Lecture 6

WORD STRESS IN ENGLISH

§ 1. Nature of word stress

The syllabic structure of words is closely connected with their ac-

centual structure. The sequence of syllables in a word is not pronounced
identically, some syllable(s) are uttered with greater prominence. These
are known as stressed or accented syllables.
Stress in isolated words is termed ‘word stress’; stress in connected
speech is termed ‘sentence stress’. Word stress in English is indicated by
placing a special stress mark before a stressed syllable /'/. Sentence stress
also needs special marking.
The term ‘word stress’ doesn’t get a single definition in linguistics. It
is defined as:
— an increase of expiratory energy and articulatory activity (B.A. Bo-
goroditsky);
— the greater degree of force exhalation and loudness (D. Jones);
— the changes in the degree of force of breath (H. Sweet); etc.
It is clear that the effect of prominence of a stressed syllable is
achieved due to distinctions in its articulatory and auditory characteristics
which vary in different languages. Thus the most suitable and generally
accepted approach lies in studying the nature of word stress.
Word stress should be defined as a complex phenomenon marked by
the changes of force, pitch, quantitative and qualitative components. The
correlation of these components determines the nature of word stress in
an individual language, so that:
1. force (dynamic) stress implies greater force and intensity of articula-
tion in stressed syllables;
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2. tonic (musical) stress is connected with the variations of voice pitch
in stressed syllables;
3. quantitative stress concerns the increase of the length of nuclear vo-
wels in stressed syllables;
4. qualitative stress deals with the colour of nuclear vowels, which re-
veal all their distinctive features in stressed syllables.
It would be fair to mention that the predominance of one component
within a single language is less frequent than the combination of different
components. For instance, in Swedish the force stress is combined with
the tonic one: the word komma changes the meaning from ‘comma’ into
‘come’ when its stressed syllable gets additional differentiation in tone.
Yet Chinese is characterized by the tonic stress only: the word chu chan-
ges its meaning according to the pitch of the voice into pig (level tone),
bamboo (rising tone), to live (falling tone).
The nature of word stress in English is a disputable question. It is
traditionally defined as mostly dynamic stress with some tonic compo-
nent. But modern phonology suggests another approach. Some linguists
(D. Crystal, A.G. Gimson, S.F. Leontyeva, and others) state that the spe-
cial prominence of English stressed syllables is manifested not only
through the increase of intensity and pitch variations, but also through the
changes in the quantity of vowels and quality of vowels and consonants.
Indeed, if we compare stressed and unstressed syllables in the words
abstract ['æbstrækt] and to abstract [ǩb'strækt], we may notice the fol-
lowing peculiarities of the stressed syllables:
— their force of stressed syllables is greater, as the articulation is
more energetic;
— the voice pitch is higher, because the vocal cords and the walls of
the resonator are more tense;
— the quantity of the vowel [æ] in [ǩb'strækt] is greater, as it is lon-
ger;
— the quality of the second vowel [æ] in ['æbstrækt] is also diffe-
rent, because it changes the distinctive features from a broad vari-
ant of the open vowel closer to a narrow one.
So the problem of components interrelation in the English word stress
is still awaiting its solution.
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 As far as the Russian language is concerned, the word stress presents
the combination of force, quantitative and qualitative components. For
example, the vowel [и] is pronounced with different length in stressed
and unstressed syllables in the words идú and úдиш; the quality of the
vowel [о] in the words грозá and грóзы undergoes great changes because
of word stress.

