Compressed air systems: factors affecting

the adoption of measures for improved

efficiency
Andrea Trianni
University of Technology Sydney
Faculty of Engineering and IT
School of Systems, Management and Leadership
81 Broadway
Ultimo, 2007, NSW
Australia

Enrico Cagno & Marco Nicosia

Politecnico di Milano
Department of Management, Economics and Industrial Engineering
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32
Milan, 20133
Italy

Keywords
energy efficiency measures, compressed air, manufacturing, observability of the performance (e.g., impact on air quality
industrial energy saving, decision-making process and/or safety). The framework could result in a valuable tool
offering different perspectives in the decision-making of in-
dustrial managers and technology suppliers, as well as indus-
Abstract trial policy-makers.
The sustainability and competitiveness of industrial activi-
ties may strongly rely on increased energy efficiency. In that,
compressed air could be one of the most expensive forms of Introduction
energy in industry because of its low efficiency. Nonetheless, The relevance of industrial energy efficiency is due to several
compressed air is widely used, and is considered as relevant factors. First of all, the global trend of energy consumption is
in many facilities, accounting for even more than ten per cent going to increase by 49 % in the horizon 2011–2035, and a pri-
of industrial electricity consumption in the EU, in US and in mary role can be attributed to the huge growing trends of non-
China. Moreover, it should be noted that the life-cycle cost of OECD countries (1). Secondly, among the four main sectors
a compressed air system is mostly covered by the operating (transport, industry, residential and services) in IEA countries,
costs, so that most of the measures to lower energy consump- the highest share of energy consumption (more than 30 %) is
tion pay for themselves almost immediately, producing rele- attributable to industry. Heterogeneity of industrial sectors is a
vant monetary savings. Nevertheless, several studies show that key factor to be taken into account when thinking about solu-
the adoption rate of such Energy Efficiency Measures (EEMs) tions for the diffusion of Energy Efficiency Measures (EEMs).
is still low. For this reason, we have carefully reviewed scien- Especially in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), the
tific and industrial literature over EEMs for Compressed Air lack of standard procedures as well as internal competences for
Systems (CAS), so to get useful insights into the main factors a sound decision-making process can represent too high barri-
leading to their adoption. Our study lays a good foundation ers, as previous research has shown (2), (3), (4). The industrial
for a novel framework aimed at describing and characterising sector in Italy is highly diversified and the presence of SMEs
EEMs in CAS, revealing that, so far scientific and industrial is spread all along the Peninsula, whose number exceeds the
literature has mostly presented energy and economic factors, 99 % of the total, employing more of two thirds of the indus-
thus giving little room to other factors that still could be quite trial workers. The heterogeneity of industrial activity leads to
relevant for an effective EEM adoption, such as compatibility a wide spectrum of potential sources of energy efficiency: in-
of the measure within the production system (e.g., adaptability deed, companies could either implement sector-specific EEMs
to different conditions, presence of different pressure loads), or adopt EEMs within cross-cutting technologies. As evidenced
complexity of the production system (e.g., accessibility for by previous research (5), (6) whereas broad efforts have been so
operational activities, expertise required for implementation), far paid towards sector-specific EEMs, little attention has been

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devoted to cross-cutting technologies, for which one may find 16/18; centrifugal when air is accelerated by stages of impellors,
the greatest potential for energy savings. with more stages which own very high rotational speeds (up to
Among others, the Compressed Air System (CAS) has re- 100,000 rpm) and a compression ratio difficultly higher than
vealed to be one with strong interest. Indeed, the compressed three for a single stage, for efficiency purposes. Positive dis-
air, known as the fourth utility, have other some characteristics placement compressors are divided into: reciprocating, vane,
that may explain the low adoption rate but others that may ren- and screw compressors, the most used in industrial context.
der it attractive for efficiency outcomes. First, it is used mainly Regarding the screw ones, depending on the requirements of
as a service. Second, it is not a productive output. And, third, the final use in terms of air purity, this type of compressor is
it is really widespread within all production industries (7). Ac- available as lubricated or oil free type. The differences in the
cording to Radgen and Blaustein (8), energy saving interven- two types of screw compressors lie in the possibility, with the
tions are considered as more convenient with respect to other lubricant, of sealing the compression chamber; moreover, this
industrial investments, but compressed air related measures acts as a heat sink to cool the flowing fluid.
have low rates of adoption for organizational and cultural rea-
sons. CONTROL AND REGULATION MODES
In a nutshell, despite compressed air is usually overlooked, Air requirements are quite variable during the time and for this
not being part of the production process, improving its energy reason, there is the necessity to operate not always at full load, in
efficiency on the one hand may lead to relevant savings, on the order to vary compressed air production depending on needs.
other it may have a positive influence over other sources of en- The efficiency of the system is determined on the quantity of
ergy consumption (and potential efficiency). For this reason, it air saved when not needed and on the promptness of changing
is really important, starting from an analysis of singular EEMs of load over time i.e. an efficient of flow control at part-load is
in CAS, to get a better understanding on the main factors to required. Depending on the system took in place and on the
take into account when undertaking a decision of adopting control selection, the overall system performance can be deeply
them. In the following, we have tried to give a contribution in affected, and the energy efficiency as direct consequence. The
this direction, by analysing CAS as well as their main EEMs. strategies for the flow control are plenty, depending on the
We conclude our study with some remarks for a comprehensive compressor type, acceptable pressure variations, air consump-
framework to be adopted by industrial decision-makers as well tion variation and acceptable energy losses. The most common
as policy-makers to understand the main factors leading to the types of control are as follows: (i) Start/Stop; (ii) Online/offline;
adoption (or not) of EEMs about CAS. (iii) Modulating control; (iv) Inlet guide vanes; (v) Variable dis-
placement and (vi) Variable Speed Drives (VSD).

