or­
ganizations and appropriate U.S. Forces required to accomplish
the assigned mission; 9. and control, manage and maintain the
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, container express opera­
tion.
The mission letter established the principle of centralized
direction and control of traffic management and related services
160 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

at Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, headquarters and de­

centralized traffic operations, services, and co-ordination at field
offices operating in support of the component commands. It
authorized the Commander, Traffic Management Agency, to com­
municate directly with the component commands, their units,
installations, and activities concerning requirements, traffic man­
agement, and use of military owned transportation, with respon­
siveness to the requirements of each of the components as
the guiding principle. Originally Traffic Management Agency was
organized with a directorate staff and three traffic regions. To meet
changing requirements, two additional traffic regions were estab­
lished in 1968. The total strength of Traffic Management Agency in
July 1968 was approximately 400 personnel. The regional head­
quarters, with their district and field traffic offices, as well as the Air
Traffic Co-ordinating Offices were located adjacent to major ship­
ping and receiving activities and provided a point of direct contact
for all transportation users and operators. The Traffic Manage­
ment Agency command communications network operated over
dedicated circuits that connected headquarters with the regional
headquarters—and each region to its subordinate district and field
traffic offices.
Since its inception, Traffic Management Agency was author­
ized to coordinate directly with numerous agencies outside the
specific Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, area of responsibil­
ity. The Traffic Management Agency was collocated with the Mili­
tary Sea Transportation Service Office, Saigon, and was authorized
direct communication with both Commanding Officer Military
Sea Transportation Service, and Commanding Officer Military
Sea Transportation Service, Far East. To co-ordinate and obtain
sealift capabilities to support tactical operations, which could
not be supported by available resources, Traffic Management
Agency was authorized to communicate directly with the Com­
mander, U.S. Seventh Fleet. The Air Transportation Co-ordina­
tion Offices representing all of the Services requested inter-
theater airlift allocations from Military Airlift Command. For
intra-theater airlift beyond the capability of Military Assistance
Command, Vietnam, assets, Traffic Management Agency re­
quested assistance through the Western Pacific Transportation
Office. Traffic Management Agency provided cargo booking guid­
ance to Western Pacific Transportation Office for inter-Pacific
Command surface movements to Vietnam ports and also co­
ordinated with the Pacific Command Movements Priority Agency
regarding surface shipments from Continental U.S. to Vietnam.
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 161

A significant point in the concept of Traffic Management

Agency operations was that it did not exercise operational control
of the transportation assets made available for common-user serv­
ice. Rather, Traffic Management Agency operated on the basis
of managing toward the optimum use of these assets. Forecasts
of requirements were received from the Military Assistance Com­
mand, Vietnam, component commands, U.S. Agency for Inter­
national Development, Vietnam Regional Exchange Service, Re­
public of Vietnam Armed Forces, and other authorized users.
These requirements were matched against available common-user
transportation capability, based on priorities of movement estab­
lished by the shippers. If requirements exceeded the capabilities,
Traffic Management Agency inititated action to obtain the addi­
tional capability. If additional lift capability was not available,
Traffic Management Agency would allocate the existing capability
based on the policies, guidance, and priorities of Commander U.S.
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam.
The effectiveness of Traffic Management Agency improved as
the theater situation stabilized, procedures were refined, opera­
tional problems were recognized, and solutions were developed.
The lack of a centralized traffic management agency in South
Vietnam during the early stages of the conflict contributed to an
inefficient use of transportation resources. Movement control agen­
cies proved to be highly effective in providing support to the
tactical commander after the movement control agencies were
implemented. Interface problems between Traffic Management
Agency and the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, com­
ponents continued to exist. Rather than invalidate the system,
these problems highlighted the need for an agency like Traffic
Management Agency.

Truck Transportation
During the deployment of tactical units in mid-1965 most
highway transport units were located at or near the major port
areas. They provided port and beach clearance and local and line
haul in II and III Corps.
These services were initially provided by three truck com­
panies at Saigon and Cam Ranh Bay and a combination of medium
truck companies (two cargo and one Petroleum, Oils, and Lu­
bricants) at Qui Nhon. These capabilities were increased through
1966 by the addition of more truck companies and command and
control elements.
As force levels climbed, the requirements for highway trans­
162 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

portation units also increased. These requirements were met by

three means: 1. the arrival of a Transportation Motor Transport
Group Headquarters in Saigon plus the arrival of additional mili­
tary truck units; 2. the use of commercial trucking contractors; and
3. the arrival of the 1st Transportation Company (GOER) in II
Corps.
The 48th Transportation Group (Motor Transport) was the
first truck group to arrive in South Vietnam and was assigned to
the U.S. Army Support Command, Saigon in May 1966 to assume
command of five truck companies then operating in III Corps. The
8th Transportation Group (Motor Transport) arrived at Qui
Nhon in October 1966 and assumed command and control of the
motor transport units in U.S. Army Support Command, Qui
Nhon. The last truck group to arrive was the 500th Transportation
Group (Motor Transport) which was assigned to the U.S. Army
Support Command, Cam Ranh Bay in late October 1966. It was
assigned responsibility for motor transport operations in the
southern portion of II Corps.
In the summer of 1966 large scale combat operations in the
Central Highlands put a severe strain on the motor transport
units providing line haul support in the Pleiku area. Convoy com­
manders were required to continually operate over an insecure
highway system. Convoy security support was provided by U.S. and
Vietnamese units when priorities permitted; often the desired
degree of support was not available. It was also desirable to have
armored personnel carriers integrated into the convoy, but they
were not always available. For this reason truck units employed
the "hardened vehicle" concept (discussed in Chapter II). Within
the 8th Transportation Group during the 1967-1968 time frame,
the equivalent of one light truck company's capability was lost by
converting their cargo vehicles to "hardened vehicles" to provide
the necessary security.
Except in port and beach clearance and for local haul within
secure areas, truck units operated only during daylight hours,
thus achieving less productive tonnage than stated in Tables of
Organization and Equipment which envision a 20 hour, two shift
work day. Productivity was complicated by the unimproved roads
which were made impassable by the monsoon rains. In September
1966, the GOER vehicle was introduced into Vietnam. The 1st
Transportation Company (GOER) was the only company which
utilized this vehicle. Total vehicles (GOER) assigned to the 1st
Transportation Company (GOER) were 19. There were three
configurations of the vehicle, the 8 ton vehicle, 8 ton 2,500 gallon
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 163

tanker, and the 10 ton wrecker. The GOER vehicle was a large
tire, rough terrain, cargo carrying vehicle built and designed by
the Caterpillar Tractor Company. The vehicles were quite versa­
tile, having a cross country and swim capability. These vehicles
were used extensively, but especially during the monsoon period.
The GOERS were limited in their use, particularly on hard
surface roads, and maintenance was difficult as repair parts
had to come directly from Continental U.S. The service they
performed was noteworthy in its effect on the transportation
system.
The highway tonnages moved by a combination of military
and commercial motor transport during the period December
1967—December 1968 was approximately ten million tons; and by
the same means during the period January—July 1969, approxi­
mately five million tons were carried.
As the buildup continued it became apparent that the con­
ventional military truck was not designed to handle palletized
and containerized loads efficiently. The fixed sides of the cargo
bodies on the 2i/£-ton and 5-ton cargo trucks did not permit fork­
lifts to reach the full length of the cargo compartment, there­
fore the push and pull method was used in loading and unloading
operations causing damage to the truck bodies.
To facilitate operations, U.S. Army Vietnam obtained eighteen
drop side cargo trucks from the U.S. Marine Corps to serve as test
vehicles. The test proved that dropside trucks were highly desirable
and effective cargo carriers and that through their use more cargo
could be hauled with easier access to the entire length of the
body and with little damage to the truck body. U.S. Army Vietnam
requested that Department of the Army procure these trucks for
use in Vietnam.
By the end of 1965, it was apparent to transportation planners
that augmentation of military motor transport capability was
necessary to clear the South Vietnamese port congestion. During
the period March 1966-June 1966, the US Army Procurement
Agency, Vietnam, awarded 10 major contracts for trucking serv­
ices to augment the military capability. One of the major con­
tractors used in Vietnam was the Vinnel Corporation which also
provided stevedore support, beach and port clearance, and vessel
maintenance support. The highway support offered by Vinnel in­
cluded the operation of 30 Army-procured Kenworth trucks and
trailers of the type and design used in the Arabian Desert. This
vehicle was probably the most effective vehicle on the sand dunes
of Cam Ranh Bay.
164 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

The three major trucking contractors used in the Saigon area

were Equipment Inc., Philco Ford, and Do Thi Nuong. The Han
Jin Company of Korea was utilized for trucking and stevedore
services in the Qui Nhon area. The Alaskan Barge and Transport
Company provided stevedore, trucking, and intra-coastal barge
movement. Their intra-coastal operation utilized a considerable
tug and barge fleet between Cam Ranh Bay and its outports. This
intra-coastal barge movement included the entire South Vietnamese
coast.
The use of contractor services for trucking, terminal, and
marine purposes provided the extra punch needed in these opera­
tions, and provisions should be made to include in future planning
consideration for use of contractors when the opportunity arises.

Rail Transportation
The Vietnam National Railway System was government owned,
being operated under the supervision of the Ministry of Com­
munications and Transportation. The Vietnam National Railway
System originated at Saigon, and served the entire coastal area
from Phan Thiet to Dong Ha. (Map 4) The overall condition of
the roadbed and rolling stock was poor. The long period of intense
interdiction and destruction by the Viet Cong and North Vietnam­
ese regular units resulted in the railway system being unable to
carry significant tonnages. The railroad was well engineered, how­
ever, with 413 bridges, 27 tunnels, controlling grades of less than
1i/2 percent, steel ties, and vertical elevations well above the water­
ways. In 1969, the rolling stock of the railroad consisted of 59
serviceable locomotives and over 500 serviceable freight cars. The
major repair facility located in Saigon was well equipped to per­
form major engine and car repair. Other shop facilities along the
length of the line were adequate to handle all types of minor
repairs. The railroad employs approximately 3,500 personnel
(operating crews, maintenance and construction forces). Overall
planning for railway restoration began in June 1966 as a joint
effort by the Government of Vietnam and U.S. agencies. All
reconstruction efforts were coordinated through three standing
committees composed of members of Military Assistance Com­
mand, Vietnam, Government of Vietnam, U.S. Agency for Inter­
national Development, and the Government of Vietnam Joint
General Staff with primary responsibility for railway restoration
resting with the Joint Committee on railroad restoration. Actual
construction was the responsibility of the Vietnam National Rail­
way System except that rail spurs to U.S. military installations were
 VIETNAM RAIL SYSTEM
^ — — Operational
Closed
Under restoration

60 KILOMETERS

Nha Trang

NOTE-­
MAIN LINE
SAIGON TO DONG HA 1109 KM
SPUR LINES
BIEN HOA TO LOCH NINH 117 KM
THAP CHAP TO DA LAT 8 4 KM
MUONG MAN TO PHAN THEIT 12 KM
DIEU TRI TO QUI NHON 10 KM
NGABA TO BA NGOI 5 KM
BA REN TO AN HOA 2 0 KM
TOTAL 1357 KM

STEEL BRIDGES OVER 2 0 M 112

CONCRETE BRIDGES OVER 2 0 M 221
TUNNELS 27

MAP 4
166 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

funded and built by US forces. U.S. Agency for International

Development furnished construction materials such as rail, ties,
structured steel, bridge trusses, and equipment. Funds programed
for railway restoration were limited as shown in the following
table:
PROGRAMING FOR RAILWAY RESTORATION
($ MILLIONS)

Government
Year of Vietnam U.S. AID Total
1966 .. $ .8 $ .8
1967 .. 2.3 9 9.2 11.5
1968 . . 2.6 3.1 5.7
1969 . . 2.5 4.5 7.0
Totals $ 8.2 $ 16.8 $ 25.0

The U.S. Army had considerable interest in this railroad be­

cause of the potential it offered in the bulk movement of cargo
at low rates. The system was used to support the Military Assist­
ance Command, Vietnam, construction program and transported
hundreds of thousands of tons of rock and gravel to air base and
highway sites. In 1967-1968, 200 U.S. procured freight cars were
delivered. These cars were maintained and operated by the rail­
road for the U.S., and the freight rate for cargo handled on these
cars was approximately 15 percent lower than normal rail rates.
Vietnamese personnel operated the engines, did their own
repair work, and restored sections of track destroyed by the Viet
Cong. To help the Vietnamese keep up to date, the U.S. Army
assigned technical advisors to the railroad, but for the most part,
the Vietnamese ran the whole operation.
Railway operations in Vietnam expanded in direct proportion
to the interest and effort put forth by the U.S. and the Government
of Vietnam. Besides providing low cost military transportation,
railways helped the South Vietnamese in their social and economic
development.
Air Transportation
Restrictions on land transportation placed added importance
and reliance on intra-theater air transportation. The virtually non­
existent capability of the South Vietnamese Air Force air transport
placed major reliance on U.S. air transport resources to support
military operations. The main U.S. capability was provided by
the Common Service Airlift System operated by the U.S. Air
Force, and aircraft organic to the various military organizations.
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 167

The Common Service Airlift System was composed of fixed wing

aircraft and provided tactical as well as intra-theater airlift. Or­
ganic aircraft were primarily employed by combat commanders
for immediate battlefield mobility and support and were not
readily available for intra-theater airlift purposes. Helicopters were
not assigned to the Common Service Airlift System fleet, however
they played an extensive and highly significant role which is dis­
cussed in some detail later in this chapter. The helicopter provided
a highly versatile lift capability that had never been available in
such great numbers in previous military operations. Use of the
helicopter complemented the capability of the fixed wing air­
craft and surface capability by operation from airfields and other
areas to locations inaccessible to other forms of transport.
Initially the Common Service Airlift System was composed of
U.S. Air Force C-123 and the C-7A aircraft of the Royal Australian
Air Force and the U.S. Army. This fleet was augmented by U.S.
Air Force C-130 aircraft in April 1965. The Common Service
Airlift System organization further changed in January 1967 when
the Chief of Staff, U.S. Army, and Chief of Staff, U.S. Air Force
agreed that the C-7A aircraft assigned to the U.S. Army would
be transferred to the U.S. Air Force.

Water Transportation
During the buildup phase, the few land lines of communication
were in poor repair and subject to interdiction by enemy forces,
and the mobility of U.S. Forces was achieved through the exten­
sive use of water and air transportation.
To fully exploit the potential of the long South Vietnamese
coastline, and to supplement improvements in South Vietnam's
four major deep water ports, a series of satellite shallow-draft
ports were developed. (Map 5) The improvements permitted
intra-coastal shipping to increase tonnages between 1965-1968
from several hundred tons to over three million tons.
Ports were rapidly expanded through the use of DeLong
piers. These piers were quite versatile and were fabricated in a
variety of sizes and configurations ranging from 55 feet to 427 feet
long and 45 feet to 90 feet wide. They were towed from their
ports of origin and quickly implaced at their destination. The De-
Long pier is a good concept and a good facility, and should be
included in future contingency plan packages.
Although the development of the four major deep draft ports
was important to the support of forces in Vietnam, the use of
numerous shallow draft ports and special operations, such as
 U.S. ARMY
SUPPORT COMMAND
CAM RANH BAY

1ST LOGISTICAL COMMAND

NAVAL SUPPORT ACTIVITY
'Vung Tau SAIGON
U.S.ARMY SUPPORT COMMAND
SAIGON

" %

PORTS, LAND LINES

OF COMMUNICATION AND

MAJOR LOGISTIC COMMANDS

Major ports
Sub-ports

60 KILOMETERS

MAP 5

SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 169

Wunder Beach (Than My Thuy) were vital to the support of

troops in such areas as I and IV Corps. Wunder Beach (Than My
Thuy) in I Corps was a Logistics-Over-The-Shore type operation
which was useful during the dry season. This beach operation
allowed shallow draft vessels to unload directly on the beach with­
out the use of piers and was an effective and efficient means of
discharging cargo. The support of shallow draft operations re­
quired the use and coordination of the Military Sea Transporta­
tion Service, the Seventh Fleet LSTs in the Western Pacific, and
the U. S. Army watercraft resources.
The U. S. Army Beach Discharge Lighter LTC John U. D.
Page, which was made available for use in South Vietnamese
waters after repeated requests and much delay, was useful in
supporting intra-coastal requirements within the Cam Ranh Bay
logistics complex (Nha Trang-Cam Ranh-Phan Rang). Control of
the operation of this craft was retained at the Cam Ranh Bay
Support Command. Because of its shallow draft and unrestricted
loading ramp area, it was more versatile and valuable than an
LST on a ship-for-ship basis. Although a prototype and unique in
the Army inventory since the late 1950's, this craft has justified its
additional procurement for the purpose of modernizing and in­
creasing the versatility of the shallow draft fleet. This ship moved
an average of 10,000 to 15,000 short tons per month. Her propul­
sion system was damaged in 1967, but demand for the ship's
services delayed its movement to a shipyard in Japan for overhaul
until almost a year later.
Early in the Vietnam buildup Landing Craft, Mechanized
(LCM) and Landing Craft, Utility (LCU), were used to perform
ship-to-shore and selective discharge operations and for limited
intercoastal and inland waterway operations. These craft were sup­
ported in the lighterage role by amphibians of the LARC V (5 ton)
and LARC LX (60 ton) (formerly known as BARC) classes. As
deep draft piers were developed, some of these craft were diverted
to other missions, such as the Wunder Beach operation, where no
port facilities existed.
Due to the periodic shortage of tugs in the Saigon area, LCMs
were frequently used to tow ammunition barges from the in-stream
deep draft discharge sites at Nha Be and later at Cat Lai, to
barge discharge sites dispersed throughout the area.
In northern I Corps, LCMs were used on the Perfume and Cua
Viet Rivers to shuttle dry cargo and petroleum, oils, and lubri­
cants from coastal transfer sites to Hue and Dong Ha.
In addition to their normal lighterage use, LCMs were em­
170 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

ployed in performing a variety of harbor service functions such

as resupply, maintenance, ferry service, and patrol and were also
used in direct support of tactical operations.
As the capacity of deep draft piers improved, both the Army's
and the Navy's LCUs were shifted to intra-coastal and inland-
water ways. The use of LCUs accounted for approximately 29
percent of the total cargo moved intra-coastally during that year.
Prior to the completion of the LST ramps at Tan My, Navy LCUs,
with periodic Army support, were the primary media for resupply
to northern I Corps. Extensive use of LCUs was also made for
operations in the Saigon-Vung Tau-Delta complex. In late 1967
six SKILAKs, commercial off-the-shelf LCU/YFU type craft,
were procured by the Navy to support operations in I Corps.
To help alleviate the shortage of lighterage and coastal shipping
capability, Commander U. S. Military Assistance Command, Viet­
nam, recommended that a contract be negotiated with Alaska
Barge and Transport Company. The concept of utilizing civilian
contractors was approved by the Secretary of Defense in November
1965 and he directed the Military Sea Transportation Service
to negotiate the contract. By 8 December the contract was signed
and operations began in early 1966. This intra-coastal augmenta­
tion included a barge-tug fleet among which were two stripped
down LST hulls for use as barges.
Because only one major port, Cam Ranh Bay, had a deep
draft pier for the discharge of ammunition, a large number of the
available barges were used to support the ammunition discharge
program. The ammunition discharge in the Saigon-Cat Lai (Nha
Be) complex, for example, was in effect a combination stream-
discharge and inland waterway distribution system and placed a
heavy requirement on the available barge assets. In each major
port complex, contractor-furnished lighterage augmented the lim­
ited military capability that was available.
A new requirement was announced in 1967 to move a minimum
of 85,000 short tons per month of crushed rock into the Delta to
support the highway rehabilitation program. This program in­
creased the shallow draft barge and tug requirements and neces­
sitated expansion of the contract support provided by Alaska Barge
and Transport and another company, the Luzon Stevedoring Com­
pany.
A number of LSTs were being utilized for carrying cargo from
Far Eastern Pacific ports to South Vietnam. To relieve pressure
on LST assets and in order to make more shallow-draft shipping
available in South Vietnam, the Commanding Officer, Military Sea
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 171

Transportation Service, Far East procured small foreign flag ships

and retained some of the Continental U. S.-to-South Vietnam ship­
ping resources for intra-theater use. This additional deep-draft
shipping plus the improvements in ship turn-around time in South
Vietnamese ports contributed substantially to decreasing the pres­
sure on LST resources and permitted a greater use of LSTs for
deliveries to shallow-draft ports in lieu of LCM's and LCU's. Never­
theless, LST requirements continued to be sufficiently heavy to
maintain pressure on the allocation and use of theater LST assets.
Transshipment of cargo from major South Vietnamese ports to
areas supported by over-the-beach unloading continued on a large
scale, although Commander in Chief Pacific favored the develop­
ment of additional deep-water berths in various ports such as Vung
Ro, Qui Nhon, and Vung Tau in order to reduce dependence on
LST operations.
The maritime fleet which supported the resupply of combat
operations in South Vietnam was inadequate and outdated. Al­
though a majority of the vessels had been in moth balls, they were
worn out. These ships required an extensive amount of repair to
put them in service and keep them afloat. It would have been more
cost effective if we had had a fleet of ships designed to meet the
requirements for movement of troops and military cargo.