§ 2. Placement of word stress in English

The traditional classification of languages according to the placement
of word stress includes languages with fixed and free stress.
If the stress is limited to a particular syllable of a polysyllabic word,
it is called fixed. For example, in French the stress always falls on the last
syllable of the word, in Finnish and Czech — on the first syllable, in Po-
lish — on the last but one syllable.
If the place of the stress is not confined to a specific position in a
word, it is called free. Such a placement of stress is exemplified in the
Russian language where the stress may fall on the first, second, last or
other syllables in different words (óблако — морóз — молокó).
The English language represents a more complicated case, because it
tends to combine free and fixed tendencies of the placement of word
stress. It holds true that word stress can fall on different syllables in Eng-
lish words ('mother, 'cinema, ba'lloon, de'mocracy). Moreover, there are
cases of stress shifting which help to differentiate parts of speech or de-
rivative word-forms ('import — to im'port, 'library — li'brarian). Still the
placement of stress in English words is highly predictable, as its position
in most cases is the product of the historical language development.
In order to avoid accentual mistakes and difficulties in establishing
the stress pattern of English words, it is necessary for language learners
to know the basic rules of accentuation, which are presupposed by the
origin of English words and their rhythmic or morphemic structure.

§ 3. Degrees of word stress in English

According to the degree of prominence, word stress is divided into
primary and secondary stress. Both types serve to single out stressed
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syllables in a word, but the degree of prominence achieved by the pri-
mary stress is greater than that indicated by the secondary stress.
Notional words in every language have primary stress, which is also
termed ‘main’ or ‘nuclear’. The existence of secondary stress in polysyl-
labic words is not characteristic of all languages.
For example, English words with the number of syllables counted
one to four usually have one primary stress ('toy, 'owner, 'character,
psy'chology), but most words of more than four syllables have two
stresses: primary and secondary (pro nunci'ation). In the Russian lan-
guage polysyllabic words have only one ' primary stress (произношéние).
The most common mistake made by Russian students consists in omitting
the secondary stress in words like demonstration [ demǩns'treı∫n] under
'
the influence of the primary stress pattern демонстрáция. Therefore spe-
cial attention should be paid to this peculiarity of English word stress in
the process of language teaching.
The foresaid distribution of the degrees of word stress is backed up
by all linguists. However, the opinions of phoneticians differ concerning
the following question: how many degrees of stress are linguistically re-
levant in a word?
Russian linguists consider that unstressed syllables should not be
taken into account, whereas foreign ones state that there are actually as
many degrees of stress in a word as there are syllables.
British scholars usually distinguish three degrees of stress in a word:
— primary stress, which is the strongest;
— secondary stress, which is less prominent;
— weak stress, which is realized in unstressed syllables.
American scholars distinguish four degrees of word stress:
— primary stress;
— secondary stress;
— tertiary stress;
— weak stress.
The difference between the secondary and tertiary stresses is rather
vague and seems to be predetermined by the differences between British
and American variants of English.
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 For example, some suffixes of nouns and verbs get additional tertiary
stress in American English ('terri tory, 'dictio nary, 'adver tize). Yet the
tendency to use tertiary stress on' a post-tonic' syllable is also
' traced in
modern British English.
Due to some peculiarities of the English language, some polysyllabic
words have two primary stresses ('seven'teen, 'good-’looking, to 'mis'lead).
The difference between them is marked by the predominance of some
components determining the nature of word stress.
The first main stress, which is called ‘pre-nuclear primary stress’, is
accompanied with the change of the pitch level height. The second main
stress, which is called ‘nuclear primary stress’, is affected by a change of
pitch direction and forms the accentual nucleus of a word. There are ca-
ses when the two primary stresses may be accompanied with a secondary
one ('re organi'zation).
It’s 'necessary to mention that all the words with two primary stresses
in modern English may have variants in accentuation generally observed
in connected speech. They are usually pronounced with two primary
stresses in a careful normative copnversation and retain the difference
between the nuclear and pre-nuclear primary stress ('indi vidu'ality,
'ir'regular). But in a rapid colloquial conversation the degree ' of the first
primary stress may be changed into the secondary or even weak one
('indi vidu'ality, ir'regular).
'

