" THERMAL ANALYSIS OF THE STEAM BOILER FOR THE STERILIZATION

PLANT AT PEPPER MARKETING BOARD (PMB) KUCHING"

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ERVINA JUNAIDI
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This report is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering (Hons.) Mechanical Engineering and Manufacturing System from the
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
April 1999
 ACKNOWI,EDGEMENTS

The author would like to express her sincere gratitude and appreciation to her Project
Supervisor, Dr Ha How Ung, Mr Nazeri, Engineer Chai Sin Mui and PMB Staff for
their guidance and encouragement throughout the duration of the project.
Also special thanks are due to Mr WJ Blundell from Cussons Technology for
providing some information and references for the project.
The author also would like to thank her family for their encouragement and financial

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support during her studies in UNIMAS.

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Lastly, a special thanks to her friends and everyone who has involved directly or

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indirectly in completing this project. Thanks to everyone.

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 TABLES OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T ABLE OF CONTENTS 11

LIST OF FIGURES IV

LIST OF TABLES VI

ABSTRACT Vll

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ABSTRAK VllI

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODCCTION
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1.1 Background
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1.2 Project Objectives 2

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

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2.1 Heat Transfer 3

2.1.1
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Water to Steam 9
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2.2 Steam Tables 11

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2.2.1 Saturation Line 12

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2.2.2 Absolute and Gauge Pressure 13

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2.2.3 Superheated Steam 13

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2.2.4 F1ash Steam 13

2.3 The Boiler 14
2.4 Fire-Tube Boilers 15
2.4.1 Heating Surface 16
2.4.2 Rated boiler horsepower 17
2.4.3 Boiler Capa...:ity 17
2.4.4 Boiler Efficiency 18

11
 2.5 PMB Package Stearn Boiler 19

2.5.1 Construction Features 19

2.5.2 Automatic Operation Controls 19

2.5.3 The Components of Package Stearn Boiler 21

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Precautions Taken Before Start-Up Stearn Boiler 27

3.2 Operation Procedure for Stearn Boiler 28

3.3 Experimental Setup ,'.nd Measuring Procedure for Stearn Boiler 29

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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4.1 Results 33

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4.2 Discussion 45

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CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 51

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REFERENCES 52

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APPENDIX A: FIGURES 54

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APPENDIX B: STEAM TABLES 57

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APPENDIX C: CONVERSION FACTORS 65

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APPENDIX D: CALCULATIONS 69

\ APPENDIX E: GLOSSA ItY 75

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 2.la: Scale and stagnant gas and water near tube affect heat transfer 7
across the tube.

Figure 2.1 b: Circulation depends on heated water rising while cooler water 7
desends to replace it.

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Figure 2.1c: Adding boiler-heating surface increases heat absorption but at 7

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reduced rate.

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Figure 2.1 d: The tube area needed is higher at low pressure; the force to 8
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produce the circulation is less at high pressure; friction loss is greater at low
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pressure.
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Figure 2.1e: At critical pressure, water and steam have the same specific 8
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weight (3206.2 psia).

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Figure 2.1 f: At low pressure, steam bubbles fonns near the tube metaL 8
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Figure 2.1 g: At high pressure, a solid film or layer of steam is fonned at the 8
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tube metal surfaces.

Figure 2.1 h: One British thennal unit raises one pound of water one degree 9
Fahrenheit

Figure 2.1i: Water changing to steam 10

Figure 2.2a: Saturation hne 12

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Figure 2.5a: PMB Package Steam Boiler 22

Figure 2,5b: Water Level Gauge Glasses and Controls 22

Figure 2.5c: Boiler Control Panel 23

Figure 2.5d: Schematic Piping Layout 55

Figure 2.5e: Steam Header 23

Figure 2.5f: Water Softener 24

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Figure 2.5g: Water Tank 25

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Figure 2,5h: Diesel Tank
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Figure 2.5i: Detail ofthe Valve 56

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Figure 3, la: Boiler Dimension 29

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Figure 3.th: Diesel Tank 30

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Figure 3.1c: Water Tank 31

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Figure 4.1a: Fuel Consumption for Pepper Processing 36

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Figure 4.1 b: Fuel Cost per Unit Time 38

Figure 4.1c: Pepper Processing Time 41

Figure 4.1d: Boiler Water Temperature vs Boiler Pressure 43

 · ....

