, 1

I' I
••• •••
·INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP BEHAVIOR

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. identify the factors affecting individual behavior;
2. illustrate the ABC Model of Attitude;
3. discuss the personality theories;
4. explain personality influences;
5: trace the stages of group development; and
6. define the concepts of teams and intergroup conflict.

Chapter Summary
This chapter deals with both individual and group behavior. The first part discusses individual
.•· behavior. The variables in indfvidual behavior are heredity, abilities and skills, perception, attribution,

I attitudes, and personality. Individual differences are factors such as skills, abilities, personalities, per·
7
ceptions, ~ttitudes, values, and ethic~ t~qt diffe: from on in~iv~d~q~~ anoth_ e:. ·PersonaIi~ isdefin~
as a relatively stable set ofcharacteflst1cs that mfluence an md,v1duals behavior. Personahty theones
such as trait, psychodynamic, humanist!c, and integrative are discussed together with the persona~
ity characteristics found in organizations. There are a number ofpersonality influences which include
hereditary factors, culture, social class; and family relationships.
The chapter also includes Nelson and Quick's social perception that should be taken into
consideration both in group and individual behavior. The social perception diagram looks at the
characteristics of the perceiver, the target, and the situation .
. The discussion on group behavior opens with the types of groups and the stages of group
development.
The discussion moves to the basic roles of tea':1s and their types. A team is a formal group
comprising of members who have a shared commitment and interact with each other in order
to accomplish t~e group's objectives.
The kinds and stages of Intergroup Co~flict are then discussed. There are five approaches to
resolving conflicts: dominating, accommodating, problem solving, avoiding, and compromising.
The chapter ends with Mas~enbroek's discussion on the four factors on negotiating effec·
tively: obtain substantial r~su~ts, ,nfluence the balance of power, promote a conducive climate
and obtain procedural flex1billty.
Best Foot For~ard discusses the strategles to fight against office politics and Points of v;ew
provides a case entitled A Second Chance.

64
 Individual Behavior
Variables in Individual Behavior

A. Heredity. It provides some genetic explanation of individual differences.

B. Abilities and Skills. They can either be innate or learned. It is important for management
to match skills and abilities with job specifications and requirements. It is best that
managers conduct job analysis which can further facilitate job matching. Job analysis
is the process of studying the tasks, behaviors, responsibilities, educational require-
ments, and training needed to perform a particular job well.

Today, an individual's ability is not enough to indicate one's general intelligence.

Daniel Goldman, a psychologist, suggests that emotional intelligence is very impor-
tant in assessing and understanding individual abilities.

C. Perception. It is a cognitive process whi.ch involves receiving a particular stimulus, or-

ganizing the stim ulus in the brain, and -translating and interpreting the stimulus that
will influence behavior.

According to resea rch, it is important to know oneself so that it would be much easier
to see others more objectively. An individual's own characteristics can affect how he per-
ceives others. If he accept s himself as he is, it is more likely that he can see favorable aspects
of others. Perception can also be influenced by time pressures, attitudes of peers, and indi-
vidual needs and desires. . .

Attribution theory explains the relationship between perception and behavior. Accqrd-
ing to attribution theory, perceived causes·greatly influence behaViior. In this theory, a su-
pervisor for example can m~r~. accurately gauge his _subordinate's behavior through the
degree to which other subordinates engage in the same behavior (consensus); the extent
by which the subordinate eng]ges in the same behavior at different times (consistency); and
the degree to which the subordinate behaves similarly in other situations (distinctiveness). If
a subordinate ta kes a leave whenever he is reprimanded by his superior, his co-employees
might do the same w hen they are reprimanded (consensus). If the employee does the same
a
·thing every time he is reprimanded (consistency), then he might afso take leave if an erring
customer complai ns on a delayed delivery (distinctiveness).

Common Attribution Errors. Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to under-

estimate the importance of external factors in making attributions about others' behavior.
Self-serving bias is the tendency to deny accountability for a below average work and to take
credit for a job well done.
It is important for managers to identify and understand the attributions employees
make and at the same time know that their own attributions may differ from their subordinates.
Attribution t heory asserts how an individual sees t he causes of his behavior and others~
Harold Kelly's Attribution Theory. Kelly proposed that individuals form attributions
based on the following: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.
• Consensus is a cue which indicates the behavior of peers in a similar situation.
• Dist inctiv~ness is the degree to which the individual behaves the same way in
another situation.