Containerization
Containerization was an important logistic concept used exten­
sively in Vietnam. About 1950 the Army first developed a concept
of utilizing a standard-sized container to give a semblance of
automation to the movement of supplies through the pipeline from
Continental U.S. stations and depots to overseas units and depots.
The standard steel container called container express with a cap­
acity of 9,000 lbs was designed to be carried on trucks and rail
cars and be handled by the general purpose 5-ton capacity cargo
gear on most ocean freighters.
The Army efforts in containerization originated with the port
and supply problems in World War II and Korea and made use
of the advances made by other services and industry in unitiza­
tion and palletization of cargo. All services stressed palletization.
In addition to the Army and Air Force investments in container
express containers, the Marines had developed two standard-sized
mount-out boxes for deploying forces; and the Air Force developed
its 463-L system to handle palletized cargo in aircraft.
In early 1965 the Army and the Air Force jointly owned an
inventory of almost 100,000 container express containers. Every
172 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

major U. S. Army unit moving to the theater carried its accom­

panying spare parts and supplies in containers. For example,
the U. S. 1st Cavalry deployment included about 2,500 containers,
all prominently marked with the big yellow division patch. Army
aviation units used containers with prebinned stockage of the
myriad of small items—rivets, cotter pins, and nuts and bolts
peculiar to aviation support and utilized in large volumes. As the
conflict escalated, there was more and more demand for containers,
and eventually the theater inventory exceeded 150,000 (of the
total 200,000 units then owned by the Army and Air Force).
The 150,000 units in-theater represented about six million
square feet of covered storage. This figure is impressive when com­
pared to the fact that only about 11 million square feet of covered
storage had been built in the entire theater by the middle of 1969.
Few of the containers moved into the theater ever returned. They
satisfied a wide variety of needs for shelter including dispensaries,
command posts, PXs, and bunkers.
Containers played an integral part in a special project to make
Cam Ranh Bay a major U. S. Army supply base. As in most loca­
tions in Vietnam, the construction of depot facilities did not keep
pace with the influx of supplies and equipment. It was estimated
in January 1966 that the Cam Ranh Bay depot would be support­
ing a force of 95,000 men by the end of June 1966. In an effort to
overcome the lack of depot facilities, the Army Materiel Command
prepared, in effect, a prepackaged container depot containing a 60­
day stockage level of repair parts for all units supported by the
depot at Cam Ranh Bay. When completed, the entire package of
about 53,000 line items together with a library of manuals, stock
records, locator cards, and other documentation, was contained
in 70 military van semitrailers and 437 binned containers.
This represented container-oriented logistics in a highly so­
phisticated form and was also a good example of the integration of
supply and transportation systems. The project packages arrived at
Cam Ranh Bay on 21 May 1966 and a total of 13,538 material
release orders were issued during the first 10 days of operation
with only 26 warehouse denials—less than 0.2 percent.
The next step forward in utilization of intermodal containers
(containers that can be shipped by rail, truck, air or ship) in
support of operations in Vietnam was the introduction of container
ship support by Sea-Land Services, Inc. These ships were designed
to carry the more familiar Sea-Land container which is essentially
a trailer van that can be set on a trailer bed and be pulled by a
truck (or on a rail flat car). The container can be removed from
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 173

the trailer bed and set on the container ship. Special type cranes
are needed either at the port or incorporated on the ship. In 1966
Sea-Land began providing container service to the Army on Oki­
nawa. Sea-Land container support was extended to the Navy at
Subic Bay in the Philippines. In 1967 Sea-Land was introduced
into Vietnam. Since that time every command concerned with the
support of U.S. Forces in Vietnam expressed satisfaction with
the degree of success achieved in the container ship operations
moving general cargo and perishable subsistence into Vietnam.
Ammunition was also successfully handled in container ship
service. During December 1969 and January 1970, a Test of Con­
tainerized Shipment of Ammunition was conducted to determine
the feasibility of shipping ammunition from the United States to
Vietnam by container ship service. A self-sustaining container ship
was used in the test to move 226 containers of ammunition from
the United States to Cam Ranh Bay. Some of the containers were
unloaded in the ammunition depot at Cam Ranh Bay; others
were transshipped on lighterage to Qui Nhon and on to forward
supply points. The test was such a success that the 1st Logistical
Command recommended the initiation of regularly scheduled am­
munition resupply in container ships to reduce order and ship
time and provide savings in pipeline inventory. The requirement
for initial procurement of container materials handling equip­
ment during the wind-down period in Southeast Asia and the
establishment of new procedures for container movement of am­
munition resulted in a decision not to use containers for routine
ammunition movement.
Experiences of Southeast Asia show real advantages in the use
of containers. Cargo is moved faster, there is less damage and
loss of cargo and there are major savings in handling costs and
packaging. The new transportation technique requires the use of
large and expensive equipment and special container materials
handling equipment, to include ship or shore side gantry cranes.
Accounting and control procedures must also be developed to
effectively operate a container system. The system approach must
be followed as the size and weight of container limit improvision.
If self-sustaining ships are not available, shore side equipment
must be provided. All containers and their materials handling
equipment must be compatible for both surface (road, rail, sea)
and air movement of containers.
Experience with large intermodal containers in Vietnam clearly
indicated that their full exploitation could greatly enhance the
 174 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

transportation, storage and handling of supplies. The following four

advantages speak for themselves:
1. Container ships can be discharged 7 to 10 times faster than
breakbulk ships and with fewer personnel. Drastic reductions in
berthing space and in port operating personnel requirements
also result.
2. The practicality of operating directly out of containers pre-
binned in the United States is feasible and was demonstrated at
Cam Ranh Bay.
3. All recipients of containerized cargo noted a reduction in
damaged and lost cargo—particularly ammunition, perishable items,
and PX supplies.
4. Because cargo is moved intact in a container from the Con­
tinental U.S. to the depot or directly to a forward unit, problems
in sorting and identifying cargo are minimized.
Augmenting the container service were Roll-on—Roll-off ships.
The Roll-on—Roll-off concept provided a land and water express
service comprising the through put concept of cargo between con­
tinental United States depots and overseas depots; and also be­
tween inter- and intra-theater depots. Cargo is checked at the point
of origin and loaded aboard a trailer type conveyance, transported
to a vessel at the port of loading, rolled into the vessel, stowed,
and rolled off at the port of discharge and dispatched to forward
destinations.
The Roll-on—Roll-off operation combined the U.S. Army Trail­
er Service Agency with Military Sea Transportation Service Roll­
on—Roll-off type ships to facilitate the movement of general cargo.
The service was used for providing scheduled depot-to-depot de­
livery of combat support items, and gave a faster, more flexible
response to theater logistics requirements. It reduced the intransit
exposure of ship and cargo to enemy action, reduced oversea supply
point requirements, and reduced shiploading and discharge times. It
also lessened the requirement for permanent port and rail facilities.
The Roll-on—Roll-off service which had been operating in sup­
port of Europe was transferred to Okinawa to support operations in
Southeast Asia. Beginning in March 1966, this service operated
between Okinawa, Cam Ranh Bay, Saigon, Qui Nhon and Bang­
kok.
The Military Sea Transportation Service ships Comet, Trans-
globe, and Taurus plus 2,400 trailers were used in the Roll-on—
Roll-off operations. A typical Roll-on—Roll-off ship had the capacity
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 175

to transport Roll-on—Roll-off trailers, containers, or large or small

military vehicles.
Materiel Handling Equipment was in short supply during the
early build-up in Vietnam. This significantly impaired the unload­
ing of materiel from transportation vehicles and the movement of
materiel within the storage areas. This equipment was especially
critical due to the palletization concept of stocking and moving
supplies. Resupply and retrograde at the most forward logistic
support areas were almost totally dependent on Materiel Handling
Equipment. Shortages of Materiel Handling Equipment prevented
the realization of the full potential of the palletization concept.
In an attempt to meet the urgent demands for Materiel Han­
dling Equipment during the early period, 47 different makes and
models were procured. However, this resulted in an almost im­
possible task of stocking repair parts, which in turn created a high
equipment deadline rate. This rate was not lowered until a stand­
ardization program was instituted. In 1966, steps were taken to re­
duce the 47 models to five commercial models plus two rough ter­
rain fork lifts. By August 1967, this has been accomplished and the
Materiel Handling Equipment situation improved.

Maintenance
The U.S. maintenance capability (less aircraft) in South Viet­
nam in March 1965 consisted of a three-bay third echelon main­
tenance shop in downtown Saigon limited to vehicle and armament
repair and instrument calibration, with a work force of ten per­
sonnel.
Adequate facilities in early 1965 were a problem. For example,
an old rice mill located along the Saigon Canal was selected and
acquired in May 1965 for the Saigon area maintenance facility.
The buildings were of brick construction with dirt floors covered
with two feet of rice hulls. Maintenance personnel removed and
disposed of the rice hulls and cleaned out the buildings. Lacking
engineer support, maintenance personnel poured their own con­
crete floors using a road grader to spread the concrete and installed
the necessary electrical wiring in the buildings. The maintenance
shops were opened one building at a time as they were made
usable.
Many direct support and general support units arrived in 1965
without Authorized Stockage Lists or Prescribed Load Lists of
repair parts. This problem was the result of three things. Con­
tinental U.S. activities did not know what units or types of equip­
ment the direct support or general support units were to support;
176 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

therefore adequate parts lists could not be prepared. Requests

from Continental U.S. to the 1st Logistical Command for units and
equipment densities could not be satisfied because the information
of units and equipment enroute to South Vietnam was not avail­
able. In addition, the very fluid tactical situation in South Viet­
nam in early 1965, with the resultant changes in in-country deploy­
ment of combat units, made it almost impossible to develop unit
densities of equipment to be supported with any reasonable degree
of accuracy. The maintenance effort started short of repair parts
and it did not recover until mid-1966. The interim period was
characterized by a highly skilled maintenance capability without
sufficient repair parts to utilize this capability to the maximum.
This period was also characterized by unusually low Operational
Readiness rates for engineer equipment, Materiel Handling Equip­
ment, trucks, water craft and generators. All of these were es­
sential items in properly carrying out the logistical mission.
Maintenance Support Positive reevaluated the Army Mainten­
ance System to provide for performance of tasks at the level
that provides maximum readiness and cost effectiveness, achieves
the best mix of modular and piece parts repair, increases the use
of modular design of new equipment, expands direct exchange,
improves design and application of test, measurement and di­
agnostic equipment, optimizes use of mobile maintenance and re­
duces requirements for complicated tools at the forward levels of
maintenance. The maintenance structure must be flexible enough
to combine selected levels of maintenance within the Army force
structure to permit responsive, effective and efficient application
of resources to sustain or improve the operational readiness of a
complex commodity or weapon system.
The initiation of the Red Ball Express in December 1965, as
a result of the Secretary of Defense's visit to South Vietnam, was
a great help in improving operational readiness rates for critical
items. As Authorized Stockage Lists and Prescribed Load Lists
were developed and received, adequate maintenance facilities were
developed, and supported units were stabilized, the Operational
Readiness rates increased to the highest ever found in a combat
zone. However, these rates were made possible only through the
expensive replacement of entire components (engines, differen­
tials, transmissions) at direct support levels. Table 10 shows the
Operational Readiness rates for some selected items of equipment
between June 1966 and June 1970.
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 177
TABLE 10—OPERATIONAL READINESS (IN PERCENT)
Military
Assistance
Command, Actual Operational Readiness Rates
Vietnam
Items Objective June 1966 June 1967* June 1970*
Tractors 80 80 88 82
Rough Terrain Fork Lift 80 82 87 82
M109 How (SP) 85 92 92 87
M107 Gun (SP) 85 85 86 93
Generators 80 85 89 87
(all types)
5-Ton Trucks 90 90
(all types)
•1968 and 1969 operational readiness rates did not differ materially from those shown for 1967.
••Slight decline shows the impact of Cambodian Operations.

Reorganization in Combat
The war in Vietnam occurred at a time of significant changes
in the Army's organizational structure. At the start of the buildup,
maintenance support was provided by units of the Technical
Services: Chemical, Engineer, Medical, Ordnance, Quartermaster,
Signal, and Transportation. Units organized and trained by the
Technical Services performed support operations at the field level
under doctrine and detailed procedures developed by each Tech­
nical Service. The system contained inherent disadvantages be­
cause of its fragmentation into seven virtually autonomous struc­
tures. In some instances, all seven Technical Services were involved
in the support of a single end item, such as a tank. In mid-1966,
a reorganization to the Combat Service to the Theater Army con­
cept was begun in Vietnam. This was a large undertaking. It re­
quired deactivation of old units, activation of new units, realign­
ment of functions, realignment of personnel, and redistribution of
equipment. Combat Service to the Theater Army eliminated Tech­
nical Services maintenance units (except medical) and created a
functional organization that was compatible with the existing force
structure, the divisions and the commodity oriented Continental
U.S. base. It eliminated duplication of maintenance training, skills,
tools, and test equipment. It was also designed to reduce the span of
control of the force commander, increase responsiveness, and pro­
vide one stop service and support. The effectiveness of main­
tenance, however, was impeded initially by the turbulence caused
by this reorganization.
The U.S. Army Vietnam maintenance system included all
categories of maintenance from the operator's level to limited
depot overhaul, as well as calibration of equipment, controlled
178 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

cannibalization, and repair parts supply. Chart 12 depicts i

organizational relationship, and the approximate troop streng
of the major maintenance elements of U.S. Army Vietnam as
August 1969. The 1st Logistical Command provided mair
nance support of ground equipment to all U.S. Army forces. 1
U.S. Navy provided common item maintenance support, wl
requested, to Free World Military Assistance Forces. Map 6 depi
the general location and nature of maintenance support units
Vietnam. All categories of maintenance support were prima]
accomplished through the four Support Commands of the
Logistical Command. Emphasis was on direct support as far i
ward as practicable. General support maintenance was provk
primarily from the larger logistics bases where more stabili
conditions existed. Depot level maintenance by military units i
minimized by the use of contractors in-country and off-shore de
maintenance support.
Between April and September 1965, 15 maintenance compai
arrived in Vietnam. By late 1968, 35 maintenance compai
were operating in Vietnam. The four Support Commands direc
and co-ordinated maintenance services within their areas of resp
sibility. The nuclei of the maintenance organizations were
general support groups which also served as the command ;
control headquarters for direct support and general support ba
CHART 12—ORGANIZATION OF U.S. ARMY VIETNAM MAINTENANCE SYS­
(AUGUST 1969)

U.S. Army
Vietnam
(340,000 Personnel)

34th General
6 Divisions 1st
14 Engineer Support Aviation 44th
Each With 1 Logistical
Construction Maintenance Medicc
Direct Command
— Battalions and Supply Brigade (
Support (10,000
Each With 1 Group (7,000 Maintena
Maintenance Maintenance
Maintenance Maintenance Personn
Battalion Personnel)
Detachment Personnel)

5 Brigades Da Nang Qui Nhon Cam Ranh Saigo

Each With 1 Support Support Bay Support Suppoi
Maintenance Command Command Command Comma
Company
 MAINTENANCE

SUPPORT UNITS
Quang Tri

LZ Nancy \—\

August 1969 Camp Evans I—I

I—I General Camp Eagles I—I

— Aviation Gia Le I—I

Phu Bai I—I +

+ Medical
—i— Marine
> o 75 MILES Da Nang |—| —
1
HftM I ' I I '
25 0 75 KILOMETERS

Chu Lai I—I +

Phu Loi I—I —

Long Gaio |—|

Long Binh |—| — -+­

Bear Cat I—I

Vung Tau I—I "­
Saigon i—| — + -1­
Dong Tarn |—| —

Can Tho I—I —

MAP 6

180' LOGISTIC SUPPORT

lions. (Chart 13) Composite battalions were also formed within

the Support Commands, to assure service within geographical areas.
For example, the 57th Transportation Battalion, located at Chu
Lai, served as the composite headquarters for two maintenance
companies, a transportation company, a supply and services com­
pany and several quartermaster platoons. In addition each combat
division and separate brigade had its own organic direct support
capability. The 11 th Armored Cavalry Regiment was an exception.
It obtained its maintenance support from the 1st Logistical Com­
mand on an area basis. As elements of the regiment relocated, the
nearest 1st Logistical Command unit provided service. This method
of support proved unsatisfactory because of the 11th Armored
Cavalry Regiment's high and fluctuating maintenance demands. In
the future such organizations should be assigned an organic main­
tenance unit.
The many isolated positions, such as fire bases and landing
zones, were supported through a system of maintenance detach­
ments and contact teams provided from the available resources of
support command units. In the major base complexes such as at
Long Binh, Da Nang, Pleiku, Qui Nhon and Cam Ranh Bay,

CHART 13—THE 1ST LOGISTICAL COMMAND MAINTENANCE STRUCTURE

(AUGUST 1969)

Headquarters
1st Logistical
Command

U.S. Army U.S. Army U.S. Army U.S. Army

Support Command Support Command Support Command Support Command
Da Nang Qui Nhon Cam Ranh Bay Saigon

54th General 29th General

Support Group Support Group
80th General 26th General (Nha Trang) (Long Binh)
Support Group Support Group
(Da Nang) (Phu Bai)

45th General 86th General

593d General
Support Group Support Maintenance
Support Group
(Pleiku) Battalion
(Qui Nhon)
(Cha Rang)
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 181

forces were concentrated enough to employ conventional battalion-

sized maintenance units occupying permanent type facilities.
The in-country maintenance of medical equipment was pri­
marily performed by base and advanced medical depots with the
32d Medical Depot providing technical assistance. However, med­
ical units themselves, operating under the control of the 44th
Medical Brigade (which was supervised by the U.S. Army Vietnam
Surgeon), performed limited maintenance. Medical maintenance
shops were colocated with medical supply depots. The base depot
was located at Cam Ranh Bay and subordinate advanced depots
were located at Phu Bai, Chu Lai, Qui Nhon, and Long Binh.

Equipment Repair Problems

Generally speaking, U.S. Army equipment in South Vietnam
was the best ever fielded in combat. However, the lack of equip­
ment standardization was a frustrating problem. For instance, ini­
tially 145 different sizes and types of commercial generators were
used by the Army in Vietnam. Repair parts supply was difficult,
at best, requiring extraordinary efforts for procurement, and in
many cases the repair parts that were available lacked interchange­
ability. The situation was much the same with material handling
equipment. In March of 1966, steps were taken to reduce the
47 Materiel Handling Equipment models then in use to five com­
mercial models plus two rough terrain fork lifts. By August 1967,
this was completed.
Another major problem was the difficulty in maintaining some
equipment due to its design. Under the adverse environmental
conditions encountered in Vietnam, the problem was magnified.
For example, the road wheel oil fill plugs on the M551 Sheridan
vehicle were located on the inside of the wheels making it neces­
sary for a crew member to crawl underneath the vehicle to reach
them. During the monsoon season this was virtually impossible
unless the vehicle was inside a building or shelter of some sort.
Also, there was no satisfactory way to keep twigs and leaves from
being sucked up against the radiator of the M551 and cutting off
the required air flow. Therefore engines overheated. Practically
all U.S. engines used dry-type air cleaners. To blow off the dust
and wash them in soapy water as required by the manuals was not
a practical operation under Vietnam combat conditions.
While Operational Readiness rates were high, this was due to
the expensive replacements of entire components. The wear out
rate of engines, differentials, and transmissions was abnormally
high and this was at least partially attributable to operator abuse
182 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

and inadequate organizational maintenance. The cost and efforts

involved in transporting, overhauling, and storing the compo­
nents that should not have been worn out were significant and pre­
ventable.
Though not a maintenance fault, failures of multifuel engines
created the requirement for a major off-shore maintenance effort
and a sizeable supply problem. In January 1967, more than 300
5-ton trucks were deadlined in Vietnam because of inoperative
multifuel engines (a similar condition existed for 2^-ton trucks)
due to cracked blocks, blown head gaskets, valve stems and con­
necting rods. A study indicated that many failures occurred be­
tween 9,000 and 10,000 miles and that the units hardest hit were
the line haul transportation units whose engines were subjected to
continuous use (2,000 miles per month in Vietnam). The pros­
pect for improvement at this point was negligible because of the
lack of repair parts and overhaul capacity. Multifuel engines
powered both 2y2- and 5-ton trucks. A similar condition also existed
in Thailand. The annual engine replacement rate of 6 per 100
vehicles per year increased to a rate of one engine per vehicle per
year.
By the summer of 1967, an airlift program, Red Ball Express
was put into effect in an attemp to alleviate the shortage of engines
and repair parts. The Red Ball Express was designed to be used
in lieu of normal procedures exclusively to expedite repair parts
to remove equipment from deadline status. Reserved and predict­
able airlift was made available for this purpose. The seriousness
of the situation led to a multifuel engine conference on 28 August
1967. The conference resulted in several recommendations, the
most significant of which was that three multifuel engines, LD
427, LD 465, and LDS 465, were to be placed under Closed Loop
Support management because of the inability of units in the field
to cope with the maintenance problem. A further recommendation
was made that return to the Continental U.S. be authorized for
vehicles that could not be supported with multifuel repair parts
or replacement engine assemblies. Because a large percentage
of the producers' production capacity was consumed in end items
assembly, some repair parts and new replacement engine assem­
blies were not readily available. Department of the Army approved
the recommendations of the conference and directed that neces­
sary retrograde, overhaul, and shipping operations be initiated
immediately.
Although the conference had focused attention on the supply
aspect and premature failure of engines, significant intangibles
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 183

remained unsolved, including proper operation of vehicles and

user maintenance. Because of the characteristic difference of the
multifuel engine from the standard internal combustion engine,
periodic maintenance and specific mandatory operational procedures
differed sharply from procedures used with other vehicles and
required closer attention. Simply put, despite years of testing effort,
the multifuel engine did not possess the ruggedness and tolerance
to withstand the abuses inherent in field operations.

Marine Maintenance
With the exception of the newly developed amphibian river
patrol boats and Amphibious Cargo Resupply Lighters, there was
only one US Army vessel in South Vietnam less than 14 years
old. This vessel, the beach discharge lighter Page, was the only
ocean going vessel that was not of World War II design. As part
of the effort to maintain the over-age fleet, a systematic overhaul
of all craft began in 1967, but a shortage of repair parts caused
delays. For instance, 14 tugs, or 38 percent of the tug fleet, were
being overhauled in out-of-country shipyards at one time. Five of
these tugs had been undergoing overhaul for more than one year.
This made it necessary to lease seven commercial tugs at a cost
of $1,283,000 per year to insure continuity of tug boat service.
The excessive amount of man-hours and dollars spent to maintain
the obsolete vessels and equipment of the marine fleet make it
clear that these should be replaced by an up-to-date fleet.
The U.S. Army marine fleet consisted of amphibious and con­
ventional lighters, landing craft, tug boats, barges and other ves­
sels up to 2,200 long tons capacity. To support this fleet, the
Marine Maintenance Activity, Vietnam was organized in 1966,
with headquarters at Cam Ranh Bay. In 1967 the Marine Main­
tenance Activity, Vietnam consisted of a headquarters and four
small detachments which were positioned in the areas with the
largest concentration of marine craft. One was located at Qui Nhon,
one at Cam Ranh Bay, and two under the Saigon Support Com­
mand. The Marine Maintenance Activity supported the II, III
and IV Corps, while the U.S. Navy supported the I Corps. Main­
tenance beyond the capacity of the Marine Maintenance Activity
was accomplished by in-country contractors and at off-shore
facilities. Overall responsibility for the marine maintenance mis­
sion rested with U.S. Army Vietnam while operational control
was the responsibility of the support commands. The Marine
Maintenance Activity exercised technical supervision over the
four detachments. The Marine Maintenance Activity, Vietnam
184 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

organization with detachment strengths, as of August 1969, is de­

picted in Chart 14.

Maintenance Support of Common Items

The major area of interface between the military services and
maintenance systems occurred with the support of common items.
In general, common maintenance support between the U.S. mili­
tary services was very limited. Similar to the area of common
supply support, the objective of each service for logistical self-
sufficiency dominated in the buildup period and tended to persist
for the duration. Commonality of equipment too was limited, and
effective common maintenance support was frequently impaired
by the geographical deployment of the maintenance unit and the
"customer" unit in different tactical zones. Insufficient stockage of
both common and peculiar repair parts also impeded common
maintenance support. An example of this was the equipment of
the 3d Armored Cavalry Squadron, 5th Regiment, 9th Division, at­
tached to the 1st Marine Division at Da Nang. Although the
Marine Corps did provide Class I, II, III and V supply to the
squadron it was unable to furnish maintenance support. The latter
was provided by the U.S. Army Maintenance unit located at Da
Nang until the Squadron was withdrawn from the zone and re­
turned to the III Corps area. The U.S. Air Force and Navy
received some maintenance support from the Army on such common
items as administrative type vehicles in other tactical areas. This
same type of general maintenance support was provided to medi­
cal and aviation units by the 1st Logistical Command and included
some tactical vehicles. For example the Army provided mainte­
nance support for UH-1 helicopters used by the Navy in its "Sea­
wolf" operation and for the Air Force modernization program of
0-1 aircraft and UH-1 helicopters for transfer to allied forces.
Conversely under the Army-Air Force basic support agreements
the Air Force allocated some 11,000 manhours per month of its
commercial contract capability for maintenance support of Army
aircraft. Repair of Army owned test sets and special equipment
was also accomplished by the Air Force when appropriate under
these arrangements. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, and
adviser units lacking maintenance capability were also offered main­
tenance support. Cooperative exchange arrangements with the
Navy were also conducted by the 1st Logistical Command through
the Support Commands. For example, the recapping of Army
tires and the re-winding of unserviceable motors was accomplished
under Navy contracts. Under similar support arrangements the
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 185
CHART 14—ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE, MARINE MAINTENANCE

ACTIVITY, VIETNAM (AUGUST 1969)

U.S. Army

Vietnam

1st Logistical
Command

U.S. Army U.S. Army U.S. Army

Support Command Support Command Support Command
Qui Nhon Cam Ranh Bay Saigon

Marine Maintenance
Marine Maintenance Activity, Vietnam Marine Maintenance
Detachment 1 Detachment 4
Headquarters
18 enlisted men; 266 enlisted men: Detachment 2
1 officer 11 officers
80 enlisted men;
5 officers
LEGEND:
Technical Supervision

Army maintained Marine Corps radar equipment to assure opera­

tional readiness. Conversely, the Marine Corps maintenance teams
in the Da Nang Area assisted the Army in repairing and cleaning
office machines.
The Army also provided maintenance support for common
items of materiel in the hands of allied forces, beyond the capability
of these forces. These services were furnished under cooperative
logistics support arrangements with the allied nations involved.

Maintenance Workload
By 1966, maintenance support was characterized by the heavy
over-loading of direct support maintenance units whose normal
mission was to repair and return equipment to using units. Gen­
eral support maintenance units were forced to assume direct
support missions. The Army reported to the Secretary of Defense
on 29 August 1968 that 38 percent of the general support capa­
bility had been diverted to direct support level tasks. The result­
ant lack of general support was compensated for by the stand­
186 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

ardization of equipment, off-shore maintenance support, and the

Closed Loop System. General support maintenance in-country
increased from 37i/£ percent of total maintenance in 1966 to 49 per­
cent in 1968.
U.S. Army Vietnam reported that the Army Equipment Rec­
ords System was generally ineffective in Vietnam. While its ob­
jectives were valid, the system was too cumbersome to be used under
the stress of combat. It required the collection of detailed informa­
tion on all the equipment, but this required a level of skill which
was not available. The Army equipment records procedures have
since been revised and simplified. The new system, designated
The Army Maintenance Management System, reduced the orga­
nizational reporting and recording effort at the crew and mechanic
level by 80 percent and reduced automatic data processing by 50
percent.