Compressed Air Systems: a short technology overview AIR TREATMENT UNITS

As air is available and can be easily supplied, it is usually treated Dryers. Downstream the compressor, the air is normally at
as cost-free. Despite this belief, usually a non-negligible por- higher temperature with respect to the ambient, and the after-
tion of energy costs in an industrial environment comes from cooler gives a very high relative humidity. To avoid the mois-
the CAS. This widespread misconception about inexpensive- ture entering in distribution pipes, the drying units are the
ness, most of times is translated to a poor focus on the effi- minimum requirement for every CAS. The temperature and
ciency practices and on the optimization of compressed air, i.e. the degree of humidity of air depend on operating conditions,
energy savings potentials are seldom considered in the design as consequence different dryers have different characteristics.
phase. The widespread diffusion of the technology is brought For instance, operating in a very cold environment, we need
by a series of factors: the ease of handling, the great safety, being the dew point of air being lower than the ambient conditions
sometimes preferred to hazardous environments for their low to avoid any ice formation. Three different types of dryers ex-
flammability, and the relative ease of maintenance procedures. ist, namely refrigerant, desiccant and absorption. Filters can be
As indicated from data available in industry facilities (9), such placed before the compression units, to shield from airborne
systems should be used only if there are some additional ben- atmospheric particles and other impurities, or downstream the
efits, such as safety enhancements, productivity gains or reduc- compressor to drop out the excess lubricant in units that include
tion of labour due to high energy delivery cost. But, in order it. Both types should be changed periodically, but the former is
to fully understand the main factors leading to the adoption much easier to replace. Heat reduction units. Cooler units can
of EEMs, it is important to understand the technical and op- be placed at the intake of the compressor, between stages or im-
erating features of CAS. For this reason, due to the illustrative mediately before the dryers. Intercooling effects have the same
nature, most of the following in the present section – with a de- of the intake compressor position since they place before the
scription of CAS by main components – is taken from relevant next step of compression; the place of the intake cooler lowers
industrial literature sources (10), (11). the air temperature (T) entering the compressor, increasing the
efficiency, since the air density is higher at lower T, permitting
GENERATION OF COMPRESSED AIR more air entering the compressor for each rotation of the rotor.
Compressors are the principal components of the system.
Two different types of fluid compressors exist: dynamic and ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT: RECEIVERS AND SEPARATORS
positive displacement. Dynamic compressors are divided into: A capacity storage is required for maintaining the system sta-
axial, when the air passes through a series of rotating vanes, the bility over time, but also to maintain the required efficiency
hardware characteristics are compactness and lightweight, and and the highest possible quality of air. Here a classification is
which own high rotational speed and a compression ratio up to operated between the primary or secondary type, depending