65
 • Consis~ency is the frequency of behavior over time.
. Suppose a supervisor receives several complaints about one of his sale~ representatives
named J~an. He did not receive complaints about the other sales representa~ives _(low consen-
sus). Juan s records show that he also received many complaints during his previous JOb as a sales
t
~l:rk (/ow distinctiveness). The ~omplaints are consistently coming in for the paS sev~ral we~ks
(~igh consistency). The supervisor may conclude tha~ the complaints come from Juan s behavior
(mterna/ attribution}.
Suppose Maria is performing poorly in achieving her sales quota. This behav_ior is
prevalent with Maria's coworkers (high consensus). For the first time, she has n~t achieved
t
her target (high distinctiveness}. However, she is a good salesperson (/ow consiS enc~). The
supervisor may conclude that there is something wrong with the situation, ~ot with her
performance (external attribution}. ,·
D. Attitudes. It is defined as a mental state of readiness that is learned and organized
through experience. It exerts a specific influence on a person's response to people,
objects, and situations with which it is related .(Jvancevich and Matteson, 2007).
Attitudes are learned and organized close to the core of the individual's personality:
Attitud~s can be changed. They provide the emotional aspect of building relationships with
others. They form individual tendencies, predilections,• and objections with things and 1
situ-
ations. Attitudes are the individual's general affective, cognitive, and intentional responses
toward objects, other people,.themselves or social issues (Petty and Cacioppo, 1981 ).

Components of Attitudes
a. Cognition (perceptions, opinions, beliefs). These are the thought component of attitudes
which emphasize rationality and logic. .
. ~.·
b. Affect (emotions, feelings). These are the emotional component of attitudes drawn from
experiences and learned from teachers, mentors, parents, and peers.

c. Behavior (actions). These are the tendency to act ·in a certain manner.

The ABC Model of an Attitude

AFFECT emotions and feelings

BEHAVIOR observed behavior

COGNITION-------• thoughts and beliefs

. Vaughan, G. (2005). Social Psychology.

(Adapted from Hogg, M., and · · 4th ed'1t1on)
:

The ABC Model of an Attitude draws out specific terminologies.

Cognitive
.
dissonance is a tension brought about by the conflict b etween attitudes
.
an
d
behavior. ,
Social learning is the process of .deriving attitudes from famil .
· d culture y, peers, religious organ1·
zat1ons, an ·

66
 Organizational citizenship behavior is a behaviqr above and beyond the call of duty.

Organizational commitment is the strength of an individual's identification with an or-

ganization. Affective commitment is based on the individual's desire to remain in the organi-
zation. Continuance commitment is based on the individual's inability to leave the company.

Values are enduring_beliefs that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is per-
sonally or socially preferable over an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of exist-
ence. Instrumental values represent the acc~ptable behaviors to be used in achieving some end
state. Some examples are honesty, ambition, responsibility, forgiving nature, open-mindedness,
courage, helpfulness, cleanliness, and competence. Terminal valµes are the goals to be achieved
or the end states of existence. Some examples are world peace, family security, freedom, happi-
ness, self-respect, wisdom, equality, salvation, prosperity, and achievement.

I
Job Satisfaction. It is an attitude. It is how an individual perceives his job and how
. .

he derives satisfaction from the job through the job itself, promotions, working conditions,
rewards and benefits, and job security. Job satisfactio~ is a pleasurable or positive emotional
state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences.
Aside from job satisfaction, other.attitudes that prove to be essential on the job are:

a. optimism

b. patience

C. self-starter

d. persistence/determination

e. sociable

f. willingness to accept criticism \

g. openness
E. Personality. It is defined as a relatively stable set of characteristics, tendencies, and tern- ·
peraments that have been significantly formed by inheritance and by social, cultural,
and environmental factors-(lvancevich and Matteson, 2007). ·

Personality and Individual Differences

Individual differences are factors such as skills, abilities, personalities, perceptions, at-
titudes, values, and ethics that differ from one individual to another.
Personality is defined as a relatively stable set of character_
istics that influence an indi-
vidual's behavior. ·