Off-Shore Maintenance Problems

As maintenance requirements in Vietnam increased, it was
essential that overhaul capabilities be established in the Pacific
Theater to provide responsive support and reduce the lengthy
overhaul pipeline. With the development in 1967 of Closed Loop
support for armored personnel carriers in Vietnam, the Sagami
depot maintenance capabilities in Japan were expanded to enable
it to support the requirements of the Eighth Army, U.S. Army
Vietnam and the South Vietnamese Army. Production schedules
were increased after a successful effort to recruit additional per­
sonnel. A labor force of approximately 615 was employed at
Sagami by the end of June 1967.
Okinawa continued the marine craft maintenance programs,
with a strength of 210 personnel devoted to that mission. In 1967,
as U.S. Army Vietnam overhaul requirements continued to in­
crease, the problem with multifuel engines required the establish­
ment of overhaul and modification programs on Okinawa. The
number of maintenance personnel was increased to 1,381. These
programs included maintenance of trucks, construction equip­
ment, electronics and communication equipment, materials hand­
ling equipment, and marine craft.
During 1966 and 1967, maintenance units were deployed to
Okinawa as a part of the 2d Logistical Command, which was
charged with the support of island forces and offshore general sup­
port for Vietnam. The general support workload was primarily
for tactical wheeled vehicles, generators, materials handling equip­
ment, and electronic communications items, and amounted to 50
SERVICE SUPPORT: TRANSPORTATION AND MAINTENANCE 187

percent of the Vietnam requirement. This level of effort was

maintained through 1969.
In 1965, Army overseas depot level maintenance existed on a
limited basis in Germany and Japan. Depot maintenance activi­
ties were manned principally by local nationals with few spaces
authorized for officers and non-commissioned officers. The only
Army depot level facility in the Pacific was located at U.S. Army
Depot Command, Sagami, Japan. Depot capability in Japan con­
sisted of a work force of 504 local nationals devoted to maintenance
of Military Assistance.
By 1969, overhaul in the Pacific reached a cost level of $35
million. Production of combat vehicles in Japan was increased to
100 personnel carriers and 12 tanks per month. Marine craft main­
tenance contracting functions were assumed from the Navy and
the use of all existing commercial facilities continued. By the end
of June 1970, the following offshore organic depot maintenance
personnel strengths had been reached.
Military DA Civilian Local Nationals Total
Okinawa 754 141 1014 1909
Japan 56 37 1257 1350

3259

Phasedown of Maintenance Support

Combat units in process of standing-down prior to redeploy­
ment from South Vietnam turned in large quantities of equipment.
During September 1969, a Special Criteria for Retrograde of
Army Materiel was instituted for Southeast Asia. This criteria
provided simplified inspection and classification procedures for
quickly determining the condition of materiel being considered
for reissue, retrograde, or maintenance. As a result, equipment can
be classified and retrograded promptly with less skilled personnel
than would be required if full technical inspections were used.
Some scrap may have been shipped out of country and some
serviceable assets may have been scrapped, but equipment was
moved at the same rate troops were withdrawn. Generally service­
able equipment was retained. Only borderline unserviceable items
may have been misclassified. This was not a great price to pay to in­
sure meeting troop withdrawal and equipment turn-in schedules.
 CHAPTER VII

Service Support in Vietnam:

Construction, Real Estate,
and Communications

Construction and Real Estate

The construction aspects of the Vietnam war are described in
this section only as an overview. A separate monograph has been
written on this subject.

Base Development
Base development contingency plans prepared prior to the
buildup in Vietnam recognized that operations would be conducted
in a primitive area, almost totally devoid of logistics support capa­
bilities, and that a vast construction effort would be required to
build port facilities, Army airfields and heliports, storage depots,
hospitals, communications sites, roads, bridges and base areas for
tactical units. Also it was recognized that construction would be
completed under adverse conditions of civil unrest, unpredictable
warfare, and at a great distance from an industrial base.
The contingency planning for base development in Vietnam
was directed by Commander in Chief Pacific. Headquarters U.S.
Army Pacific was responsible for preparing the Army portion of
the plan. Actual development of the Army base development
plan for 1965 was delegated by Headquarters U.S. Army Pacific
to Headquarters U.S. Army Ryukyu Islands. Headquarters Mili­
tary Assistance Command, Vietnam, was responsible for co-ordina­
tion and control of logistic support within the objective area. As
operations increased in scope, the planning responsibilities were
transferred to Headquarters U.S. Army Vietnam. Thereafter, the
planning system followed the established chain of operational
control to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and of administrative and
logistic control to the Department of the Army. Ultimate control
on force structure and level of construction effort was maintained
by Office of the Secretary of Defense without delegation.
The original planning developed by Headquarters U.S. Army
CONSTRUCTION, REAL ESTATE, AND COMMUNICATION 189

Ryukyu Islands was in great detail and identified deficiencies and

problem areas. Provisions were made for management of the con­
struction effort first by U.S. Army Ryukyu Islands and later by the
1st Logistical Command. As specified by Commander in Chief
Pacific, planning was based on a relatively small in-country force
level of 64,000 troops. The use of tents was envisioned for the
first six months. The situation that developed was much different,
both in size and nature of operation, than envisioned during plan­
ning.
Standards and criteria for construction were established by
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam. Three standards of canton­
ment construction were prescribed. Each standard depended on
the anticipated duration of occupancy of the activity. The three
standards were field, intermediate and temporary. However, stand­
ards of living for troops were allowed to develop to a high degree.
The Commanding General U.S. Army Vietnam was authorized
to construct to intermediate standards. Military Assistance Com­
mand, Vietnam, reserved the right to authorize temporary stand­
ards. In general temporary standards included pre-engineered
metal or painted wood buildings, and modern utility systems.
Intermediate standards permitted wood buildings with limited
utility systems and field standard included tents or wood build­
ings with minimal utility systems.
Controls over construction were exercised by Military Assis­
tance Command, Vietnam. Early in 1966 a Director of Construc­
tion was established at that headquarters in recognition of the
magnitude of the military construction program. The Directorate
of Construction was assigned directive supervision and authority
over all Department of Defense construction commands and agen­
cies except for those organic to major combat units. This authority
extended to the direct assignment of specific projects to construc­
tion commands and agencies and to the adjustment of equipment,
materials, and other resources necessary to meet priorities estab­
lished by Commander U.S. Military Assistance Command, Viet­
nam. The Director of Construction was assigned the responsibility
of supervising and coordinating the accomplishment of joint master
base development plans.

Military Construction
From fiscal year 1965 through fiscal year 1971, Congress
authorized approximately $1,387 billion of Military Construction,
Army funds for construction in support of Southeast Asia. The
majority of these funds, approximately $969 million, were provided
190 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

for construction projects in Vietnam. From a relatively small Mili­

tary Construction, Army program of approximately $40 million
in fiscal year 1965, the funding program for South Vietnam
peaked in fiscal year 1966 and 1967. During that period the basic,
amended, and supplemental Military Construction, Army programs
and Military Assistance Program transfers totaled approximately
|707 million. The fiscal year 1968 and 1969 basic and supple­
mental programs totaled approximately $185 million. There were
no fiscal year 1970 Military Construction Army funds programmed
for South Vietnam because of the large unobligated balances from
prior years. The Army proposed $40 million for South Vietnam
in fiscal year 1971, but this was reduced by Congress to $27 mil­
lion including $2 million in planning funds.
Although the basic Military Construction, Army programs for
fiscal year 1965 through fiscal year 1971 (except for fiscal year
1970) provided construction funds for South Vietnam, the bulk of
the funds were derived from supplemental appropriations (in­
cluding amendments to the regular appropriations). The initial
supplemental authorization was in fiscal year 1965 through a
Joint Resolution by the Senate and House of Representatives and
allowed a great deal of flexibility in carrying out the Presidential
program in Southeast Asia. Subsequent supplemental authoriza­
tions were provided in lump sum amounts because of the con­
tinuing need for flexibility in the administration and execution
of the construction program for Southeast Asia in order to adjust
to changes in the military situation.
In addition to the Military Construction, Army funds, Congress
provided Office of the Secretary of Defense with contingency funds
for emergency construction which the Secretary of Defense could
use to provide for unforeseen construction requirements which
he considered vital to the security of the United States. These
funds were released to the Services on an as-needed basis by
Office of the Secretary of Defense upon notification to Congress,
and provided the greatest degree of flexibility in meeting contin­
gency construction requirements in support of Southeast Asia.
Within the $969 million Military Construction, Army funds autho­
rized for South Vietnam, the Secretary of Defense Contingency
Funds amounted to $135.6 million. As of 31 December 1970, $895
million of the funds authorized had been obligated and the work
in place totaled $808 million.
Prior to the 1969 Presidential decision to improve the Republic
of Vietnam Armed Forces capabilities and start United States troop
withdrawals, the major portion of the construction effort in South
CONSTRUCTION, REAL ESTATE, AND COMMUNICATION 191

Vietnam was to provide logistical facilities in support of United

States combat operations. With the "Vietnamization" decision,
Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird limited new construction
starts to the following categories: facilities required in Vietna­
mizing the war to include South Vietnam Armed Forces modern­
ization and improvement and Military Assistance Command, Viet­
nam, advisor facilities; Line of Communication program facilities
such as roads, airfields, and ports; emergency facilities required
for the safety, health, security, or in-country redeployment of the
forces; necessary repairs to battle damaged facilities, and facilities
required to support redeployment of U.S. units.
From 1969 on, an increasing percentage of the available Mili­
tary Construction, Army funds were used for Army of Vietnam
improvement and modernization projects such as maintenance
depots, storage facilities, training centers, and communication
stations.

Real Estate Management

The Pentalateral Agreement between the United States, South
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and France in 1950 provided the basis
for mutual defense and established that a host country would
provide land at no cost to a nation's forces. This agreement is
general in scope so administrative agreements were necessary be­
tween Government of Vietnam ministries and the U.S. Embassy
and U.S. Forces. Commander U.S. Military Assistance Command,
Vietnam, was given the responsibility for real estate operations
in support of military needs. He was authorized to further dele­
gate authority in carrying out this responsibility.
The term of occupancy for using Vietnam bases was indefinite.
Each U.S. request for real estate included the following state­
ment: "Upon termination of use and occupancy of the area,
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, retains the option of re­
moving or abandoning in place any structure or installation placed
thereon." Leases were utilized by U.S. Forces to acquire privately
owned buildings such as warehouses, office spaces, and billets which
were required, but not made available by the Government of
Vietnam. Rental payments were made from the requesting agency's
Operation and Maintenance, Army funds. These payments were
made in piasters.
Table 11 outlines the breakdown on U.S. Army Real Estate
holdings, lease costs, and construction costs in South Vietnam for
the period 1964-1970.
192 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

TABLE 11—REAL ESTATE HOLDINGS IN SOUTH VIETNAM

Cost of Construction
to the U.S.
Government Lease Costs Acres Under
Fiscal Year (thousands of dollars) (thousands of dollars Army Control
64 3,044 614 366
65 5,139 2,152 370
66 21,700 24,180 73,095
67 222,360 26,289 125,676
68 364,956 14,641 184,159
69 545,190 12,879 197,754
70 651,162 11,333 186,750

Facilities Engineering
In Vietnam for the first time in the history of modern war­
fare, extensive facilities engineering services were provided in an
active theater of operations. Troops were provided with facilities
without having to be occupied with the accompanying problems
of maintenance and operation of those facilities.
The Army relied almost entirely on a contractor, Pacific Archi­
tects and Engineers, to furnish facilities engineering support in
II, III, and IV, and later in I Corps. Use of a contractor allowed
engineer troops to be used for operational support and base con­
struction. The contractor's organization was tailored to the partic­
ular installation supported. Using a contractor for a housekeeping
type operation was consistent with the Department of Defense
objective of minimizing the number of in-country support troops.
The contract was worded so that Pacific Architects and Engineers
furnished the required labor, organization, and management and
the U.S. Government provided equipment, repair parts, tools,
and materials on a nonreimbursable basis as well as quarters and
messing facilities on an as available basis. At peak strength
Pacific Architects and Engineers had a work force of over 24,000
employees.
On 1 July 1968 technical control of the Pacific Architects and
Engineers contract passed from the 1st Logistical Command to the
U.S. Army Engineer Construction Agency, Vietnam. Although
the U.S. Army Procurement Agency, Vietnam retained adminis­
trative control of the Pacific Architects and Engineers contract,
the contracting officer's representatives positions were filled by
U.S. Army Engineer Construction Agency, Vietnam engineers who
directed and supervised the contractor's efforts. (Chart 15) The
three District Engineers at Saigon, Qui Nhon, and Cam Ranh Bay
supervised the Installation Engineers located at the various bases
 CHART 15—U.S. ARMY ORGANIZATION FOR FACILITIES MAINTENANCE, SOUTH VIETNAM

U.S. Army Japan

(Head of Procuring U.S. Army Vietnam

Activities)

U.S. Army Engineer

1st Logistical
Construction Agency,
Command
Vietnam

U.S. Army

Management Contract
Procurement Agency,

Office Cellular Units

Vietnam

(Gen. Manager)
(Contracting Officer)

District District District

Manager Manager Manager

Saigon Qui Nhon Cam Ranh Bay

Installation
Manager
194 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

and provided technical support to the installation in which they

were located.
Other real property maintenance support was furnished by the
Vinnell Corporation, which operated and maintained high-voltage
central power plants at several major installations.
One of the unusual features of the Vietnam conflict was the
application of normal peacetime statutory and regulatory constraints
which had a considerable effect on the facilities engineering pro­
gram. The limitations on approval authority for the use of opera­
tions and maintenance funds on minor construction projects costing
more than $25,000 and the strictures on approval authority for
the alteration and repair of battle damaged facilities proved to be
limiting factors in repairing the facilities, although the program
was not hindered by a lack of funds to do the job.
The project approval limitation had substantial impact on the
facilities engineering program. This was particularly true in the
earliest years of the Vietnam buildup, when the bulk of facili­
ties engineering effort (about 80 percent in fiscal years 1965
and 1966) was necessarily devoted to new construction.
Experience in Vietnam showed that utility requirement esti­
mates were entirely too low. Planning data on standards of living
were in need of revision. The heavy demands for electrical power,
water, and sewage systems had not been foreseen and local com­
mercial and municipal systems were incapable of providing any
support.

Communications
The Army communications system in Vietnam evolved from
a single half-duplex radio teletype circuit between Saigon and
Clark Air Force Base, Republic of the Philippines in 1951 to a
system involving 220 installations with 13,900 circuits during the
1965-1969 period.
To keep pace with these rapid developments, the 1st Signal
Brigade was activated in April 1966. During 1967 its strength
reached 19,700 personnel and contained all signal units not directly
associated with tactical units. All strategic and tactical communica­
tion systems were connected through the resources of the brigade.
This extensive communications network, equipped with new
standard tactical equipment, automatic message switching centers,
and telephone exchanges required logistical support from the U.S.
Army Vietnam 1st Logistical Command logistics system. For those
fixed communications sites which were contractor operated the
contractor was responsible for providing resupply. An unusual
CONSTRUCTION, REAL ESTATE, AND COMMUNICATION 195

aspect of the resupply system for communications equipment was

in the field of Communications Security distribution. Due to secu­
rity and accountability requirements Communications Security
equipment was shipped to Vietnam by means of the Armed Forces
Courier Service which used Tan Son Nhut as the port of entry.
From there in-country distribution had to be made through
a special Communications Security logistics system. This required
special and intensive management to marry up Communications
Security equipment with the telecommunications equipment. There
was another special resupply system established for the Satellite
Communications System. Requisitions for Satellite Communications
items were forwarded via a dedicated communications network to
the Satellite Communications Agency located at Fort Monmouth,
New Jersey. These requisitions were transmitted by leased tele­
type circuits directly to the prime contractor, Hughes Aircraft in
Fullerton, California. Repair parts were then mailed directly to the
communication facility via Army Post Office facilities. Items too
bulky or which were prohibited from being shipped through mail
channels were shipped to Norton Air Force Base, California and
then sent by air freight to their destination. In a number of cases,
a courier was provided to insure that parts did not become lost
or misplaced when the aircraft arrived in-country.

Communications Support of Logistical Units

The logistical system in Vietnam was greatly dependent upon
good communications and demanded a wide variety of trans­
mission media to transfer logistical data between logistics head­
quarters, logistics support elements, and supported units. The com­
munications subsystem in support of logistics activities consisted of
the Defense Communications Agency managed system, the U.S.
Army Vietnam managed Corps Area Communication System, the
Southeast Asia Automatic Telephone System, and the manual
switchboards that interfaced with the Southeast Asia Automatic
Telephone System. Logistic activities were also provided use of the
Automatic Secure Voice Communications network in South Viet­
nam. They were also provided access to the Corps Area Communi­
cation System communication center which interfaced with the
worldwide Automatic Digital Network.

Logistics of Standard Signal Items

Common supply signal equipment items, with the exception
of classified NESTOR (mythological designator used to identify
196 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

a family of secure voice devices) common supply items, were

requisitioned through a common supply channel—the 1st Logis­
tical Command. The classified NESTOR items were handled
through Communications Security logistical channels, however the
1st Logistical Command common supply channel was used to
distribute NESTOR ancillary items (for example installation kits
and cable assemblies).

Logistics of Non-Standard Items

The logistic support of U.S. Army Strategic Communications
peculiar items was performed entirely by the 1st Signal Brigade.
This brigade was simultaneously a customer for, as well as the
supplier, manager and operator of the peculiar items. Much of
the logistics support of the non-standard, fixed plant items was
provided through operations and maintenance contracts which
offered the expertise and logistical channels necessary to operate
and support the systems.
The Area Maintenance and Supply Facility concept was intro­
duced to support both fixed and tactical systems. Under this con­
cept two facilities were established in Vietnam to provide direct
support and general support to the fixed communications elec­
tronics systems. Supply was accomplished on a major site basis,
with each major site requisitioning for all its supported sites.
The requisitions for all types of technical supply were submitted
directly to an Area Maintenance and Supply Facility. Differentia­
tion between defined common items and peculiar items of supply
was made only at Area Maintenance and Supply Facilities. The
Area Maintenance and Supply Facilities requisitioned common
items from the theater depots and requisitioned peculiar items
directly from the Continental U.S. National Inventory Control
Point. Maintenance was provided on a direct support and general
support basis from the major sites and Area Maintenance and
Supply Facilities respectively.

Resources
Since no signal personnel were assigned to 1st Logistical Com­
mand, the Signal Office coordinated required work with the 1st
Signal Brigade which had the major communications role in Viet­
nam. Prime factors in determining the configuration and composi­
tion of the communications system were subscriber requirements
and densities. However, due to the nonavailability of mobile
communications equipment capable of meeting the sophisticated
CONSTRUCTION, REAL ESTATE, AND COMMUNICATION 197

requirements of a modern Army, the extensive use of fixed com­

munications equipment was necessary.

System Effectiveness
The communications system was inadequate in early 1965 re­
sulting in the loss of numerous requisitions. The needs of logis­
ticians soon influenced the development of a responsive and reli­
able communication system. By the summer of 1968 dial telephone
exchanges, secure voice terminals, and message and data transmis­
sion facilities had been placed at every major logistical installation
in South Vietnam.
 CHAPTER VIII

Service Support in Vietnam:

Subsistence and Miscellaneous

Subsistence
U.S. soldiers in Vietnam ate well. Ice cream and eggs to order
were not uncommon items at fire support bases. Extensive use
of large refrigerators, refrigerator vans, and helicopters permitted
troops in the field to enjoy garrison type rations on an almost
routine basis. Naturally these conditions were not available in
1965, but grew as logistics units arrived and facilities were esta­
blished and improved.
In early 1965, the Headquarters Support Activity, Saigon,
under operational control of the U.S. Navy, was responsible for
supplying perishable and nonperishable subsistence to all units in
South Vietnam except in I Corps which was supplied by Head­
quarters 3d Marine Amphibious Force. Headquarters Support
Activity, Saigon submitted its requisitions directly to Defense
Personnel Support Center in Continental U.S. Perishables were
shipped by air on a 2-2-3 day cycle to upcountry units. Non-
perishables were shipped by Landing Ship Tank (LST) on a
monthly basis to units located in Vung Tau, Cam Ranh Bay,
Nha Trang and Qui Nhon. The Navy continued to support all
U. S. forces as the wholesaler until March 1966. At that time the
responsibility for II, III and IV Corps was transferred to Head­
quarters, 1st Logistical Command.
When the 1st Logistical Command assumed the mission of sub­
sistence support from the Navy, requisitions were centralized for
II, III and IV Corps and submitted through 2d Logistical Com­
mand in Okinawa to the Defense Personnel Support Center. Later
the system was modified and requisitions were placed directly on
Defense Personnel Support Center. In November 1969, the system
was further modified requiring requisitions to be placed through
the Defense Automated Addressing System in order to integrate
subsistence data with other logistics information at the Logis­
tical Control Office, Pacific.
Originally field units subsisted primarily on B rations and
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 199

the MCI or meal, combat, individual (an individually packaged

meal, which does not require refrigeration). Units in areas such
as Saigon, Cam Ranh Bay and Vung Tau subsisted upon A rations
including fresh fruits, vegetables and milk in accordance with
the monthly Continental U.S. Master Menu.
This was later changed to a special thirty-day menu developed
for use in South Vietnam. This menu required more refrigerator
capacity than was available, and another menu, a twenty-eight-day
cyclic menu was developed in late 1966 requiring less refrigera­
tion.
Fresh fruits and vegetables were received from Continental
U.S., Western Pacific, and in-country sources. Items which could
not be successfully moved through the long Continental U.S.
supply line were procured from Western Pacific and in-country
suppliers.
In October 1967, the Sea Land Corporation began providing
refrigerator cargo service to South Vietnam. Four C4J vessels ar­
rived in Cam Ranh Bay every 15 days. Each vessel hauled 120
refrigerated vans and 530 general dry cargo vans. The 120 refriger­
ated vans were divided with 60 going to Saigon, 30 to Qui Nhon
and 30 remaining at Cam Ranh Bay. Distribution was made to
Saigon and Qui Nhon by a smaller shuttle vessel from Cam Ranh
Bay. This system was used because of the costs to construct other
land cranes to offload C4J vessels which do not have organic cranes.
A T3, capable of carrying 93 refrigerated vans and 360 general
cargo vans, was introduced to service the port of Da Nang.
To provide a wide range of dairy products, the A ration required
three recombining milk plants to be built in Vietnam. A Foremost
Dairy plant in Saigon began production in December 1965. Under
a contractual agreement with the Army, Meadowgold Dairies
constructed one plant in Cam Ranh Bay which began production
on 15 November 1967 and another in Qui Nhon which began
production on 4 February 1968. The cost was to be amortized and
ownership transferred to the U.S. Government. By assuming the
risk of the operations in Vietnam, the Army obtained the Meadow-
gold product at a lower cost. To augment the ice cream provided
by the milk plants, additional small size ice cream plants were
brought into country to provide ice cream as far forward as pos­
sible. The number of these plants reached a high of 40.
Because construction of permanent general warehouses was a
slow process and generally accomplished only in largely populated
areas such as Long Binh, Cam Ranh Bay and Qui Nhon, a large
quantity of Class I items were stored in the open. The movement
200 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

of subsistence to covered storage was not completed until early

1970.
Refrigeration was necessary for receiving, storing and issuing
the perishable A ration components. Refrigeration was provided
by use of 1,600 cubic feet pre-fab refrigerated units, permanent
cold storage facilities, leased facilities, and floating storage.
The system of distributing subsistence supply encompassed
sea, air and land transportation. Subsistence supply was affected
by the long distances between depots and supported units and on
occasion when the movement of perishable cargo was pre-empted
by cargo with a higher priority. During the monsoon season
support to isolated installations also taxed the available modes of
transportation.
Subsistence support to other U. S. Forces and Free World
Military Assistance Forces as well as open messes and civilian
contractors resulted in an additional burden on Class I operations
down through the lowest level of distribution. Support of Free
World Military Assistance Forces required adjustment to the
U. S. Army twenty-eight-day menu which included stockage of
special items (for example, rice and kimchi) to meet their
requirements.
In addition to the usual A, B and MCI ration, the tactical
situation created a need for unique rations for use on patrol to
augment the MCI ration. A lightweight ration, the Long Range
Patrol Ration, was developed by Natick Laboratories which was a
dehydrated, precooked type available in eight menus and highly
acceptable to the troops. A special indigenous patrol ration was
also developed to support personnel of the Free World Military
Assistance Forces.

Other Support Services

Organization for Support Services
Support services include food service, graves registration, laun­
dry and bath, labor, bakery, mess, medical, decontamination
and property disposal. Food service elements were organic to each
major headquarters and were responsible for monitoring food serv­
ice activities in their subordinate organizations.
Graves registration support was provided by collecting points
operated by divisional Supply and Transportation Battalions and
by non-divisional Supply and Service companies. The collection
points ensured that identification certificates were in order, the
human remains were clean, documentation was correct, and per­
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 201

sonal effects were accurately recorded and safeguarded. The re­

mains were then transferred to one of the two in-country mortu­
ary centers at Da Nang or Tan Son Nhut. The personal effects
depots consolidated the personal effects from the individual's unit,
the collecting points, and those items removed at the mortuary
and forwarded them to Continental U.S. for delivery to the next-
of-kin.
Property disposal services were furnished on a geographic
basis. Property disposal yards were established in each of the
four Corps Tactical Zones. Sale of material from the yards was
controlled by a central sales office working under the auspices of
the 1st Logistical Command Headquarters, until 1 July 1970,
when Headquarters U.S. Army Vietnam assumed responsibility
for this operation.
The other support services, (laundry, bath, bakery, mess,
labor and decontamination) were furnished on an area basis.
Because Field Service Companies, Supply and Service Companies,
Laundry Detachments, Bakery Detachments, and Mess Detachments
were assigned geographic areas of responsibility, it was necessary
to split some companies into platoon size units. The area concept
also resulted in service units having non-service parent units.
(Chart 16) Bath support was augmented by Army engineer con­
struction and self-help programs.