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on the task performed. The former, acts as a general system compressed air should be always treated as a system. Indeed,
storage of air, and its location is close to the main compressor single components assessment is never suggested by industrial
in case of multiple compressors layout, but the exact location literature manuals (11), and the system approach is revealed to
depends on the need of either upstream or downstream clean- be the way to handle inefficiencies. Here the main steps to con-
ing-up equipment; it is used to supply peak demands, reduce sider when improving energy efficiency in CAS (11): (i) Estab-
cycle frequency of screw compressors or to damp pulsations lishment of the current conditions and operating parameters;
for reciprocating units. The secondary instead are located in (ii) Determination of present and future production processes
the distribution system of the facility or at the end use points, need; (iii) Gather and analyse operative data, developing the
having the protection task for pressure dips or large transient load duty cycles; (iv) Analysis of alternative system design and
users. Moreover, it can supply the adequate stability wherever improvements; (v)  Determination of the best opportunities,
the piping is undersized for the current demand. Separators both technical and economical; (vi)  Implementation of the
have the task of separating liquids within the air. They should more suitable options; (vii) Analysis of operations and energy
be installed after each intercooler. consumption and validation of performances; (viii) Monitor
and optimize the system; (ix) Operate and maintain the sys-
DISTRIBUTION NETWORK tem to peak performances. This guideline represents the ideal
Distribution network has a strategic importance in a CAS. It practices to be followed for the elimination of whatsoever inef-
gives to the air the possibility of moving from the generation ficiency, but some common procedures for specific hardware
point, to the point where one should use it. The distribution or operations should be analysed individually. Moreover, the
system is composed at most, by piping. The piping is connected different sets of technologies and operative solutions to lower
with others by mean of fittings for the directional changes or to inefficiencies of this system is so large, that the characteristics
cope for the length of the entire line. The network path, design of each of the most recommended EEMs should be pointed
and sizing are important for multiple reasons: system efficiency, out, to investigate deeply the possibility of higher savings, and
reliability and production costs. to start understanding what are the major causes of the low
adoption rates of some of them.
POINT-OF-USE EQUIPMENT
It can be actuators that are in charge of performing mechani- OVERVIEW OF MAIN EEMS IN CAS
cal work owing to the linear displacement or rotation of ele- A very useful instrument for the analysis of the single effi-
ments; they use energy that is given by the compressed air ciency measures has been developed by the US Department
and operate the transformation in mechanical energy. Some of Energy, with the Industrial Technology Program (acronyms
application of actuators is found in the air-driven vane mo- ITP), related to energy management topics. In fact, the recom-
tors. Summarizing, the compressed air is used in a very huge mendations cover also other types of interventions as the waste
number of ways within the industrial context; USDOE (11) minimization (or pollution prevention) and direct productivity
specifies that the electric-driven units’ counterpart of pneu- enhancements, that nevertheless do not fall within the scope of
matic tools, are much more convenient to use from an ener- the present study. All the main recommendations of EEMs are
getic viewpoint. Compressed air usage is thus suggested only grouped together from the assessments performed by the In-
when strictly required. dustrial Assessment Center (IAC) centres (14), which consist in
in-depth evaluations of EEMs opportunities in facilities. After
the remote survey of the plant, a detailed process analysis to
Analysing Energy Efficiency Measures in CAS: an generate specific recommendations for different types of sys-
overview tems follows. CAS interventions are categorized with the first
digit referring to energy management practices (digit 2), the
ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES IN CAS second specifies the prime mover (in our case motor systems,
EEMs are defined as “technologies or behavioural changes that digit 4), the third is the air compressors specification (digit 2)
reduce the specific energy consumption of a particular process” and then, the last one refers to hardware or operations related
(12). The direct consequence is the optimization of heat and interventions. For a matter of completeness, we add also other
power consumption, to gain greater energy-driven productiv- EEMs that does not influence the performances of CAS, but
ity. The benefits coming from their adoption are of different that highly depends on CAS status: they are thermal system
nature: the reduced energy bills are source of tangible revenues, related, more precisely about heat recovery from specific CAS
but further benefits are also greater capacity utilization, reduced equipment (2,243X).
scrap rates, more effective emissions and safety compliance,
and enhanced risk management (13). The industrial contest is EEM 2,4221: Install compressor air intakes in coolest location
so various, that energy management practices are highly situ- The intervention is based on the installation of the compressor
ational; in SMEs decisions about energy efficiency investments inlet in a cool location for the thermodynamic benefits offered
are usually in charge of the facility manager, especially when by new air conditions. The air can be aspired from the exter-
the energy manager is not present (the presence of the energy nal environment, or from an indoor area. The lower the inlet
manager is instead compulsory in Large Enterprises). temperature, the more air can enter the compression unit. The
The reason why the importance of investment opportunities cooler the air, the denser is, increasing the mass flow and pres-
in EEMs in compressed air systems should not be underesti- sure capability.
mated is its high operating costs that can overcome the 70 % Operations and technology. Technology experts (15) and
of the total lifecycle costs (10). But, it should be also noted that experimental investigation (16) showed that the typology of