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 4.1a: Boiler Dimension 33

Table 4.1 b: Boiler Reading 34

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Table 4.1c: Boiler Specification 35

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Table 4.1 d: Fuel Consumption for Pepper Processing
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Table 4.1e: Fuel Cost per Unit Time 38

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Table 4.1 f: Pepper Processing Time 41

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Table 4.1g: Boiler Water Temperature vs Boiler Pressure 43

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Table 5.la: Saturated Water-Temperature Table (SI Units) 58

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Table 5. ]b: Saturated Water-Temperature Table (Sr Units) 59

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Table S.le: Saturated Water-Temperature Table (Sr Units) 60

Table 5.1d: Saturated Water-Pressure Table (SI Units) 61

Table 5.le: Saturated Water- Pressure Table (SI Units) 62

Table 5.1f: Saturated Water- Pressure Table (SI Units) 63

Table 5.1g: Saturated Water-Temperature Table (English Units) 64

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 ......
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ABSTRACT

Sterilization Plant at Pepper Marketing Board (PMB) is capable of treating pepper to

meet the stringent microbiological requirements of consuming countries. The Steam
Boiler will supply the steam to two points of the Sterilization Plant: Steam
Superheater and Dryer Heater. Thermal analysis of the steam boiler was carried out to
evaluate steam boiler efficiency, fuel consumption, fuel cost, pepper processing time,
boiler pressure and temperature. A series of experimental setup and measuring
procedure were carried out to perform the analysis of the steam boiler. An assumption

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was made for future situation where the steam boiler would be able to produce 3 ton

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of pepper per hour, where at present, the steam boiler is only capable of producing 2

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ton of pepper per hour. The comparison between the experimental results (Before)
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and future situation (After) will be presented.
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 ABSTRAK

Tapak Pensterilan di Jemaah Pemasaran Lada (PMB) berupaya untuk menghasilkan

lada yang memenuhi kawalan mikrobiologi yang ketat sepertimana yang dikehendaki
oleh negara pengguna. Steam Boiler akan membekalkan stirn kepada Steam
Superheater dan Dryer Heater. Analisa untuk Steam Boiler telah dijalankan untuk
menentukan kecekapan Steam Boiler, penggunaan bahan api (diesel), harga bahan api
(diesel), masa memproses lada, tekanan steam boiler dan suhu. Beberapa kaedah
penyukatan dan ujikaji juga akan dilakukan untuk tujuan menganalisa Steam Boiler.

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Beberapa andaian juga telah dibuat dimana Steam Boiler berupaya menghasilkan 3

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tan lada dalam masa sejam pada masa akan datang dibandingkan dengan penghasilan

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2 tan lada dalam masa sejam pada masa sekarang. Perbandingan diantara keputusan
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ujikaji dan andaian untuk keputusan pada masa akan datang juga akan ditunjukkan.
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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

A large number of today's processes and heating applications is

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powered by steam and hot wate:r. The mainstay technology for generating

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heating or process energy is the Package Steam Boiler. This type of boiler has

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proven to be highly efficient and cost effective in generating steam and hot
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water.
Selecting the right boiler equipment for the process, however requires
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a thorough evaluation according to several criteria:

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• Reviewing boiler types

• Comparing features and benefit
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• Detennining maintenance requirements

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• Detennining fuel consumption and also boiler efficiency

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Of these evaluation criteria, a key factor is fuel consumption or boiler

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efficiency.
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Boiler effie 1'~ncy represents the difference between the energy input
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and energy output. The efficiency data used for comparison between boilers
must be based on proven perfonnance to produce an accurate comparison of
fuel consumption. Every boikr operates under the same fundamental
thennodynamics principles. Therefore, a maximum theoretical efficiency can
be calculated for a given boiler design, represents the highest available
efficiency of the unit.
For most boiler investments, the initial cost generally represents only a
small portion of the cost, while fuel and maintenance cost actually represents
the major portion of the cost. Not all boilers are of the same specification.
Some basic differences in design can reveal variations in expected efficiency
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performance levels. Evaluating these differences in design can provide insight

into the efficiency value and resulting operating cost to be expected.

1.2 Project Objectives

Pepper Marketing Board (PMB) Kuching is setting up a Sterilization

Plant, which is capable of treating pepper to meet the stringent microbiological
requirements of consuming countries. The steam boiler will be used to supply
the steam to two different parts of the Sterilization Plant:

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• Steam Superheater, which subsequently supply to the sterilization

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chamber.

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• Dryer Heater, to be used to dry the pepper after sterilization.