Food Service
From July 1965 to February 1966, Class I supplies were
automatically "pushed" to South Vietnam and the food consisted
of B rations and MCI rations. The Push Packages were shipped
from the various depots in Continental U.S. to the most convenient
outloading ports. Because of the urgency of the situation, ships of
opportunity were used (ships in port not fully loaded, but avail­
able for government use). This resulted in the rations arriving
in South Vietnam and being offloaded at ports other than those
called for in the operation plan. Also in many cases the ships did
not carry balanced components of the B ration. This caused an
imbalance between the availability of various food components
and the nutritional need of the troops being supported. To
worsen the situation, Push Package markings were often ignored
and the components of the rations were issued and consumed by
units near the port of discharge, causing an unbalanced diet. The
Push Package concept was successful only on the first two in­
crements. Even though the use of Push Packages was stopped in
February 1966, it took until 1968 to phase out non-authorized
 CHART 16—TYPICAL ORGANIZATION FOR SUPPLY SERVICE, VIETNAM, 1968-70
X
Saigon
Support Command

III III

29th General 53d General

Support Group Support Group

II II II1 II 1n
Tay Ninh Saigon Can Tho Dong Tarn
Logistical 610th 266th Supply Logistical Logistical 2d
Logistical Maintenance & Service Maintenance
Support Activity Support Activity Support Activity Support. Activity

I I
506th 624th 574th Supply
Supply & Supply & 259th QM & Service
Service Service Laundry Company (Graves
Registration)

II
483d
Field Service 574th Supply 574th
& Service Supply & 258th QM
Company Service Laundry
Bakery

Non support service elements have been deleted from the organization chart.
Symbols above boxes give organizational level.
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 203

stockage list items from the system. During the early part of this
period the food service program suffered.
The buildup of troops and conversion from MCI feeding to
the feeding of B ration meats and components of the A ration
was rapid. Attempts were made to follow the Continental U.S.
Master Menu in certain areas of Vietnam (Saigon, Cam Ranh
Bay and Vung Tau) but this was difficult due to limited refrig­
eration facilities.
The twenty-eight-day menu developed in 1966 reduced the
strain on refrigeration assets. In August 1969, a refined twenty­
eight-day cyclic menu was adopted. This menu consisted of 4,500
calories of food energy per man per day and contained a wide and
balanced variety of meats, vegetables, fruits, cereals and beverages.
Over 90 percent of the meals were served hot.
During June 1968, the "cantonment mess" project was initi­
ated to upgrade dining facilities. This project called for the
replacement of "field type" equipment with "garrison type"
kitchen equipment in base corps dining facilities. The replace­
ment equipment was to be the same type as that normally used
in Continental U.S. It was not possible to use the cantonment
equipment to the extent originally planned, however, due to
limited electrical power, fuel and maintenance support. For these
reasons, and for a need on the part of some units to maintain
mobility, a number of units continued to use "field type" cooking
equipment in base corps facilities.
When possible, for troops on patrol and other field missions,
meals were prepared in base camp kitchens and delivered in in­
sulated food containers. When such deliveries could not be made
because of weather, enemy action or terrain either the MCI (a
canned ration) or the Long Range Patrol Packet was provided. The
latter consists primarily of dehydrated components. The Ration
Supplement Sundries Pack was also provided when troops did not
have access to a Post Exchange outlet. This pack contains such
items as confections, tobacco including cigars and cigarettes,
stationery, shoe laces and sewing kits. Originally it contained 16
items. The latest revision, based on the recommendations of U.S.
troops in Vietnam, has 24 components.

Commissary Outlets
There were two commissary stores in Vietnam and both were
operated by the Army. One was located at Saigon, and the other
one at Long Binh. Access to the stores was limited to personnel
not having an organized dining facility in their area.
204 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

This stringent policy was implemented in 1968 to offset large

numbers of patrons crowding into minimal facilities to purchase
limited amounts of retail subsistence items. By restricting use of
the facility to personnel not having access to dining facilities, it
virtually eliminated military patrons, but did provide commissary
service to civilian government employees, contractor personnel,
press representatives and other non-military personnel.
Care and Disposition of Remains
Early in 1961 the Commander in Chief, Pacific directed the
U. S. Air Force to provide service support for deceased military
advisory personnel in South Vietnam. This support was rendered
by mortuary personnel from Clark Air Force Base, Republic of the
Philippines. However, in 1963 a U. S. Air Force Mortuary was
established at Tan Son Nhut. Its service was expanded in 1965
to include support to Free World Military Assistance Forces.
Later in 1965, as a result of an Army study on future mortuary
support requirements, the Commander in Chief, Pacific directed
that the mortuary mission be transferred to U.S. Army Vietnam
effective 1 July 1966.
The following table depicts the Army fatality workload ex­
perienced during the period 1961 thru 1970:
1961 - 3 1964 - 146 1967 - 6,443 1970 - 4,906

1962 - 25 1965 - 1,081 1968 - 10,560

1963 - 72 1966 - 3,719 1969 - 8,185 Total - 35,140

As fatalities increased it became difficult to control Summary

Court disposition of personal effects. So, on 1 September 1966,
U.S. Army Vietnam activated the Personal Property Depot at
Camp Red Ball as a Division of the U. S. Army Mortuary, Tan
Son Nhut. This depot was responsible for receiving, screening
and shipping personal effects to the person entitled to receive
them.
Due to the increase in combat activity and fatalities of U. S.
Forces in the I Corps area, a stand-by mortuary at the Da Nang
Air Base was placed in operation on 20 June 1967. In May 1967,
the existing mortuary facility at Tan Son Nhut was determined
inadequate and Commander U.S. Military Assistance Command,
Vietnam, directed a study to relocate it. As a result of the study,
a new facility was constructed on the Air Base. The mortuary
activity was relocated to the new facility on 11 September 1968;
on 16 December 1968 the Personal Property Depot at Camp Red
Ball was relocated to a newly constructed facility adjacent to the
new mortuary.
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 205

Mortuary
Viet Cong activities taxed the capacity of both the Tan Son
Nhut and Da Nang mortuaries during the Tet Offensive in Febru­
ary 1968. During this period, technical guidance and additional
identification capability was provided through temporary duty
of qualified civilian personnel from the Office Chief of Support
Services, Department of the Army and off-shore mortuaries located
in Japan and Thailand. Embalmer capability was increased
through temporary assignment of in-country qualified and licensed
enlisted personnel to assist the civilian morticians in preparation
of remains. These two mortuaries processed 2,291 remains during
that month which was possible only through the complete co­
operation of the military and civilian personnel concerned.
A plan for conducting a search and recovery program for re­
mains of deceased persons in Vietnam was initiated as early as
November 1968 with in-country graves registration units providing
personnel for assignment to support this effort. The program was
designated Operation Compassion. A central file bank for missing
and "body not recovered" personnel for all Services was established
at Tan Son Nhut Mortuary in support of this operation and for
use in conducting searches upon cessation of hostilities.
Plans eventually materialized in the activation of the Joint
Casualty Resolution Center located at Nakhon Phanom, Thailand
and a Central Identification Laboratory, Camp Samesan, Thailand
to conduct search, recovery and identification of remains in South­
east Asia.

Bath Services
The bath service support in Vietnam was provided to all U.S.
and Free World Military Assistance Forces. During the early
stages of the buildup most of the bath support was provided by
fixed or improvised facilities. As the number of troops increased,
Table of Organization and Equipment mobile bath units were
introduced and were operating by June 1968. These units, aug­
mented by fixed and improvised facilities, provided adequate
hot and cold water shower support; however, most of the field
expedient showers had to be operated using cold water only.
Often most desirable locations for shower points could not be
used for security reasons.
In December 1965, the total bath capability in South Vietnam
consisted of 18 Table of Organization and Equipment mobile
bath teams (with 8 shower heads each) having the combined
capability of providing 126,000 showers per week—operating 16
206 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

hours per day (two 8 hour shifts). At that time all of the bath
units were assigned to the 1st Logistical Command. The divisions
and brigades contained no augmentations for bath units but
received this support as required from supporting units of the 1st
Logistical Command.
By July 1967, the bath service capability in the 1st Logistical
Command had expanded to 60 bath teams, with a total of 69
authorized. These teams, working two 10-hour shifts per day, were
capable of providing 420,000 showers per week. Troops billeted in
urban areas had access to permanent shower facilities. Troops oc­
cupying base camps bathed in fixed showers which were con­
structed as part of the cantonment. When it was not possible
to provide showers with mobile bath teams, collapsible canvas
Austrailian shower buckets with a 5.87 gallon capacity provided
additional capability. Decontamination teams equipped with a
truck containing a tank and shower unit were also employed as
the need arose. All of these fixed facilities were used to the
maximum extent possible in order to free the mobil bath units
for support to the forward areas (fire support bases and logistical
support activities to which the combat soldier had access after
combat operations).

Laundry and Dry Cleaning

Since almost all items of clothing and bedding used in Vietnam
were made from materials that could be cleaned by laundering
rather than dry cleaning, this portion will review the problems
inherent in establishing laundry facilities.
In August 1965, mobile laundry units were requested to pro­
vide the additional requirements generated by the troop buildup.
However, this request could not be filled due to a lack of equip­
ment. During December 1965, there were fifty standard-B field
laundry machines (two-trailer units) in the 1st Logistical Com­
mand. These units were capable of servicing only 3,075,000 pounds
of laundry per month. The total requirement per month exceeded
7,000,000 pounds.
During the early stages of buildup all laundry service, except
the small amount that could be handled by supporting units
having mobile laundry equipment, was obtained from local na­
tionals. Since there were very few local commercial firms that had
any sizeable capability at that time and no Army-operated facili­
ties, most of the laundry service was furnished by maids, house­
boys, and post exchange concessionaires. Due to the wide disper­
sion of troops and as a matter of convenience, arrangements for
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 207

these services were generally handled by the individual or the

unit desiring the service.
During fiscal year 1968 and fiscal year 1969 increased utiliza­
tion was made of contract laundries because of commanders de­
sires for pressed fatigues for troops in base camps. Although the
Vietnamese contractors provided service below acceptable stand­
ards, their services were necessary to cover the large shortfall
from organic laundry capabilities. The extent to which the U.S.
Army depended on contract laundry is shown by the fact that in
fiscal year 1969, production rose to a high of 12.8 million pounds
per month at a cost averaging $855,000 per month.
The mobile laundry equipment situation began to improve in
December 1966 when the first of the new Standard-A machines
arrived in Vietnam. These machines were mounted on single
trailers and greatly increased the mobility of laundry units. By
July 1967, Standard-A machines comprised 45 percent of the
laundry equipment in country. During this period, however, only
22 percent of the required 18 million pounds of laundry per
month was processed by field laundry units. Physical and tactical
limitations, shortages of Standard-A machines, and inherent limi­
tations of field laundries all contributed to the laundry support
problem. The shortfall was resolved by reliance on local nationals,
concessionnaires and contractors.
In August 1967, there were 115 Standard-A laundry machines
in-country with a capability of laundering only 25 percent of the
total requirement. From November 1967 through January 1968,
additional new Standard-A machines arrived in Vietnam bringing
the total to 127 machines. Production from these and an undeter­
mined number of Standard-B machines totaled 11.8 million pounds
or an average of 3.9 million pounds per month for this period.
During 1968 and 1969 the Standard-B machines were completely
phased out of the system. The production rate for field laundries
during this period ranged from a low of 2.4 million pounds per
month to a high of 4.2 million pounds per month, which was
achieved in June 1969.
As the buildup continued additional laundry units were as­
signed and by June 1968 mobile facilities were established. Dur­
ing this same period local commercial laundries were being
placed under contract to handle the workload which exceeded
the capability of the mobile facilities operated by the Army. The
available mobile units had the capability to process only about
half of the total laundry requirement, and this was limited to
washing and rough drying.
208 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Therefore, these units were employed primarily in support of

medical facilities, isolated units, combat task forces, and in areas
where there were large concentrations of troops and a sizeable
workload of organizational type items.
As the troop buildup continued, it became apparent that the
laundry services could be provided more economically by fixed
facilities operating under the staff supervision of the Army. Plans
were formulated for construction of ten laundries and sites were
selected.
Eight of the ten fixed laundries programmed for construction
in fiscal year 1969 were cancelled. The cancellation resulted from a
study in 1968 based on the factor of low priorities for this type
of construction and lack of need for fixed laundries due to reduction
of forces in South Vietnam. The remaining two were approved and
programmed by U.S. Army Vietnam for construction in fiscal year
1971 at Long Binh and Cam Ranh Bay. Due to further reductions
of our forces in Vietnam, these two were never built, and the US
Army continued to rely on contract laundries, with no fixed
laundries in the Republic of Vietnam.

Clothing
The clothing issue-in-kind system of supply (provided for in
CTA 50-901) was placed in effect in Vietnam on 1 November
1965. After that time, enlisted men were deployed there with the
minimum quantities of items of the uniform. Relatively high
value clothing items were recovered through turn-in and sub­
sequently rehabilitated for reissue. Clothing items that were not
turned in, and those not required in Vietnam, were placed in
storage at home or government storage to be recovered and used
by the individual on his return from Vietnam.
In March 1966, the 1st Logistical Command established an
Army clothing sales store in Saigon. (Prior to that time a joint cloth­
ing sales store was operated there by the Navy.) The initial stock-
age of this store consisted of clothing items for both male and
female personnel; but, due to the limited demand for items of
female clothing, these items were discontinued from stockage in
October 1967. After this time, female military personnel ob­
tained their items of the uniform by mail order from military
clothing sales stores located in Japan and Okinawa. Initially, cash
sales at the Saigon sales store averaged $60,000 per month. However,
after officers and warrant officers were included in issue-in-kind
under the provisions of CTA 50-901, the sales volume decreased to
$13,000 per month (infiscalyear 1970) .
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 209

Property Disposal
The Property Disposal Operation was a function of Military
Assistance Command, Vietnam, until 1 February 1966. It was
then passed to U.S. Army Vietnam, and in turn to the 1st Logistical
Command. During the early years, property disposal operations
were hampered by the lack of trained military personnel. This is
understandable since there were very few operational spaces for
property disposal officer personnel anywhere in the world prior
to the buildup in Vietnam. Traditionally, property disposal
operations only generate high interest at or near the end of
armed conflicts; during other periods it is usually assigned a low
priority, perhaps because of its position at the rail end of the life
cycle of materiel.
Personnel shortages were evident and in 1968 actions were
taken to overcome them. Additionally, resident and nonresident
courses were established by the U. S. Army Logistics Manage­
ment Center at Fort Lee for property disposal personnel. Resident
courses consisted of the Defense Advanced Disposal Management
Seminar, Defense Disposal Executive Development Seminar, and
the Defense Disposal Management Seminar.
A mobile instructor team was organized and conducted on-
site courses. Additionally, the Quartermaster School conducted
special property disposal courses for officers, enlisted men, and
civilian employees assigned to the propery disposal program. Per­
sonnel assigned to the disposal operation in Vietnam in 1966 and
1970 are compared in the table below:
PERSONNEL ASSIGNED TO PROPERTY DISPOSAL OPERATIONS
IN VIETNAM
Category FY 1966 FY 1970
Officers and Warrant Officers 3 35
Enlisted Men 16 577
Department of the Army Civilians 3 15
Local Nationals 126 267
Total 148 894

Disposal operations were hampered by lack of an early country­

to-country agreement. Such an agreement should have been con­
summated at the ambassadorial level early or before the buildup
started specifying how the U.S. Army would conduct property
disposal operations. An essential element would have been a stip­
ulation that the host country would have no control over U.S.
property sold for export. A country-to-country agreement was
210 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

signed on 9 November 1968 but had this been accomplished earlier,

a considerable number of delays would have been eliminated and a
more efficient property disposal operation would have been
established. Buyers were discouraged from bidding on property
offered for sale because of difficulties in obtaining host country
customs clearances, a lack of labor, a slowness of host govern­
ment bureaus in processing buyer requests for export licenses, a
shortage of shipping, and long delays in awaiting berthing
space. Simply stated, many arduous and difficult problem areas
were encountered by representatives of the business community
when conducting business affairs in a combat environment.
The inventories of property disposal yards greatly increased
during the enemy's Tet offensive of February 1968 and his offen­
sive again in May 1968. The increase was due to two factors.
First, a great deal of equipment was damaged or destroyed during
this period and was added to the inventory. Second, buyers were
unable to remove property from property disposal office yards on
a timely basis as a result of increased harassment by the enemy.
These inventories were not reduced to a manageable level until
early 1969.
The quantities of property received and the quantities dis­
posed of during the periodfiscalyear 1968-1971 are shown in Table
12. Also shown are the quantities on hand at the end of each of
those fiscal years. There was a large increase in the quantity of
scrap received during fiscal year 1970. There were several reasons
for the increase. Scales were not available in the property dis-
TABLE 12—PROPERTY DISPOSAL OFFICE OPERATIONS
(1968-1971)
Usable Property Scrap (in thousands
(in millions of dollars) of tons)
Fiscal On Hand At On Hand
Year Received Disposed Of End Of FY Received Disposed Of At End Of FY
1968 96 78 31 80 37 61
1969 84 90 25 74 99 36
(1.6) (1.7)
1970 102 72 55 487 122 401
1971 117 136 36 162 303 260
(2.3) (6.3)
Totals 399 376 848 608

USABLE PROPERTY-FIGURES IN PARENTHESES REPRESENT DOLLAR RETURN TO

GOVERNMENT. FIGURES FOR 1968 DOLLAR RETURNS ARE ESTIMATED. FIGURES
NOT IN PARENTHESES IN THIS COLUMN REPRESENT ACQUISITION VALUE.
SCRAP-FIGURES IN PARENTHESES REPRESENT DOLLAR RETURN TO GOVERN­
MENT. FIGURES FOR FY 1968 DOLLAR RETURN ARE ESTIMATED. FIGURES NOT IN
PARENTHESES IN THIS COLUMN REPRESENT THOUSAND OF TONS OF SCRAP
DISPOSED OF.
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 211

posal yards to weigh the scrap as it was unloaded. An estimate

was made regarding the weight which normally resulted in less
weight being recorded than was actually unloaded. Also the prop­
erty disposal office yard dropped scrap from their records when a
contract was signed by a buyer rather than waiting until the
buyer removed the scrap by a specified time, as prescribed in
property disposal regulations. After this contract was invalidated,
the scrap in many cases was not again picked up on property
disposal office records. During 1969, a concentrated effort was
made at the direction of the Commanding General, 1st Logistical
Command to bring all the property disposal office records up to
date. This resulted in a sizeable increase in the quantity recorded.
Finally, the phase down of U.S. Army Vietnam resulted in
marked increases in the amount on hand in the property disposal
facilities.
With the introduction of weighing scales in fiscal year 1970,
the guesswork surrounding scrap inventories was eliminated and
severe peaks and valleys were brought under control. However,
downward adjustments continued for approximately a year
thereafter because buyers under term contract were reaching bare
ground prior to fulfillment of contracts which were based on
earlier inventory estimates.
The property disposal operation, an element of the 1st Logis­
tical Command, was assigned to the Property Disposal Agency on
18 August 1970. The mission of the agency was to supervise the
development and implementation of policies, directives, and reg­
ulations pertaining to receipt, control, issue, and sales of De­
partment of Defense, non-Department of Defense, U.S. Federal
Agencies, Free World Military Assistance Forces, and Military As­
sistance Program excesses, and U.S. Forces generated and salvage
material. The Property Disposal Agency was a culmination of
efforts to enhance property disposal capabilities through improved
equipment and increased personnel allocation.

Military Assistance Program Excesses

Because of the large volume of excesses being generated and
sent to property disposal areas in the Pacific Command area, a
special procedure was developed to make maximum use of these
assets by the Military Assistance Program. Military Assistance
Program Excesses covers procedures for the transfer of items, both
major and secondary, from Pacific Command property disposal
offices to Pacific Command Military Assistance Program recipients.
A feature of this program is the policy that recipients will move
212 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

materiel and perform necessary rebuild at their own expense to

the extent feasible, thereby saving Military Assistance Program
accessorial and rebuild funds. By visual inspection of material
in property disposal offices and by review of listings of available
items, Military Assistance Advisory Group and recipient country
personnel determine items which are appropriate to fill a valid
programmed requirement. A message forwarded to Commander in
Chief Pacific by a Military Assistance Advisory Group requesting
approval of the Military Assistance Program Excesses transfer
starts the process. Commander in Chief Pacific reviews this re­
quest to determine that items are of a category normally supplied
thru the Military Assistance Program and that a valid program
requirement exists. Upon approval, the Property Disposal Office,
Military Assistance Advisory Group, Office of the Secretary of
Defense and the Military Department are advised, and the trans­
fer of the materiel effected. Table 13 displays quantities of
property moved from Pacific Command Property Disposal offices
under Military Assistance Program Excesses during a portion of
1969 through calendar year 1970, and also displays removals
from January through March 1971. These quantities include re­
movals from the entire Pacific Command area, but a majority
was from Property Disposal office facilities in Vietnam.

TABLE 13—PROPERTY MOVED FROM PACIFIC COMMAND PROPERTY

DISPOSAL OFFICES UNDER MILITARY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM
EXCHANGE PROCEDURES
Period During Which Property

Was Removed From Pacific Command

Property Disposal Offices

Pacific Command
Military Assistance Program Part of Calendar Year 1969 January 1971
Recipient through
Countries All of Calendar Year 1970 March 1971
Taiwan 531,149,212 $ 9,638,090
Korea 16,400,728 7,406,000
Philippines 1,615,808 468,799
Cambodia 2,567,809
Indonesia 373,368
Totals $49,165,748 $20,454,066

Medical Support
In the Vietnamese and Korean conflicts 2.5 percent of U.S.
personnel who were wounded and reached a medical treatment
facility died. This represented a sizeable improvement over the
percentages of World War II (4.5 percent), World War I (8.1 per­
cent) and the Civil War (17 percent). However emphasis should
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 213

be placed on the fact that these percentages represent only the

percentages of wounded personnel who died after reaching medi­
cal treatment facilities. In the Vietnamese conflict a far greater
percentage of wounded personnel reached these facilities alive
than during any prior conflict. This was primarily due to the
use of helicopter ambulances. These aerial ambulances were able
to rapidly evacuate casualties wounded to such a degree that
death would have resulted in prior wars before the evacuee could
reach a medical treatment facility.
Medical service in Vietnam was as complete as that found any­
where in the world. It included not only medical evacuation and
hospitalization but also medical supply and maintenance, preven­
tive medicine, dental, veterinary and medical laboratory services,
medical intelligence, and medical research and development activi­
ties.
Initially medical support was organic to the 1st Logistical Com­
mand mission. As the buildup progressed and the magnitude of
the medical mission increased, responsibility for the medical
function was transferred to the 44th Medical Brigade upon its
arrival in Vietnam on 1 May 1966. At this time the 44th Medi­
cal Brigade was assigned to the 1st Logistical Command; but in
August 1967 because of the increased medical mission, the 44th
Medical Brigade was reassigned to Headquarters, U.S. Army Viet­
nam. In 1970, the 44th Medical Brigade and the Surgeons Office,
Headquarters U.S. Army Vietnam were consolidated and desig­
nated the Medical Command.
As our troop buildup began, medical units of all types were
phased in along with the tactical and logistical units they supported.
Completely equipped hospitals staffed with well-trained special­
ists were soon located throughout Vietnam.
Cross-servicing, whereby one Service cares for the sick and
wounded of another was used extensively. Navy hospital ships
located off the coast of Vietnam were included in this operation.
Aerial evacuation was used to transfer patients to these "floating
hospitals." Service hospitals were so located that by 1968 any
casualty evacuated by helicopter was within 30 minutes flying
time of a hospital capable of providing definitive surgical care.
Stability of hospitals permitted semipermanent and in some
cases permanent construction. Preoperative, operative, postopera­
tive and other intensive care areas were air-conditioned. In addi­
tion to well constructed facilities, several of the surgical hospitals
were equipped with the newly developed Medical Unit, Self-
Contained, Transportable. This is a system of shelters and
214 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

equipment designed to provide the required medical surgical cap­

ability for patient care in the field under a wide range of en­
vironmental conditions, and it represents a vast improvement over
tent hospitals of the past. Modules can be combined to form any
desired field facility, or treatment facility, and can be transported
by CH-54 helicopters; although they are normally transported by
fixed wing aircraft. After the arrival of the first Army Medical
Department air ambulance unit in 1962, medical helicopter opera­
tions, called DUST OFF, evacuated large numbers of military and
civilian patients. Table 14 shows the number of patients moved by
these air ambulances through 1970.
TABLE 14—EVACUATION BY ARMY AIR AMBULANCES IN VIETNAM

Year Patients*
Prior to 1965 12,000
1965 11,000
1966 65,000
1967 94,000
1968 208,000
1969 241,000
1970 197,871
Total Air Ambulance 828,871
Hoist Patients 1969 (est) 4,188
1970 4,428
Total including Hoist Patients 837,487

•Each time a patient is moved by helicopter, he is counted again. A significant number of the
above evacuees are civilians.