§ 4. Phonemic distribution
in stressed syllables

The accentual structure of the English language is closely connected

with the distribution of vowel and consonant phonemes.
All English vowels may occur in stressed syllables with the exception
of [ǩ], which is never stressed. The intensity of English vowels in identi-
cal stressed positions is different. It is the highest in [a:] and then gradu-
ally reduces to [ı] as follows: [a:, о:, ǩ:, i:, u:, æ, ɔ, e, u, ı].
English long vowels, diphthongs and diphthongoids retain their qua-
lity in stressed positions (army ['a:mı], eager ['i:gǩ], waiter ['weıtǩ]).
Unstressed diphthongs may partially lose their glide quality (subway
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['s∧bweı]). Vowels [ı, u, ǩ] tend to occur in unstressed syllables. Sylla-
bles with the syllabic sonorants [l, m, n] are never stressed.
English consonants tend to keep their distinctive features in stressed
syllables: stops have a complete closure, fricatives have full friction,
fortis-lenis features distinction is clearly defined.

§ 5. Functions of the English word stress

In phonology the notion ‘word stress’ is replaced by the term ‘ac-

centeme’ introduced by V.A. Vassilyev.
The accenteme is a suprasegmental phonological unit which varies
in degrees, placement and performs different functions.
The functions of word stress as a unit of phonology are as follows:
constitutive, recognitive, and distinctive.
1. The constitutive function consists in the ability of word stress to or-
ganize the syllables into language units with a definite accentual
structure. A word does not exist without word stress, and any sound
continuum becomes a phrase only when it is divided into units orga-
nized by word stress into words.
2. The recognitive (identificatory) function of word stress enables a per-
son to identify a succession of syllables as the definite accentual pat-
tern of a word. Correct accentuation helps the listener to make the
process of communication easier, whereas misplacement of stress
prevents normal understanding.
3. The distinctive function of word stress consists in its ability to dif-
ferentiate the meaning of words and word-forms.
Primary accentemes are represented by stressed word positions. Weak
accentemes are found in unstressed positions.
Accentuation oppositions usually consist in the shifting of word stress
or changing its degrees, which may or may not be accompanied with
vowel reduction.
When primary word accentemes are opposed to weak ones, they help
to differentiate between words, word-forms or word combinations in the
English language:

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 transport ['trænspo:rt] — to transport [trǩns'po:t];
mankind ['mænkaınd] — mankind [mæn'kaınd];
blackboard ['blækbo:d] — black board ['blæk 'bo:d].
The same functions characterize the processes of word-building and
word-formation in the Russian language: зáмок — замóк, безобразнáя —
безóбразная, ногú — нóги.

§ 6. Stress tendencies in modern English

The accentual structure of English words is rather unstable due to

differences in the origin of English vocabulary. Modern English word-
stock presents a mixture of native and borrowed words, and it is small
wonder that lexical layers of different origin follow different tendencies
in accentuation.
Three main tendencies characterize word stress in the English lan-
guage: recessive, rhythmical, and retentive.
1. The recessive tendency is observed mostly in monosyllabic or disyl-
labic words of Anglo-Saxon origin and some French borrowings. It is
explained by the fact that in Germanic languages the stress originally
fell on the initial syllable or the second (root) syllable in words with
prefixes.
Unrestricted recessive tendency indicates native English words
without prefixes ('mother, 'swallow) and assimilated French borrow-
ings dated back to the 15th century ('reason, 'colour) with the stress
on the first syllable.
Restricted recessive tendency characterizes English words with
prefixes (fore'see, be'gin) where the root syllable is stressed.
2. The rhythmical tendency in present-day English is caused by the
rhythm of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables in polysyllabic
words. It explains the placement of primary stress on the third syllable
from the end in three- and four-syllable words (ar'ticulate) and the use
of secondary stress in multisyllabic French borrowings ( revo'lution).
'
3. The retentive tendency is traced in the instability of the accentual
structure of English words. According to it a derivative often retains
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 the stress pattern of the original parent word: 'similar — a'ssimilate,
recom'mend — recommen'dation.
' '
For a long time the recessive and rhythmical tendencies have been in
constant interrelation. This is clearly shown on the diachronic level in the
process of historic assimilation of French borrowings. The shift of the
original French stress in trisyllabic words onto the first syllable is the
result of the strong recessive tendency and also the adaptation to the
weaker rhythmical tendency ('faculty, 'possible).
On the synchronic level the gradual strengthening of the rhythmical
tendency becomes obvious. It may be illustrated by a great number of vari-
ations in the accentual structure of English multisyllabic words, which get
a spoken pronunciation variant with the stress on the second syllable ('hos-
pitable — ho'spitable, 'distribute — dis'tribute, 'aristocrat — a'ristocrat).
The tertiary stress marking on the third syllable in American English
('terri tory, 'neces sary) is also an example of the rhythmical tendency.
' '

