I A Richard Metaphor

CHAPTER 2
THE STUDY OF METAPHOR
The Oxford English Dictionary defines “metaphor” as “the figure of
speech in which a name or descriptive term is transferred to some object
different from, but analogous to, that to which it is properly applicable.”1 This
statement may appear straightforward enough to stand as the undisputed
definition of this key word “metaphor,” but in reality it overlooks the existence
of the intense discussion which has surrounded this topic in the last forty
years. As recently as 1981, philosopher Mark Johnson could justly write,
We are in the midst of metaphormania. Only three decades ago the

situation was just the opposite: poets created metaphors, everybody used
them, and philosophers . . . ignored them. Today we seem possessed by
metaphor.2
The standard definition given above quite accurately reflects the
understanding that has prevailed from as early as Aristotle up to the first half
of the twentieth century when it was challenged at its very foundation. At
present, while the “mania” has subsided it has also diversified to the point that
serious creative reflection concerning the nature and function of metaphor has
———————————————
1 “Metaphor,” in The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., prepared by J.

A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 9 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989) 676.
2 Mark Johnson, ed., Philosophical Perspectives on Metaphor

(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1981) ix.
7
8
ranged beyond the realms of philosophy and theoretical literary criticism,
having entered the fields of linguistics, psychology, and education to name a
few.3 What is at issue is not merely the function of metaphorical language and
concepts within these established disciplines, but the radical nature of what
may be called a “metaphorical perspective” on reality as a whole. Once
metaphor was recognized as more than a dispensable rhetorical device,
thinkers began to spot its ubiquitous presence and influence not only in
literature, but in everyday language as well. The language of discourse in the
natural sciences is commonly characterized and even epitomized as “literal”
yet it is not only fraught with metaphorical expressions, but uses metaphorical
concepts to explain unobservable entities.4 With metaphor existing at the root
of both reason and imagination, it could be true that investigating its nature
may be “one of the more fruitful ways of approaching fundamental logical,
epistemological, and ontological issues central to any philosophical
———————————————
3 Andrew Ortony, ed. Metaphor and Thought. 2nd ed. (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1993). This work first appeared in 1979 and
contains a helpful collection of significant essays which focus on the growing
place of metaphor in these disciplines. Another valuable collection of essays
which complements Metaphor and Thought deals with the psychology of
figurative language and particularly the matter of cognition (Richard P. Honeck
and Robert R. Hoffman, eds., Cognition and Figurative Language [Hillsdale:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1980]). A third volume edited by Sheldon Sacks
is the product of a symposium sponsored by the University of Chicago
Extension in February, 1978 titled, “Metaphor: The Conceptual Leap.” See On
Metaphor (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1978).
4 For example, the language of fluid dynamics helpfully explains

various properties of electricity and its behavior, with the result that people
commonly speak of an electrical “current” without any sense of sort crossing
between the categories of water and electricity.
9
understanding of human experience.”5 Lakoff and Turner shared this
optimism and wrote,
Because metaphor is a primary tool for understanding our world and

ourselves, entering into an engagement with powerful poetic metaphors is
grappling in an important way with what it means to have a human life.6
My interest in metaphor originates from the study of biblical literature
which uses a blend of realistic narrative and imagistic poetry as it addresses the
deepest concerns of humanity. By its very nature, religious discourse raises
unique and profound issues concerning meaning, understanding, and the
power of language. Before venturing into those topics, it is appropriate to
summarize and evaluate the view of metaphor that has dominated the
philosophical and theological landscape for over two millennia. A clear
understanding of this theoretical basis for understanding metaphor provides
needed background for the discussion of more recent developments. This
historical survey is the subject of the first section of this chapter.
The next section moves from a chronological treatment of thinking
about metaphor to consider three matters which have become central to current
analyses of metaphor. The chapter closes with a section offering a summary
statement of definitions and presuppositions related to the discussion so far.
A. History of Research concerning Metaphor
Until this century, theoretical reflection on the nature and function of
———————————————
5 Johnson, Philosophical Perspectives, ix.
6 George Lakoff and Mark Turner, More than Cool Reason: A Field
Guide to Poetic Metaphor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989) xii.
10
metaphor has generally followed a single line of thought based on the
conviction that metaphor is essentially a rhetorical device. As a literary
embellishment, metaphor adds polish and appeal to statements which assume
their “pure” form in strictly “literal” language. Modern theorists, however, tend
to relegate this ornamental function of metaphor to the periphery, insisting
that at the heart, metaphor is a powerful cognitive device and expresses ideas
that cannot be restated in plain language without a loss of meaning.
1. Metaphor as a Rhetorical Device
The practice of using metaphors predated any sustained theoretical
consideration of what metaphors were or how they should be used. Writers of
literature have often gone about their work either unaware of or unconcerned
with the philosophical foundations of metaphor, freely using language to
communicate thoughts both mundane and sublime. But among those who have
directly analyzed metaphor there has been a clear trend to classify it as a figure
of speech used to embellish thoughts and arguments which find their purest
expression in literal discourse.
a) Greek Philosophy
While almost certainly not the first ever to reflect on the subject of
metaphor, Aristotle’s treatment of the topic is not only the oldest extant but
clearly the most influential. His seminal definition of metaphor appears in
Poetics and receives further treatment in Rhetoric. Its situation at the
crossroads of these two disciplines reveals its dual function which transcends
the common distinction between prose and poetry. In his mind, metaphor
11
serves the interests of philosophy which requires the art of persuasion in order
for its arguments to carry weight in the political world and it also has a role in
the mimetic arts of tragic poetry which express human actions.7 On its own,
philosophy deals with proofs and has no need of rhetoric, but metaphor
becomes useful to the philosopher in that it lends clarity, style, and elegance to
one’s speech. In theory, philosophers could speak with one another using
speech that is devoid of metaphor. But outside of that circle, philosophers may
use metaphors in the presentation of their arguments as they seek to convince
their audience. In the service of either discipline however, rhetoric or poetics,
the basic structure of metaphor remains the same.
Metaphor is the application [or transfer] of a word that belongs to another

thing: either from genus to species, species to genus, species to species, or
by analogy.8
The definition of metaphor given at the beginning of this chapter
reflects three influential theories which have descended directly from Aristotle.
First, metaphor operates at the level of the individual word. Second, this word is
transferred to something else which assumes that the word has a proper use in
literal discourse, but a deviant use in metaphor. Third, the two nominal
elements of the metaphor are bound together by similarity.
———————————————
7 Paul Ricoeur, The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-disciplinary Studies of the

Creation of Meaning in Language, trans. Robert Czerny with Kathleen
McLaughlin and John Costello, SJ (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977)
3.
8 Aristotle Poetics 1457b7–9. metafora; dev ejstin ojnovmato"

ajllotrivou ejpifora; h] ajpo; tou' gevnou" ejpi; ei\do" h] ajpo; tou' ei[dou" ejpi; to;
gevno" h] ajpo; tou' ei[dou" ejpi; ei\do" h] kata; to; ajnavlogon.
12
Aristotle’s identification of the word as the basic semantic unit launched
metaphor on a trajectory which eventually relegated it to a trope or figure of
speech which is nothing more than a matter of style. In the words of Soskice,
“Aristotle tends to speak of metaphor as a phenomenon of the individual word
rather than of any wider locus of meaning such as the sentence, and this, as we
shall see, is an important theoretical limitation.”9 According to Ricoeur who is
an astute observer of metaphor, the long history of rhetoric culminates with
the work of Fontanier10 who classified a taxonomy of tropes, with metaphor
being listed among the single-word tropes. Ricoeur has traced the eventual
decline of rhetoric as a discipline and concluded that its enduring contribution
has been to illustrate the need to look beyond the word to the sentence as the
basic unit of discourse.11
Furthermore, Aristotle’s notions of transfer and deviance are
fundamental to the division between literal and figurative discourse. In
retrospect, Mark Johnson assessed the importance of this distinction by
referring to this split as a “fatal separation.”12 When Aristotle spoke of
———————————————
9 Janet Martin Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language (Oxford:

Clarendon, 1985) 5.
10 Pierre Fontanier, Les figures du discours, with an introduction by

Gérard Genette (Paris: Flammarion, 1968; originally published in 1830).
11 Ricoeur, “Study 2: The Decline of Rhetoric: Tropology,” in Rule of