The courage and dedication of the air evacuation crews and

medical teams was laudable. They continuously went into areas
under fire and their casualty rates were high.
Military Assistance Command Vietnam established a 30-day
evacuation policy and endeavored to keep 40 percent of hospital
beds empty at all times to take care of sudden surges of casual­
ties that occurred from time to time.
During the period 1 January 1965 through 30 April 1971, 83
percent of the admissions to U.S. Army Medical Treatment
Facilities were due to disease and non-battle injury. Seventeen
percent were due to wounds.
Five groups of diseases accounted for the majority (65 percent)
of the admissions for disease. These were malaria, fevers of un­
known origin, respiratory ailments, skin problems, and diarrheal
diseases. Malaria was exceeded only by wounds and non-battle
injuries as a cause of mandays lost from duty.
"Combat casualties" consisted of those personnel wounded as
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 215

well as those killed in action. During the period January 1965

through 30 April 1971, 15 out of each 100 combat casualties fell
in the killed category and 85 were wounded. Of the 85 wounded,
two died after reaching a medical treatment facility and 83 lived.
The Army Medical Service also provided medical support to
Free World Assistance Forces in Vietnam. In addition, assistance
was given to the Vietnamese military and civilian populations
through various medical programs. U. S. military hospitals ad­
mitted and treated sick, wounded, and injured Vietnamese
civilians on an emergency basis from the first.
Medical supplies were handled through medical depots and
hospitals. This was separate from the supply system for other sup­
plies. This organization produced a customer oriented logistics
system that was responsive to the needs of the patient and provided
sufficient quantities of supplies for professional use.
The 32d Medical Depot managed the in-country inventory
for medical materiel. Upon arrival in Vietnam in October 1965,
it was assigned to the 1st Logistical Command. On 1 May 1966 it
became a subordinate element of the 44th Medical Brigade. The
32d Medical Depot submitted requisitions to the U. S. Army Medi­
cal Depot, Ryukyu Islands. That depot either filled them or passed
them directly to the U.S. Army Medical Material Agency in
Continental U.S. located at Phoenixville, Pennsylvania. The req­
uisitions submitted to Continental U.S. by-passed the U.S. Army
Pacific Inventory Control Point, Fort Shatter, Hawaii. The 32d
Medical Depot consisted of a base depot at Cam Ranh Bay and,
as requirements for support developed, advance depots were estab­
lished at Long Binh, Qui Nhon, Chu Lai, and Phu Bai. Each
depot performed an area distribution mission through which
issues were made to combat divisions, hospitals, Free World Mili­
tary Assistance Forces, and other Services based upon inter-service
support agreements. With the help of NCR automatic data pro­
cessing equipment, the 32d Medical Depot managed a $15 mil­
lion on-hand inventory and maintained a 45 to 60 day level of
medical supplies. (A more detailed Medical discussion will be
found in the Medical Monograph.)

Unique Support Missions

Riverine Forces
This type of operation was reminiscent of campaigns during
the Civil War when the U.S. Army conducted riverine operations
along the James and Mississippi Rivers and in southern swamps.
216 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

This type of warfare was also used on Mindanao in the Philippines

during World War II.
The initial Mobile Riverine Force, created in 1967, was com­
posed of an Army Infantry brigade and a Navy Task Force inte­
grated at each level of command. This composite force operated
as a complete package, independent of fixed support bases. This
type of force offered flexibility and greatly increased our opera­
tional capability in areas previously inaccessible to our forces.
Logistic support for these forces was established at Vung Tau.
U.S. Navy LST and Army landing craft were used to carry the
major part of resupply cargo to Dong Tarn, which was the major
base camp for riverine operations. Throughout the delta opera­
tion, transportation boat units (medium and heavy) played a
major direct support role. Infantry troops were billeted aboard
U.S. Navy barracks ships and were carried to combat by helicopter
airlift and armored landing craft.
Existing Army and Navy supply procedures were found to be
adaptable to riverine operations. A few problems developed in
using equipment immersed at times in briny or dirty water, but
the command emphasis placed on preventive maintenance during
these operations helped to relieve these problems. Riverine opera­
tions were a good example of interservice rapport.

Support of XXIV Corps in I Corps

Prior to the 1968 Tet offensive, the predominant U.S. land
forces employed in I Corps were U.S. Marines supported by U.S.
Naval Support Activity, Da Nang. Prior to November 1967, the
U.S. Army maintained support activities on a small scale at Da
Nang for Army troops in I Corps. The number of troops was not
sufficient to establish command headquarters as such, but our
support activities maintained Army personnel in I Corps, in
conjunction with the U.S. Naval Support Activity. The rapid
influx of U.S. Army land forces during the Tet offensive required
and equally rapid and extensive buildup of logistic forces and
materiel. The requirement for an Army tactical headquarters to
be established for the I Corps became apparent and the XXIV
Corps came into being. Interim arrangements were used, as the
Army established supporting facilities, in addition to the ones
already there which received supplies from either Army or Navy
sources. Eventually redeployment of Marines from I Corps and the
phasing out of the U.S. Naval Support Activity, Da Nang caused
detailed planning to begin in preparation for the U.S. Army to
assume support responsibility for this Corps. A target date of
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 217

July 1970 was established. This action was the first of its kind
anywhere in an active theater of operations. While other Army
elements in Vietnam were reducing their scope of operations in
line with the announced withdrawal policy, the logistic mission of
the Army in I Corps was expanded.
Despite the problems generated by a lack of knowledge on
the part of both Army and Navy personnel as to terminology and
organization, the rapport achieved and maintained throughout
the takeover, planning, and execution was probably the single
most important contributing factor to its overall success.
218 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

GOER 8-TON CARGO CARRIER, ALL-TERRAIN, ALL-WEATHER AMPHIBIOUS

CARGO VEHICLE, ABOVE; GOER 8-TON CARGO CARRIER PROCEEDING
CROSS-COUNTRY THROUGH SWAMPY AREA, BELOW.

-fx

->J t
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 219

CH-47CHINOOK HELICOPTER BRINGS IN SLING LOAD OF ARTILLERY

AMMUNITION DURING OPERATION BOLLING, ABOVE; AIR
DELIVERY BY FLYING CRANE OF AMMUNITION AND
ARTILLERY PIECE, BELOW.
220 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

DELONG PIER COMPLEX AT VUNG T A U WITH VIEW OF ROCK CAUSEWAY

AND SAND FILL TO BE USED FOR HARDSTAND, ABOVE; USE OF
SEA-LAND VANS FOR TRANSPORTATION OF AMMUNITION, BELOW.
 SUBSISTENCE AND MAINTENANCE 221

UNLOADING OF SEA-LAND VANS BY CRANE OF CARGO SHIP

AT CAM RANH BAY
222 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

OFF-LOADING OF SEA-LAND VANS BY USE OF GANTRY CRANE AT CAM

RANH BAY, ABOVE; CIVILIAN CONTRACTOR HAN JIN
TRUCKS WAITING TO BE UNLOADED, BELOW.
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 223

ARMY VESSEL L T C JOHN U. D. PAGE T I E D U P AT SOUTH BEACH,

CAM RANH BAY
 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

USS CORPUS CHRISTI UTILIZED AS A FLOATING AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE

FACILITY ANCHORED O F F COAST AT VUNG T A U , AROVE; AERIAL
VIEW OF VIETNAM RAILWAY SERVICE REPAIR CREWS
CLEARING RIGHT OF W A Y AND INSTALLING
N E W TRACK, BELOW.
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 225

USE OF CONEX CONTAINER, ABOVE; LOADING LAUNDRY INTO DRYER

AT CAM RANH BAY, BELOW.
226 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL REMOVING ENGINE FROM 5-TON TRUCK FOR

REPAIR, ABOVE; USE OF MAINTENANCE VANS IN A
MOTOR POOL OPERATION, BELOW.
 SUBSISTENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS 227

OPERATION OF R O M E PLOWS IN CLEARING TREES AND UNDERGROWTH

FROM AREAS IN VIETNAM, ABOVE; LANDING CRAFT MECHANIZED
(LCM) ESCORTS BARGE LOADED WITH ROCK, FUEL, STEEL
GIRDERS AND OTHER ITEMS ON THE VAM
Co T A Y RIVER, BELOW.
228 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

FLYING CRANE LIFTS 175MM GUN AT VUNG T A U

 CHAPTER IX

Logistic Support of U.S. Advisors and

Special Forces, Vietnam Armed and

Pacification Forces, and

Free World Military Assistance Forces

Logistic Support of U. S. Advisors

The logistic system available to supply the advisers assigned
to Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, prior to the buildup
was based on the concept of a small group of advisors centrally
supported from Saigon. When an adviser arrived in-country, he
reported to the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, in Saigon,
received a brief orientation, was issued the bare essentials of per­
sonal and field clothing, a weapon, a couple of magazines of ammu­
nition, a mosquito net with bars, and eating utensils. He was then
flown to his destination via Air Vietnam. Resupply of the adviser
was the responsibility of the Vietnamese Army for ammunition,
vehicles, and petroleum, oils, and lubricants, but such support was
minimal. Since an adviser was required to either eat on the economy
or buy his rations at the commissary or PX in Saigon, he was pro5
vided a cost of living allowance. He was provided an imprest fund to
pay for equipment maintenance. However, in the early years of
the Vietnam conflict, Saigon remained the umbilical cord of life
for the adviser.
In April 1962, the Army established the United States Army
Support Group, Vietnam, later designated United States Army
Support Command, Vietnam.
Upon activation, this organization assumed some of the logistic
functions previously performed by the Army section, Military Assis­
tance Advisory Group Vietnam, but not the support of up-country
compounds.
On 1 July 1962, the Headquarters Support Activity Saigon was
established under a chain of command descending from the
Commander-In-Chief of the Pacific Fleet but under the operational
control of Commander U.S. Military Assistance Command, Viet­
nam. After this change adviser support improved. Under various
230 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

interservice support agreements Headquarters Support Activity

Saigon performed common item supply and service support func­
tions for all U.S. advisers including such things as subsistence,
clothing, PX supplies, and billeting services. From its inception, it
was envisioned that Headquarters Support Activity Saigon respon­
sibilities would be limited to peacetime functions or at the most to
the situation that existed in South Vietnam during the 1962-1964
period.
In addition to Headquarters Support Activity Saigon, the U.S.
Navy had its own logistic system in South Vietnam for the support
of U.S. Navy personnel such as U.S. Navy advisers under the
Naval Advisory Group, Military Assistance Command, Vietnam.
The U.S. Marine Corps had a semi-separate logistics establish­
ment for support of the U.S. Marine Corps. Also the U.S. Air Force
vested most of its logistic responsibilities in its Headquarters, 2d
Air Division.
At the beginning of 1965, the combined U.S. logistic support
effort in South Vietnam was capable of supporting about 20,000
U.S. personnel. A small highly fragmented portion of this effort
supported the U.S. advisory personnel. No one organization had
full responsibility for logistic support. For example, the Head­
quarters Support Activity, Saigon and the Military Assistance
Command, Vietnam, Headquarters Commandant operated parallel
supply lines for different commodities in support of U.S. advisers.
Four different systems furnished repairs, and each of the Services
had its own medical supply system operating on a "stovepipe" basis
to Continental U.S. As the advisory effort increased in keeping
with the expansion of the Vietnamese forces, and as the logistic
system to support U.S. combat forces took shape, a logistic system
for support of the advisors evolved whereby supply support was
furnished from three basic sources: Military Assistance Command,
Vietnam; the Vietnamese Army; and U.S. Army Vietnam. The
type of support drawn from each of these sources was as follows:
organizational clothing and equipment and individual weapons
with a basic load of ammunition were issued by the Military
Assistance Command, Vietnam, Headquarters Commandant. Com­
pound defense weapons and ammunition were obtained from the
Vietnamese Army Administrative and Direct Support Logistics
company in each province. In cases where weapons were not com­
mon to the Vietnamese Army, such as the M16 rifle and M60
machine guns, the weapons and ammunition were drawn from
U.S. Army Vietnam. Subsistence was also drawn from U.S. Army
Vietnam. Field ration messes were established where there were
 OTHER LOGISTIC SUPPORT 231

fifty or more men and a mess association was authorized where

there were less than fifty men.
However, the expansion of the adviser effort often required the
deployment, on short notice, of numerous seven or eight man
detachments at district level. These small detachments were in
many cases located in isolated positions, miles from the nearest
support facility, and had to rely primarily on periodic air resupply.
The formation and deployment of mobile advisory teams of four
or five members also presented unique support problems. In the IV
Corps Delta area, for example, where many of these teams were
employed, small water craft were about the only satisfactory
means of travel. Sampans and other small Vietnamese vessels
were too slow to escape sniper fire and too small to carry the
five man teams with the supplies and equipment necessary to
support their mission. A decision was made to acquire commer­
cial type U.S. manufactured boats known as "Boston Whalers."
Approximately 200 of them were obtained. They were purchased
through the ENSURE program (discussed in Chapter III). Three-
fourths of these boats were used by mobile advisory teams and
through their use team mobility was greatly improved.

Logistic Support of U.S. 5th Special Forces Group

The mission of the 5th Special Forces Group (Airborne) and
its predecessor (U.S. Army Special Forces (Vietnam)) was to
advise and assist the Vietnamese government in the organization,
training, equipping, and employment of the Civilian Irregular
Defense Group Forces.
The first Civilian Irregular Defense Group camp had been
built near Ban Me Thuot in 1961. At the beginning of 1964,
there were 25 of these border camps, a figure which would
double by the end of the year. This network of strategically
located fortified camps, each with an airstrip, proved to be invalu­
able reconnaissance and fire support bases for Vietnamese forces
fighting the enemy main forces in the border areas.
Because of the sensitive nature of the 5th Special Forces
Group missions and operations, many aspects of its logistic support
were also sensitive. The distinguishing feature of the 5th Special
Forces Group logistic support was the reliance upon a Quick
Reacting Procurement System for certain special forces equipment.
The Army Materiel Command expeditiously purchased and shipped
commercial or other service materiel not available in the Army
inventory but needed to support special warfare programs. The
bulk of the 5th Special Forces Group everyday support, however,
232 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

came from the U.S. Army Vietnam logistic system. Because of

the limited organic maintenance capability of operating detach­
ments and the volume of nonstandard items in the 5th Special
Forces Group, maintenance of equipment was based on repair by
replacement. Unserviceable items were evacuated, either in or out
of country, to the appropriate level of a supporting maintenance
activity.
An S-4 section of the 5th Special Force Group headquarters
headed the internal logistic organization of the 5th Special Forces
Group. Additionally, 5th Special Forces Group Logistical Support
Centers (organic in-country support elements) provided opera­
tional logistic support to deployed Special Forces detachments and
to the counterinsurgency program. The Logistic Support Center
organization provided a cross section of logistic functions and
capabilities with necessary interfaces enabling it to draw upon a
broad range of non-organic support capabilities both from within
and without Vietnam.

Logistic Support of Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces

U. S. Military Assistance to the Vietnamese Armed Forces com­
menced on 23 December 1950, while the French Indochina War
was still in progress. With the end of that war and the departure
of the French, the United States continued to supply the fledgling
Republic of Vietnam with military materiel and equipment. Pres­
ident Eisenhower's commitment for their support was put into
effect through the establishment of a Military Assistance Advisory
Group.
In 1955 the mission of the Military Assistance Advisory Group
was expanded to include organizing and training the South Viet­
namese Armed Forces as well as providing them with equipment
and other materiel. Then in 1961 President Kennedy approved
requests for additional aid. Increased communist pressure con­
tinued to generate larger military requirements, and in February
1962, the Military Assistance Command was created for the pur­
pose of improving command, control, and the support of the
adviser program. The advisers, of course, advised the South Viet­
namese Armed Forces in organizing and training their personnel
and assisted them in acquiring necessary equipment.
The South Vietnamese Armed Forces increased in manpower
from approximately 435,000 in 1964 to 623,000 by the end of
1966 and to over 1,000,000 by the end of 1970. The logistic
adviser effort increased as the South Vietnamese Armed Forces
personnel strength increased. On 20 July 1965, U.S. Army Vietnam
 OTHER LOGISTIC SUPPORT 233

was established to provide a control element for the U.S. Army

Forces in Vietnam. On 1 September 1965, the logistic adviser func­
tions and support of the field advisory program were transferred to
U.S. Army Vietnam, with the exception of the staff advisory func­
tions of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, staff. Effective
15 March 1968, the operational control of the logistic advisory effort
for the South Vietnamese Army was transferred from U.S. Army
Vietnam back to Military Assistance Command, Vietnam. Within
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, the Assistant Chief of
Staff for Logistics, J-4, served as the principal advisor to Com­
mander U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, on all mat­
ters relating to the logistic systems which supported the counter­
insurgency operations in South Vietnam and provided advice to
the South Vietnamese Armed Forces on logistics, including materiel
systems development, organization, plans, policies, and operations.
The Director of the Logistics Advisory Directorate (J-46) was
the principal adviser to the Assistant Chief of Staff, J-4, on all
matters relating to the South Vietnamese Armed Forces logistics
system and advised and assisted logistics elements of the South
Vietnamese Armed Forces in providing effective, responsive, and
economical logistic support. To accomplish this mission, the J-46
directed the logistic advisory organization shown in Chart 17. In
addition to the advisory effort provided by the Logistics Advisory
Directorate, the advisors listed below also assisted the South Viet­
namese Army in logistics at various levels:
Advisor Positions Responsible Organization or Agency
Corps G—4 Advisors Corps Senior Advisor
Division G—4 Advisors Division Senior Advisor
Division Logistical Support Battalion Advisors Division Senior Advisor
Sector S-l and S-4 Advisors Province(Sector) Senior Advisor
Sector Administrative & Direct Support Province(Sector) Senior Advisor
Logistic Advisors
Medical Advisors MACV Command Surgeon

Improvisations were often required in order to accomplish

the advisory effort in a timely fashion, within the available resources.
The following are two examples of improvisation in organizational
concepts that were employed:
1. Due to the need for a sizeable increase in adviser strength
and since considerable delay was expected in acquiring fill from
Continental U.S. sources, an experimental concept using Mobile
Advisory Teams was tried in IV Corps in October 1967. Nineteen
teams, consisting of five U. S. personnel, and one Vietnamese
234 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

CHART 17—LOGISTICS ADVISORY DIRECTORATE

Director
J46

Administration
Office j46i

Policy & Operations Organization & Materiel

Deputy Chief of Staff

Division J462 Division J464 for Logistics
Central Logistics Comma nd
1 Advance Division J46 3
1 1
i i i
Operations Plans & Organization Materiel
Branch Policy & Authority Branch
Branch Branch

Technical Service Advisory Divisions

1 1 1
Quartermaster
Engineer Ordnance Signal Transportation
and Commissary

Area Logistics Command Advisory Teams

1 1
1ALC 2ALC 3ALC 4ALC

interpreter, were deployed. One team was assigned to each pro­

vince and one to each South Vietnamese Army division.
2. Based on results experienced by the Mobile Advisory Teams,
Mobile Advisory Logistic Teams were designed. They were struc­
tured along much the same lines as the Mobile Advisory Teams.
The teams were allocated one to each Area Logistical Command;
except in the III and IV Corps, where, due to higher troop den­
sity, one additional team was allocated. The Mobile Advisory
Logistic Teams mission was to provide on-the-spot administrative,
supply and logistic training and assistance to depots, administra­
tive and direct support logistic companies, and Regional and
Popular Force units.
The U. S. advisory elements, though predominantly U. S.
Army, included members from the other Services. These elements
received common support from the component commander in
whose area they were located.
All logistic advisers were carefully selected to assure that each
one was fully qualified. The outstanding accomplishments of the
advisers is evidence that this selectivity has paid off. Logistic
advisers made a major contribution to bringing the South Viet­
 OTHER LOGISTIC SUPPORT 235

namese Armed Forces to the level where Vietnamization could be­

gin.
Until 24 March 1966, the South Vietnamese Armed Forces
was generally equipped with U. S. equipment and materiel
through the Military Assistance Program (Grant Aid). At that
time the funding system was changed to a Military Assistance
Service Funded program. Military Assistance Program type req­
uisitioning and programming techniques, however, continued to
be employed. For secondary items and consumables, the South
Vietnamese Armed Forces submitted requisitions through Mili­
tary Assistance Command, Vietnam, to the U.S. Army Materiel
Command International Logistical Center at New Cumberland,
Pennsylvania for Continental U.S. items, or to the U. S. Army
Depot, Japan for off-shore procurement, and Military Assistance
Program peculiar items. (Chart 18) There was an exception for
medical items. Requisitions were placed on the Medical Depot
in Okinawa for these items. Major items were "pushed" in
accordance with delivery schedules furnished by Military Assis­
tance Command, Vietnam. Ammunition was controlled by Com­
mander in Chief U.S. Army Pacific. This supply system remained
in effect until 1970. After this time, South Vietnamese Armed
Forces Base Depots forwarded requisitions for secondary items
and consumables to the 2d Logistical Command in Okinawa. If
the 2d Logistical Command was unable to fill the requisitions
from their on-hand assets, they forwarded the requisitions to
the appropriate Continental U.S. supply source.
An additional source of equipment became available to the
South Vietnamese Armed Forces when the phase down of U. S.
Forces began in 1969. At this time U.S. Army Vietnam began
publishing listings of items of equipment that became surplus to
its needs and that it could therefore make available to the South
Vietnamese Armed Forces. After this, if South Vietnamese Armed
Forces base depots received requisitions for items that they did not
have on hand, they would check the U.S. Army Vietnam surplus
listings. If the item was available from this source, they would
request the item from U.S. Army Vietnam instead of the 2d Logis­
tical Command in Okinawa. The system was later automated,
and by 30 June 1971 more than $70 million in U.S. Army
Vietnam excess consumables and more than $50 million in major
items had been transferred.
A constant effort was made to upgrade weapons and equip­
ment used by the South Vietnamese Armed Forces. The matter of
weapons was particularly critical, because the enemy had begun
236 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

introducing modern communist-bloc weapons, including the highly

effective AK47 automatic rifle as early as 1964. By 1967, all
enemy units were equipped with this weapon, which had a much
higher rate of fire than any of the U.S. World War II weapons
with which South Vietnamese troops were armed.
The M16 automatic rifles, long sought for issue to the South
Vietnamese forces, began to arrive in April 1967, but in quantities
that would equip only the airborne and Marine battalions of
the General Reserve. After strong recommendations on the part
of General Westmoreland, an accelerated schedule of Ml6 ship­
ments was approved in the fall of 1967, and by mid-1968 all
regular infantry maneuver battalions had received the new weapon.
The United States Military Assistance Command established
a Distribution and Allocations Committee in the fall of 1968. The
committee was established to allocate, and control the distribu­
tion of critical materiel that was either in South Vietnam or due
in country in an effort to accelerate the approved South Vietnamese
Armed Forces improvement and modernization programs. The
committee reviewed the mission requirements and asset positions
of the United States Forces, South Vietnamese Armed Forces and
Free World Military Assistance Forces and recommended alloca­
tion and distribution actions in support of the military effort in
South Vietnam. Items considered by the committee were in actual
or potential short supply. It included items managed under the
Closed Loop Program, U.S. Marine Corp Rebuild and Evacuation
Program, and the U.S. Air Force Repairable Asset Management
System. A data base was established for each item to include
amount on hand, depot assets, and maintenance float.
The continued improvement in the South Vietnamese Armed
Forces modernization program led to the termination of the com­
mittee in June 1970, at the request of Commander in Chief
Pacific.
In 1967 Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, and the Viet­
namese Joint General Staff took action to expand the South
Vietnamese Armed Forces commissary system in order to improve
the diet of Vietnamese servicemen and their dependents while
reducing the prices they had to pay for subsistence items. The
U.S. contributed a one-time grant of $42 million for food items,
which when sold provided self-regenerating funds from which
stocks could be replenished. Sales of the new items began in
September 1967. By the end of the year, revenues exceeded a
million dollars, covering the cost of overhead, construction equip­
ment, and further expansion. By the end of June 1968, 201
 OTHER LOGISTIC SUPPORT 237

retail outlets were in operation serving troops and dependents

throughout Vietnam.
During June 1969, Presidents Nixon and Thieu met at Midway
Island. They discussed, among other subjects, increased logistical
support to the South Vietnamese Armed Forces. Subsequently
the "MACV Morale Study" recommended Military Assistance Serv­
ice Funded support of canned meats and shortening for 1.1 million
South Vietnamese servicemen during a two year period at an
estimated cost of $42.7 million. A plan was prepared incorporating
these recommendations. The U.S. Agency for International Develop­
ment representative reviewed the plan in March 1970 and recom­
mended that the plan be lengthened to a three year period with
no increase in Military Assistance Service Funded support. This
latter plan proposed 100 percent of the necessary Military Assist­
ance Service Funded subsistence supplement support be furnished
during the first year, 70 percent the second year and 30 percent
during the final year. The plan envisioned a projected three year
expansion of South Vietnam's farm and garden program and can­
ning industry coupled with a rising economy permitting the gov­
ernment of Vietnam to attain self-sufficiency in furnishing adequate
subsistence to its armed forces. In April 1970, General Abrams,
Commander, Military Assistance Command, Vietnam approved
the plan for submission to the Department of Defense.
The Secretary of Defense approved the plan with certain stip­
ulations including: a fund limitation of $42.7 million, that Depart­
ment of the Army not release funds until Commander U.S.
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, approved a distribution
plan, and that Commander U.S. Military Assistance Command,
Vietnam, review and concur in a South Vietnamese Armed Forces
distribution plan prior to submission of requisitions. The distribu­
tion plan was approved by General Abrams on 8 September 1970.
It required both units and depots to stock subsistence supple­
ments. Each troop unit and organization would draw an initial
issue based on the payroll strength plus a safety level. The safety
level was 10 percent for hospitals, training centers, and military
schools and 3 percent for all other units. The depots were authorized
to stock the ration supplements with a forty-five day operating
and fifteen day safety level. The ration supplement included canned
fish (mackerel, salmon, tuna, sardines), meats (beef chunks, beef
and gravy, luncheon meat, ham chunks, port sausage) , poultry
(chicken, turkey) and shortening. The items were issued to
authorized personnel at fixed rates per individual.
The South Vietnamese Armed Forces logistic organization
238 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