Personality Theories
1. Trait Theory. Gordon Allport, the most popular trait theorist, saw that traits are broa~ or
general guides that lend consistency to behavior. When all these traits are combined,
they form an individual's personality. In order to understand an individual, there is a
need to break down behavior patterns into observable traits. Another leading theorist,
Raymond Cattell, identified 16 traits in bipolar adjective combinations such as self-
assured/apprehensive, reserved/outgoing, and submissive/dominant.
 2. ~ychodynamic Theory. Sigmund Freud is the most prominent figure in psychodynam.
. theory. It emphasizes the unconscious determinants of behavior. freud conceptual-
nd
ized th e theory of personality based on the interaction of the id, ego, a superego.
. !h~ id is the impulsive, primitive element that operates in an uncensored manner. The
td considered the child figure, acting on impulses. The ego is the adult figure. The su-
15
perego contains the shou/ds and should nots of personality. It acts as the pa'.ent fig~re
of the personality. Sometimes, the ego and the superego clash, resulting in conflict
The ego compromises by using defense mechanisms to justify a behavior. Examples of
defense mechanisms are denial, suppression, and repression.
Humanistic Theory. This is the personality theory that emphasizes ·individual growth
3. and improvement. The leading theorist in humanistic theory is Carl Rogers. He be-
lieved that all people have a basic drive tow~rd self-actua1ization. This theory contends
that the self-concept is an integral part of an individual's personality. ·
Integrative Theory. This apprpach describes personality as a combination of an indivici'.
4. ual's psychological makeap. A person's personality baSed on his psycholbgical struc-
ture includes his emotions, cognition, attitudes, expectations, dreams, and fantasies. I

Personality Characteristics Found in Organizations

. . -
·Locus of Control. It is a person's generalized belief on internal control versus external
1. control. A person who believes that he can control what will happen to his life has an
internal locus of q:mtrol. A person has an external locus of control if he believes ,that
.I I
,his fate is controlJed more by others or so.m.e circumst_ ances. It is advantageous for..
managers to know their sut;,ordinates' locus of c;:ontrol. Internals who believe they are
responsible for their own actions would wan_ t to have s<?me power on how they will
perform. They do not want close sti,pervi•sit>'n.:: Externals, on the other hand, may need
the opposite. They would prefer a more structured work s~tting and closer supervi-
sion. They trust that.their superiors w.ould be in a better position to provide them with
a more stable and comfortable work environment.
Self-esteem. This is an indi~i~~al's g:e~er~I feeli~g of his self-worth. Those with high
2. self-esteem have more pos1t1ve feehngs aboutthemselves. They know how to accept
mistakes without losing their self-confidence. They also have a brighter outlook in life
so they .can
. handle frustrations
. well. Managers
. can further enhance the·1r se If--es t ee m
by prov1dmg_them with more challenging tasks. Those with low self-esteem ~hould al-
. ways be motivated a~d enc?uraged. They would require counseling from time to time.
They should_be provided with programs_that would boo sftheir self-confidence.
Self-efficacy. It is an individual's belief on his ability to accomplish a s e 'fi . ·
3. are foursources of self-efficacy: previous experiences, behavior m O d Cl c task. The~
ing for the achievements of others with similar backgrounds e s1.1ch as search
agement from other people, and assessnient of current skiit=~~asio~ encour·
agers can enhance the self-efficacy of their employees by . . ca':"'b1ht1es. Man·
coaching and counseling, motivating, and training employeprovidmg Job challenges,
. es.
·Self-assessment. -It is the extent to which ah in'dividual b . .
4. action on other people or situations. People who pract· ase~ hts cues or future
I

I pay attention to what action ·is appropriate to the situati~~ ~igh ~elf-assessment
· hese people behave •
I
I) .
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 accordingly. On the other hand, people who practice· low self-assessment do not
regard situational cues and are not particular ~ith the behavior of other people.
They act on their own liking.
5. Moo_d Dispositions. These are positive and negative aspects of one's self. Those who
focus on their positive aspects have vibrant moods. They rarely have mood swings or
sudden temper outbursts. Tt:iose who magnify their negative aspects are more prone-
to anger. They are very temperamental and sensitive. Interviewers who exhibit opti-
mism evaluate job candidates more favorably than pessimistic interviewers. Sales rep-
resentatives with a positive outlook in life are likely to close more sales than negative
thinkers. Those with negative disposition are also more prone to stress.

Attract;on-Selection-Attritjon Framework
People are attracted to different careers in the organization based on their capabilities,
talents, and s'sll!s, Organizations, on the other hand, select people based on OJfillnizational
~.9~i-~ ents 9f thejob, and the needs ofthe.org_al}izatlon.Attrition occurs when people
feel that they do not like'the organizatlon, or the company finds that the individual is not fit
in the organization.