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compressors and individual controls have a huge impact on the ment; the installation of a new compressor in a pre-existent
performances. Moreover, if the new location is very difficult to system can change the way the system performs. The general
access (roof or difficult location accessibility in winter months, rule when substituting a compressor unit is to look for the spe-
etc.), the difficulty maintenance procedures may have a huge cific efficiency, in kW/100 cfm, for ranges of capacities (from
impact on the effective energetic gains of the EEM, even more full load to fractions of it) and see the suitable unit, consider-
than the difficult prediction of the ambient conditions. Aspirat- ing dimensions, ease of handling, monitoring and maintenance
ing air from an internal ambient can entail a pressure reduction requirements.
under the atmospheric conditions, leading to lower compressor Operations and technology. For the installation of an opti-
efficiency because the reduction in static pressure influences mum sized compressor, operating conditions in terms of ca-
the compressor ratio (17). This risk is prevented thanks to ven- pacity, pressure and temperature should be checked. Here some
tilation also contributing to reduce the inlet temperature. The important considerations follow, to be evaluated when design-
installation in an external shaded area can be responsible of up ing a new system (21): (i) Pressure: inlet P should not go under
to 10 % power consumption savings in summer months (18). a minimum; moreover, the inlet filtration and losses in inlet
This installation generally requires higher engineering process- hood and piping should be considered to guarantee perfor-
es, owing to the necessity of monitoring the average ambient air mances; (ii) Temperature: for inlet T influences, refer to EEM
condition in real time. 2,4221; the discharge T is affected by inlet T, P, and compression
efficiency, which is quite important to be monitored for deter-
EEM 2,4224 Upgrade controls on compressors mining the design of more stages (intercooled).
As seen above, the baselining of control measures has a cru-
cial role in ensuring efficient system operations as well as high EEM 2,4231 Reduce the pressure of compressed air to the minimum
performances, with the purpose of lower input power. This in- required
tervention is one of the highly dependent on the other CAS The pressure is the major parameter for delivering air at op-
equipment operating conditions and one of the most expensive, timal conditions. In any case, the pressure of the system is set
but this ensures high savings potential. Both for singular and on the minimum for the requirements by end-users. Starting
system controls, the system operations are addressed through: from the point of use one can go backwards, identifying losses
(i) delivering of sufficient variable flow to achieve stable pres- and determining what is the supply pressure required. The
sure at the end-use point; (ii)  efficient working conditions, good design of the system should prescribe losses lower than
to ensure the lowest energy consumption; (iii)  tracking and 10 % (without pressure reducers) (22) (11) from the produc-
transmit information about current operative data. The con- tion to the delivery of compressed air. Other than compres-
trol methods to apply on compressors are useful to: (i) match sors, most of components have an influence on the pressure:
the supplied compressed air to meet the demand; (ii) supplying piping, valves, dryers and filters. As a rule of thumb by many
the right power; and (iii) ensuring that the minimum required manufacturers and technicians, for every 0.138 bar increase in
pressure is maintained for the proper working of all end-use the discharge pressure, the energy required by the compressor
equipment. goes up by 1 %.
Operations and technology. To ensure a continuous service, Operations and technology. Distribution, demand side and
the controls application to each single compressor is highly rec- CAS equipment, are possible sources of pressure drops. The
ommended; eventual backup units prevent unplanned down- pressure reduction gives additional benefits as the reduction of
time. Despite on the one hand proper control applications help the total flow (23); in some cases, this can lead to lower number
a lot for efficiency and other benefits, on the other, bad appli- of compressors to run. Since the pressure losses can be located
cations lead to higher costs and increased maintenance. VSD anywhere throughout the system, and most of the equipment
application on rotary screw compressor is at constant torque change their performances working to a different pressure
load. When the retrofit in rotary screw and reciprocating com- level, the measure is not independent from the system compo-
pressors is performed, one may ensure that correct levels of nents’ performances. Solution and benefits are the following:
lubrications are maintained, vibration problems are avoided,
• Correctly size the line for a maximum drop of 1–2 % and
and cooling is enough. Centrifugal machines characteristics
consider impact of future expansions on pressure reduction;
prescribe an optimal running speed, so this installation is not
suggested. Smart central system control can manage multiple • A sound air treatment equipment should reduce corrosive
compressors of different sizes, allowing the reduction of energy fluid parts, that increase the pipes wearing, with a direct ef-
consumption in different ways. The cost of a central control fect on pressure drops;
system depends on the intelligence of the system and on the
• In order to have a higher pressure at the end-use side, the
number of compressors that can be managed, on the installa-
choice to increase the pressure generated by the compressor
tion cost and on the capability to be integrated in plant process
is the worst from an economical viewpoint. It is not sure at
control system (19–20).
all that this action leads to higher pressure at the demand
side: losses and leaks are amplified by higher pressure and
EEM 2,4226 Use or purchase optimum sized compressors
the demand side could be not see the consequences of the
This EEM refers to the purchase of a compressor able to follow
higher supply side pressure (10) (24);
and handle the demand of the system in any time with efficient
operation. Oversizing or installing a wrong number of units • The utilization of modern regulation equipment can reduce
are two of the major problems in the supply side of CAS. The the drop up to 0.5 bar;
compressor working conditions highly influence other equip-