(Chart 18) had a system that worked moderately well, but required
improvements throughout the entire spectrum before attaining
complete logistic self-sufficiency. Changes in the conduct of the
war increased South Vietnamese Armed Forces logistic support
requirements at an accelerated rate. The Vietnamization program
intensified the efforts of improving and modernizing the South
Vietnamese Armed Forces logistics system toward self-sufficiency.
Major factors which affected the South Vietnamese Armed Forces
logistic capabilities were as follows:
1. Rapid increases in the South Vietnamese Armed Forces
combat force structure required commensurate increases in the
logistics support base.
2. The introduction of modern sophisticated weapons and
support equipment in significant densities into the South Vietnam
Armed Forces inventory enlarged the scope and complexity of the
logistics support requirements. Large inventories of aircraft, heli­
copters, boats, vehicles, weapons, and communication assets re­
quired extensive supply storage, distribution, maintenance, evacua­
tion, and disposition systems to support them. Basic to those
systems were the requirements for technically-trained military and
civilian personnel and modern depot facilities. Although additional
logistic personnel were subsequently authorized, efforts to fill
authorizations with trained qualified personnel were slow to
achieve desired results. Competition for civilian labor between
U.S. Forces, civilian firms, and the South Vietnamese Armed
Forces left the latter short of technically trained and skilled
civilians. Depot repair capabilities and physical facilities also
were inadequate to support requirements generated by the Im­
provement and Modernization Program. The rapid expansion of
territorial forces placed a tremendous burden on the Adminis­
trative and Direct Support Logistical companies.
To accelerate the development of South Vietnamese Armed
Forces logistics self-sufficiency, a Logistics Master Plan concept was
prepared which combined several individual logistic plans, pro­
grams, projects, and studies, each designed to improve the South
Vietnamese Armed Forces logistical system. The elements of the
Logistic Master Plan were as follows:
1. The Combined Logistics Offensive Plan was basically a short
range plan designed to foster a positive aggressive logistic offen­
sive spirit in the conduct of logistic operations. The plan identified
problems, designated agencies responsible for solving the problems,
and established the completion date for each problem outlined
in the plan.
CHART 18—SOUTH VIETNAMESE ARMED FORCES ORGANIZATION FOR
LOGISTICS

Ministry of Defense

Chief Joint General Staff

Chief of Staff

Deputy Chief of

Staff Logistics

Central Logistics

Command

Air Log 1 Area Central

Navy Logistics Procurement Transportation Communi­
I Corps Force School Command Office cation
2 Area
II Corps Logistics Engineers
Depot Command
Wing
Ship 3 Area Lpgistics
I I I Corps Yard Logistics Signal Data
Command Processing
Center
Maintenance 4 Area
IV Corps Supply Logistics Ordnance
Center Command

5 Area General
Logistics Medical
Supply Hospital
Command

Quartermaster

Communications
Electronics
Field Depots
Direct Support
General Support Base Depots

Separate Ranger Medical

Divisions Battalion Sectors Group
Units

Logistic Supply,
Battalion Regional Maintenance
Force & & Direct Support
Popular Force Logistics Center

•Provides Common Secondary Item Supply Support to the ARVN, VNAF, and VNN.

"Provides Logistic Support Peculiar to Aircraft.

"'Provides Logistic Support Peculiar to Naval Vessels.

240 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

2. The Country Logistics Improvement Plan was a long range

program which listed major objectives for improving the logistic
operations of the South Vietnamese Armed Forces. The plan
was composed of specified projects. Each project identified Govern­
ment of Vietnam and U.S. agencies responsible and assigned a
completion date for each project. The Combined Logistic Offensive
Plan and the Country Logistic Improvement Plan were similar
in format, the basic difference being that the former was a short
range plan and the latter a long range plan.
3. The Base Depot Upgrade Plan was intended to upgrade
the South Vietnamese Armed Forces Engineer, Signal, and Ord­
nance rebuild depots by improving the depot structure through
the improvement of facilities, utilities, technical skills and depot
machine tools.
4. The Plans for Turnover of Facilities and Functions Program
was to provide for the orderly transfer of United States facilities
and logistic functions to South Vietnamese Armed Forces, as
U.S. elements withdrew.
5. Budgeting and Funding Concept Improvement Program
was to identify master plan programs which required special
emphasis on funding requirements and designate responsible
agencies to insure that programming budgeting, and funding
aspects received appropriate attention.
6. The Administrative and Direct Support Logistical Com­
pany Study identified problems and their causes, recommended
solutions and designated action agencies responsible for corrective
actions. The objective of this study was to improve logistic opera­
tions and support capabilities of the Administrative and Direct
Support Logistical companies.
7. The South Vietnamese Armed Forces Automated Materiel
Management System outlined the objectives and general pro­
visions for an Automated Logistic System Development and the
sequence of events for implementation and assigned responsi­
bilities to applicable agencies. This program was designed to
provide the South Vietnamese Armed Forces with an automated
capability to manage assets at the national level.
8. The On-The-Job Training Program "PROJECT BUDDY."
In 1968, it was recognized that the ti'me was rapidly approaching
when, depending on the ability of the Vietnamese forces to take
over the job of policing and defending their own nation, our
U.S. strength in Vietnam would be withdrawn.
In January 1969, the 1st Logistical Command piloted a pro­
gram called Project BUDDY with the approval of Headquarters
 OTHER LOGISTIC SUPPORT 241

U.S. Army Vietnam and Military Assistance Command, Vietnam.

Project BUDDY was designed to teach the South Vietnamese
Army to assume responsibilities in the logistics area by providing
on-the-job training in logistics skills and management. While such
training had been going on for years, there was no previous
requirement for a formal on-the-job training program.
On 13 October 1969, a Military Assistance Command, Vietnam,
directive was published for on-the-job training which was ap­
plicable to all of its subordinate and component commands. It
established a combined effort by Military Assistance Command,
Vietnam and the South Vietnamese Armed Forces to identify
skills in need of improvement and to provide South Vietnamese
Armed Forces personnel with on-the-job training in these skills.
On-the-job training consisted of numerous programs, varying in
length from a few days to six months, and in scope from an up­
grade of an individual's current skill to a qualification in a new
Military Occupation Speciality. This training was conducted for
both South Vietnamese Armed Forces officers and enlisted person­
nel.
Operation BUDDY was a good program but after October 1969
was not used to its full advantage. The middle management
people at Military Assistance Command, Vietnam were more con­
cerned with the prerogatives of their advisers and not enough with
training the South Vietnamese Armed Forces. As a result, only
9,300 had been trained under this program by the end of fiscal year
1970.
9. South Vietnamese Army Ammunition Improvement Plan.
This plan provided for the improvements necessary to give the
South Vietnamese Armed Forces a capability to completely support
their current and anticipated ammunition storage, inventory
management, surveillance and maintenance requirements.

Logistic Support of South Vietnamese Pacification Program

Pacification is the process of establishing or reestablishing
effective local self-government within the political framework of
the legitimate central government and its constitution. It includes
the provision of sustained and credible territorial security and the
genuine, voluntary involvement of the people as well as the
initiation of self-sustaining and expanding economic and social
activity. Some obvious areas where military forces can assist
the pacification effort are the opening of roads and waterways
and the maintaining of lines of communication, important to both
economic and military activity.
242 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

The objectives of pacification are not difficult to describe but

the attainment of those objectives involves cultural and social forces
not so easy to understand and certainly not easy to manage.
Some of the means and organizations through which the U.S.
logistic system assisted the pacification program of the Republic
of Vietnam were as follows:
Logistic support of the Vietnamese Regional and Popular
Forces was included in the U.S. Military Assistance Service Funded
program. Supplies were issued to these forces by South Vietnamese
Army Sector Management and Direct Support Logistic Centers.
The Peoples Self Defense Forces were provided certain desig­
nated items of supply through the same channels as were the Re­
gional and Popular Forces above.
Logistic support of the Rural Development Cadre was gener­
ally funded through the U.S. Agency for International Develop­
ment system in accordance with the Agency for International
Development and Department of Defense Realignment Program.
Except for ammunition, petroleum, oils, and lubricants and main­
tenance support which was provided by the South Vietnamese
Army, support was generally provided through provincial ware­
houses operated by the Agency for International Development.
However, at times U.S. Army Vietnam provided requested support
on a reimbursable basis.
Supply support and funding for the Civilian Irregular Defense
Group was provided through the U.S. 5th Special Forces Group
Counterinsurgency Support Office. The 5th Special Forces Group
placed the necessary requisitions on the U.S. Army Vietnam depots.
The Civilian Irregular Defense Group has since been phased out
and its activities absorbed by the South Vietnamese Army Re­
gional and Popular Forces organization with support being provided
through the South Vietnamese Army supply system.
Support of refugees has been provided by the Government
of Vietnam, U.S. and other voluntary agencies. U.S. Agency for
International Development was the basic administrator of this
program for the U.S.; however, U.S. troop support was provided
on an as required basis, and included building temporary shelters,
latrines and other utility items. Support normally provided under
the U.S. and Government of Vietnam programs included an im­
mediate rice allowance for 7 days of 500 grams per day per
person and 3 cans of condensed milk per family. The rice al­
lowance could be extended for up to 30 days. Resettlement or
return to village assistance was provided next, and included a rice
allowance of 15 kilograms per person per month. A housing
 OTHER LOGISTIC SUPPORT 24$

construction allowance of 7,500 Vietnamese dollars and ten sheets

of metal roofing was also provided after the enemy's Tet and
May offensives of 1968. Together these offensives left 13,000
civilians dead and 27,000 wounded, created over one million ref­
ugees and destroyed or damaged over 170,000 houses.
On 2 February 1968, at the height of the Tet crisis, President
Thieu announced the formation of a Central Recovery Com­
mittee to direct and coordinate the activities of all government
agencies both civilian and military, in expediting civil recovery.
This force received full and immediate support from all U.S.
agencies, civil and military. The resulting project was known as
Project Recovery.
Fortunately when the enemy struck again in May 1968, the
Central Recovery Committee was still organized and again served
as the catalyst for Government of Vietnam and U.S. action. By
mid-May Project Recovery could point to a record of considerable
achievement. The Central Recovery Committee provided care for
a peak number of 750,831 evacuees that had been made homeless
as a result of the Tet Offensive. By mid-May, only 286,000
Tet refugees remained and 140,000 of these had been created
after 5 May 1968. Over 33,000 metric tons of food, 66,000 tons of
construction materials, and 5,000 tons of miscellaneous clothing,
blankets, and other items were released from Saigon and regional
warehouses. Relief and resettlement allowances amounting to
over 483 million Vietnamese dollars were paid to nearly 60,000
families. Almost 580,000 bags of cement and 634,000 sheets of
roofing were distributed to approximately 64,000 families.
Another support program was introducing refugees to tech­
niques for improving yields of agricultural crops, particularly veg­
etables. Handicraft projects were also organized and small indus­
tries were developed. Food-for-work projects were also started,
utilizing food made available under Public Law 480, Title II.
The lines of communication program has directly benefited
civilians and local economies by providing improved roads for
transportation of people and goods. The total Military Assist­
ance Command, Vietnam, Lines of Communication improvement
program called for the upgrade of 4,075 km of road. As of 15
May 1971, over 60 percent of this work had been completed. More
than 1,700 km of the work was done by U. S. Army troop effort
and the remainder by the U.S. Navy, South Vietnamese Army, or
by contractor personnel.
Another program that benefited the Vietnamese people was
the assistance by U. S. agencies in restoring the Vietnamese Rail­
244 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

way System. This program had a dual goal objective. The first was
to provide transportation assets that would move great tonnages
at low cost, and the second was to renew an economical means of
travel for the Vietnamese people between their homes and the
larger market areas. Overall planning for railway restoration began
in June 1966. It was a joint effort by the Government of Vietnam
and U. S. agencies. All reconstruction efforts were co-ordinated
through three standing committees, composed of members of
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, Government of Vietnam,
U.S. Agency for International Development, and the Joint General
Staff, with primary responsibility resting with the Joint Committee
on Rail Restoration.
The rail system suffered extensive damage during World War
II and the French Indochina War; but, with U.S. Agency for
International Development assistance, it was rebuilt between 1954
and 1959. Then in 1960, the system came under attack again when
the Viet Cong began a concerted and continuing campaign towards
its destruction.
Evidence of the accomplishments of the restoration program
is witnessed by the fact that the system entered 1968 with only
475 km of operational railroad, but early in 1970 the system con­
sisted of 1,109.3 km of meter gauge main line from Saigon to
Dong Ha in I Corps and approximately 130 km of branch line
trackage.
A Medical Civic Action Program was conducted by Military
Assistance Command, Vietnam, through the use of U.S. Forces
and directed toward improving the local health environment, to
include treatment and education of civilians in basic sanitation
methods and other preventive health measures. This program was
funded through US Military Service channels, with subsequent
charge made to the Agency for International Development and
Department of Defense realignment program based on a flat charge
per treatment rendered.
A Military Provincial Hospital Assistance Program was created
to furnish expendable medical supplies in support of the Ministry
of Health hospitals and health service facilities. Medical care
under this program included care to the population in general,
paramilitary personnel, and civilian war casualties. The U.S. Army
provided personnel as augmentation teams to assist the Government
of Vietnam Ministry of Health in various hospital facilities. In
addition, the U.S. Army provided half of the funding support for
this program.
Requisitions to obtain supply support of this program were
 OTHER LOGISTIC SUPPORT 245

forwarded to the U.S. Army Medical Depot in Okinawa. Supplies

were shipped to the Ministry of Health Medical Logistic Center,
Phy Tho, Saigon, and issued through the Ministry of Health
logistics system.
The Government of Vietnam National Police Field Forces were
provided supplies and equipment through U.S. Army channels.
Army funds were utilized and requisitions were submitted through
U.S. Army channels by Military Assistance Command, Vietnam,
Civil Operations Revolutionary Development Command, Viet­
nam.
Commodity support was provided to upgrade in-country port
and waterway facilities. The program was funded by U.S. Agency
for International Development with subsequent reimbursement
from Army funds. Supplies were basically obtained through Agency
for International Development channels with the U.S. Army provid­
ing technical assistance as well as supplies on an as required and
as available basis.

Logistic Support of Other Free World Military

Assistance Forces

Upon the introduction of Free World combat forces into Viet­

nam in 1965, the U.S. assumed the preponderance of logistic
support for the Free World Military Assistance Force units. These
units came from the Republic of Korea, Thailand, Republic of
the Philippines, Australia, and New Zealand.
With the exception of Australian and New Zealand forces, the
other Free World Military Assistance Forces had been Military
Assistance Program supported. Thus, many items of their equip­
ment had to be replaced by items normally issued to U.S. Forces
to make them supportable by the U.S. logistic system.
The role of these units upon deployment to Vietnam was
generally not determined until the eve of deployment, thus de­
laying until the last moment a determination of their specific
equipment requirements. Of particular significance in alleviating
equipment and supply shortages earlier than would have been
otherwise possible was the conversion of Free World Military As­
sistance Force support from Military Assistance Program to Mili­
tary Assistance Service Funded Program. In this connection Mili­
tary Assistance Service Funded has application only to local forces
in Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand and third country forces in Viet­
nam. It should be noted, however, that the funding for the sup­
port of Australian and New Zealand forces has been accomplished
by financial agreement involving no appreciable cost to the U.S.
246 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Generally Office of the Secretary of Defense and the Joint

Chiefs of Staff approved the Free World Military Assistance Forces
force structures to be supported by the United States. Military
Assistance Command, Vietnam approved the Table of Organiza­
tion and Equipment and Table of Distribution and Allowances
in co-ordination with the Allied governments concerned. U.S. Army
Regulation 795-10, "U.S. Army Materiel and Service Support for
RVNAF/FWMAF," governs the funding and requisition proce­
dures for the Free World Military Assistance Force. Major item
losses suffered by U.S. and Free World forces were reported to
U.S. Army Major Item Data Agency through the AR 711—5 Army
Equipment Status Reporting System. This agency then developed
loss factors for replacement planning for the preparation of Army
Materiel Plans and for use by the staff planners in developing
and executing the Procurement of Equipment and Missiles Army
portion of the Army budget.
General supplies (Classes II, IV, VII and IX except missile
peculiar items), ammunition, petroleum, medical supplies, me­
morial services (mortuary, cremation, etc), laundry and bath serv­
ices, procurement services, and terminal and water transporta­
tion services were normally provided to Free World Military
Assistance Forces through U.S. Army Vietnam or U.S. Navy logis­
tic system in the same manner as the supplies and services were
provided to U.S. Forces. Two areas where exceptions existed were
maintenance and subsistence. The U.S. system provided limited
maintenance support to the Free World Military Assistance Forces.
This support was furnished for selected items only and was to
provide a back-up support to the allied maintenance system.
Aviation maintenance support was provided to Australian, Thai,
and Korean Forces. Reports were furnished to U.S. Army Pacific
on aviation maintenance for funding and data collection pur­
poses.
The Directorate of Food, Headquarters, 1st Logistical Com­
mand, monitored the four U.S. Army Support Commands who
requisitioned, received, accounted for, issued, and supervised the
Class I support for all Free World Military Assistance Forces in
South Vietnam. The Directorate of Food was responsible for
funding and monitoring local procurement and contract services
support of dairy products, bread, fresh fruits and vegetables, and
ice.
Initially, the U.S. government agreed to provide subsistence
support to the Republic of Korea forces in Vietnam but did not
specify a "Kimchi Ration." The Republic of Korea forces in
 OTHER LOGISTIC SUPPORT 247

Vietnam received either the MCI or the A ration. The agree­

ment was amended in 1967 to provide one meal of the Korean
Combat Ration daily. This special ration was developed in Viet­
nam, with assistance from a U.S. country team and the U.S. Army
Natick Laboratories. The majority of the items in the ration (in­
cluding the Kimchi) were indigenous to Korea. Thus the Republic
of Korea Forces in Vietnam were provided one meal of the A
ration, one meal of the MCI and one meal of the Korean Combat
Ration. Australian and New Zealand forces were furnished the
standard A ration supplemented with marmalade and local pur­
chase items. The Philippine forces were furnished the standard A
ration with additional rice in lieu of some of the potatoes. The
Thailand forces were furnished components of the standard A
ration supplemented by local purchase. They were also supplied
with coconuts, morning grass, lemon grass and ginger root. (The
South Vietnamese Armed Forces were provided with components
of the A ration supplemented with indigenous items. They were
also provided the MCI and the Long Range Patrol Packet).
The 32d Medical Depot was responsible for the medical
supply support of the Free World Military Assistance Forces.
The U.S. Army provided limited maintenance support to the
Free World Military Assistance Forces except in I Corps, where
the U.S. Navy provided the service until mid-1970, when the
Army also assumed the responsibility for that area. This support
was furnished for selected items to provide back-up support to
the allied maintenance system.
Agreements were made to provide aviation maintenance sup­
port to Australian, Thai, and Korean forces operating in Vietnam.
This worked smoothly with reports furnished to U.S. Army Pacific
for funding and data collection purposes. Standardized and simpli­
fied reporting reduced confusion and administrative workload
in the field. Support of the Free World Military Assistance Forces
was excellent.
A mission of the U.S. Army memorial activities in the Re­
public of Vietnam was to receive, process, identify and evacuate
the remains of deceased Free World Military Assistance Forces.
As part of the 1st Logistical Command's mission of providing
this mortuary service cremation facilities were established for the
Republic of Korea Forces. Initially, cremation services were pro­
vided by contract with Tobia Mortuary of Saigon. Two crema­
tory units of the type used in civilian funeral homes in Continental
U.S. were procured and became operational in June 1967. Remains
of other Free World Military Assistance Forces forces were proc­
248 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

essed through the mortuaries in the same manner as U.S. per­

sonnel and then evacuated to their countries.
The U.S. Army provided laundry and bath service support
to Free World Military Assistance Forces in II, III, and IV Corps
from the time of their arrival; service to I Corps began in 1970.
Laundry service was supplemented by contract laundries where
requirements exceeded organic Army capability.
The mission of the terminal and water transportation system
was to operate deep and shallow draft ports, and logistics over
the shore sites in South Vietnam and to provide intra-coastal
and inland waterway lighterage services. The mission also included
receiving, documenting, loading, discharging, and transhipping
Free World Military Assistance Force and Agency for International
Development cargo as it moved through the water terminals.
The U.S. Army Procurement Activity also provided procure­
ment support to the combat support elements of the Free World
Military Assistance Forces along with Military Assistance Com­
mand, Vietnam; U.S. Army Vietnam; and elements of the other
U.S. military services.
Free World Military Assistance Forces were trained primarily
by sending small numbers of selected personnel to schools in the
Continental U.S. and by our military assistance advisory person­
nel in their own countries. In South Vietnam, the Free World
Military Assistance Forces received informal training as required.
U.S. units providing combat service support to these forces in­
structed their key personnel on the use of U.S. materiel and
systems, and in turn received orientation on the supported Free
World Military Assistance Forces procedures. This cycle was re­
peated as necessary when new replacements arrived in either unit.
 OTHER LOGISTIC SUPPORT 249

VIETNAMESE REBUILDING HOME WITH LUMBER DONATED THROUGH

TARP PROGRAM IN BIEN HOA, ABOVE; DAM BUILT TO IMPROVE
IRRIGATION SYSTEM IN THE VILLAGE RICE FIELDS IN
T H U Y PHU, VIETNAM, BELOW.
250 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

MALT T E A M HEAD CONFERS WITH AMERICAN ADVISOR AND

LOCAL S-4 OF A VIETNAMESE SUPPLY MAINTENANCE
DISTRICT SUPPORT LOGISTICAL COMPANY.
 CHAPTER X

Worldwide Impact of Vietnam

on Logistics Readiness

Impact on Active Army

The diversion of new production assets and withdrawal of
equipment from the major Army commands in 1965-1966, to
support high priority requirements in Southeast Asia, had a pre­
dictably adverse impact on the worldwide logistics readiness pos­
ture of the Army. For example, by June 1966, only 35 percent
of Continental Army Command's active Army units were meeting
logistics goals in equipment on hand and 25 percent were meeting
equipment status goals. A similar posture existed in other com­
mands. U.S Army Pacific (less U.S. Army Vietnam) had only
40 percent of the Active Army units meeting equipment on hand
goals and 18 percent meeting equipment status goals. At the
same time, U. S. Army South reported only 46 percent equip­
ment on hand and 50 percent equipment status; U. S. Army
Alaska reported 64 percent equipment on hand and 50 percent
equipment status; and U. S. Army Europe reported 66 percent
for equipment on hand and 50 percent equipment status. Similarly
the majority of our major combat units outside of Vietnam were
C-3, marginally ready; or C-4, not ready. For example, both the
2d and 7th Infantry Divisions in Korea were C-4.
Because of the ever-growing demands of combat, worldwide
logistics readiness was not able to show substantial improvement
during the next two years. In the latter part of 1968, the Army
initiated an intensive management program, designed to over­
come reported shortfalls. Procedures were established to inten­
sively manage mission essential items required at unit level, work­
ing through each major command headquarters. These procedures
provided pinpoint management of resources, refinement of unit
authorizations and redistribution of assets. Readiness Improvement
Programs, developed in conjunction with each command involved,
are now a major element of the Logistics Offensive. In 1969 the
intensive management procedures began to take effect as reduc­
tions in high priority requirements by the forces in Vietnam
allowed the application of available assets to other commands.
252 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

The Army's logistic readiness posture has reflected almost contin­

uous improvement worldwide since that time. During September
1970, the Army reached its highest levels in equipment on hand
and equipment deployability since the drawdown for Southeast
Asia began. During this period, over 90 percent of all reporting
units met or exceeded logistic goals for equipment on hand, and
69 percent for equipment deployability. These levels were main­
tained throughout the remainder of fiscal year 1971 with only
temporary fluctuations.