Metaphor.
12 Mark Johnson, “Introduction: Metaphor in the Philosophical

Tradition,” in Philosophical Perspectives on Metaphor, ed. Mark Johnson
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1981) 6.
13
metaphor as involving the “transfer” (ejpifora;) of the “name” or “word”
(ojnovmato"), he invoked an etymological explanation of the word “metaphor”
which left the essence of the matter quite open.13 Exactly what is transferred
remains unclear. Nobody actually moves words, and the situation does not
significantly improve even when one speaks of a transfer of “meaning.”14
Whatever he had in mind, Aristotle saw a distinction between speech that is
literal or ordinary and that which is “exotic” or otherwise different.
Impressive and above the ordinary is the diction that uses exotic language
(by “exotic” I mean loan words, metaphors, lengthenings, and all
divergence from the standard).15
I. A. Richards commented that the assumption of metaphor being
“something special and exceptional in the use of language, a deviation from its
normal mode of working, instead of the omnipresent principle of all its free
action” has inhibited our ability to appreciate its operation and importance.16
Once metaphor was classified as a deviant use of language, there was a
corresponding tendency to subordinate its semantic value to that of “literal”
discourse.
———————————————
13 The noun “metaphor” (metafora;) is related to the verb

metafevrein which is a compound of the preposition metav (across) and the
transitive verb fevrein (to carry).
14 Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language, 6.
15 Aristotle Poetics 1458a20–23. semnh; de; kai; ejxallavttousa to;

ijdiwtiko;n hJ toi'" xenikoi'" kecrhmevnh: xeniko;n de; levgw glw'ttan kai;
metafora;n kai; ejpevktasin kai; pa'n to; para; to; kuvrion.
16 I. A. Richards, “Metaphor,” in The Philosophy of Rhetoric (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1936, renewed 1964; Galaxy 1965) 89.
14
Aristotle also focused on the notion of similarity as a driving force in the
operation of metaphor.
Metaphors should be drawn from objects which are proper to the object,
but not too obvious; just as, for instance, in philosophy it needs sagacity to
grasp the similarity in things that are apart.17
Aristotle made a valid point, but the feature of similarity led later
thinkers to claim that by nature, a metaphor could not carry any new
information. It was merely a poetic substitute for what could be stated non-
metaphorically, with greater clarity and less ambiguity.
The logical end of Aristotle’s understanding of metaphor is to regard it
as a sometimes useful but always dispensable literary ornament. Johnson aptly
summarized the view: “A metaphor is an elliptical simile useful for stylistic,
rhetorical, and didactic purposes, but which can be translated into a literal
paraphrase without any loss of cognitive content.”18
Before leaving Aristotle, it should be noted that even though he is
responsible for spawning what became the so-called “ornamental” theory of
metaphor, he did recognize a cognitive element.
It is important to use aptly each of the features mentioned, including

double nouns and loan words; but much the greatest asset is a capacity for
metaphor [literally, to be metaphorical]. This alone cannot be acquired
from another, and is a sign of natural gifts: because to use metaphor well
is to discern similarities.19
———————————————
17 Aristotle Rhetoric 1412a5. Dei' de; metafevrein, kaqavper ei[rhtai

provteron, ajpo; oijkeivwn kai; mh; fanerw'n, oi|on kai; ejn filosofiva/ to; o{moion
kai; ejn polu; dievcousi qewrei'n eujstovcou.
18 Johnson, “Introduction,” 4.
19 Aristotle Poetics 1459a3–8. e[stin de; mevga me;n to; eJkavstw/ tw'n
15
Easy learning is naturally pleasant to all, and words mean something, so
that all words which make us learn something are most pleasant. Now we
do not know the meaning of strange words, and proper terms we know
already. It is metaphor, therefore, that above all produces this effect.20
He did not elaborate on the significance of this important aspect of
metaphor which did not receive serious attention until this century.21 Perhaps
the reason for Aristotle’s concern with the mere identification of metaphor at
the expense of considering its fundamental operation is that his comments
were directed more toward the poet and reader of literature than the
philosopher.22
b) Latin Rhetoric
Like Aristotle, both Cicero and Quintilian dealt with metaphor in terms
of style rather than meaningful discourse in its own right. But whereas
Aristotle valued metaphor over simile, both writers reversed the relationship
eijrhmevnwn prepovntw" crh'sqai, kai; diploi'" ojnovmasi kai; glwvttai", polu;

de; megivston to; metaforiko;n ei\nai. movnon ga;r tou'to ou[te par j a[llou e[sti
labei'n eujfui?a" te shmei'ovn ejsti: to; ga;r eu\ metafevrein to; to; o{moion
qewrei'n ejstin.
20 Aristotle Rhetoric 1410b2. to; ga;r manqavnein rJa/divw" hJdu; fuvsei
pa'sin ejstiv, ta; de; ojnovmata shmaivnei ti, w{ste o{sa tw'n ojnomavtwn poiei'
hJmi'n mavqhsin, h{dista. aiJ me;n ou\n glw'ttai ajgnw'te", ta; de; kuvria i[smen. hJ
de; metafora; poiei' tou'to mavlista.
21 For example, C. S. Lewis developed an understanding of metaphor
which distinguishes between “Master’s metaphors” which we invent for
teaching and “Pupil’s metaphors” which we learn from (“Bluspels and
Flalansferes,” in Rehabilitations and Other Essays, 133–58 [London: Oxford
University Press, 1939]).
22 Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language, 9. In making this point

about Aristotle’s audience, Soskice attempted to shield Aristotle from the
charge of being the author of the “substitution” or ornamental view of
metaphor.
16
and viewed metaphor as merely a shorter form of simile. Cicero wrote, “A
metaphor is a short form of simile, contracted into one word; this word is put
in a position not belonging to it as if it were its own place, and if it is
recognizable it gives pleasure, but if its contains no similarity it is rejected.”23
The thought was echoed by Quintilian who wrote, “On the whole, metaphor is a
shorter form of simile.”24 The difference between metaphor and simile is real
but not substantial; both are forms of comparison only. Neither play a cognitive
role and so primary concern centers on their use and abuse as figures of
speech. Terence Hawkes regarded Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria as “possibly
the culmination of this sort of approach to language and to metaphor” and
offered this summary statement: “Metaphor’s ultimate value . . . and one which
obviously justifies its use of words and phrases in ways that are not ‘proper’, is
that it is decorative. It is ‘the supreme ornament of style.’”25
c) Medieval Theology
Medieval thinkers who dealt with metaphor offered two lines of thought.
———————————————
23 Cicero De Oratore 3.39.157. Similitudinis est ad verbum unum

contracts brevitas, quod verbum in alieno loco tanquam in suo positum si
agnoscitur, delectat, si simile nihil habet, repudiatur.
Cicero referred to a whole chain of metaphorical words which are used
to describe something as “a valuable stylistic ornament” (De Oratore 3.41.167;
magnum ornamentum orationis). But he also cautioned those who would make
use of this ornament, warning them to avoid obscurity.
24 Quintilian Institutio Oratoria 8.6.8. In totum autem metaphora

brevior est similitudo.
25 Terence Hawkes, Metaphor, The Critical Idiom 25 (London and New

York: Methuen, 1972) 12, 13 (italics original).
17
On the one hand, metaphor and other modes of figuration have value only as
matters of style and have nothing to do with cognitive content. In other words,
they are dispensable.
In Bede’s treatise of figures [Concerning Figures and Tropes] we see the

emergence of a pattern that will contribute to the decline of metaphor for
many centuries to come: rhetoric is distinguished from logic and then
reduced to a manual of style. Thus metaphor, treated traditionally under
rhetoric, becomes a stylistic device divorced from serious philosophical
argument.26
On the other hand, the fact that Scripture uses many figures of speech
must be reckoned with. The mere existence of this feature in the Bible
prevented the total devaluation of metaphor. Some sought to demonstrate the
superiority of scriptural metaphors vis-à-vis secular ones, but St. Thomas
Aquinas took the task a step further.27 While he seemed to prefer literal
discourse for its clarity,28 he maintained that there are times when it is
necessary to resort to metaphorical descriptions, such as when discussing the
nature of God. Since God is other-worldly, we as creatures must use earth-
bound terms in speaking about God, but to do so univocally would be to
wrongly imply a fundamental equality between God and creatures. Hence, there
must be a use of language which operates on a different level, an analogical
———————————————
27 For a fuller treatment of Aquinas and the concept of analogy, see

Nelly Stienstra, YHWH is the Husband of His People: Analysis of a Biblical
Metaphor with Special Reference to Translation (Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1993) 43–
54 and Herwi Rikhof, The Concept of Church: A Methodological Inquiry into the
Use of Metaphors in Ecclesiology (London: Sheed and Ward, 1981) 167–71.
28 “Those things that are taught metaphorically in one part of

Scripture, in other parts are taught more openly.” (Summa Theologica 1.1.9)
18
use. While this use of words may convey a truth about God, it can lead to
improper implications as well; it is important to accept only those similarities
that are appropriate.
Thus, all names applied metaphorically to God, are applied to creatures

primarily rather than to God, because when said of God they mean only
similitudes to such creatures.29
While St. Thomas made a positive contribution to understanding how
language may be used in theology proper, he shared the common belief about
metaphor with his medieval counterparts. In the summary of Johnson,
“Metaphor is a deviant use of a word to point up similarities.”30
d) Enlightenment and Modern Philosophy
Until sixteenth-century empiricism, discussions about metaphor and
figurative language in general usually took place in the field of rhetoric which
as a discipline was largely concerned with style. Rhetoricians often bear the
blame for fostering the ornamental or substitution view of metaphor, but
Soskice looked elsewhere for the genesis of a fully consistent view of metaphor
as entirely noncognitive.
Metaphor, as chief amongst the tropes, was indeed a principal subject for
the rhetoricians, but to suggest that the rhetoricians saw metaphor as a
useful but expendable technique is to misrepresent them. We suggest that
the crude substitution view of metaphor is not so much that of the
rhetoricians as of their empiricist critics.31
———————————————
29 Summa Theologica 1.13.6.
30 Johnson, “Introduction,” 11 (italics original).
31 Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language, 10–11.