§ 7. Stress patterns of English words

The distribution of stressed syllables into stress patterns helps to sys-
tematize the accentual structure of English words. The classification is
made according to the degrees of word stress and the number of stressed
syllables. It is also closely connected with the morphological type of
words and the semantic value of their parts (roots and affixes).
1. [┴ ─ (─)].
The pattern with the primary stress on the first syllable marks:
— disyllabic words subjected to the recessive tendency ('father,
'sunny, 'palace, 'office);
— trisyllabic words with or without suffixes subjected to the rhyth-
mical tendency ('family, 'scientist, 'populate, 'active);
— compound words with greater semantic significance of the first
component ('gas-pipe, 'bookcase).
2. [─ ┴ (─)].
The pattern with the primary stress on the second syllable is real-
ized in:
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 — disyllabic words with historical prefixes subjected to the restrict-
ed recessive tendency (be'cause, pro'claim, a'part, for'get);
— disyllabic verbs with the endings -ate, -ise/ize, -y (nar'rate,
com'prise, de'fy);
— words of three or four syllables with suffixes subjected to the
rhythmical tendency (phi'lology, de'mocracy, ex'perience,
o'riginate).
3. [┴ (─) ┴ (─)].
The pattern with two primary stresses is generally observed in:
— compound nouns or adjectives, consisting of two roots ('well-
'bred, 'absent-'minded, 'tea-'pot, 'ice-'cream);
— composite verbs with postpositions ('get 'up, 'come 'out, 'give 'in);
— compound words with separable prefixes ('un'fair, 'dis'appear,
'ex'minister, 're'play).
4. [┴ ┬ ─].
The pattern with primary stress followed by the secondary one is
very common among compound words as the accentuation variant of
the third pattern ('hair- dresser, 'dog- killer, 'sub structure). It is often
'
realized in connected speech. ' '

5. [(─) ┬ (─) (┴) ─].

The pattern with the secondary stress preceding the primary one
marks a great number of simple polysyllabic words with affixes
( intu'ition, govern'mental, pe culi'arity, repre'sent). It is as well
'
found '
in compound ' accentuation
words as the ' variant of the third
pattern in connected speech ( misin'terpret).
'
6. [┴ ┴ ┴ (┴)].
The pattern with three and more primary stresses is characteristic
of initial compound abbreviations ('B'B'C (British Broadcasting Cor-
poration), 'N'Y'S'E (New York Stock Exchange).
7. [┬ (─) ┬ (─) ┴ ─].

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 The pattern with two secondary stresses preceding the primary
one is found in a very small number of words with the stressed pre-
fixes, roots and suffixes ('sub'organ'ization, 'indilviduali'zation).
8. [┴ ┴ (─) ┬ ─].
The pattern with two primary stresses preceding the secondary
one is rarely found in compound words with separable prefixes
('un'trustlworthy).
The patters described above suggest the idea of great variability
in the accentuation of English words. The most widely used are pat-
terns # 1, 2, 4 and 5, which cover the main part of common English
vocabulary. Still there are a lot of words which have variants in ac-
centuation. They may differ in:
— number of stresses: UNSC [┴ ┴ ┴ ┴] or [┴ ─ ─ ┴];
— place of stress: laryngoscope [┴ ─ ─ ─] or [─ ┴ ─ ─];
— degree of stress: disability [┴ ─ ┴ ─ ─] or [┬ ─ ┴ ─ ─]; etc.
This fact underlines the instability of English accentual structure mul-
tiplied in connected speech.