Personality Influences
a. Hereditary Factors. Some aspects of personality such as moods and temperaments are
influenced by heredity.
b. Culture. It greatly influences one's personality over time through the society's system of
beliefs, norms, traditions, practices, and customs.
c. Social Class. One's social class influ~~9~_s.!ndividual personality with regard to percep-
tion of oneself and others.
d. Family Relationships. The degree to which the individual develops dose ties with family
members influences his personality.

Personality Models
a. Openness to Experience. It is the ability to take risks and the degree of openness to a
broad range of interests.
b. Extroversion. It is the tendency to be sociable and friendly.
c. Emotiona/'Stability. It is the tendency fo overcome conflicts triumphantly and handle
emotions with depth and maturity.
d. Agreeableness. It is being.forgiving, courteous, and kind.
e. Conscientiousness. It is being dependable and responsible.

Social Perception
According to Nelson and Quick (1997}, social perception should be taken into consid-
eration both in group and individual behavior.

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 PERCEIVER
TARGET
Familiarity with the target
Physical appearance
Self-concept
Communication-words, gestures
Cognitive/thin king

BARRIERS
/ . :RRIERS
Selective r----------,
SOCIAL First impression
perception;
PERCEPTION error; implicit per-
. Stereotyping; self-
sonality theory
fulfilling prophecies

SITUATION
Context

L
lnt~raction between the perceiver and the target

.. I
;
Figure 1.1. Social Perception Diagram

Characteri~tics of the Perceiver. One of the characteristics of the perce_iver which

affects social perception is familiarity with the target. If the perceiver knows the target very
well, he has several observations vyhich, ff perce,i.'Y,~d well can be accurate..If the perceiver is
very famili.ar with the target, he may screen out pertinent information whic;h is inconsistent
with his knowledge about the target. lf the perceiver has a preconceived attitude toward a
person, he will disp.lay this bias which may affect social perception. On the other hand, an
individual with a positive self-conc:ept tends to noti_ce positive attributes about the target
whereas a perceiver with a negative self-concept m_ay have the tendency to see his nega-
t ive traits with the target. In te~ms ~f cogniti~e thinking, a perceiver may consider height or
physical loolsis more than the capacity or attitude of the target. There are also cases when a
person looks for so many traits instead of a few lmportant ones.
Characteristics of the Targe~. The_target is t~e person being perceived. Physical ap-
pearance plays an import_a~~ role m soc1a~ percep_t1on. A gullible person may be·screened
out because his personality is see~ as unimpre_ss1ve. On the contrary, a loud person maY
be seen as somebody who can deh~er and provide resul~s. Physical attractiveness provjdes
color and meaning to social pe_rc~pt1on: Nonverbal cues such as gestures, body movements,
and eye contact have bearing m interviews.
Characteristics of t~e Situation. The interaction of _the perceiver and the target plays
a big role in social perception. Whatever will transpire during the encounter or conversation
will affect each other's perce~tion. All barriers must be overcome to come up with an unbi-
ased perception of both parties.

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 Barriers to Social Perception
a. Se!ec:ive Pe~ception. It is the tendency to favor information that will confirm a perceiv-
ers viewpoints and disco·u nt those that threaten his beliefs.
b. Stereotyping. It is the tendency to generalize a group of people.
C. Implicit Personality Theory. It is the tendency to form certain theories about a person
based on some presumptions of how he behaves. ·
d. Self-fulfilling Prophecy. It is a situation wherein one's expectations about the person af-
fect his interaction w ith the target such that his expectations are fulfilled.

Group Behavior
'
Types of Groups

1. Formal Groups. These are groups made by the organization to perform assigned tasks.

a. Command Group. A good ex~mple is the organizational chart.

b. Task Group. Thjs is a group formed to complete a particular project. Another term
for this group is self-managed team.
2. Informal Groups. These are groups formed out of social needs.
a. Interest Group. It is formed to meet a particular objective such as to ask for pay
hikes.
b. Friendship Group. ltis formed out of members who have some't hing in common
or have formed some kirid of camaraderie. ·

Stages of Group Development

1. Forming. This is the start of group formati.on, born out of the group's purpose and ob-
jectives. This is the most difficult stage as would-be,members with individual differ-
ences try to form a group. ·
2. Storming. This is characterized by . conflict and confrontation. Some members may
withdraw because of conflict. The group must tr,y its best not to disband and resolve
conflicts of members against each other.
3. Norming. The group has already passed the critical stage. This now involves coopera-
tion, collaboration, and teamwork. There is interaction and open communication on
this stage.
4. Performing. Because of collaboration and cohesiveness in the group, all roles are clari-
fied. The group is now functional and is set to accomplish its goals. Members now
perform tasks that would accomplish group objectives.
5. Adjourning. All group activities are terminated since goals are already accomplished.
The termi nation of the group may have mixed emotions among individual members.
Some may have positive results, whil~ others may be disappointed or frustrated with
what the group has accomplished.