19
Thomas Hobbes was the first empiricist to launch a frontal attack on the
use of metaphor in any discussion about truth. Distinguishing between proper
and improper uses of speech, he condemned the use of words “metaphorically;
that is, in other sense than that they are ordained for; and thereby [to] deceive
others.”32 He was sure that literal language was the only appropriate medium
for philosophical discourse and that metaphor was an unnecessary and
potentially insidious departure from it. Every metaphorical statement both can
and should be rephrased in an inherently superior, literal statement that
requires no cosmetic enhancement in order for it to be taken seriously by
people whose thinking isn’t swayed by emotions.
John Locke is responsible for the classic empiricist censure against not
only metaphor, but all figurative language. In a chapter titled, “Of the Abuse of
Words,” he wrote,
But yet, if we would speak of things as they are, we must allow, that all the
art of rhetoric, besides order and clearness, all the artificial and figurative
application of words eloquence has invented, are for nothing else but to
insinuate wrong ideas, move the passions, and thereby mislead the
judgment; and so indeed are perfect cheats: and therefore, however
laudable or allowable oratory may render them in harangues and popular
addresses, they are certainly, in all discourses that pretend to inform or
instruct, wholly to be avoided; and where truth and knowledge are
concerned, cannot but be thought a great fault, either of the language or
the person that makes use of them.33
———————————————
32 Thomas Hobbes, Hobbes’s Leviathan: Reprinted from the Edition of

1651 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1909) 25; part I, chapter 4.
33 John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, abridged

and edited, with an Introduction and Notes by Kenneth P. Winkler
(Indianapolis: Hackett, 1996) 214–15; book III, chapter X, section 34 (italics
original).
20
Even though Locke himself was not able to completely divest his own
discourse of figurative expressions, he successfully set a standard which led
subsequent writers to favor literal writing. Hegel, for example, flatly stated,
“Even in its highest degree it [metaphor] can appear only as a simple ornament
for a work of art.”34
This trend was checked to some degree by Immanuel Kant, Jacques
Rousseau, and Friedrich Nietzsche. Both Kant and Rousseau considered the role
of metaphor and the transfer of meaning in the creative growth of language,
but neither developed an understanding of metaphor that squarely faced the
concept of knowledge. In contrast, Nietzsche saw metaphor as an integral
process of thought itself and therefore inseparable from truth itself. He wrote,
What therefore is truth? A mobile army of metaphors, metonymies,

anthropomorphisms: in short a sum of human relations which became
poetically and rhetorically intensified, metamorphosed, adorned, and after
long usage seem to a nation fixed, canonic and binding.35
Johnson offered this clear summary of Nietzsche’s view:
We experience reality metaphorically. What we know, we know

metaphorically. And the ‘fixed truths’ of our culture are nothing but
metaphorical understandings that have become conventionalized to the
point where their metaphoricity is forgotten.36
———————————————
34 George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, The Philosophy of Fine Art, trans.

Wm. M. Bryant (New York: Appleton, 1879) 41, quoted in Johnson,
“Introduction,” 13.
35 Friedrich Nietzsche, “On Truth and Falsity in Their Ultramoral

Sense (1873),” in Early Greek Philosophy & Other Essays, trans. Maximilian A.
Mügge, vol. 2, The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, ed. Oscar Levy (New
York: Russell & Russell, 1964) 180.
36 Johnson, “Introduction,” 15–16. Along the same line of thought but

without yet mentioning the place of metaphor or separating “literal” from
21
In spite of this virtual equation of metaphor and truth, the general drive
of researchers to perceive and describe the world “scientifically” favored literal
language for its accuracy and relative lack of ambiguity. The preference for
literal language in scientific and historical writing is self-evident; in
philosophical circles it reached a zenith in positivism which sought to emulate
the cognitive certainty of science. In the process, positivism boldly relegated
figurative language to an emotive (non-cognitive) sphere, leaving literal
language to carry the weight of expressing truth statements which alone were
subject to the all-important principle of verification. The aversion to metaphor
became widespread.
To say that all sense of metaphor was destroyed would be false, but it is
true that metaphor lost much of its credibility. In many areas of human
thought, and among these some of the most important areas (including
theology), metaphor was suspect, and students were given a new
commandment—“thou shalt not commit metaphor.”37
Thus, on the level of theoretical considerations of metaphor, the
treatment of metaphor had reached somewhat of a terminus. Locked into realm
of rhetoric, metaphor was treated as a single word figure of speech. It was
regarded as a mere stylistic ornament in which a term is used “improperly” to
“figurative” discourse, Gadamer described the relationship between thought

and language as one of “enigmatic intimacy” (Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and
Method: Elements of Philosophical Hermeneutics, trans. Garrett Broden and John
Cumming, 2nd ed. [New York: Seabury, 1975; reprint, New York: Crossroad,
1982] 389 [page citation is to the reprint edition]). More specifically, he
affirmed the “fundamental metaphorical nature” of verbal consciousness and
added, “It is important to see that to regard the metaphorical use of a word as
not its real sense is the prejudice of a theory of logic that is alien to language”
(Truth and Method, 429).
37 Roland M. Frye, “Metaphors, Equations, and the Faith, ” TToday

37/1 (1980) 64.
22
state what could otherwise be said using literal speech. The decline of rhetoric
as a discipline left metaphor outside of serious philosophical and theological
discussions. But theoretically and practically, metaphor simply refused to go
away. Logical positivism’s commitment to the verification principle of language
failed to account for the whole of meaningful discourse and the eventual
realization of this fact marked a turning point. According to Mark Johnson,
The first stage of the dawning awareness that metaphors are not
cognitively dispensable consisted in the breakdown of the verificationist
project of identifying as cognitively meaningful only those sentences
entailing some set of literal observation statements.38
On the level of practice, metaphor has always been more persistent and
the widespread recognition of its power never totally disappeared. Stienstra
correctly noted that in spite of the trend away from the use metaphor in
philosophy, there has always been a need to rely on its ability to express truth.
It cannot be overemphasized, however, that in practice man has always

used metaphor to give expression to abstract concepts. This is true of
authors of the books of the Old Testament, it is also true of scholars
throughout the ages, up to the eighteenth century. The recently
(re)discovered truth that metaphor is not just a decorative device, but that
metaphors express truths that cannot be expressed otherwise, has always
been tacitly and even unconsciously assumed by speakers and writers who
wanted to convey an abstract or metaphysical concept.39
2. Metaphor as a Cognitive Device
With the demise of positivism around the middle of this century, the
———————————————
38 Mark Johnson, “A Philosophical Perspective on the Problems of

Metaphor,” in Cognition and Figurative Language, ed. Richard P. Honeck and
Robert R. Hoffman, 47–67 (Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1980) 49.
39 Stienstra, YHWH is the Husband of His People, 19.

23
subject of metaphor came in for re-evaluation, not primarily as a figure of
speech, but for its unique ability to express real meaning. Roger Lundin wrote,
During these decades [ca. 1950–80], while literary artists and theorists
have been celebrating, as they have done for almost two hundred years, the
absolute necessary yet absolutely illusionary qualities to metaphor,
philosophical theorists have been laboring to claim for metaphor its proper
epistemic rights.40
Two individuals stand at the beginning of this recovery. I. A. Richards
was a literary critic who reopened philosophical consideration of metaphor, but
two factors weighed against the quick acceptance of his views. He lacked the
respect afforded to full-fledged members of the philosophical community and
his seminal essay on metaphor appeared well before the decline of positivism
and its antipathy regarding figurative language.41 Consequently, it was the
philosopher Max Black who not only supported Richards’ contentions, but
clearly delineated a fresh way to appraise the operation of metaphor as a
cognitive expression.
a) The Interanimation View of I. A. Richards
In a 1936 essay, I. A. Richards approached the subject of metaphor from
———————————————
40 Roger Lundin, “Metaphor in the Modern Critical Arena,” Christianity

and Literature 33/1 (1983) 19. For an application of recent metaphorical
awareness to a single root attested in Ugaritic, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic, see
John Wansbrough, “Antonomasia: The Case for Semitic ’TM,” in Figurative
Language in the Ancient Near East, ed. M. Mindlin, M. J. Geller, and J. E.
Wansbrough, 103–16 (London: University of London, School of Oriental and
African Studies, 1987).
41 Johnson, “Introduction,” 19. In 1958 another literary critic, Walker

Percy noted but did not elaborate on the fact that the cognitive dimension of
metaphor is usually overlooked (“Metaphor as Mistake,” Sewanee Review 66
[1958] 93).
24
the position of rhetoric, but with a decidedly semantic interest.42 He was
concerned with more than the identification and literary analysis of metaphor;
he probed the way metaphor produces meaning. This line of investigation
represented a change in direction in as much as Richards himself had earlier
gone on record in support of a purely emotive theory of metaphor. Earlier he
had affirmed that figurative language did not communicate reference, but is
used “to express or incite feelings and attitudes.”43 His fresh approach to the
subject made at least three important points.
First, he claimed that metaphor is an omnipresent principle of language
and not a dispensable ornament of persuasion.44 Simple observation that
philosophical invectives against metaphor are themselves fraught with
figurative language is enough to establish the fact, but the claim can also be
recommended theoretically.
His second point therefore presented a conceptual basis for
understanding metaphor.
In the simplest formulation, when we use a metaphor we have two

thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single
word, or phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction.45
———————————————
42 Ricoeur, Rule of Metaphor, 76.
43 C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning, 8th ed.