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• Specify size of components on actual flow rate and not aver- option can be a low-cost alternative to the more expensive
age flow rate; passage to blowers, although of course not that effective from
an energetic perspective. Electrical fans are a valid alternative
• Predefined pressure gauges are located downstream the
for aerating areas where low power is required, but a constant
compressor discharge;
air movement is needed. Is the most implemented solution
• Check from components manufactures real pressure re- for personal cooling substitution. The start-up phase is of
quirements; utmost importance and inspections are user’s responsibility,
so that high technology knowledge is required. Diaphragm
• Consider the possibility of installing different compressors
pumps suffer from the lack of specific equipment for their
for low flow-rates high-pressure applications, rather than
control and regulation. The over regulation, with a pressure
increasing the overall pressure of the system;
higher than necessary, leads to an increase of demand of com-
• Air receiver can act as shields, separating the compressor pressed air; the other problem of this device is the amount of
discharge from the distribution side. The control of system flow to provide, since it should be brought to the minimum
pressure downstream the air receiver can affect as much as required. Pneumatic actuators are used for their safety and
10 % of energy consumption. precision characteristics, but many times the lower energy
consumption of the electric actuators is to be considered as
an alternative that has not to be underestimated. For many
EEM 2,4232 Reduce or eliminate the compressed air used for cooling, of the installations, the electrical service closeness from the
agitating liquids, moving products or drying point-of-use can hinder adoption of electric-driven technolo-
This EEM pertains the wrong use of the technology (i.e. com- gies substitution.
pressed air) that can be substituted by much more efficient
equipment units. The alternatives are a lot, and cover a wide EEM 2,4236 Eliminate leaks in inert gas and compressed air lines/
range of applications. The lack of knowledge diffusion in the valves
adoption of new technologies is one of the major factors that Leaks are the major source for cost savings in a CAS. The leak-
can inhibit this type of investment. age of a small hole in the system can have a high impact on the
Operations and technology. The technologies to use in place final consumption, depending on the leak size and the pressure.
of compressed air are very different. Technologies can be re- Additional indirect drawbacks are present, such as the lower
placed with new ones, much more energy efficient; the most pressure by the system due to leaks that for long time can lead
relevant (in terms of variability of end-uses) are grouped here. to malfunctioning of compressors’ controls (that adapt their
An alternative in compressed air is found to be the blower load to the new pressure established). The pressure drop, of
technology, basically providing very low pressures with a course, determines an artificial demand (i.e. the higher flow
high volume of air being compressed. The installation pro- rate required to working at a higher-than-required pressure)
cedure is considered by blower suppliers as very easy in case making the equipment run for more time than required, or at
of integration with existing compressed air network. In gen- a higher pressure, in both cases leading to a lower lifetime (11).
eral, blowers are required when operating pressures does not Leaks can be prevented by different operational good practices
overcome 2 bars (a typical use as substitution is found in the such as: avoid the wrong tightening of assembling parts, the
dense-phase transport air) and when requirements of air are incorrect handling of the components, the wear of the compo-
constant in time. The vacuum generators are another typical nents and stressful operating condition for wrong material in
inefficient use of the compressed air; the CA application is place (28). Leak management programs have been developed
very easy to implement, the size is quite small, is lightweight, along the years and implies seeking, repairing and the follow-
with no electricity required in the end-use point. Its low capi- up adjusting of equipment to increase compressors efficiency
tal cost and promptness of availability (25) may render this and overall CAS reliability. Although the key elements of the
application attractive. Moreover, if they have load coefficient procedure are always the same, the potential of a leak repair
lower than 0.3, their operative cost is lower than a central- program is very dependent on the correct baseline of the ac-
ized system. In all other cases, except for uses in a very wide tual compressed air usage and on the real potential for savings
area or for safety reasons, the compressed air applications for through the calculation of leaks/pressure in place. A good leak
vacuum generation present high operating costs. The motor- management program (proactive detection and repair) ensures
driven dedicated vacuum pump is a valid alternative for the that leaks do not overcome 5–10  % of the total compressed
low dimensions and ease of installation, but the central unit air production. Inexperienced personnel tend to overestimate
has the disadvantage of a high initial cost as well as the design leaks volume, leading to potential savings that will never be
of the system. Two conditions for which use of vacuum gener- reached. The passages for a sound leak management projects
ators (11) (compressed air driven) could be convenient are ei- are: (i) Baselining the current state of the system; (ii) Estima-
ther low duty cycle (high peak load applications), or different tion of leaks all along the site; (iii) Leaks detection; (iv) Leak
vacuum levels required. Concerning to blow-off applications documentation: to have a log about location, size for the pri-
(26–27), the latest innovation in new technologies can be ex- oritization of repair areas/specific leaks and also to act as feed-
ploited, but always subject to cost competitiveness. In bottles back for future projects; (v) Once the major/all problems are
industry, a good low-cost option is found to be the blending fixed a post-project is fundamental for the efficient operation
of compressed air with ambient air associated with high per- in new system conditions i.e. regulating again the controls on
formance nozzles (Venturi type or engineered nozzles), for single compressors and setting the new pressure range in the
which the volume of air requirement is strongly reduced. This mains as the operational ones.