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 Elements --
of G
- C9YQI
1- Comp
. one · · This com ri
os,t,on.
with anoth F P ses of the characteristics of each position and .,ts relationship
.
merely memb er.Thor exa~ple, a member is designated as the leader and others are
various beh ~rs. e relationship of the leader with his followers and vice versa forms
av1oral patterns that affect group performance. .
2• f .
Status Hierarchy.- Th·15 ·me 1udes the various
_ positions
- assumed by the members. Assign-
ment O tasks may be based on the position assumed by each member.
3· Roles. ~ere are three kinds of roles: expected (what is expected by the organfzation
according to group purpose and objectives); perceived (what the member believes he
should enact); and enacted (the behavior that the·member exhibits). These three roles
· should be similar to each other. Otherwise, conflicts may arise.
'
4. N~rms. These are the standards of behavior that the group members should follow..Con-
flicts result from non-conformity with norms because of individual differences, group size,
and cultural factors. Individual differences include the level of intelligence or leadership
styles. Group size can affect the group. Small groups are much easier to han~le than large
groups. Groups with multicultural backgrounds can affect group behavior.
5. Leadership. The lead~r and his leadership style is a critical factor in the accomplishment
of group goals.
6. Cohesiveness and Cooperation. Members cooperate and collaborate toward the accom-
plishment of group objectives.
I Group~hink results from a very cohesive group that h-as a deep sense of urgency
to come up with a consensus which can negatively affect the group's overall decision.
There is pressure to conform. Opposing views are immediately dismissed. ·

Teams
A team is a formal group comprising of !Tiembers who have a shared cpmmitment and interact
with each other in order to accomplish the group's objectives. Their skills·complement each other
and they are accountable to accomplish their tasks and agreed-upon goals and objectives.

Coordinator ·
Adviser
Initiator
Analyzer
IDEAS
INFORMATION

Promoter
Controller
Dlsseminator
Provider
VIEWPOINTS
ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES

·o rganizer
Maintainer
Assessor
Evaluator
STRUCTURE/OPTIONS
RULES/REGULATIONS/POLICIES

Figure 12. Team Diagram

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\
Basic Roles of Teams

Adviser/Analy~er. One of the most important roles of teams is to analyze, provide, and
'.eed nec~ssary information to the organization. They also encourage the search of pertinent
information that the firm needs especially in planning and budgeting.

Controller/Provider. Top management teams provide all the rules and regulations as well
as administrative procedures that employees ,should follow. At the same time, the teams
control, monitor, and correct any deviation from given policies.

Maintainer/Evaluator. It is also the task of top management teams to evaluate from time to
time all the existing rules and procedures; chang·e or modify when needed; and maintain a well-
balanced employee-employer relationship through a coherent, simple, and easy-to-follow rules
and regulations. ·

Organizer/Assessor. Teams offer substantial insights on key areas related to finance, human
resource, administrative, sales, and production by developing and conducting researches
on competition, benchmarking and assessing current trends in technology. The firm copes
with the latest trends in manpower or production planning through organized teams. '

Promoter/Disseminator. A division or a department is considered a team. Each depart-

ment comprises of subteams that di_sseminates relevant information such as those C(?ming '
from top management so that employees are kept informed with what is going on in the
company. As the firm becomes transparent in day-to-day operations, various viewpoints are
screened and relevant information is disseminated to employees.
Coordinator/Initiator. Brainstorming of ideas in teams is very prevalent in organizations.
This is where excellent and creative innovations come from. This is where new products,
new technologies, and new methods oriQinate,

Types of Teams

1. Project and Development Teams. They are formed fo ~omplete a certain project. They
may be highly skilled with a mixture of different specializations and come together
just to work on a ~ingle project.
\

2. Action/Negotiation Teams. These consist of highl;y skilled individuals who are entirely
task-focused. ·some examples are surgical teams, sp~rts teams, and military combat
teams.
3. Production/Service Teams. These are teams involved in production .or service like pro-
duction line assembly teams, data processing teams, and mining or drilllng teams.

4. Advice and Involvement Teams.These include top-level management teams and quality
control circles or financial planning teams. They are also called problem-solving teams.