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The main objective of this project is to evaluate the thermal
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efficiencies of the boiler that is used in the Sterilization Plant.
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The analysis will ensure that the boiler will produce steam with
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appropriate pressure and temperature and at the same time increase the
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efficiency of the boiler.

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In addition, to evaluate the fuel consumption and fuel cost, water flow
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rate, time for pepper processing, feedwater temperature and exhaust

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temperature.
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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Heat Transfer

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A boiler is a heat-transfer apparatus that converts energy of the fuel

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such as diesel, to a desired working medium such as steam, hot water, etc. The

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basic laws of heat transfer state that when energy is transferred from one body

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to another, a temperature difference must exist between the two bodies. That
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heat may be transferred from a high-temperature region to one of lower
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temperature region.
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A boiler should also be designed to absorb the maximum amount of

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heat released in the process of combustion. The heat energy from fuel is
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delivered to the water by three methods of transfer: radiation, conduction and

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convection, the percentage of each depending upon boiler design. These three
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methods of heat transfer are utilized in boiler design to convert fuel energy to
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a useful heat medium.

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Radiant heat is the heat radiated from a hot to a cold body and depends
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on the temperature difference and the color of the body, which receives the
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heat energy. Absorption of radiant heat increases with the furnace temperature
and depends on many factors but primarily on the area of the tubes exposed to
the heat rays.
Conduction heat is heat which passes from the gas (in this case) to the
tube by physical contact. The heat passes from molecule of metal to molecule
of metal with no displacement of the molecules. The amount of absorption
depends on the conductivity or heat absorption qualities of the material
through which the heat must pass.
The term heat is therefore visualized as molecular activity or as the
vibration of the molecules of a material. When one part of a material is heated,

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the molecular vibration increases. This excitation increased the activities in

adjacent molecules, and heat transfer is set up from the hot part of the material
to the cooler parts. In boilers, considerable surface conductance between a
fluid and a solid takes place, for example between water and a tube and gas
and a tube, in addition to conductance through the metal of a tube, shell, or a
surface.
While surface conductance plays a vital role in boiler efficiency, it can
alsu kad tu metal f!'lilures when heating surfaces become overheated, as may
occur when surfaces become insulated with scale. The surface conductance
when expressed in Btu per hour per square foot of heating surface for a

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difference of one degree Fahrenheit in temperature of the fluid and the

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adjacent surface, is known as the surface coefficient or film coefficient. Figure

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2.1 a shows stagnant areas near the tube where the film will reduce heat

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transfer coefficient.
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The coefficient of thermal (heat) conductivity is defined further as
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the quantity of heat that will flow across a unit area in unit time if the
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temperature gradient across this area is unity. In physical units it is expressed

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as Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit per foot. Expressed
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mathematically, the rate of heat transfer Q by conduction across an area A,

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through a temperature gradient of degrees Fahrenheit per foot TiL is [I]:

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Q kA (2.1)
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Where k coefficient of thermal conductivity,

Note that k varies with temperature. For example, mild steel at 32°F has a

thermal conductivity of 36 Btu/(hr/ft2jOF/ft), whereas at 212°F it is 33.

Convection heat is heat transmitted from a hot to a cold body by
movement of the conveying substance. In this case, the hot body is the boiler
flue gas; the cold body is the boiler tube containing water. It is further refined
into free and forced convection. Free convection is natural convection causing
circulation of the transfer fluid due to a difference in density resulting from
temperature changes.

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For example, in Figure 2.lh, the heated water and steam rises on the
left and are displaced by cooler (heavier) water on the right. This causes free
convection heat transfer between heat on one side of the U tube and cooler
water on the other side. Actually, conduction has to take place between the gas
film and metal of the tube, then the water. But if the water did not circulate,
eventual1y equal temperature would result. Heat transfer would then cease.
Forced convention results when circulation of the fluid is made
possible by some mechanical means, such as a pump for water or a fan for hot
gases. The heat transfer by convection is thus aided mechanically.
Adding boiler surface may increase the heat absorption, but as shown

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in Figure 2.1 c, the temperature gradient wiJl drop more and more. Then at

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some point the gain in efficiency will be far less than the cost of adding

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heating surface. Further, the mechanical power required for forced circulation

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will also increase with the addition of heating surface by convection.
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The hydraulic circuit of a boiler consists of the paths of water flow
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created by the difference between heads of water and water-steam mixtures.