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EEMs 2,2434- 2,2435 Heat recovery from air compressor and other • Air quality and equipment service life can be thoroughly
equipment influenced by a specific choice of both aftercooler as well as
The amount of heat that can be recovered in CAS can be re- heat exchanger (32);
ally huge, and therefore is a great opportunity to be exploited
• For potential investment expenses, consider also the work-
in some cases. The recoverable heat flux is distributed across
ing hours per year of compressors, installed electrical pow-
several areas: referring to screw compressors, 5% remains in the
er, compressor room location, local temperature range.
drive motor, whilst 75 % can be recovered to the fluid cooler
units, and the remaining part by the after-cooler.
Operations and technology. Heat recovery opportunities in
different screw compressors are different, with the water-cooled Towards a new framework for characterization of
lubricant-injected compressor supplying hot water at around interventions in CAS
70 °C. Air cooled fluid-injected have a lower thermal capacity,
but the temperature range is similar. Water cooled oil-free units IMPORTANCE OF THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
supply higher T water in the range of 90  °C, entailing much The decision-making process starts with the recommended
more opportunities for heat recovery. Built-in solutions for EEMs’ analysis and ends with the implementation (or not)
recovery can be present from the manufacturers of packaged of the measure. The decision is not straightforward and may
compressors for recovery on this compressor type. The heat re- require a set of specific skills. Capability of forecasting future
covery process is highly influenced by the part load working energy prices, technology developments, adapting the recom-
of compressor, so that the trim units have much lower amount mended technology to the current system and organizing the
of heat recoverable that is lower with the increase of part load economical and labour resources properly are some of the re-
working time. A good planning (29) (11) prescribes the data quired skills to consider for a sound decision. Moreover, the
collection to estimate the potential, before the installation, gath- subjectivity naturally embedded by decision-maker can influ-
ering above all: the fluid medium thermal capacity, temperature ence the weight of each element deemed as relevant. Never-
levels and differentials, volume flow rates, specific heat capacity theless, in many cases (especially when dealing with SMEs) a
of the media, hours of operations, continuity of the heat source single person takes decisions, leading to unavoidable problems.
and structural conditions. As the second step, the heat recovered In fact, as highlighted by previous research (33), the decision-
can be used for many purposes, but careful attention should be maker is bounded in its decision by many limitations and at-
paid before installation, to look for the right application in each tention on resources because of the human capability of dealing
context. The most common opportunities for heat recovery only with a limited set of information. For this reason, based on
are: (i) Industrial process heating; (ii) Preheating boiling water; the system and firm conditions, one may pay attention to some
(iii) Make-up air heating; (iv) space heating; (v) Heat-driven problems only and tend to hide some other aspects, creating an
chillers; and (vi) Heating food and beverage products. The ther- underestimation or overestimation of achievable savings. For
mal match between the produced hot air/water and the one re- this reason, in order to fully support industrial decision-mak-
quired in the plant and the time match i.e. hours in which the ers, a comprehensive framework, able to help the EEMs adop-
compressor is running preferably at full load, with the required tion decision about the specific technology of CAS is needed.
hours of hot stream are of fundamental importance. As authors To start, it is really crucial to sketch the main characteristics of
note (30), the sensible difference in the time recovery of the in- the single EEMs. The values assumed from each attribute, i.e.
vestment depending on the final utilization has to be consid- factor, can be known with reasonable certainty or not, depend-
ered. Therefore, the decision-making process when considering ing on the EEM and how it adapts to working conditions. But,
heat recovery should take into account those considerations. In what is of utmost importance is the perspective through which
the following, a synthesis of some procedures and routines to analysing the EEMs and related factors. By considering that
check before to undertake the investment, highlighting the fac- different user typologies entail different adoption strategies, so
tors that influence barriers for the EEM is presented (31): that the perspective can result as different (according to being,
e.g., either private or industrial final end users, or policy mak-
• Little knowledge in thermodynamics can lower the effi-
ers), since we are interested in industrial decision-makers, the
ciency of the compressor where hot air recovered is taken
perspective of the work has to be set accordingly. For the indus-
from the compressor room and ducted outside (the direct
trial end-user, each energy efficiency investment is translated
consequence is the under pressure of the inlet ambient, that
into monetary terms, and the availability of implementations
acts like a throttled inlet of the compressor);
in terms of cost and opportunities has to be approved by the
• Maintenance efforts are increased because of the new equip- top management.
ment requirements;
LITERATURE BACKGROUND ON FACTORS DESCRIBING EEMS
• Identify opportunity for savings is not that easy since are
The characteristics of EEMs are often regarded as neglected di-
needed both a thermal match (enthalpy levels) and a time
mension (33–34), and this has revealed to be particularly true
match, so that the heat availability does not necessarily cor-
for the cross-cutting technologies (6) (4), where often the lack
respond to a profitable saving (17);
of strategic value hinders the interest towards the argument. As
• Modification to existing equipment could represent hidden presented above, the role of compressed air is indeed underesti-
costs, accrued during the service life. Moreover, the tight mated and the operative costs are the major share of the lifecy-
monitoring of temperature, has a positive effect on com- cle costs, in some cases even more than 70 % (9). Many authors
pressed air equipment life (32); provide information on additional features of EEMs with the