Elements of Team Effectiveness

1. Training. Members should be trained on how to accomplish their tasks more effectively.
2. Communication. There should be open communication among members.
• I

3. Empowerment. The team must be given authority to make ,decisions. ·

4. Rewards. Efforts are rewarded as a team and not individually if tasks are accomplished
in a team setting.

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 Intergroup Conflict
ISinds of Intergroup Conflig
1. Functional Confli . . ..
suits Wh ct. This enhances organizational performance. It provides positive re,
. . en groups disagree on how to achieve a goal, they end up selecting the best
alternat1ves.
2. con fl"ict. Th"1s hinders
.
Dysfunctional
· organizational performance. It provi"d es negative
results. When groups disagree on the alternatives presented on achieving a goal and
th ey end up without accomplishing anything, there is dysfunctionat conflict.

Stages of Intergroup conflict

1· Awareness of Conflict. There is an awareness of conflict of at least orie group.
2. Emotional Involvement. All groups are already aware of the. conflict. It is likely that the
conflict would be resolved at this stage.
·3. Presence of Conflict Behavior. The conflict has not been resolved. Each group manifests
"conflict behavior:' ·

Causes of Intergroup Conflict

1. · Interdependence. When groups are interdependent in accomplishing tasks, conflict's
may arise. Ft>_r·example, one group is dependent on ·another group in going to the
next level of accomplishing its task or th~ output of one group is the input of another
g roup.
2. Goal Differences. Different groups in the organizations have different goals and differ·
ent expectat ions. Fo·r example, the marketing/sales group may have different expecta-
tions on achieving high profit as against the production group. ·
3. Varying Perceptions. One group may look at itself as the one that increases the bottom
line com pared to the others. There can be intergroup competition and this can pro-
voke conflicts.

Five Approaches in Resolving Conflicts

1. Dominating (win-lose). One group is dominating the other. Power is used in all its might
just to win. There is maximum focus on internal concerns and usually for selfish ends.
However, this is sometimes useful especially during emergency situations.

2. Accommodating (lose-win). _0ne _gro~p _may give way to the other group by minimizing
its concerns. The group which gives in JS on the losing side because the very important
issues hqve not been resolved.

3. Problem solving (win-win). This is_t~e best approach since ·both groups are willing to
cooperate in order to come up wit a favorable resolution of the problem.

4. Avoiding (lose-lose). Wh~~ gro~ps avoidb . !possible confrontations and anticipate th~t
. nothing will be accomp is e ? so ve a pro em, both are on the losing side since all ~-
sues remain unr~s<;>lved. ~~met1m_es, this approach is not actually used to"cool down,and
"d clashes of personalities but 1s used as an alibi to avoid,, . ,, . h
avo1 pain in t e process.

74
 5. Compromising (neutral). Nothing is accomplished here. There is no distinct winner
or loser.

Negotiations
. It is~ ~roce_ss b~ which two or more parties attempt to reach an acceptable agreement
m a conflicting s1tuat1on. .
Mastenbroek identified t he four factors on negotiating·effectively as:
,,
1. ~b~ain substantial results. The activities should focus on the content of the nego-
t1at1on. -
2. Influence the balance of power. Presentation of facts and expertise should domi-
nate the negotiat ion process.
3. Promote a conducive'~limate. Tension should be reduced.
4. Obtain procedural flexibility. The negotiators should be allowed to have more op-
tions on how to conduct the negotiation process more effectively. ·

The Battle with Office Politics

(Adapted from "Coping with Office Politics" by BNET Editorial at www.bnet.com retrieved Octo~
ber 30, 2009)
There are different kinds of people in the workplace. It seems that everyone tries to get
along well with each other if only because he/she wants to avoid rifts, quarrels, jealousies,
and insecurities along t he way. Yet, some people would try harder to get ahead by playing
the political game. Some people would try to maneuver things in order to climb up and get
the desired positions.
Admittedly, there are some organizations that play office politics and the old saying,
"wh.o you know matters than what y~u know:' And if you happen to work in this kind of
environment where loyalty, close_ness, and affinity with higher-ups matter more than com-
petence and accomplishments, you end up frustrated and disappointed.
If you are trapped {n th is, kind- of situation, try to weigh things first. Sometimes, there
are misinterpretations and may be you just do not fit well with some groups. You feel a little
isolated but may be eventually they will ask you to join them.
However,jf you are convinced that there are really politics getting in the way, try to talk
to them directly or air it out with your immediate supervisor. If your supervisor seems to be
having favoritism and nothing happens, you may go to your human resources department
and air your side. This department is the approp riate channel or medium to meddle on what
is going on.
Another dilemma in many organizations is gender battles. There are still endless poli-
tics on what gender should high positions be given: a male or a female?
If you are a fema le worker, always remember that you need to find ways to make good
:onnections even with a male-dominated group. If you have the makings of a good manag-