Impact on War Reserve Stocks, Operational Projects Stocks,

and POMCUS Stocks
In addition to redistributing assets from units not in the
combat zone, it was necessary to draw upon Pre-Positioned War
Reserves, Operational Project Stocks, and POMCUS Stocks (Pre-
positioned Materiel configured to Unit Sets) in order to meet the
unprogrammed requirements in Vietnam. War reserve stocks in
the Pacific were used to support early deployments to Vietnam.
Later there was a considerable drawdown worldwide to meet
increased requirements for Southeast Asia.
In February 1966, to further increase assets available for use
in Vietnam, Department of the Army instructed all major com­
mands to make a special review (in addition to the regular annual
review) of all their operational projects. Any materiel not ab­
solutely essential would be made available to meet requirements
in Vietnam. Equipment which had been configured in unit sets
in the Western Pacific area was also included in this drawdown.
Full recovery from the drawdowns of these Pre-positioned
War Reserves, POMCUS, and Operational Projects Stocks had
not been achieved by mid-1971.
In March 1970, a study labeled PROJECT STRAT RE­
QUIREMENT was initiated by the Duputy Chief of Staff for
Logistics, to validate and recommend for revision, as necessary,
methods and principles used in the determination of theater
war reserve and automatic supply requirements. The purpose was
to verify the accuracy of requirements determination, so that
both prepositioned materiel overseas and post D-day automatic
supply are responsive and effective in meeting the needs of combat
forces in wartime. The study was completed in September 1970
with recommendations which, when fully implemented, will im­
prove the range and quantity of items included in theater war
reserves and automatic supply planning. Simultaneously with
PROJECT STRAT REQUIREMENT, a special review of world­
 WORLDWIDE LOGISTIC IMPACT OF VIETNAM 253

wide operational projects was conducted. The main objective of

this review was to revalidate command operational project re­
quirements, eliminating stocks which were not truly mission es­
sential. This review resulted in a reduction in requirements of
$272,774,000. The study was approved by the Army Chief of Staff
on 1 February 1971 and action has begun on the implementation
of its recommendations.

Impact on Reserve Components

The Reserve Components suffered a major setback concerning
receipt of modern equipment during the Army's buildup for the
conduct of large scale operations in Vietnam. During the period
fiscal years 1965-1968, the delivery of equipment to the Reserve
Components was in token quantities because the limited supply
was required to fill higher priority requirements. Deliveries during
this four year period amounted to approximately $460 million.
In addition to the inadequate equipment deliveries, the Reserve
units were tapped as a source of equipment to be withdrawn and
redistributed to active Army claimants. These withdrawals
amounted to approximately $209 million. Major items withdrawn
from the Reserve Components to fill urgent Vietnam requirements
included over 200 aircraft, 460 40-mm guns, 50 M88 Recovery
Vehicles, and approximately 650 3/4-Ton Vehicles. Since fiscal
year 1966, Office of the Secretary of Defense has monitored and
maintained approval authority of all equipment withdrawals from
the Reserve Components to meet active Army requirements.
Chart 19 portrays the general impact that the Vietnam build­
up had upon the Reserve Components. It displays by fiscal year
the various inventory changes in billions of dollars. These changes
reflect the value of equipment issued minus the value of obsolete
equipment turned in. It is significant to note that during fiscal
year 1964 the Reserve Component inventory was approximately
$2.18 billion and because of the requirements generated by com­
mitments in Southeast Asia, the inventory did not show improve­
ment over thefiscalyear 1964 level until mid fiscal year 1969.
The phasedown of U.S. operations in Southeast Asia permitted
an accelerated delivery of equipment to the Reserve Components.
Beginning in fiscal year 1969, equipment deliveries to the Reserve
Components increased at a noticeable rate. Deliveries were valued
at approximately $150 million in fiscal year 1969 and at $300
million in fiscal year 1970. As of the end of the 3d Quarter of
fiscal year 1971, equipment valued at approximately $590 million
had been allocated for delivery against an estimated allocation
254 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

CHART 19—RESERVE COMPONENT EQUIPMENT INVENTORY CHANGES

$ Billions
4.0

1.0­

Q| I I I I I

Years 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

(-36) (-140) (+35) (+29) (+40) (+205) ( + 500) (+588)

of $600 million for the entire fiscal year. These deliveries have
improved the equipment readiness of the Reserve Component
units, but there still remains much to be done considering that
the units have on hand about 61 percent of the equipment
required for the conduct of effective premobilization training.
Principal deliveries during fiscal year 1970 included a significant
number of new tactical vehicles and radios, sufficient Ml4 and
Ml6 rifles to permit the complete modernization of the Reserve
Component rifle inventory, preferred aircraft including the CH-54
and UH-1D, and the first M60 tanks.
To further improve the equipment situation of the Reserve
Components, Department of the Army in fiscal year 1971 devel­
oped a maintenance program which permits the Office of Reserve
Components to select critically required items for overhaul and
subsequent issue to the Reserve Component units. It is anticipated
that during the fiscal years 1971-1974 equipment valued at $1
billion will be provided under this program. This will be in
addition to new items issued under normal distribution programs.
 CHAPTER XI

Lessons Learned

Although no one can predict the future, the likelihood of

being involved in another limited war seems to be high. Since
the advent of the nuclear age, limited wars and insurgency opera­
tions have been both frequent and common. Since World War II,
the U. S. Army has gone through the Korean War, the Lebanon
landing, the operation in the Dominican Republic, and was
involved in Vietnam for a decade, being there in strength since
1965. A number of lessons have emerged from the Vietnam years
that can be applied in similar future campaigns. These can be
grouped under three broad headings: Personnel, Equipment,
and Policies and Procedures.

Personnel Lessons Learned

1. A twelve month tour is too short if a logistic system is to
operate at near peak efficiency. When casualties (combat and
non-combat) are considered, about 10 percent of the personnel
change every month. On the other hand, if other benefits merit a
fixed short combat tour policy, then in-theater personnel turbu­
lence must be held to a minimum by strictly limiting the number
of assignment changes for each individual during his tour.
2. The Continental U.S. training base is overly civilianized.
The small pool of trained and experienced military people in
maintenance operations, ammunition operations, storage and ware­
housing operations, and supply management is incapable of pro­
viding the number of skilled personnel needed when a force
buildup starts. Either depots and installation logistics facilities
should increase their military strengths or Continental U.S.
civilians in these facilities should be used to support an overseas
buildup until the Continental Army Command school system can
turn out the required number of trained military men and women.
An additional benefit that would result from using more military
in Continental U.S. logistical installations would be that there
would be assignments in Continental U.S. where skilled overseas
returnees could employ their expertise.
3. There is a need to improve driver training programs
in Continental U.S. Poorly trained drivers add to maintenance
256 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

workloads and cause the overseas commanders to divert personnel

resources to establish driver training programs. Continental U.S.
training should include operating in combat type conditions.
4. Units of the Reserve Components called to active duty
performed well. The decision to rely on draftees or regulars
instead of calling up reserve units meant that valuable logis­
tics skills were not put to use. The few National Guard and
Reserve units that were used in the Da Nang area during the
summer and fall of 1968 were very good. Brigadier General
James W. Gunn, Commanding General, US Army Support Com­
mand, Da Nang remarked that ". . . these units proved to be
outstanding in every respect. They were composed of mature
officers and men who arrived in-country with 100 percent of their
TOE strength and equipment. They were for the most part well
educated and highly motivated and skilled. . ."
5. Replacement centers in combat zones should assure that
every individual has a set of readable fingerprints in his 201
file. The prompt and current identification of the dead is a must.

Equipment Lessons Learned

1. The use of DeLong Piers in Vietnam showed that new
ports can be created quickly or existing ones expanded in a
relatively short time. As a contingency for any possible future
conflict in undeveloped areas, these piers should be stockpiled in
several geographic areas.
2. Cross-country petroleum pipelines can be used in insurgency
type operations. Their use reduces the number of trucks required,
thereby shortening convoy lengths. However, there is a price to
pay in fuel losses as the enemy is given an opportunity to easily
interdict the supply system and local inhabitants can readily pilfer
a valuable and useful commodity. Using pipelines in insecure or
partially secure areas means the acceptance of higher fuel losses
in order to save other resources. Pipeline knowhow disappears in
peace time. We must have people who can inspect the equipment
in storage and determine what is needed to make it work. Pumps
in storage for twenty years just won't work—even if they do they
are probably not nearly as reliable or efficient as ones developed
in the interim. There is a need for better surveillance and updating
procedures.
3. Logistic management has become increasingly dependent
on automatic data processing and high-speed digital data trans­
missions, both within the contingency area and between Continental
U.S. and overseas locations. Therefore, logistic contingency plan­
 LESSONS LEARNED 257

ning must be explicit as to communications requirements and

heavy transportable self-contained equipment must be developed
to provide prompt availability of high-quality circuits, automatic
switches, and terminal equipment to tie into the automatic digi­
tal network.
4. Containerized shipments reduce port congestion and han­
dling time and upon offloading the containers can be used as a
substitute for covered storage facilities. There is a need for con­
tainer ships to have self-supporting gear for off loading in early
combat and at both shallow draft locations and deep water ports.
Containerized shipments should be used to a maximum in the
early stages of an operation and especially so in an underdevel­
oped area.
5. There is a need to standardize intermodal container sizes.
They should not be so large that port or city congestion will
preclude their use or that they will be incapable of being lifted
by heavy lift helicopters.
6. Dry battery supply and storage—We must assure that there
is adequate refrigerated storage space for dry batteries.
7. Fresh foods can be provided to the combat soldier on a
regular and routine basis. This requires a lot of refrigeration
equipment and use of helicopters, but is worth it in terms of
morale and combat effectiveness.
8. Armored vehicles of the VI00 type (the M706 Armored
Car) should be available in adequate numbers to provide convoy
security. The field expedient of "hardening" (armor plating)
assigned cargo type vehicles prevents the most effective use of these
vehicles—hauling cargo.
9. The 5-ton and 21/^-ton trucks with dropsides make loading
and unloading with forklifts an easier and faster operation.

Policies and Procedures Lessons Learned

1. We must recognize early in any similar operation that
requirements for an expanding force will increase faster than will
the ability of manufacturers to produce the needed items. The
declaration of a national emergency will lessen the degree of the
shortfall, but a shortfall will exist for some period of time. There­
fore, special management actions, to include withdrawing assets
from low priority organizations for redistribution to the high
priority ones, controlling the allocation of new assets in short
supply, and programing retrograde, repair, and reissue should be
instituted early. Shortages can be tolerated easier in the low
258 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

priority units than in units in combat, but readiness levels also

have to be watched and the impact of overall shortages minimized.
2. The logistic organization is over-structured and too im­
balanced toward functionalism with too little weapons systems
or commodity orientation. Beginning at the Department of the
Army and progressing out toward the theater of operations, con­
solidation and elimination of superstructures must take place.
The Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics at Headquarters Department
of the Army and at Army Materiel Command, for example, are
functionally duplicating command management of logistics without
specific weapons systems or commodity intelligence at either level.
Further study is needed to determine which echelons of command
management can be eliminated or changed to facilitate logistic
support of a theater of operation such as Vietnam. The role of
an intermediate headquarters is questionable in the direct chain
between the source of logistics intelligence data and materiel and
the supported logistic echelon in the zone of combat operations.
A component commander required to furnish major logistic support
to ground forces in a contingency operation must be provided
with a logistic management capability, vested in an officer whose
rank and logistic experience are appropriate to the ultimate scope
of the logistic operation. This senior logistician and his staff
must participate in prior planning for contingency operations and
be deployed to the area concurrently with the forward echelon
of the headquarters of the combat forces.
3. While separate pipelines for Medical, Signal, Aviation and
Special Forces logistics worked, and usually worked well under
the environment existing in Vietnam, it is doubtful that we can
afford more than one pipline into a theater of operations in future
conflicts. This is particularly so where the pipeline is of great
length both in geography and time and where the pipeline is
subject to enemy action.
a. Since initiation of accelerated action in the Republic of
Vietnam the mobile National Cash Register 500 automatic
ledger posting machine has been installed as the standard direct
support or general support stock control and accounting system in
Army non-divisional combat service support units. This system was
initially developed to fill the urgent need of support units in
Republic of Vietnam during 1965-1966. Due to exceptionally suc­
cessful deployment in Republic of Vietnam, the system was adopted
for Army-wide installation. In addition, divisional support units
in Republic of Vietnam utilized this standard system for supply
applications. Division Logistics System, using the mobile UNIVAC
 WORLDWIDE LOGISTIC IMPACT OF VIETNAM 259

1005 card processor was developed during this same time frame for
use by divisional support units.
b. As a "spin off" from development of the standard combat
service support system for support of the Army in the field, a
Quick Reaction Inventory Control Unit has been added to the
Army Force Structure. This unit is to be readily available for
overseas deployment to provide immediate in-theater stock control
and supply management to provide a base for orderly develop­
ment of theater level support operations. The Quick Reaction
Inventory Control Unit is currently being trained at Fort Lewis. If
conditions dictate that several separate pipelines are required, it
is possible to operate these unique systems within the structure
of the Quick Reaction Inventory Control Unit. The Quick Reac­
tion Inventory Control Unit is a combination of people, organiza­
tions, automated and manual machines, and procedures to pro­
vide effective combat service support to a task force.
c. The primary lesson learned during the buildup, that central
logistic system design, development and control was required, has
been applied in the expansion of responsibilities for standard
systems development in Headquarters Department of the Army,
Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics and its Class II
activity, Logistics Doctrine Systems and Readiness Agency. This
latter expansion has not yet come to complete fruition, but control
of military standard support, such as Military Standard Requisi­
tioning and Issue Procedures, Military Standard Transaction Re­
porting and Accounting Procedures, Military Standard Transporta­
tion and Movement Procedures and logistic data elements had
been initiated. Functional proponent participation in standard op­
erating systems design and development has been implemented.
4. There is a need to establish standards of living for troops
early in a campaign. Once the standards have been decided on,
they should be binding on all troops of all services. From these
standards flow the requirements for real estate, construction ma­
terials, utilities, real property maintenance, post, camp and station
property authorizations, as well as some engineer unit require­
ments. Also affected by the troop standards of living is the extent
to which Post Exchanges are to be established and stocked. For
logisticians, this is particularly important because PX supplies also
consume port, shipping and in-country transportation space. Army
and Defense contingency planning should include alternative plans
for different standards of living. In the absence of such criteria,
every unit will establish its own standards, usually high; and
260 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

constantly strive to upgrade them. This places excessive demands

on an already busy logistic system.
5. Security in Vietnam type operations is a larger considera­
tion for logistical units than in wars characterized by front lines
and relatively secure rear areas. Convoys need to have protection,
both ground and air. Installations need personnel and sentry
dogs for local security. They also need equipment such as night
lighting devices and sensors to support the local security forces.
Stock levels should be as small as possible to present less lucrative
targets. The huge excesses that developed in Vietnam were costly
in men and dollars to dispose of or retrograde. The shipment of un­
needed materiel from the Continental U.S. in future conflicts
should be avoided.
6. Automatic data processing equipment and computers are
needed. The intelligent and coordinated use of this equipment and
its associated technology can provide the basis for an efficient and
flexible logistic system.
7. The concept of common supply support is usually sound for
selected items, but it cannot be imposed without considerable
advanced planning both as to the items to be commonly supplied
and the conditions and situation in the area concerned. The
most profitable areas for the application of common supply support
included subsistence, selected items of petroleum, oils, and lubri­
cants and construction materiel. There is a need and an ongoing
effort (Department of Defense Study Group) to develop criteria
denning the commodities or items and conditions under which
common supply support should be applied.
8. The use of contractors to augment or supplement the mili­
tary forces is feasible and workable. Where contractors are to
be supported by the Army logistical system, they can be better
supported by depots than by direct support units. The Army
supply system can obtain demand data for nonstandard com­
mercial parts. However, the determination whether to support
contractors from the Army's supply system or to have the con­
tractor provide his own support should be the result of a careful
analysis. The cost effectiveness and responsiveness of each method
should be evaluated.
9. A combined military and commercial petroleum distribu­
tion system is workable. However, a need exists to have a petroleum,
oils, and lubricants Contracting Officer in country to deal with
local commercial petroleum firms.
10. The concept of Push Package is sound. Implementa­
 WORLDWIDE LOGISTIC IMPACT OF VIETNAM 261

tion procedures have been revised to provide fewer items based on

equipment densities.
11. Preventive maintenance programs are basic to achieving
higher operational rates on equipment. Command attention is a
continuing need.
12. The use of commercial equipment on military projects is
feasible and efficient. This is particularly applicable to large scale
engineer efforts such as the Line of Communications road con­
struction program. The Vietnam experiences showed that when
standardized items of critical military construction and utility
equipment are not available or appropriate, a program should be
established to standardize available commercial items.
13. An adequate intra-theater airlift capability must be plan­
ned for. Plans for air transporting 10 percent of the anticipated
cargo and 65 percent of the total monthly forces should provide
an adequate initial capability.
14. The equipment required for the operation of a property
disposal activity should be planned for and made a part of the
approved Table of Distribution and Allowances and Table of
Organization and Equipment. Country to country agreements
should be made at the ambassadorial level to insure that the
host country does not have control over U.S. equipment being
sold to out of country purchasers.
15. A number of policies evolved from the process of phasing
down forces in Vietnam under the Keystone Programs. Seven of
these follow:
a. Redistribution of assets generated from deactivations and
redeployments must be controlled through the existing wholesale
distribution system to assure adequate cancellation of outstand­
ing requirements.
b. A maintenance facility must be established to repair assets
turned in by deactivated units. These assets must be brought
to an issuable condition.
c. All redeployment and deactivation planning must include
comprehensive instructions on disposition of all materiel fore­
casted to become available.
d. The workload associated with preparation, preservation and
packaging of retrograde materiel must be recognized, and augmenta­
tion Tables of Organization and Equipment must be developed
to provide the required staffings.
e. Doctrine developed to support deployment of forces from
the Continental U.S. to overseas areas is not adequate for redeploy­
ment of forces from the combat zone back to the Continental
262 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

U.S. The biggest deficiency is the failure to recognize that the

assistance of the Continental U.S. Post Engineer, Post Signal,
Post Medical and Post Maintenance facilities are not available
in the combat zone.
f. The sanitation and entomological requirements imposed
on retrograde materiel from Vietnam actually determined the
speed with which retrograde could be accomplished.
g. Organic divisional support elements are incapable of pro­
viding normal mission support to the division in combat for a
period up to as long as the last 30 days prior to their redeploy­
ment. This logistics support must be provided by non-divisional
support elements exclusively.
16. Loss of several Ammunition Supply Points to fire and enemy
action justifies the need to find a better method of storing am­
munition in a combat zone. Covered storage would have provided
a significant decrease in losses caused by burning debris resulting
from explosions.
17. Financial management must receive concurrent attention
and priority with logistics management. Further, when this occurs,
effective and efficient materiel management can follow. This was
proved by our experience in Vietnam. Vietnam experience has
proved that financial management techniques, when utilized to an
appropriate degree, could be useful tools in the effective and
efficient management of materiel in combat areas. Financial man­
agement systems for Operations and Maintenance funds support­
ing combat operations are most effective when they are mecha­
nized, require a minimum change from the normal Service system,
and provide for the distribution of materiel cost to appropriate
cost accounts. The Services, when planning contingencies, should
outline appropriate financial management systems for Operation
and Maintenance funds supporting operations in the combat areas.
18. An adequate transportation capability, with a proper bal­
ance between sealift and airlift resources, is essential to the
deployment and successful support of forces deployed in an over­
seas area. Since the bulk of materiel must be transported by
surface means, an adequate and responsive sealift must be in-
being. Such a capability is dependent on a modernized Military
Sea Transportation Service nucleus fleet backed by access to the
resources of an equally modern U.S. merchant marine. A re­
sponsive and adequate airlift must be available to support initial
deployments, to provide for follow-on movement of personnel,
items designated for normal movement by airlift, and for high-
priority materiel. The growing capability of U. S. civilian and
 LESSONS LEARNED 263

military airlift emphasizes that the services must develop and

test boldly engineered logistic systems to exploit the advantages
inherent in this mode of transportation.
19. Provisions should be made for a Traffic Management
Agency to be established prior to any type of projected operations.
The Traffic Management Agency should have operational control
of the transportation assets that are available for common-user
service. Using an agency such as Traffic Management Agency
means a sizeable reduction in the waste of transportation resources.
20. The attendant maintenance and supply requirements as­
sociated with unnecessarily sophisticated or complex equipment
and weapon systems may outweigh the value of the dubious
operational improvements. For purposes of illustration:
a. Why multi-fuel engines? Concentration of fuel distribu­
tion may have been more economical, b. Did we need communica­
tions retransmission capability in tanks? c. Did we train sufficient
marksmen to justify precision rifles? d. Would not light weight
cheaply constructed mass fire weapons serve better than expen­
sive maintenance significant items? e. Must vehicles be waterproof
for their occasional submerging? f. Would light weight plastic
flotation bags serve better?

Salvage and Scavenger

1. Battle damaged or abandoned American equipment provided
the innovative Viet Cong with a source of raw materials. The fol­
lowing provided some illustrations:
a. 155-mm shells were used as mines to destroy tank or per­
sonnel carrier tracks.
b. High-powered American rifle shells were adapted to "water
pipe" guns by expanding the bullets with coins with holes in them.
Inaccurate as the weapon may be, a hit is devastating.
c. 155-mm shells and others of similar size have been suc­
cessfully used as mortars.