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development of different list of characteristics or the built of In some cases, indeed, the decision upon the choice of one fac-
framework to address the features that come from the adop- tor, comes from the technology revision of single EEMs. There-
tion of an EEM in different contexts. Previous research (35) fo- fore, some of the factors can be applied only to some types of
cused on the enhancements with respect to operating condition EEMs. In this sense, the approach for considering such factors
such as: increased productivity, capacity utilization, reliability does not come from scientific literature on EEMs’ characteris-
or quality of the product, reduced production or environmen- tics, rather from a bottom-up analysis of industrial literature
tal compliance costs, but do not give a rationale behind their over CAS. In this direction, the work by Rogers (41) represents
choice. They pointed out the productivity gains that motivate a milestone, as categories chosen to characterize the group of
industry to take actions toward adoption of EEMs. Others (36) EEMs were applicable to both type of factors, without any ex-
focus their work on several entities who receive some benefit clusion. The bottom-up approach refers to this double side ori-
from the adoption of efficiency projects and found: utility, rate- ented nature of the framework for a specific technology, where
payer and shareholder perspective, the societal perspective and some of the factors are derivable to the observation and analysis
the customer or participant ones. Factors are instead catego- of technology-related EEMs and others from the thorough re-
rized by more recent works, since the adoption of structured vision of scientific literature on general EEMs characteristics.
frameworks has revealed to be a strong opportunity to explain Moreover, since the framework characterize deeply the EEMs,
the different nature of factors related to EEMs. Categories have some of the factors can have different results when applied to
been taken directly from the suggestions of industrial case different situations, i.e. in different firms.
studies review (36), or explore the diversity based on different
key dimensions on the study’s perspective (37). The primary FRAMEWORK: A PRELIMINARY PROPOSAL
role of non-energy benefits (production benefits) in end-user Starting from the characteristics of the singular EEMs it is pos-
decision making process, is evidenced in previous research sible to develop a preliminary proposal of a more comprehen-
(35–38). The most recent literature studies focus on the ration- sive framework to make a complete evaluation of each of them,
ale behind the choice of categories (5), (34) and underpin that for CAS equipment substitution or operative procedures. The
the importance of factors is not correlated with their capability types of macro-categories are basically three: the first ones are
of being quantified. A second stream of literature gives infor- operational parameters, followed by economic-energetic con-
mation about EEMs in CAS, mainly addressed in documents siderations, fundamental and widely recognized as paramount
by industrial practitioners. Energy efficiency manuals for com- important for the adoption decision of each type of EEM; the
pressed air (9), (11), (39) face the efficiency issue itemizing all third part is addressed to the operative industrial context in
the possible aspects that influence a specific measure through a which the adopted EEM will be embedded, that is the object
series informative documents prepared for the most profitable of the research study. Categories’ and factors’ specifications
EEMs, that serve as a guide to underline opportunities, both should not make lose the sight of the final objective: to have a
at components and systemic level. The focus on the specific practical tool that can help in decision about CAS EEMs. This
technology gives advice about the main operational parameters caveat is necessary to consider practical factors easily manage-
that are modified by the EEMs adoption. Some works (9) (11) able from the site management or from who is in charge of
pointed out the most important data needed for a compressed making the decision.
air analysis, encompassing all others: pressure, temperature and
mass flow rate and their variation in time, are revealed the most Operational parameters
important. From industrial literature, all the main features and the rela-
As highlighted by recent studies (40), some of the perceived tionship among the operational parameters are known. This
characteristics of EEMs are evaluated under too “ambiguous” section provides information on what the EEMs influence, af-
criteria. It is difficult to categorize EEMs that are too general, fecting the main parameters and their variation in time. The
and the trade-off in finding specific or general characteris- needs for compressed air are defined by the pressure level and
tics lies in the description of EEMs. On the one hand, if the flow rate required by end-users in the plant (11), to which the
framework is perceived as too general, there are not real pos- air temperature is added, because of the many options in which
sibilities of understanding what an adoption of a technology- it has an important role. It is worth noting that the chosen pa-
specific EEM implies. On the other hand, the reference to a rameter does not represent only that item, rather represents a
single technology, under a single perspective, by considering starting point from which the secondary parameters (indirectly
only one type of EEM (cross-cutting vs process), can result as influenced) should be considered. For instance, secondary pa-
too specific, and there will be the need of many of such tools rameters like heat and thermal capacity are directly linked to
to handle all the problems related to EEM adoption. In this the air temperature; the pressure and flow rate related are pow-
regard, it should be remarked that, without the specification er, work, but also volume, density and mass flow-rate of the air.
of a single technology, the work can lose the practical interest
by industrial end-user (because too general to be applied for Economic and energetic parameters
all EEMs). The specificity of this study relies in its orientation As highlighted in the study by Fleiter et al. (34), profitability is
towards a specific technology and this, of course, may have an the most important characteristic for the adoption of a tech-
important influence on the decision of factors to fully charac- nology, and to compare the profitability owned by EEMs, the
terize an EEM in CAS. As a consequence, despite the categories Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is considered the stronger deter-
to which factors belong are fundamental for their characteriza- minant. On the other hand, authors recognize how firms, in the
tion, this does not mean that factors are always found starting vast majority of cases, prefer to use payback period as a simple
from a deep analysis of the three categories further introduced. investment decision rule for EEMs. The other prioritized fac-