(New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1946) 149; quoted in Johnson, “Introduction,” 17.
44 Richards, “Metaphor,” 92–93.
45 Ibid., 93. Following Soskice (Metaphor and Religious Language, 43–

51), I label Richards’ view of metaphor with the word “interanimation” rather
than “interaction” because the latter is generally reserved for Max Black’s
theory which is slightly different. Earlier in The Philosophy of Rhetoric, Richards
25
Along with this basic statement, Richards offered two technical terms for
each half of the double unit called metaphor: tenor and vehicle. The tenor is
“the underlying idea or principal subject”46 and the vehicle is the figurative
part which provides a description of the tenor. Together, the tenor and vehicle
have a meaning; there is no transfer of meaning at the word level from a
“proper” sphere to an “improper” one. To use a simple example later given by
Black, in the case of the simple metaphor, “Man is a wolf,” the tenor (“man”) is
described in terms of the vehicle (“wolf”). But Richards gave no such
illustration. Instead he used the following lines from Kames.
A stubborn and unconquerable flame

Creeps in his veins and drinks the streams of life.47
In this case, a fever is the subject of the metaphor and therefore the
tenor which is described as a flame.48 Beyond the identification of the parts of
the main metaphor, what is of interest here is that the tenor is unexpressed.
Thus, Richards’ third contribution is that metaphor is a matter of
thought more than one of single terms. In contrast to the older, nominal theory
of metaphor, Richards made the following statement:
included a lecture on semantics (not metaphor) titled “The Interanimation of

Words” (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936, renewed 1964, reprint, Galaxy,
1965).
46 Richards, “Metaphor,” 97.
47 From Kames, Elements of Criticism, quoted in Richards, “Metaphor,”

102.
48 The “flame” is further described in metaphorical terms as an

animate being that consumes the essence of life which is itself described as a
liquid. Clearly, the lines present a multi-storied metaphor, but that fact is
beyond the present point.
26
. . . fundamentally it is a borrowing between and intercourse of thoughts, a
transaction between contexts. Thought is metaphoric, and proceeds by
comparison, and the metaphors of language derive therefrom.49
Richards affirmed the metaphoric (and thus linguistic) nature of thought
as did Nietzsche and others, but he also lifted the analysis of metaphor beyond
the level of a trope to one of semantics. In the words of Ricoeur,
Metaphor holds together within one simple meaning two different missing
parts of different contexts of this meaning. Thus, we are not dealing any
longer with a simple transfer of words, but with a commerce between
thoughts, that is, a transaction between contexts.50
Although Richards wrote that the thought in each half of the metaphor
is “supported by a single word, or phrase,” it does necessarily follow that he
would have ruled out the function of larger units of discourse such as clauses
or sentences.
In making these three points, Richards succeeded in reopening
philosphically oriented discussion about metaphor, but it would take nearly
twenty years before Black propelled the issue to the foreground of
consideration.
b) The Interaction View of Max Black
In 1955, Max Black published an important essay which presented three
views of how metaphors operate.51 The first two provide a fair, albeit
———————————————
49 Richards, “Metaphor,” 94 (italics original).
51 Max Black, “Metaphor,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, n.s.

55 (1954–55) 273–94; reprinted as ch. 3 in Models and Metaphors: Studies in
Language and Philosophy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962) 25–47.
27
somewhat traditional and uninteresting account of metaphor as a stylistic
device. The third view, however, proved to be a catalyst to philosophers who
became interested in metaphor’s ability to convey cognitive content which
cannot be reduced to the level of literal restatement.
(1) The Substitution View
According to this view, a metaphor (or even a more complex
metaphorical expression) is used in the place of a literal statement which would
have an equivalent meaning. For example, the metaphor, “Richard is a lion”
means “Richard is brave.” The essence of the metaphor is the similarity or
analogy between the words “lion” and “brave.” This is the time-honored and
dominant view of metaphor which is also the theoretical base of the definition
of metaphor provided by the Oxford English Dictionary. The purpose of
metaphor is two-fold. First, at the emotive level it adds style to writing and
speech. Second, at the practical level a metaphor may fill a gap in the literal
vocabulary.52 For example, the word “orange” which originally denoted a type
of fruit was used metaphorically of the color of that fruit, thus serving to fill a
linguistic need. Now, the word has shed its metaphorical nature and can
literally denote the fruit and the color.53 The aim of interpretation of metaphor
———————————————
52 This function is properly called catachresis which The Oxford

English Dictionary defines in terms very similar to those used to define
metaphor. “Improper use of words; application of a term to a thing which it
does not properly denote; abuse or perversion of a trope or metaphor”
(“Catachresis,” in The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., prepared by J. A.
Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 2 [Oxford: Clarendon, 1989] 965).
53 Black, “Metaphor,” in Models and Metaphors, 33.

28
according to this view is the recovery of the meaning of the statement
expressed by a synonymous literal rendition. Black explained, “Once the reader
has detected the ground of the intended analogy or simile (with the help of the
frame, or clues drawn from the wider context) he can retrace the author’s path
and so reach the original literal meaning.”54 Interpretation is accomplished by
restatement and incurs no cognitive cost. The loss is purely aesthetic.
(2) The Comparison View
This next view of metaphor is not much different than the first and
Black admits it as a special case of the substitution view. It holds that “a
metaphor consists in the presentation of the underlying analogy or similarity”
and thus says something about each part of the metaphor.55 The literal
equivalent of the metaphor, “Richard is a lion” would be “Richard is like a lion
(in being brave).”
When metaphors are interpreted according to the substitution and
comparison theories, the result is a literal paraphrase. In the case of trivial
metaphors, this may be wholly adequate. For example, to say that one’s job is a
“dead-end street” probably means little more than that it holds no possibility of
promotion or advancement. But to use these theories to explain more
substantial metaphors leads to “a vagueness that borders on vacuity,”
———————————————
54 Ibid., 35.
55 Ibid.
29
according to Black.56 For instance, the meaning of the metaphor, “My beloved
is a locked garden”57 can hardly be unpacked by a simple literal equivalent.
Such a paraphrase may be initially helpful, especially when the reader is
unfamiliar with the terms and historical or literary context of the metaphor.
But the effectiveness of the metaphor has something to do with its invitation to
explore the relationship of its two elements without imposing a limit on their
degrees of similarity and difference. Black observed, “We need the metaphors in
just the cases when there can be no question as yet of the precision of scientific
statement.”58
Because the substitution and comparison views focus attention on the
terms of the metaphor, they are (and remain) valid at the lexical level of
interpretation. But they cannot account for the production of meaning at the
semantic level of interpreting a whole metaphorical statement.59 For this we
require a more sophisticated theory.
(3) The Interaction View
The limitations of the first two views led Black to propose a fresh way to
perceive metaphor. Rather than see it as a fancy or convenient way of saying
what could also be said literally, it is possible to view metaphor as a distinctive
———————————————
56 Ibid., 37.
57 Derived from Song of Songs 4:12.