75
er y
' ou should fl
of Your Perforrn aaunt your competence Always ask your immediate supervisor for feedback
nee. Make ·· , · ·
A ,sure you receive the credit that is due to you.
. . s a cornpetent t I .
Jotting dow ema e worker, you do not have to show that you are super active in
counterpa t n on your sc ore board your outstanding performance measures agams · t male
8
motions r sb. _u~ you need to be vigilant and keep track of where you stand and how pro-
are emg done.

·t· Overall, _watch out for th~ signs of office politics because it is inevitable. When office
O l I ICS gets tn th
P
selfi -h e way, t he organizational· dimate is surrounded by hypocnsy, . _pretense,
s ness, and deception. -'

Managers should practice the following to negate the influence 6f office politics:
1. Resist t_he temptation of practicing politics. If they manage people out of favoritism,
subordinates would lose their trust and eventually th~•r collective efforts will deterio-
ra~ .

Managers should also resist the temptation of putting their own benefits on top
of organizational. interest especially on projects. They should deal fairly and think of
projects that would benefit most the organization and not their self-interest.
2. Communication should be open. There should be transparency and all cards are laid
down on the ~able especially·organizational decisi-ons that involve change, new pro-
jects, and employee welfare and benefits.
3. Promotions should -go to employees with proven track record of successful perfor-
mance and achievements.
As an employee, if 'you are experiencing office politics yourself, just continue working
and be very observant. If there are inconsistencies, just continue to watch until you finally
come-up with your -own strategy of ~esisting office politics and .maintaining high integrity
and credibility. There.is nothing like having _an untarnished image coupled with honor and
honesty. This good image will carry you through even when you decide to transfer to an-
other organization. Do not betray your .honesty just to fit in. You should remain politically
"unattached" without sacrificing your ability to blend and maintain your working relation-
ship with coworkers. · .' .
Most office politics are due to poor communication in the ,organization. The absence
of information fills the g,aps with sp:culations an_
d_humor. There are also misinterpretations
in the absence of dialogue. An environment of. distrust and resentment emanates which
becomes conducive to office politics. . '

Guide Questions
-
1. How can an employee avoid 'office politics?

2. What are the strategies available for managers to neg t h . of

·t·
7
· a e t e influence
0 ffi ce po l1 1c~. ·

Give examples·of situations_where office politics is present.

3.
ilUII -
 CASESTUDY6
Lilia is well liked b h A Second Chance
inherited from his fath y er employees at Ceevas lnternati .
years and she is likewiser.hShe has been with Ceevas as c·hi:tal. It is~ trading firm which she
i :v
. e appy With how her empl executive officer for the last 10
Most of the em oyees work for the firm. -
f h p Ioyees are loyal t th fi .
care o t em. Aside from providin . o ~. rm because of the way management t
equal ekmployment opportunities. l1~00:Pg.~t~1ve sal_aries and benefits, Ceevas implem:~~:
to wor there. ,,'! . eevas 1s not a large firm, employees are happy

Lilia usually has a hand ·,n1i..c, . . .

· rrmng. She makes su th h
competent but also industrious t re at t e people she hires are not only
' ru stworthy, and persevering.
_O ne day, she came across an a r
except that he just came out of riso~P icant, ~anuel who promises to be a good worker
dent. Lilia admired his h . p qfter serving a 3-year sentence due to a robbery inci-
oneStY and she felt the sin ·t h h
in the crime. Lilia felt that Manu d · cen Y. on ow . e regrets being involved
I
children, all very young She d e. d e~erv~~ a second chance and he supports a family of five
to avoid em ployees of . k' eo e t°. ,re Manuel and just keep his records confidential
ma mg speculations about his past. ·
Everyt~ing wen~ on_sn:ioothly for a month until a male employee came rushing to her
office ~~at his wallet 1s m,~smg when he placed it on top of his table after paying his "palu-
~a?an dues for the month to _a co-employee. He said that Manuel was there when the
mc,dent happened. ·