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2-040-18 TRIANNI ET AL 2. SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION TOWARDS A CIRCULAR ECONOMY

tor for whatever type of investment is the initial cost (42), that to this model on the energy efficiency characteristics because
may represent a major barrier hindering the adoption, as large is oriented on the cultural values that can hinder the adop-
literature shows (33). Fleiter et al. (34) pointed out that rather tion of a technology; (ii) the compatibility with the previously
than the total expenditure, if it is required the passage from a introduced ideas, that can be translated in previous adoptions
technology or its efficient alternative, the initial expenditure towards some technology (technological compatibility), layout
should be substituted by the marginal cost. The amount of orientation or operating conditions that difficultly fits with new
energy saved is the first indicator of savings coming from the installation or retrofit in the system; (iii) compatibility with ac-
adoption of an efficient alternative to be applied to the existing tual needs. Despite being relevant for the adoption, compat-
system, and thus used as third item in this category (5). The ibility and possible derivate factors are not considered properly,
source of energy saved, despite industrial compressors may be because strongly dependent on the adopters’ characteristics
driven by other sources, is almost always the electric one; on (34). Talking about a specific technology (i.e. compressed air),
the other hand, pertaining waste heat recovery, the savings are the focus is more oriented on the compatibility of the meas-
quantified as the reduced heat energy consumption to supply. ure with the existing system i.e. to the fitting of the technology
to install on the current system to the system itself. Potential
Contextual parameters adoption availability and adopters’ efforts in coordinating ac-
Other than considering operative and economic-energetic tivities are how the compatibility is re-interpreted in the field of
parameters, the CAS EEMs can be further characterized by a EEMs. In this regard, it seems important to consider as relevant
series of “contextual parameters”, strongly dependent on the factors: Technological compatibility, Presence of difference pres-
industrial context in which an EEM will be embedded. Indeed, sure loads at the end-use, Adaptability to different conditions,
the context may have a big impact on how EEMs are perceived, Synergy with other activities, Distance to the electric service, as
thus thoroughly influencing the adoption decision-making well as Presence of thermal loads.
process. As shown by Rogers (41), several valuable suggestions
from the characteristics of innovations (in general terms) can Observability factors
be applied to the case of EEMs. In particular, taking inspiration Observability represent how an EEM, once implemented, can
from Rogers, three main categories of possible relevant factors be perceived within the production context. The concept of
could be identified: complexity, compatibility, and observabil- observability of innovations is connected to the visibility and
ity ones. communicability to others (41), but in the narrower world of
EEMs, the observability concept can be translated on what are
Complexity factors the sensible changes detected in the working environment or to
Complexity is the degree of difficulty perceived when a meas- components, once the measure in implemented. Adapting in-
ure is going to be adopted, and the increase of the complex- terventions in an operative context, means contextualize them
ity is generally negatively correlated with the adoption of an to see what is their degree of impact; in accordance with the
EEM (41). Understanding in which cases the EEM adoption is academic literature, the concept of “implications on the exist-
revealed to be complex is a fundamental passage to character- ing system” is quite similar to studies pertaining non-energy
ize it. The innovations’ literature refers to the radicalness as an benefits, coming from adoption of EE interventions. The im-
index of complexity, because it refers to the degree of change pacts are usually described by literature as non-energy ben-
required for the adopters (43); in this case, the generality in efits, from the identification (46) to the effort to identify the
defining the complexity (44), (34) is source of misunderstand- quantifiability (47). 76  % of the CAS EEMs implementation
ings. For this reason, in this work, we look here at complexity experienced further (observable) benefits other than efficiency
as a wide category that can be further decomposed in different (48). The energy savings can also result in improved reliability
factors. An EEM is not complex a priori, but the impact its of the system and support for production (49). But, taking in-
adoption implies, influences how complex it is perceived by in- spiration from previous literature (50), in this work, we limit
dustrial end-users. Among main complexity factors, we should our considerations on factors, without considering whether
for sure consider: Activity type, Expertise required, Independ- they may have a positive (benefit) or a negative (loss) effect.
ency from other components/energy efficiency measures, Change Despite this, we acknowledge that some of the factors may be,
in maintenance effort, but also the Accessibility. for their own nature, more oriented towards one side and as
consequence, the characterization of that measure should result
Compatibility factors easier. When considering observability factors, it seems impor-
The compatibility axis explains to which degree the new meas- tant to consider: Safety, Air quality, Wear and tear, Noise as well
ure to be adopted, can be adapted to the existing system, and as Artificial demand.
this concept is strictly related to the flexibility concept. The
compatibility factors refer to new technologies that should be
adapted to the existing CAS or to a new state of the system Concluding remarks and further research
applied to already existent technologies. Literature on com- In conclusion, in the present study we have tried to offer
patibility characteristics (45) is referred more to innovations an overview of the main EEMs in CAS, so to get an insight
in general terms than on specific EEMs. Many of the studies, about the main factors affecting the decision-making process
have not statistical inference about the compatibility of innova- to adopt them in the industrial sector. In particular, we have
tions, because of the objective difficulty in quantifying it. For pointed out the need to develop an innovative framework to
Rogers (41), it can be referred to (i) the compatibility with the characterize and analyse such factors, by assuming an indus-
values and beliefs in some innovation, which does not apply trial decision-making perspective. Indeed, we believe that

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