30
mental accomplishment. Starting with Richards’ view, Black went on to describe
metaphor as a filter by which certain characteristics of the figurative part of the
expression (Richards’ “vehicle”) are selected for projection onto the main
subject (the “tenor”). In the case of the metaphor, “Man is a wolf,” the
subsidiary subject (“wolf”) calls to mind a “system of associated
commonplaces” which are generally accepted characteristics of wolves (whether
they are actually true or not). From this system, certain features are applied to
the principal subject (“man”) depending on the context of the statement. “The
wolf-metaphor suppresses some details, emphasizes others—in short, organizes
our view of man.”60 The view is labeled interactive because neither subject
remains unchanged. Black observed, “If to call a man a wolf is to put him in a
special light, we must not forget that the metaphor makes the wolf seem more
human than he otherwise would.”61 G. B. Caird affirmed this “two-way traffic
in ideas” with special reference to biblical metaphors for God, showing their
ability to shape not only our understanding of God’s nature, but the effect of
that understanding on those who accept these metaphors.
The metaphors derived from human relationships have a special interest

and importance, because they lend themselves to a two-way traffic in ideas.
When the Bible calls God judge, king, father or husband it is, in the first
instance, using the human known to throw light on the divine unknown,
and particularly on God’s attitude to his worshippers. But no sooner has
the metaphor travelled from earth to heaven than it begins the return
journey to earth, bearing with it an ideal standard by which the conduct of
———————————————
60 Black, “Metaphor,” in Models and Metaphors, 41 (italics original).
61 Ibid., 44.
31
human judges, kings, fathers and husbands is to be assessed.62
In contrast to relatively simple metaphors, the chief value of many
metaphors is the insight they provide—something which has no literal
equivalent. Commenting on the weakness of a metaphor’s supposed literal
equivalent, Black stated,
One of the points I most wish to stress is that the loss in such cases is a
loss in cognitive content; the relevant weakness of the literal paraphrase is
not that it may be tiresomely prolix or boringly explicit—or deficient in
qualities of style; it fails to be a translation because it fails to give the
insight that the metaphor did.63
Although interpretation of these metaphors cannot be accomplished by
offering a paraphrase in literal language, the ground of the metaphor can still
be explained. The result will fall short of a cognitive substitute for the
metaphor and will necessarily be non-exhaustive of its meaning, but it will
enhance the reader’s grasp of the device much the way a musical analysis of a
classical work may raise the listener’s level of appreciation of it.
Black summarized the essence of the interaction view by making seven
claims.
(1) A metaphorical statement has two distinct subjects—a “principal”

subject and a “subsidiary” one.
(2) These subjects are often best regarded as “systems of things”
rather than “things.”
(3) The metaphor works by applying to the principal subject a system
of “associated implications” characteristic of the subsidiary subject.
(4) These implications usually consist of “commonplaces” about the
subsidiary subject, but may, in suitable cases, consist of deviant
implications established ad hoc by the writer.
———————————————
62 G. B. Caird, The Language and Imagery of the Bible (Philadelphia:

Westminster, 1980) 19.

32
(5) The metaphor selects, emphasizes, suppresses, and organizes
features of the principal subject by implying statements about it that
normally apply to the subsidiary subject.
(6) This involves shifts in meaning of words belonging to the same
family or system as the metaphorical expression; and some of these shifts,
though not all, may be metaphorical transfers. (The subordinate metaphors
are, however, to be read less “emphatically.”)
(7) There is, in general, no simple “ground” for the necessary shifts of
meaning—no blanket reason why some metaphors work and others fail.64
Since issuing this view of metaphor, Black has slightly modified it. He no
longer found it helpful to identify the primary subject with a whole “system of
things” and hence reserved that designation for the secondary subject only,
preferring to view the primary subject as being more simple.65 He abandoned
the use of the phrase “associated commonplaces” in favor of the more general
“associated implications.”66 Particularly helpful was his clarification of the way
the two subjects of the metaphor interact.
In the context of a particular metaphorical statement, the two subjects

“interact” in the following ways: (a) the presence of the primary subject
incites the hearer to select some of the secondary subject’s properties; and
(b) invites him to construct a parallel implication-complex that can fit the
primary subject; and (c) reciprocally induces parallel changes in the
secondary subject.67
Black’s essay, especially his explanation of the interaction view of
metaphor, captivated the attention of philosophers of language who recognized
the importance of his pioneering insights. Much of the discussion has accepted
———————————————
64 Ibid., 44–45.
65 Max Black, “More about Metaphor,” in Metaphor and Thought, 2nd

ed., ed. Andrew Ortony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) 27.
66 Black, “More about Metaphor,” 28.
67 Ibid.
33
and built on the fact that metaphorical expressions cannot be reduced to literal
language, as if such an accomplishment would be a genuine improvement.
Indeed, the neat division of language into figurative and literal categories is
now viewed as unworkably simplistic. A more descriptive use of these labels is
to place them on the ends of a single continuum. But in light of the initial
agreement about metaphor, it has been much more difficult to reach any
consensus regarding how metaphors function, not to mention the matter of
practical application of such a theory. It is therefore necessary to move on from
discussing the establishment of a cognitive theory of metaphor to consider its
subsequent growth and refinement.
B. Toward an Understanding of Metaphor
It is one thing to recognize that metaphor is much more than a way to
embellish a thought and to assert that it has cognitive power to foster insight.
It is another thing to qualify that assertion in terms that everybody can accept.
At present, a definitive or comprehensive theory of metaphor does not exist
and the subject as a whole has points of intersection with many other
disciplines. Numerous modern insights about cognitive metaphor are valid, yet
of little practical value for the interpretation of biblical metaphors. Like works
of art, metaphors attract attention and reward those who respond by yielding
both pleasure and insight. Just how that happens is difficult to describe. In the
words of I. A. Richards,
Our skill with metaphor, with thought, is one thing—prodigious and

inexplicable; our reflective awareness of that skill is quite another thing—
34
very incomplete, distorted, fallacious, over-simplifying.68
Because of the sprawling nature of the discussion, the aim of this section
cannot be to offer a comprehensive sweep of the field or to engage in a
polemical evaluation of all positions. Rather, its more modest goal is to
consider some of the theoretical bases of identifying, understanding, and
interpreting metaphor as a cognitive device. It will set forth a working
definition of metaphor and then seek to identify some of the ways in which
metaphor produces its uniquely meaningful effects. Finally, it will discuss the
range of options for viewing the ability of metaphor to communicate truth in
the context of transcendent matters, ultimately deciding in favor of a position
known as “critical realism.”
1. The Definition and Identification of Metaphor
Accepting the claim that metaphor is essentially cognitive rather than
rhetorical leads to the conclusion that metaphor is more a matter of thought
than mere expression. Gadamer argued that the genius of verbal consciousness
consists in being able to express similarities between things without reference
to a particular scheme of classification; hence, thought itself is fundamentally
metaphorical.69 From this broad perspective, metaphor is ubiquitous and the
task of identifying it would appear pointless. But at the level of linguistic
expression, it is still possible to speak of specific instances of metaphor as over
———————————————
68 I. A. Richards, “The Command of Metaphor,” in The Philosophy of

Rhetoric (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936, renewed 1964; Galaxy, 1965)
116.
69 Gadamer, Truth and Method, 429.

35
against speech that is recognizably plain.
Spotting the presence of metaphor is often quite intuitive but producing
an infallible test for metaphor is practically impossible. The statement, “Men
are pigs,”70 automatically brings a metaphorical understanding to mind but
the matter is not as simple with the statement, “You hit the nail on the head.”
Depending on factors outside the sentence, one could construe the words
literally or metaphorically. For this reason, the claim that metaphors are
marked by the presence of semantic deviance from literal speech simply
doesn’t always hold true. In other words, metaphors are not always literally
false. But even in the case of statements that can only make sense as
metaphors, there is often no thought of deviance from what the statement
might mean on a literal level.
Somebody seriously making a metaphorical statement—say, “The Lord is

my Shepherd”—might reasonably claim that he meant just what he said,
having chosen the words most apt to express his thought, attitudes, and
feelings, and was by no means guilty of uttering a crass absurdity.71
The production of a definition for metaphor has proven difficult partly
because metaphor operates within multiple levels of context. The fundamental
plan of Ricoeur’s masterful volume, The Rule of Metaphor, is to explain these
levels. Considered at the word-level, metaphor is no more than a figure of
speech, but at the level of the statement, metaphor has “sense” and at the level
of a whole discourse it has “reference.” There is a progression from rhetoric to
———————————————
70 Credited to comedian Tim Allen.

36
semantics to hermeneutics. Speaking of the argument of the book as a whole,
Ricoeur wrote,
It does not seek to replace rhetoric with semantics and the latter with
hermeneutics, and thus have one refute the other, but rather seeks to
justify each approach within the limits of the corresponding discipline and
to demonstrate the systmatic [sic] continuity of the viewpoints by following
the progression from word to sentence and from sentence to discourse.72
Ultimately, then, the context for a biblical metaphor is the whole Bible as
a discourse. But beyond that observation, there is yet another consideration. If
metaphor resists definition, it does so partly because there is a speech-act
distinction between what a sentence means and what a speaker means.
At present, then, no sure criteria for identifying metaphor have been

found. It does seem clear that our apprehension of an utterance as
metaphorical relies upon our awareness of the total speech situation in
which it occurs. We seem to interpret an utterance metaphorically when to
do so makes sense of more aspects of the total context than if the sentence
is read literally.73
Words are like tools in that they both can be used to perform a variety of
functions.74 Words have potential uses therefore, which become actualized
when a speaker employs a word in a specific setting. On its own, every sentence
is potentially ambiguous and may be understood literally or metaphorically.
But in the case of speech or the utterance of a community, outside factors help
to screen out unintended meanings, as Cohen and Margalit have recognized.
———————————————
73 Johnson, “Philosophical Perspective,” 51.
74 The analogy of a word being like a hammer is pointed out by Peter