Lilia asked Manuel about the missing wallet but he said he is innocent and, he had
nothing to do with it. A few hours later, the wallet was found in another table just across the
employee's desk.
The ~ame incident happened two days after. Then another, and for the next two weeks,
there were five "missing-and-found" incidents and Manuel was always on sight. Some em-
ployees started speculating on the personality of Manuel. His record in prison was finally
exposed! Lilia felt how clever .her employ~es are to find a way on getting some confidential
inform~tion about Manuel's 'record as a former prisoner. She felt though that Manuel's pres-
ence in all these situations was purely coincidence and to think that all the missing wallets
were found intact, not a single centavo was lost!
The employees begin to put Manuel in the forefront after discovering pertinent in-
formation about his past. Although nothing was lost, they were afraid that the next time
around, Manuel will strike again and this time it is for real!
. , I
Lilia is now contemplating on what to do. Manuel is an extraordinary worker. He is
extremely hardworking and industrious. He is also punctual and respectful. On the other
hand, she is also thinking of _her employees who believe that Manuel should be fired before
he does something more serious.

77
 Case Questions
,. If you were Lilia, what are you going to do?
· • M l's possible moves the next
2. Is 1t right for employees to speculate on anu: 1 • 7 Wh 7
time around? Are there obvious reasons for their specu at,ons. y.
3. Is Lilia right that Manuel's presence is only circumstantial or pure coinc;idence?

4. Is Lilia right in hiring Manuel in the first place?

5. What will you do if you were Lilia?

' r'.'

END OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS

,.
~"''
How much is th~ impact of individual differences in one's behavior toward a group?

2. Which among the variables greatly 1nflue.nce individual behavior?

3. Illustrate t~e ABC Model of Attitude by giving an example.

4. Are you an internal or an exterhal (locus of contr:on? Why do you say so?

5. State the importance of social perception.

6. Does a group really pass through the five stages? Why or why not?

7. Which among the basic roles of a team should be a top priority? Why?

\ 8. .Why are rewards needed in relation to achieving team effectiveness?

I

9. What are the common ca.uses of intergroup conflict?

10. Is the problem-solving (win-win) approach the best way to resolve a conflict? Why or
why not?
t.

""'t , ,~,\:,\,,'¼~ , ~~~~~t~%.~~~'\'%.'%~¾¼'%1¥:\\t;,~

END OF CHAPTER TERMINOLOGIES • I

' ':_ \ ~~-- :»,~,, ' ' " '~ />

• Attitudes are defined as a mental

'fi · state
fl . d t hro ugh
of readiness' learned a·nd organize
experience that exerts a spec1 c m uence on a person's resp I 0 b' ct~
and situations with which it is related. · onse to peop e, ~e

• Attribution
, theory •asserts how an individual sees the c·auses of his . and
. behavior
oth ers.
• Attrition occurs when people feel that they do not like th . .
pany finds that the individual is not fit in the organizat·ion. e organization or the cont
Cognitive dissonance is a tension brought about by the c . · d
• behavior. onflict between attitudes an

Formal groups are made by the organization to perfo .

• . rm assigned tasks.
 l~dividual differences a_re factor~ such as skills, abilities, personalities, perceptions, ~t-
t1tudes, values, and ethics that differ from one individual to another.
Informal groups are formed out of social needs.
• Job satis~a~tion i~ a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the apprais-
al of ones Job or Job experiences.
• Locus of control is a person's generalized belief on internal control versus external con-
trol.

• Mood dispositions are the positive and negative aspects of one's self.
'
• Negotiation is a process by which two or more parties attempt to reach an acceptable
agreement in a conflicting situation.
• Organizational citizenship behavior is a behavior above and beyond the call of duty.

• Organizational commitment is. the strength of an individual's identification with an

organization.

• Perception is a cognitive prqcess which .involves receiving a particular stimulus, organ-

izing the stimulus in the brain, and translating and interpreting the stimulus that will
influence behavior.

• Personality is defined as a relatively 'stable set of characteristics that influence an indi-

vidual's behavior.

• S~lf-assessment is the extent to which an individual based his cues or future actions on
other people or situations.

• Self-efficacy is an individual's belief on his ability to accomplish a specific task .

• Self-esteem is an individual's general feeling of self-worth .

'
• Social learning is the process of deriving attitudes from fa~ily, peers, religious organi-
zations, and culture.
Team is a formal group comprising of members who have a shared commitment and
interact with each other in order to acco.mplish the group's objectives.

• Values are enduring beliefs that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is
personally or socially preferable over an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end
state of existence.