§ 8. Basic rules of accentuation

Stress tendencies and the system of stress patterns helps to establish

basic rules of accentuation, which are very useful for language learners.
The accentual structure of simple and derivative words is rather com-
plicated.
Language learners should stick to the following rules:
— most disyllabic words have stress on the first syllable ('water,
'finish);
— disyllabic words with prefixes of no referential meaning of their
own have stress on the second syllable (mis'take; be'hind);
— most three- and four-syllable words have stress on the third syl-
lable from the end ('criticism, re'markable);
— four-syllable words with suffixes -ary, -ory have stress on the first
syllable ('stationary, 'territory);
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 — polysyllabic words with the primary stress on the third syllable
have secondary stress on the first syllable ('proba'bility);
— polysyllabic words with the primary stress on the fourth and
fifth syllable have secondary stress on the second syllable
(arlticu'lation);
— polysyllabic words with separable prefixes with a distinct
meaning have two primary stresses ('un'known, 'dis'charge,
're'pay, 'mispro'nounce, 'pre-'war, 'ex-'wife, 'inter'view, 'anti-
ag'gressive).
Special attention should be paid to the accentual structure of com-
pound words. Variability in the accentuation of English words is multi-
plied many times because of the variability in compound structures of the
English language.
In order not to make mistakes, the following rules should be ob-
served:
— compound numerals have two primary stresses ('twenty-'four);
— compound adjectives are generally double-stressed ('well-
'known);
— compound adjectives with semantically weak second component
are single-stressed ('childlike), but they are not numerous;
— compound verbs with post-positions get two main stresses ('put 'off);
— compound nouns are usually single-stressed ('strong-box), and
thus differ from word combination with two stressed words
('strong 'box);
— compound nouns with the equal significance of both elements are
double-stressed ('ice-'cream), but they are quite rare.

§ 9. Variations of word stress in connected speech.

Sentence stress

The realization of English word stress in actual speech may not coin-
cide with that in individual words. As it’s been stated before, the notion
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of word stress is closely connected with the notion of sentence stress.
This connection is exercised with the help of their similar and different
features.
On the one hand, word stress and sentence stress have a lot in common:
— the accentual structure of a word predetermines the arrangement
of stresses in a phrase, because sentence stress usually falls on the
syllables marked by word stress;
— the stress pattern of a phrase is conditioned by the semantic and
syntactical value of words, as only notional words are generally
stressed;
— the rhythmical tendency of words and phrases is observed in the
alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables at approximately
equal intervals.
On the other hand, the demarcation of word stress and sentence stress
is rather distinct:
— the sphere of application is different, as they characterize diffe-
rent language units: word stress is applied to a word, but sentence
stress is applied to a phrase;
— the syntactical value of words isn’t always kept, because there are
cases when notional words are not stressed in a phrase (I 'don’t
like that 'man!);
— the rhythmic structure of a word and a phrase may not coincide,
as the number of stresses varies within isolated words and diffe-
rent phrases ('Fif 'teen. → 'Open 'page 'fifteen. → He 'mounted
'fifteen 'hills.);
— the stress characteristics of a word are changed under the influ-
ence of the tempo of phrases, because quick speed of articulation
usually causes the dropping of secondary stress (The 'mass
demons'tration was sup'pressed by 'local au'thorities.).
So in connected speech the accentual structure of a word obtains ad-
ditional characteristics. This fact sometimes presents difficulties for lan-
guage learners. They should be aware of the most widely spread accen-
tual patterns of words, as well as of their modifications caused by rhythm,
melody and tempo of utterances.

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