W. Macky, The Centrality of Metaphors to Biblical Thought: A Method for
Interpreting the Bible, Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity 19 (Lewiston,
N.Y.: Edwin Mellen, 1990) 18.
37
In speech it is knowledge of background facts or of the socio-physical
context of utterance, along with certain presumptions of appropriateness,
that helps a hearer to recognise [sic] whether the speaker intends a literal
or a metaphorical meaning for a particular utterance of a word, phrase or
sentence.75
Rather than try to deal with what a word, phrase, or sentence “means,” it
is better to seek for what a speaker means. In relation to words used
metaphorically, John Searle is direct: “Metaphorical meaning is always speaker’s
utterance meaning.”76 With this in mind, I favor the definition set forth by
Soskice.
As a working definition of metaphor, we shall say that metaphor is that

figure of speech whereby we speak about one thing in terms which are seen
to be suggestive of another.77
By linking the meaning of metaphor to the intention of the speaker, this
definition leads the interpreter to look beyond some supposed “metaphorical
meaning” of the words themselves.
We argue that the reference which the metaphor makes is not, as some
suggest, a split reference determined by the individual terms used in a
metaphor (like ‘man’ and ‘wolf’); it is rather the reference effected by the
speaker’s employment of the whole utterance in its context.78
This definition is close to that provided by Peter Macky, who offers an
———————————————
75 L. Jonathan Cohen and Avishai Margalit, “The Role of Inductive

Reasoning in the Interpretation of Metaphor,” in Semantics of Natural Language,
2nd ed., ed. D. Davidson and G. Harman, 722–40 (Boston: Reidel, 1972) 736.
76 John R. Searle, “Metaphor,” in Philosophical Perspectives on

Metaphor, ed. Mark Johnson, 248–85 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 1981) 250. See also John L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words, 2nd ed.,
ed. J. O. Urmson and Marina Sbisà (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975).
77 Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language, 15 (italics original).
78 Ibid., 53.
38
important refinement by introducing the role of analogy. He defined metaphor
as “that figurative way of speaking (and meaning) in which a subject is depicted
in terms of a symbol, which is related to it by analogy”79 which is itself defined
as “a relationship between two realities in which there are significant
similarities and noticeable differences.”80 One can therefore speak of positive
analogies which point out similarities and negative analogies which have to do
with differences. In Ricoeur’s words, the most intimate and ultimate abode of
metaphor “is neither the name, nor the sentence, nor even discourse, but the
copula of the verb to be. The metaphorical ‘is’ at once signifies both ‘is not’ and
‘is like.’”81
Macky notes, however, that one may even note the presence of neutral
analogies. In this case, the details of the symbol do not clearly fit into the
categories of positive and negative analogies and “so provide the realm of
mystery we can explore in order to see more deeply.”82 While the positive and
negative analogies are usually more specified, the neutral analogy is
undetermined and encourages the reader to consider other potential
———————————————
79 Macky, The Centrality of Metaphors, 56.
80 Ibid.
82 Macky, Centrality of Metaphors, 288. Following this comment,

Macky considers an example from the words of Jesus, “My yoke is easy and my
burden is light” (Matt 11:30). He explains the positive and negative analogies of
the metaphor, the obvious points of similarity and difference. Then he explores
the neutral analogy, looking for non-explicit implications of the “burden”
metaphor. In this way, he treats the metaphor not only as a means of
communication, but also as an invitation to personal discovery.
39
connections between the terms of the metaphor.83 In this way, metaphors use
multiple analogies to both inform and prompt independent thought. In the
words of Barbour,
. . . a metaphor proposes analogies between the familiar context of a word

and a new context into which it is introduced. There is a tension between
affirmation and denial; in other words, both positive and negative analogy
are present. For metaphors, as for models, it is the neutral analogy which
invites exploration, and which prevents reduction to a set of equivalent
literal statements. Metaphors . . . [are] irreducible because they are open-
ended.84
2. The Operation of Metaphor
The process of producing a definition of metaphor has accomplished
more than making a simple identification of metaphor as a cognitive device; it
has also provided some insight on how metaphors of this kind actually work.
But the process has also demonstrated the elusive nature of metaphor, making
the task of interpretation difficult to describe. At one level, metaphor has much
to do with similarities, and the comparison view elaborated above is an attempt
to deal with this fact. But on another level, metaphor is more complex and
open-ended; metaphor cannot only draw on existing similarities; through
linguistic creativity it can conceive new ones. As Walker Percy stated, “Metaphor
———————————————
83 Ian G. Barbour points out a similar situation in the case of Jesus’

parables which do not present “an optional illustration of a set of explicitly
stated principles.” Rather, in that the parable lacks a statement concerning how
it should be precisely applied, it presents “a comparison to be explored [and]
insights to be discovered” (Myths, Models, and Paradigms: A Comparative Study
in Science and Religion [New York: Harper and Row, 1974] 17).
84 Barbour, Myths, Models, and Paradigms, 42 (italics original).

40
is the true maker of language.”85 The interanimation and interaction views
recognize this power to assert novel similarities and have won general
acceptance, though agreement has not been reached on how the views should
be refined. Extending an epistemic distinction set forth by Kant, Mark Johnson
has attempted to explain these two sides of metaphor under the rubric of its
“canonical” and “noncanonical” aspects.
a) Metaphor and Interpretation
Looking at metaphor as a comparison of two things, one can think of a
reasonable ground for the analogies. Thus, “For every metaphor there is a rule-
governed, systematic procedure for spelling out the relevant respects in which
A is similar to B (in the metaphor ‘A is B’).”86 Drawing out the points of
similarity and difference can lead to a literal paraphrase of the metaphor which
captures most of its meaning, though admittedly there will be a loss of poetic
impact. In the case of metaphors taken from the ancient world, an explanation
of the tenor and vehicle may prove very helpful to readers not immediately
familiar with covenants, monarchies, village life, and so on.87 But on another
level, metaphor operates differently.
This is the level at which one experiences the insight that two entire
systems of implications (attached to A and B) “belong together” in some
fundamental way. The cognitive activity at this level cannot be reduced to
———————————————
85 Percy, “Metaphor as Mistake,” 96.
87 In metaphors of the “God is X” type, the tenor is transcendent and

less understood, leaving most of the explanation to fall on the vehicle (“X”).
41
that of the comparative level, for it consists of the alteration of certain
experiential structures (e.g., categorizations, concepts), such that one
discovers a formal unity between previously unassociated things.88
Whereas a comparative analysis is rule-governed and canonical, the
meaning of the metaphor at this interactive level cannot be extracted
mechanically; it is noncanonical. The truth claim of metaphor at this level is
based on a restructuring of the organizing principles of knowledge.89
Metaphors which provide insight into an unknown, transcendent, or mysterious
subject thus can have an extremely powerful effect on those who accept them.
Johnson remarked,
The metaphor makes (that is, creates) sense by a novel projective act
resulting in new significance. It is this latter semantic achievement that
has led many to see metaphor as the central device for extending language
and, through it, the bounds of sense.90
When metaphor moves beyond the objective similarity of the two
objects, the act of understanding the metaphor moves beyond a rule-governed
procedure and enters a mode of “productive imagination” in which the
interpreter explores the relationship of the two parts of the metaphor. This
level of analysis is highly aesthetic and corresponds to the metaphor’s power to
stimulate exploration. Drawing on Kant’s notion of a productive mode of
imagination, Johnson stated,
A metaphor asserts a formal unity between two particulars (individuals,

classes, universals), yet the ground of this unity goes beyond any objective
similarities between the two subject-things. Since the metaphor asserts
———————————————
89 Ibid., 57.
90 Ibid., 63.
42
more than that the two things are merely alike, our discovery that and how
the two subject-things belong together cannot be determined from these
objective likenesses alone. Rather, an act of reflection is required that
results in a new way of organizing our experience.91
When considering the meaning of metaphor, then, it is not shallow-
minded to point out similarities and differences between the two subjects of
the metaphor, unless one then concludes that this is all the metaphor means.
The result of such analysis may be some form of literal paraphrase which may
indeed help and encourage the reader to explore the significance of the
metaphor for one’s own experience. The central metaphors of the Bible may be
considered in this light. The depictions of God as father and king, for example,
not only point out similarities, they foster a certain relationship with God and,
in turn, with others.92
b) Imagination, Intimacy, and Invitation
This relational function of metaphor is typically not felt or highly valued
by readers who seek to be purely objective. One may observe existing
similarities from a distance, but in this case the imagination is only active in
trying to reproduce the thinking of the speaker. This type of “re-creative”
imagining, however, is prerequisite to a second-order “creative” imagining in
which the reader turns inward to figure out how the truth of the metaphor
———————————————
91 Johnson, “Philosophical Perspective,” 60 (italics original) with

reference to Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. and ed. Paul Guyer
and Allen W. Wood, The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) B151, 164.
92 Macky, Centrality of Metaphors, 260.