Battlefield Policing
Total destruction of abandoned equipment appears necessary.
There is considerable evidence that the soldier is overly equipped
and discards items on the march.
 Appendix

Commanders of 1st Logistical Command, Vietnam

1965-1970
Colonel Robert W. Duke 1 April 1965-1 January 1966
Major General Charles W. Eifler 1 January 1966-12 June 1967
Major General Shelton E. Lollis 12 June 1967-11 August 1967
Major General Thomas H. Scott, Jr. 11 August 1967—1 August 1968
Major General Joseph H. Heiser, Jr. 1 August 1968—22 August 1969
Brigadier General Hugh A. Richeson 22 August 1969-1 September 1969
Major General Walter J. Woolwine 1 September 1969-26 June 1970
 Glossary

AVEL Aviation Materiel Management Center

AMMC Aviation Electronics
DS Direct Support
FAMF Floating Aircraft Maintenance Facility
FWMAF Free World Military Assistance Forces
GS General Support
GSGP General Support Group
JP-4 A Kerosene-base Fuel for Turbine Engines
LCM Landing Craft, Mechanized
LCU Landing Craft, Utility
LST Landing Ship, Tank
MCI Meal, Combat, Individual
POL Petroleum, Oils, and Lubricants
RVNAF Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces
TOE Table of Organization and Equipment
TRANS Transportation
 Index

Abrams, General Creighton W.: 61, 237

Ammunition Group, 52d: 109, 122

Administrative and Direct Support Lo­ Ammunition Improvement Plan, South

gistical Company Study: 240

Vietnamese Army: 241

Advisors, United States: 229-34

Ammunition Procurement and Supply

Agency for International Development:

Agency: 108, 111-13

23, 88, 159, 161, 164, 166, 237,

Ammunition Stock Control Detachment,

242, 244-45
182d: 108

Air Division, 2d: 230

Ammunition Supply Depot: 128-32

Air Force, United States. See United

Ammunition Supply Points: 107, 125,

States Air Force. 128-29, 262

Air Transportation Co-ordination Of­ An Khe: 20, 129, 158

fices: 160
Area Maintenance and Supply Facility:

Airborne Brigade, 173d: 8, 11, 14, 107

196

Air Vietnam: 229

Armed Services Procurement Regula­
Airborne Divisions
tion: 89, 119

82d: 69
Armored Cavalry Regiment, 11th: 9,

101st: 8-9, 150

40, 180

Aircraft: 167
Armored personnel carriers: 42-43, 54

engines: 146-48
Army Aeronautical Depot Maintenance

inventory: 134-37
Center: 147

logistic support: 137-39

Army Authorization Document System:

maintenance: 137-41, 146-47, 149-50

60

readiness: 150-53
Army Electronics Command, Fort Mon­
repair parts: 141, 144-46, 149
mouth: 32

supply: 137-38, 143

Army Equipment Records System: 186

support: 20, 23
Army Maintenance Management System:

utilization: 152
186

Aircraft Intensively Managed Items: 147

Army Materiel Command: 10, 13, 40,

Airlifts: 23, 166-67

42-43, 46, 49, 51-52, 56, 64-67, 172,

Alaskan Barge and Transport Com­ 231, 258

pany: 164, 170

Army Medical Service: 215

Allocation Committee Ammunition,

Army Missile Command: 49

Army Munitions Command: 28, 114

Department of the Army: 117

Army Stock Fund: 134-35

Americal Division (23d Infantry Divi­ Army Support Commands: 20, 27, 36,

sion): 9
112, 137-38, 141, 229

Ammunition
Artillery Group (Air Defense), 97th:

maintenance and disposal: 131-33

49

plants: 30
Asset Balance Report: 111, 113

procurement: 118-21
Assistant Chief of Staff for Force De­
reporting: 109, 111-15
velopment: 53

security of depots: 130-31

Assistant Chief of Staff for Logistics: 233

shortages: 115-18
Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for

stocks: 62, 106-15, 124-30

Logistics (Supply and Maintenance):

storage and handling: 25-27, 127-30,

173, 262
52

supply rates: 62, 109-11, 115-16

Assistant Secretary of Defense (Installa­
transportation of: 124-27
tions and Logistics) : 50, 120

units and personnel: 121-24

Atlanta Army Depot: 32

Ammunition Battalion (Provisional) ,

Australian forces: 245-47

528th: 123
Authorized Stockage List: 142, 175-76

268 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Automated Materiel Management Sys­ Civilian Irregular Defense Group Forces:

tem, South Vietnamese Armed 231, 242
Forces: 240 Civilian specialists: 52, 114
Automatic data processing: 37-38, 86, Closed Loop Support Conference: 55,
144, 186, 215, 256, 258, 260 148-49
Automatic Digital Network: 195 Closed Loop Support program: 43-44,
Automatic Secure Voice Communica­ 48, 53-56, 148-49, 182, 186, 236
tions: 195 Cogido: 126
Automation: 23, 37, 58, 64, 144, 198 Combat Service to the Theater Army: 8,
Aviation Brigade, 1st: 138, 149-50 177
Aviation Materiel Management Center: Combat Support to the Theater Army
87, 139, 144, 146 concept: 121-22
Aviation Officer, United States Army Combined Logistics Offensive Plan: 238,
Vietnam: 138 240
Aviation Systems Command: 139, 144, Commander in Chief Pacific: 9, 11, 19,
147 189, 204
Commander in Chief, United States
Ban Me Thuot: 27, 231 Army Pacific: 9, 58
Bangkok: 174 Commissaries: 203-04, 236
Base Depot Upgrade Plan: 240 Common Service Airlift System: 166-67
Bath services: 200-01, 205-06, 248 Common Supply Support: 82-85
Batteries, dry: 47-48 Communications equipment manage­
Bearcat: 20 ment program: 54
Bien Hoa: 14, 79 Communications system: 194-95
Binh Loi: 79 Composite Service Maintenance Com­
Boots: 46-47 pany, 604th: 68
Budget: 28, 87, 110, 119 Computers: 23, 37-38, 72, 112, 114-15,
Budgeting and Funding Concept Im­ 258, 260
provement Program: 240 Container Integrated Support Package:
Bu Long: 79 42
Buildup: 6, 8, 19, 22, 27, 31, 37, 48, 60, Containerization: 42, 163, 171-75, 257
106-09, 119, 122, 158, 253 Continental Army Command: 32
Contingency Operations Selection Tech­
Caltex oil company: 73, 76-77 nique: 42
Cam Ranh Bay: 11, 15, 16, 19, 22, 24, 25, Contingency Support Stocks: 42
26, 27, 73, 83, 107, 122, 124, 125, Contractors: 45, 84-85, 88-90, 118-20,
126, 129, 130, 158, 159, 161, 162,
126, 139, 163-64, 192, 194-95, 260
163, 164, 169, 170, 172, 173, 174, 180,
181, 183, 192, 198, 199, 208, 215 Corps
Cam Ranh Bay Support Command: 158, I: 11, 72-73, 82-83, 123, 144, 169-70,
169 183, 192, 216, 248
Camp Red Ball: 204 II: 27, 72, 77, 81, 83-84, 161-62, 183,
192, 198, 248
Can Tho: 11, 16, 17, 20, 25
III: 72-73, 81, 83-84, 161-62, 183-84,
Casualties: 205, 213-15 192, 198, 234, 248
Cat Lai: 25, 126, 169, 170 IV: 11, 72-73, 81, 83-84, 169, 183, 192,
Caterpillar Tractor Company: 163 198, 233-34, 248
Cavalry Division (Airmobile) , 1st: 8, XXIV: 216
150, 158, 172 Corps Area Communication System: 195
Central Financial Management Agency: Country Logistics Improvement Plan:
63 240
Central Identification Laboratory: 205
Central Recovery Committee: 243 D to P stocks: 109-10, 116
Centralized Financial Management Da Nang: 6, 11, 19, 26, 27, 73, 84, 123,
Agency: 86-87 125, 126, 128, 180, 184, 185, 201,
Chu Lai: 20, 128, 180, 181, 215 204, 205, 216, 256
Civil Operations and Revolutionary Dalat: 27
Development: 88 Decontamination: 200
 INDEX 269
Defense Automatic Addressing System: Food service: 200-03

64, 144, 198

Fort Devens, Massachusetts: 121

Defense Communications Agency: 195

Fort Mason, California: 49

Defense Fuel Supply Center: 72, 74-76,

Fort Monmouth, New Jersey: 195

81
Fort Shatter, Hawaii: 63, 215

Defense Production Act of 1950: 29

Forward Depot: 112

Defense Supply Agency: 13, 32, 49, 59,

Forward Floating Depot: 106, 112

64, 81
Forward Support Activity: 20-22, 155

DeLong pier: 17-18, 125-26, 167, 256

Free World Assistance Forces: 215, 236,

Department of the Army High Interest

245-48

Items: 72

Department of Defense Study Group: 260

General Service Group, 80th: 123

Depots: 11, 15, 19-20, 22, 26, 32-33,

General Services Administration 13, 59

51, 69, 71, 122-23, 128, 130, 235,

General Support Group, 34th: 20, 138—

238, 240
39, 143

Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics,

General Support Units: 38

Office of: 30, 44, 117, 252, 258-59

26th: 123

Diem, President Ngo Dinh: 6

79th: 49

Direct Support System: 51

80th: 123

Direct Support Units: 38, 50

Generators. See Electric power equip­
Directorate of Ammunition: 30, 109,
ment.

113-14, 117, 123, 132

GOER vehicle: 162-63

Directorate of Construction: 189

Graves registration: 200, 205

Distribution and Allocation Committee,

Ground Munitions Office: 30

Department of the Army: 48, 51-52,

Gunn, Brigadier General James W.: 256

54, 72, 236

Han Jin Company: 164

Do Thi Nuong (contractor) : 164

"Hardened vehicle" concept: 36, 162

Dong Ha: 128, 164, 169

Harkins, Lieutenant General Paul D.: 9

Dong Tarn: 25, 69, 216

Hawk missile: 49-50

Duke, Colonel Robert W.: 9-10

Helicopters: 6, 36, 106, 134, 137, 152,

155, 167

Eifler, Major General Charles W.: 57

AH-1G: 148

Eisenhower, President Dwight D.: 6, 232

CH-47: 147-48, 153

Electric power equipment: 18, 45, 85,

CH-54: 149, 153, 156, 214

90, 194
OH-6: 148

Electronics equipment management pro­ UH-1: 136, 148, 153, 184

gram: 54
ambulance: 213

Engineer Brigades: 19
Flying Crane: 156

18th: 44
Hospitals: 213-15, 244

20th: 44
Hue: 169

Engineer construction: 19, 44, 189-94

Hughes Aircraft: 195

ENSURE project: 48, 53, 71, 231

Equipment, Inc.: 164

Improvement and Modernization Pro­
Esso oil company: 73, 76-77, 79
gram: 238

Explosive Ordnance Disposal teams:

Infantry Brigades

132-33
196th: 41

199th: 41

Federal Stock Numbers: 64

Infantry Divisions

Federal Supply Service (General Serv­ 1st: 8, 15, 70

ices Administration): 49
4th: 8, 70

Field Depots
5th: 155

58th: 19
9th: 8-9, 41, 67-68, 150

504th: 19, 122

25th: 8

506th: 19, 26
Inventories: 18, 23, 62, 238, 259

US Army, Da Nang: 19
Inventory Control Centers: 23, 84, 87,

FLAGPOLE: 46
115

Floating Aircraft Maintenance Facility:

Inventroy Control Point, United States

146
Army Pacific: 108, 112-14, 215

270 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Inventory-in-Motion principle: 51, 62, Marine Corps, United States. See United
127, 155 States Marine Corps.
Marine Division, 3d: 125, 128
Johnson, President Lyndon B.: 6, 28 Marine Maintenance Activity, Vietnam:
Joint Casualty Resolution Center: 205 183
Joint Chiefs of Staff: 9, 83, 188, 246 Materials handling equipment manage­
Joint General Staff, Vietnamese: 164 ment program: 54
Joint Materiel Priorities Allocation Materiel Management Agency: 114
Board: 46-47 Medical Brigade, 44th: 20, 181, 213, 215
Medical Civic Action Program: 244
Kennedy, President John F.: 6, 232 Medical Command: 213
KEYSTONE projects: 48, 56-57, 67-72, 261 Medical Depot, 32d: 87, 181, 215, 235,
Laird, Secretary Melvin R.: 191 245, 247
Landing craft: 24-25, 125, 167-71, 183, Medical Depot, Ryukyu Islands: 215
198, 216 Medical services: 20, 181, 200, 212-15, 244
Laundry services: 200-01, 206-08, 248 Mildren, Lieutenant General Frank T.:
Lien Chieu: 76 67
Light Infantry Brigades Military Airlift Command: 160
19th: 9 Military Assistance Advisory Group: 5-6,
199th: 9 10, 82, 212, 229, 232
Line of Communications Program: 44, Military Assistance Command, Vietnam:
191, 243, 261 6, 9-11, 13, 15-17, 25, 27, 111, 116,
Log lift: 155 159-61, 164, 166, 170, 188-89, 191,
Logistic Support Center: 232 209, 214, 229-30, 232-33, 235-37,
Logistical Commands 241, 244^6
1st: 9-11, 14-17, 19, 20-22, 25-27, 32, Military Assistance Program: 24, 211-12,
57, 61-65, 67, 71, 82-84, 88, 107-09, 235, 245
113-14, 122-23, 126, 132-33, 138, Military Assistance Service Funded Pro­
146, 158, 173, 178, 180, 184, 189, gram: 235, 237, 242, 245
192, 194, 196, 198, 201, 206, 208-09, Military Construction Army Program:
211, 213, 215, 240, 246-47 44, 189-91
2d: 22, 58, 64, 84, 107-08, 186, 198, Military Provincial Hospital Assistance
235 Program: 244
9th: 9 Military Sea Transport Service: 77, 159
Logistical island concept: 19, 22 Military Sea Transportation Service: 76,
Logistical Support Activity: 20-22 160, 169-71, 174, 262
Logistics Advisory Directorate: 233 Military Services Ammunition Allocation
Logistics Control Office, Pacific: 50-51, Board: 117
63 Mines: 36, 43
Logistics Doctrine Systems and Read­ Mobile Advisory Teams: 233-34
iness Agency: 259 Mobile Riverine Force: 216
Logistics Intelligence File: 63 Morning Line of Communications Brief­
Logistics Master Plan: 238 ings, Vietnam: 48, 57-58
Logistics Offensive: 61-62, 146, 251 Mortuaries: 204-05, 247
Long Binh: 5, 16, 17, 23, 26, 27, 69, Multifuel engines: 182
83, 122, 129, 130, 131, 180, 181,
199, 203, 208, 215 Natick Laboratories: 200
Long My: 26 National Guard: 32, 123, 256
Long Range Patrol Ration: 200, 203, 247 National Inventory Control: 39
Luzon Stevedoring Company: 170 National Inventory Control Point: 49,
53, 60, 112, 114-15, 121, 142, 144, 196
McNamara, Secretary Robert S.: 9, 46, Naval Support Activity, Da Nang: 216
50, 58, 120 Navy, United States. See United States
Maintenance Support Positive program: Navy.
155, 176 NESTOR: 195-96
Management: 18-19, 22, 48, 85, 127, New Zealand forces: 245, 247
251, 256-57, 262 Newport: 25, 68-69
Marine Amphibious Force, 3d: 198 Nha Be: 25, 73, 76, 77, 79, 169
 INDEX 271
Nha Trang: 11, 15, 16, 25, 26, 106, Program Six units: 32
133, 137, 158, 198 Projects
Night vision devices: 35 BUDDY: 133, 240-41
Nixon, President Richard M.: 237 CHALLENGE: 61
Norton Air Force Base, California: 195 CLEAN: 65-66
CONDITION: 65
Okinawa: 10, 11, 14, 22, 23, 38, 58, 59, COUNT: 65
64, 86, 106, 108, 115, 142, 144, COUNTER: 61, 139
173, 174, 186, 235, 245 "Orange Ball": 47-48
On-the-Job Training Program: 31-32, Recovery: 243
240 SEE: 64
Operation Compassion: 205 SEE/MOVE: 66
Operation and Maintenance, Army: 85­ SKILLS: 32
86, 135, 262 STOP: 63-64
Operational Project Stocks: 51, 252 STOP/SEE: 64-65
Ordnance Battalions STRAT REQUIREMENT: 252
3d: 122-23 VERIFY: 63
184th: 122, 129, 133 Property Book Officers: 68
191st: 122, 129, 133 Property disposal: 200-01, 209-11
336th (Ammo) : 123 Push Packages: 38-42, 61, 107, 201, 260

Pacific Architects and Engineers: 45, 85, Quang Tri: 155

192 Qui Nhon: 11, 15, 16, 19, 20, 22, 25,
Pacific Command Movements Priority 26, 27, 73, 76, 77, 83, 107, 122, 123,
Agency: 160 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 133, 158,
Pacific Command Utilization and Re­ 161, 162, 164, 171, 174, 180, 181,
distribution Agency: 58-59 183, 192, 198, 199, 215
Pacification: 6, 241-45 Qui Nhon Area Logistics Support Com­
Palletization: 126, 163, 171, 175 mand: 123, 158,
People Self Defense Forces: 242 Quick Fix improvements: 59
Personal Property Depot: 204 Quick Reacting Procurement System:
Petroleum: 27, 72-82, 90, 129, 157, 260 231, 250
Phan Rang: 25, 158 Quick Reaction Assistance Teams: 48,
Phan Thiet: 164 52-53
Philco Ford: 164 Quick Reaction Inventory Control Unit:
Philippine forces: 245, 247 259
Phu Bai: 61, 181, 215
Phu Tai: 129 Radar, ground surveillance: 43-44
Phuoc Vinh: 20 Radios: 35, 194
Phy Tho: 245 Railroads: 164-66, 243-44
Pilferage: 34-35, 81 Rasmussen, Brigadier General Henry A.:
Pink Book: 61-62 116-17
Pipelines: 77, 79, 81, 256 Readiness: 51, 150-53, 176, 181, 251-52
Planning: 10-11, 16, 28, 138, 164, 188-89 Readiness Improvement Programs: 251
Planning, Programing, and Budgeting Real estate: 191-92
System: 85 Real-Time reports: 56
Plans for Turnover of Facilities and Red Ball express: 48, 50-51, 176, 182
Functions Program: 240 Redeployment: 57, 67-68
Pleiku: 20, 27, 129, 141, 162, 180 Refrigeration: 47-48, 199-200
Ports: 5, 11, 17, 19, 22-26, 124-27, 167-71 Refugees: 242-43
Pre-positioned Materiel Configured to Repair parts: 18, 38-42, 89-90, 135, 141,
Unit Sets: 252 144-46, 149, 172, 176, 178, 182
Pre-positioned War Reserves: 252 Republic of Korea forces: 27, 133, 245-47
Prescribed Load Lists: 175-76 Republic of Vietnam forces: 6, 8, 43, 71,
Problem Flasher: 56 111, 119, 133, 161, 190-91, 229-30,
Procurement: 29, 88-91, 118-21, 231, 248 232-42, 247
Procurement of Equipment and Missiles Requisitioning: 11, 23, 38, 40, 51, 60-61,
for the Army: 27, 29, 72, 134, 246 65, 141-44, 235
272 LOGISTIC SUPPORT

Reserve Components: 13, 32-34, 121, Support Group, United States Army,
253-54, 256 Vietnam: 229
Retrograde of Equipment—Keystone. See
KEYSTONE projects. Tables of Distribution and Allowances:
Rifles: 44-45, 236 21, 246, 261
Riverine forces: 215-16 Tables of Organization and Equipment:
Rockets: 116-18 8, 17-18, 20-22, 42-43, 67-68,
Roll-on—Roll-off operations: 174-75 122-23, 162, 205, 246, 261
Rotation, troop: 31, 33 Tan My Thuy: 169-70
Rural Development Cadre: 242 Tan Son Nhut: 23, 24, 49, 76, 79, 106,
107, 141, 158, 195, 201, 204, 205
Sabotage: 35 Tanks: 54
Sagami Depot, Japan: 43, 186-87 Task Force Remagen: 155
Saigon: 5, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, Tay Ninh: 20
22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 107, 113, 123, Technical Services: 8, 177
124, 125, 126, 137, 138, 141, 144, Telephones: 35, 69, 194-95, 197
158, 161, 162, 164, 169, 170, 174, Tet offensive: 111, 123, 147, 210, 216, 243
175, 192, 194, 199, 203, 208, 229 Thailand: 23, 182, 205
Saigon Support Command: 67, 123, 125, Thailand forces: 245^17
158, 162, 183 Theater Required Supply Rates for
Satellite Communications Program: 195 Ammunition: 110
SCRAM: 57, 70, 187 Thieu, President: 237, 243
Sea-Land Services Inc.: 172-73, 199 Traffic Coordination Offices: 159
Secretary of the Army: 30 Traffic Management Agency: 159-61, 263
Secretary of Defense: 9, 11, 13, 29-30, Training: 30-34, 124, 255
176, 188, 237, 246 Transportation Battalions
Secure voice terminals: 197 10th (terminal) : 158

Security measures: 16, 34-36, 130-31, 195, 11th (terminal): 158

260 57th: 180

Shell oil company: 73, 76-77, 79 58th: 144

Signal Brigade, 1st: 194, 196 394th (terminal) : 158

SKILAK craft: 170 765th: 137

Skills. See Training. Transportation Commands

South East Asia Treaty Organization: 5 4th (terminal Command) : 25, 158
Special Assistant for Munitions, Office 5th (terminal A) : 158
of: 30 124th (terminal A) : 159
Special Criteria for Retrograde of Mate­ Transportation Company (GOER) , 1st:
riel. See SCRAM. 162
Special Forces, 5th: 106, 231-32, 242 Transportation Corps Detachment, 402d:
Standards of living, theater: 17, 259 68
Stock Control Detachment, 182d: 109, Transportation Group (Motor Trans­
112-13, 115 port) : 162
Stockage: 18, 20-23, 38-41, 57-58, 62, Travis Air Force Base, California: 49-50
65, 106-15, 124-30, 144-46, 184, 252­ Trucks: 36, 161-64, 182
53
Storage: 26-27, 39 Uniforms: 46-47, 208
ammunition: 127-30 United States Air Force: 10, 73, 82-84,
petroleum: 73 125, 144, 166-67, 171, 184, 204, 230,
Stovepipe system: 49-50, 144 236
United States Army, Eighth: 43
Strategic Army Forces: 32-33
United States Army Engineer Construc­
Subic Bay: 173
tion Agency, Vietnam: 192
Subsistence, troop: 198-200 United States Army Logistics Manage­
Support Activity Saigon, Headquarters: ment Center, Fort Lee: 209
10, 24-25, 198, 229-30 United States Army Medical Material
Support Battalion, 75th: 155 Agency: 215
Support Commands: 11, 15, 20, 123, 125, United States Army Pacific: 10, 16, 40,
129, 158-59, 162, 184, 229 110, 188
 INDEX 273
United States Army Procurement United States Public Health Service: 68,
Agency, Vietnam: 88-89, 91, 163, 71
192, 248 Vandegrift Combat Base: 155
United States Army Ryukyu Islands: 10, Vietnam Asset Reconciliation Proce­
188-89 dures: 65-66
United States Army Trailer Service Vietnam National Railway System: 164
Agency: 174 Vietnam Regional Exchange Service: 161
United States Army Vietnam: 10, 16-17, Vietnamization: 191, 238
22, 27, 36, 43-44, 63, 108, 114, 188, Vinnel Corporation: 45, 85, 163, 194
232-33 Vung Ro: 25, 171
United States Congress: 13, 29, 190 Vung Tau: 11, 17, 25, 125, 137, 138, 158,
United States Department of Agricul­ 170, 171, 198, 216
ture: 68, 71
War Reserve, Operational Project
United States Embassy: 6, 88
Stocks: 51, 252
United States Marine Corps: 6, 11, 49, Warehouses: 26-27, 39
82-83, 125, 128, 171, 184-85, 216, Weapons System Requisitioning: 144
230, 236 Western Pacific Transportation Office:
United States Military Assistance Com­ 160
mand, Vietnam: 27, 188, 229 Westmoreland, General William C: 6,
United States Navy: 10, 11, 72-73, 82-84, 16, 25, 50, 83, 236
125, 158, 160, 170, 178, 183-84, 198, Worldwide Ammunition Reporting Sys­
216-17, 230, 246 tem (WARS) : 109, 113
United States Overseas Mission: 26 Wunder Beach: 169

•& U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 0—505-928

 MAIN 959.70434 H473L c27

Logistic Support /

Heiser, Joseph M.

Dept. Of The Army : For Sal 1974.

Combined Arms Research Library

•"• • " avenworth, KS

3 1695 00125 088 5'

* I AM A PROFESSIONAL LOGISTICIAN SERVING IN THE U.S. ARMY.

* I BELIEVE IT IS A PRIVILEGE TO SERVE MY COUNTRY IN PURSUIT OF

FREEDOM AND PEACE THROUGHOUT THE WORLD.

* I WILL PERFORM MY LOGISTIC DUTIES BY AGGRESSIVELY PROVIDING

SUPPORT AND SERVICE TO THE LINE ON THE LINE.

it I WILL ACCOMPLISH MY LOGISTIC MISSIONS BY CONTINUAL STUDY AND

APPLICATION OF CONSTRUCTIVE INNOVATION AND CREATIVENESS TO
PRODUCE MODERN LOGISTICS FOR A MODERN ARMY.

* I WILL AVOID BECOMING STATIC IN THOUGHT, WORD AND A C T I O N S ­

LOGISTICS MUST BE PROGRESSIVE! COMPLACENCY WILL NOT BE CONDONED.

it I WILL USE MY COMMAND/MANAGEMENT/STAFF RESPONSIBILITIES

TO ASSURE ECONOMY OF LOGISTIC FORCES AND LOGISTICS INTELLIGENCE
TO DETERMINE TRUE REQUIREMENTS.

* I DEDICATE MY ENERGIES AND INFLUENCE TO THE CONTINUED IMPROVE­

MENT AND PERPETUATION OF A CAREER PROGRAM FOR DEDICATED
PROFESSIONAL CIVILIAN, ENLISTED AND OFFICER LOGISTICIANS.

+ I WILL ALWAYS REMEMBER THE ONLY REASON FOR LOGISTICS AND THE

NEED FOR MY PROFESSIONALISM IS TO SUPPORT THE COMBAT SOLDIER

SO THAT TOGETHER THE DEFENSE OF OUR FREEDOM LOVING COUNTRY

AND ITS NATIONAL OBJECTIVES CAN BE GUARANTEED.

it I WILL SET AND MAINTAIN STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE IN PERSONAL

CONDUCT, LEADERSHIP, AND ALL LOGISTIC MISSIONS ASSIGNED.

it MY GOAL IN PEACE OR WAR IS TO SUCCEED IN ANY MISSION, THEREFORE

I WILL NOT RESORT TO GUESSING AS I KNOW THAT CHANCE IS A FOOL'S

GOD AND THAT I AS A LOGISTICIAN CANNOT DEPEND ON I T —

I WILL BE SURE—ALWAYS!