43
reorders his or her own life.93 Marcus Hester described this imaginative
activity as “seeing as” and wrote, “Metaphorical seeing as is a seeing as between
the metaphorical subject and the metaphorical predicate, either one or both of
which must be image-exciting.”94 Imagination can thus operate in two
domains. It can reproductively focus on the thinking of another as well as
productively focus on one’s self.
This particular understanding of the imagination is committed to the
linguisticality of human consciousness. Ricoeur in particular took issue with
those who limited imagination to pictorial depiction and argued that in
reference to metaphor, it is primarily verbal in that it “effects a restructuration
of semantic fields.”95 Even before publication of his Rule of Metaphor, Ricoeur
recognized an essential link between metaphor and imagination.
We are prepared to inquire into the power of imagination, no longer as the

faculty of deriving “images” from sensory experiences, but as the capacity
to let new worlds build our self-understanding. This power would not be
conveyed by emerging images but by emerging meanings in our language.
Imagination, then, should be treated as a dimension of language. In that
way, a new link would appear between imagination and metaphor.96
Relying somewhat on Polanyi’s notion of participant knowing, Macky
———————————————
93 Ibid., 11.
94 Marcus B. Hester, “Metaphor and Aspect Seeing,” Journal of

Aesthetics and Art Criticism 25 (1966) 207; quoted in Johnson, “Philosophical
Perspective,” 53.
95 See Paul Ricoeur, “The Metaphorical Process as Cognition,

Imagination, and Feeling,” in On Metaphor, ed. Sheldon Sacks, 141–57 (Chicago
and London: University of Chicago Press, 1979) 146.
96 Paul Ricoeur, “Metaphor and the Main Problem of Hermeneutics,”

New Literary History 6 (1974) 110.
44
notes that the potent metaphors of the Bible have more to do with participation
than observation.
Participating in an author’s metaphorical thinking is an imaginative

process, one that cannot be fully represented verbally. However, verbal
guidance for that journey can be offered . . . In the end, however, it all
depends on the reader. Those who have eyes to see, will begin to see.97
Another function of metaphor is what Ted Cohen referred to as the
“cultivation of intimacy.” Philosophers of language have fought hard to
establish the cognitive import of metaphor as over against a purely emotive
theory, yet Cohen boldly considered this valuable, yet non-cognitive role.
I want to suggest a point in metaphor which is independent of the question

of cognitivity and which has nothing to do with its aesthetical character. I
think of this point as the achievement of intimacy. There is a unique way
in which the maker and appreciator of metaphor are drawn closer to one
another. Three aspects are involved: (1) the speaker issues a kind of
concealed invitation; (2) the hearer expends a special effort to accept the
invitation; and (3) this transaction constitutes the acknowledgment of a
community.98
In this sense, metaphors may be construed as invitations to view a
subject in a certain way. Unlike plain assertions which are judged as either true
or false, metaphors (like models and analogies) have heuristic value.99
———————————————
97 Macky, Centrality of Metaphors, 297. See Michael Polanyi, Personal

Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1958).
98 Ted Cohen, “Metaphor and the Cultivation of Intimacy,” in On

Metaphor, ed. Sheldon Sacks, 1–10 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago
Press, 1978) 6. The community that results from the comprehension of the
metaphor may be as large as the group of those who have grasped it or as small
as the individual speaker and recipient and indeed, even a single individual, for
“surely the self-dialogue of the soul is often figurative” (8).
99 Ina Loewenberg, “Identifying Metaphors,” in Philosophical

Perspectives on Metaphor, ed. Mark Johnson, 154–81 (Minneapolis: University of
45
According to Don Swanson, “A metaphor is a peremptory [i.e., urgent]
invitation to discovery.”100 In this regard, metaphor has something in
common with literature which presents a verbally constructed universe to the
reader. Erich Auerbach made the point that in contrast to the stories of Homer
which offer the reader temporary relief from reality, the literature of the OT
seeks to displace our reality. Its invitation to discovery is pointedly serious.
The world of the Scripture stories is not satisfied with claiming to be a

historically true reality—it insists that it is the only real world, is destined
for autocracy. . . . The Scripture stories do not, like Homer’s, court our
favor, they do not flatter us that they may please us and enchant us—they
seek to subject us, and if we refuse to be subjected we are rebels.101
Accepting this invitation means adopting the perspective or world view
of the speaker.102 Metaphorically, it is to enter the speaker’s “world.” In the
words of Goethe,
Wer den Dichter will verstehen

Muss in Dichters Lande gehen.103
Minnesota Press, 1981) 175.
100 Don R. Swanson, “Toward a Psychology of Metaphor,” in On

Metaphor, ed. Sheldon Sacks, 161–64 (Chicago and London: University of
Chicago Press, 1978) 163.
101 Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western

Literature, trans. Willard R. Trask (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953)
14–15.
102 M. H. Abrams suggests that an author’s choice of imagery reveals

his world view, (The Mirror and the Lamp [Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1953], 260). Paul Maloney argued that metaphor is both the poetic way of
knowing reality and the artistic technique of representing this knowledge. It
adopts a certain stance towards reality which the knower then is to accept on
its own terms, (“Metaphor: The Poetic Mode of Knowledge and Its Implications
for Education” [Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto, 1980]).
103 “Anyone who wants to understand a poet must go to the poet’s

46
3. The Cognitive Status of Metaphor
The so-called “literal-truth paradigm” that has dominated most of the
history of philosophical reflection holds that “literal assertions are somehow
better or more obvious bearers of truth than metaphors are.”104 The
consequence of this doctrine is the ornamental theory of metaphor as a purely
rhetorical device used for emotive functions. This distinction simply no longer
holds. Timothy Binkley, for example, admitted that metaphorical statements
are comprehended somewhat differently and with more complexity than literal
ones, but this difference in meaning “has nothing to do with truth or
falsehood.”105 While the philosophical re-evaluation of metaphor has raised
the awareness of its cognitive value, it has yet to reach consensus as to what
that value actually is. This absence of consensus becomes more understandable
when the difficulties surrounding discussion of epistemology and ontology are
taken into account. Macky has surveyed the field and grouped the views into
five positions placed along a continuum.
(1) Absolute Literalism: anything that we can think and know we

can express in literal speech. Metaphorical speech is essentially a rhetorical
form useful for stylistic purposes.
(2) Sophisticated Literalism: all the presentative (often labeled
country,” quoted in Caird, Language and Imagery of the Bible, 145. Caird went
on to make a salient application. “We do not live in the world of the Old or New
Testament, we are unacquainted with what to the contemporaries of Isaiah or
Paul were familiar, everyday objects or experiences, and it is therefore easy for
us to miss the affinities which imposed themselves on the inward eye of the
biblical writers” (145).
105 Timothy Binkley, “On the Truth and Probity of Metaphor,” in

Philosophical Perspectives on Metaphor, ed. Mark Johnson, 136–53 (Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1981) 143.
47
“cognitive”) aspect of metaphorical speech acts can be re-expressed
literally, though it may take a long time before it is done successfully. Any
metaphorical utterance that cannot ever be re-expressed literally at all is
devoid of presentative content.
(3) Critical Metaphoricalism: we can say some things literally about
any subject. But, when we are concerned with unobservable realities (e.g.,
inner human experiences and the supernatural world), their mysterious
depths can only be understood, and described, metaphorically.
(4) Modified Radicalism: all speech about unobservable realities is
and must be metaphorical. We can re-express most metaphorical
utterances in other terms; but when unobservable realities are the subject,
then the re-expressions will also be metaphorical (often hidden metaphors).
(5) Radicalism: almost all the realities we experience, except for
emergent categories such as up-down, heavy-light, etc., can only be thought
of and spoken of metaphorically. Whenever we use any of the standard
linguistic expressions that are parts of a hidden metaphor (“winning an
argument”), we are forced to think metaphorically (of “argument as
war”).106
Macky’s analysis of these positions is fair-minded and cogent. Both
varieties of literalism stand close to each other and have few modern
proponents. Radicalism makes a valid point about the widespread presence of
hidden metaphors in language and thought, but overextends its claim by
maintaining that one’s concept of something is always a reflection of some
metaphorical theory of it.107 Furthermore, radicalism leads to a notion of truth
that is unacceptable for philosophical realists. After a stimulating discussion of
conceptual metaphors, Lakoff and Johnson flatly state, “We do not believe that
———————————————
106 Macky, Centrality of Metaphors, 163–64. For survey of positions on

the nature of metaphor in general, see Lakoff and Turner, More than Cool
Reason, 110–39. Their survey is more detailed than Macky’s and favors what
Macky calls “radicalism.”
107 Ibid., 160. Michael Reddy is also a member of the “radical” camp
and has contended that linguistic expressions are laden with hidden metaphors
which thus constrain thinking. See “The Conduit Metaphor: A Case of Frame
Conflict in Our Language about Language,” in Metaphor and Thought. 2nd ed.,
ed. Andrew Ortony , 164–201 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993)
and Macky’s critique (156–59).
48
there is such a thing as objective (absolute and unconditional) truth.”108 The
remaining two middle positions are not that different from each other. Macky
argues for critical metaphoricalism and stands in agreement with Soskice who
uses the phrase “critical realism” instead. She proposed,
A form of critical realism is advocated for theology, not because it is the

only cogent position, but because so much of the Christian tradition has
been undeniably realist in sensibility, and because it is important to defend
a version of theological realism, given the anti-realist drift of so much
modern philosophical theology.109
As a general presupposition for the remainder of this dissertation which
is concerned with a key biblical metaphor for God, I accept the position of
“critical realism” which recognizes the value of literal paraphrase, yet holds
that metaphors are the best means of describing the supernatural and that they
actually do have the power to refer to what is real. Black would have agreed.
I have been presenting in this essay a conception of metaphors which

postulates interactions between two systems, grounded in analogies of
structure (partly created, partly discovered). The imputed isomorphisms
can, as we have seen, be rendered explicit and are then proper subjects for
the determination of appropriateness, faithfulness, partiality,
superficiality, and the like. Metaphors that survive such critical
examination can properly be held to convey, in indispensable fashion,
insight into the systems to which they refer. In this way, they can, and
sometimes do, generate insight about ‘how things are’ in reality.110
———————————————
108 George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago

and London: University of Chicago Press, 1980) 159 (italics original).
109 Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language, 137. This is also the
position of Ian Barbour who uses the same description “critical realism” which
upholds a cognitive function for metaphor-laden religious language (Barbour,
Myths, Models, and Paradigms, 110 as well as Ian G. Barbour, Issues in Science
and Religion [Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1966] 162–74).

49
Another proponent of this approach is Earl MacCormac who studied the
varieties of meaning in a metaphor and concluded,
Metaphors create new meanings of various types; without them, neither

knowledge nor language can grow. Without cognitively based linguistic
devices to juxtapose the old in unfamiliar ways, new ways of thinking and
new expressions for those thoughts cannot emerge.111
When the discussion of metaphorical truth narrows to how finite
language can describe a transcendent God, the issues become decidedly
theological. Part of this issue involves the propriety of anthropomorphic
accounts of God, but this will be taken up in chapter 3. It is important to note
at this point, that anthropomorphic language is a subset of metaphor which is,
in turn, an indispensable mode of theological discourse. Tremper Longman
wrote, “Anthropomorphisms are poetic symbols or, more particularly,
metaphors for divine attributes which would otherwise be indescribable.”112
Likewise, Soskice concluded, “In our stammering after a transcendent God we
must speak, for the most part, metaphorically or not at all.”113 Just as
believers are called upon to exercise existential trust toward God, those who
would comprehend theological metaphors must possess a sense of cognitive
optimism. Although C. S. Lewis elsewhere affirmed the truth of metaphorically
———————————————
111 Earl R. MacCormac, A Cognitive Theory of Metaphor (Cambridge,

Mass.: The MIT Press, 1985) 206.
112 Tremper Longman III, “Anthropomorphism,” in The New

Dictionary of Theology, ed. Sinclair B. Ferguson and David F. Wright, 30–31
(Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1988) 31.
113 Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language, 140.

50
stated Christian doctrines,114 he nevertheless remarked,
I have not tried to prove that the religious sayings are true, only that they
are significant: if you meet them with a certain good will, a certain
readiness to find meaning. For if they should happen to contain
information about real things, you will not get it on any other terms.115
C. Summary and Commitments
The previous discussion has traced the history of how theorists have
understood metaphor, first as merely a rhetorical figure of speech but later as a
fully cognitive mode of communication in which metaphorical linguistic
expressions reveal a deeper metaphorical perspective. Since the subject of
metaphor is of interest to scholars working in a variety of fields, this chapter
has drawn on the insights of a large community of thinkers and has collected
observations that are especially relevant to the interpretation of metaphor in
biblical literature. One’s particular view of what metaphor is and how it
operates is largely a function of one’s philosophical and theological
commitments. This chapter has briefly surveyed the field of options for
understanding metaphor and embraced a stance known as “critical realism.” It
has considered the salient features of this position and thus taken steps toward
providing a foundation for dealing with a key OT metaphor in which God is
presented in terms of a host.
In summary, I set forth the following definitions and presuppositions:
———————————————
114 C. S. Lewis, Miracles: A Preliminary Study (New York: Macmillan,

1947) 95–96.
115 C. S. Lewis, “The Language of Religion,” in Christian Reflections,

ed. Walter Hooper, 129–41 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967) 141.
51
(1) A metaphor is that figurative way of speaking in which one thing is
spoken of in terms which are seen to be suggestive of another.
(2) An analogy is the ground of the relationship between two realities in
a metaphor. Positive and negative analogies point out similarities and
differences. Neutral analogies are more ambiguous and open-ended,
functioning as invitations to exploration.
(3) Although metaphor has rhetorical value, it is not primarily a
rhetorical device whose meaning equals that of a literal paraphrase. It
is a cognitive device capable of communicating insight and truth.
(4) In the most inclusive sense, metaphor is more than a linguistic
expression but is a function of the verbal nature of human
consciousness. Hence, metaphor cannot be separated from thought. It
is therefore possible to speak of a general metaphorical perspective
which gives rise to individual linguistic instances of metaphorical
expression.
(5) Especially when taken together within the context of a single work of
literature, metaphor can represent a perspective on reality, also
known as a world view.
(6) It is possible to speak literally about any subject, but metaphorical
language is especially suited for dealing with unobservable,
transcendent realities.
(7) The terms and ground of a metaphor can be explained, assisting the
reader to better comprehend the metaphor and to make sense of
related metaphors. But this explanation can never exhaust the

52
meaning of the metaphor. Interpretation of a metaphor thus has a
rule-governed, canonical aspect as well as a non-rule-governed,
noncanonical aspect which is especially suited to providing insight to
unknown subjects.
(8) A given instance of metaphor may be profitably analyzed at the word-
level as a figure of speech, as well as at the levels of statement and
discourse. The levels of word, statement, and discourse correspond to
the disciplines of rhetoric, semantics, and hermeneutics.
(9) The meaning of the metaphor ultimately belongs within the total
speech context in which it occurs and is linked to intention of the
speaker as ascertained by consideration of the total speech context.
(10) The act of comprehending a metaphor may produce a non-cognitive
sense of community between the speaker and readers who accept the
metaphor’s invitation to discover a new perspective.

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CHAPTER 2

THE STUDY OF METAPHOR

The Oxford English Dictionary defines “metaphor” as “the figure of

speech in which a name or descriptive term is transferred to some object

statement may appear straightforward enough to stand as the undisputed

years. As recently as 1981, philosopher Mark Johnson could justly write,

We are in the midst of metaphormania. Only three decades ago the

The standard definition given above quite accurately reflects the

of the twentieth century when it was challenged at its very foundation. At

1 “Metaphor,” in The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., prepared by J.

2 Mark Johnson, ed., Philosophical Perspectives on Metaphor

ranged beyond the realms of philosophy and theoretical literary criticism,

having entered the fields of linguistics, psychology, and education to name a

may be called a “metaphorical perspective” on reality as a whole. Once

metaphor was recognized as more than a dispensable rhetorical device,

literature, but in everyday language as well. The language of discourse in the

natural sciences is commonly characterized and even epitomized as “literal”

concepts to explain unobservable entities.4 With metaphor existing at the root

may be “one of the more fruitful ways of approaching fundamental logical,

epistemological, and ontological issues central to any philosophical

3 Andrew Ortony, ed. Metaphor and Thought. 2nd ed. (Cambridge:

4 For example, the language of fluid dynamics helpfully explains

understanding of human experience.”5 Lakoff and Turner shared this

optimism and wrote,

Because metaphor is a primary tool for understanding our world and

My interest in metaphor originates from the study of biblical literature

deepest concerns of humanity. By its very nature, religious discourse raises

unique and profound issues concerning meaning, understanding, and the

power of language. Before venturing into those topics, it is appropriate to

philosophical and theological landscape for over two millennia. A clear

understanding of this theoretical basis for understanding metaphor provides

needed background for the discussion of more recent developments. This

historical survey is the subject of the first section of this chapter.

The next section moves from a chronological treatment of thinking

analyses of metaphor. The chapter closes with a section offering a summary

statement of definitions and presuppositions related to the discussion so far.

A. History of Research concerning Metaphor

Until this century, theoretical reflection on the nature and function of

5 Johnson, Philosophical Perspectives, ix.

metaphor has generally followed a single line of thought based on the

conviction that metaphor is essentially a rhetorical device. As a literary

embellishment, metaphor adds polish and appeal to statements which assume

to relegate this ornamental function of metaphor to the periphery, insisting

that cannot be restated in plain language without a loss of meaning.

1. Metaphor as a Rhetorical Device

The practice of using metaphors predated any sustained theoretical

consideration of what metaphors were or how they should be used. Writers of

with the philosophical foundations of metaphor, freely using language to

expression in literal discourse.

clearly the most influential. His seminal definition of metaphor appears in

Poetics and receives further treatment in Rhetoric. Its situation at the

use metaphors in the presentation of their arguments as they seek to convince

their audience. In the service of either discipline however, rhetoric or poetics,

the basic structure of metaphor remains the same.

Metaphor is the application [or transfer] of a word that belongs to another

The definition of metaphor given at the beginning of this chapter

elements of the metaphor are bound together by similarity.

7 Paul Ricoeur, The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-disciplinary Studies of the

8 Aristotle Poetics 1457b7–9. metafora; dev ejstin ojnovmato"

Aristotle’s identification of the word as the basic semantic unit launched