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Flow in tubes and risers is induced by the difference in density of water and
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water steam mixtures. The heavier water will flow to the bottom as the lighter
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water-steam mixture rises in the boiler water-steam paths. The higher the
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steam pressure, the denser the steam becomes, which results in a loss of flow
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as the steam approaches water density. It is the reason that pumps are used to
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promote circulation in very high-pressure boilers. Insufficient flows creates

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inefficient use of heating surfaces, but can also result in tubes overheating due
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to water starvation.
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Note that in Figure 2.1d more tube area is required at lower pressure
than higher pressure for the same circulation to exist. But the force producing
circulation is less at high pressure than at lower pressure. This involves the
change in the specific weight of water and steam as pressures increase. The
mixture actuaHy weighs less in pounds per cubic foot at higher pressures. For
example, in the sketch in Figure 2.1e at the critical pressure (3206.2 psia),
water and steam have the same specific weight. Friction losses due to flow are
general1y less at higher pressure. This is primarily due to more laminar, or
streamlined, flow and less turbulent flow in the tubes.

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When boiling occurs in a tube, bubbles of vapor are formed and

liberated from the surface in contact with the liquid. This bubbling action
creates voids (Figure 2. I t) of the on-again-off-again type, because of the
rapidness of the action. This creates turbulence near the heat-transfer surfaces,
which generally increases the heat-transfer rate. But the loss of wetness as the
bubbles are formed may diminish heat transfer.
Pressure has a marked effect on the boiling and heat-transfer rate. With
hight:f prt:ssures (Figure 2.1g) bubbles tend to give way to what is called film
boiling, in which a film of steam covers the heated surface.
Now it is possible to see how the three forms of heat transfer work in

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a boiler. The tube in the furnace section of the boiler receives their heat by

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radiation from the visible flame. In fact, about half of the steam in an

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industrial boiler and all the steam in a utility boiler is generated by the furnace

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tubes. The part of the boiler that contains most of the tubes is called the
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convection section. This section receives its heat by convection from the hot
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flue gas. Heat is then transferred through the tube metal and into the water by
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conduction.
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In designing the boiler, each form of heat transmission is given special

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consideration. In the operation of a boiler unit, all three forms of heat

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transmission occur simultaneously.

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 mixture
Steam
Cross section of steel in tube
Layer at scale - - - - ,
Stagnant water film

Unheated
downcomer

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...... Bame

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Stagnant
Gas film

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Heated
Hot Furnace Gases riser
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(a) (b)
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Areas approximate relative heat absorptions

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3000 for successively added equal areas ofboiler

convection heating surface
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Relative 2000
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temperatures
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1000
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Steam and water temperature

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Relative boiler convection heating surface

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(c)

Figure 2. I: Factors affecting heat transfer in boiler components. (a) Scale and stagna! gas and water
near tube affect heat transfer across the lube. (b) Circulation depends on heated waler rising while
cooler water desends to replace it. (c) Adding boiler heating surface increases heat absorption but at
reduced rate.

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At 2000 psia At 1500 psia At 200 psia At 1500 psia 200 500 1000 1500

Area required Force available Friction losses

(d)

Specific weight, steam and water, Ib per cu ft

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60 Water
Critical

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I Water Pressure Steam Bubles ".-, ..... ,

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50 I. "ilt 'IlI.f. Tu,,"Metal
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40
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(t)
Specific-weight
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30 differential
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20
Saturated
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10 Steam Water
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Solid film of steam

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Pressure, psi
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(e) (g)
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Figure 2. i: The effect (if pressure on circulation rate. (d) The tube area needed is higher at low
pressure; the force to produce the circulation is less at high pressure; !riction loss is greater at low
pressure. (e) At critical pres~ilrl' water and steam have the same specific weight (3206.2 psia). (j) At
low pressure, steam hubbIes forms near the tube metal (g) At high pressure, a solidfilm or layer of
steam isformed at the tube metal surfaces.

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2.1.1 Water to Steam

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+ 1 Btu

...-_ 1 Btu

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1 Ib of water 1 Ib of water

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Figure 2.1 h: One British thermal unit raises one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit
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Figure 2.lh above demonstrate how water is transformed into

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steam, pour one pound of water at 32°F into an open pot sitting on a
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stove burner. Because this demonstration takes place in an open pot,

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the pressure of the water and any steam produced remains at

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atmospheric pressure. (Standard atmospheric pressure is 14.1 pounds

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per square inch absolute [psiaD.

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A thermometer is placed 10 the water to monitor its

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temperature. The heat-o-meter is placed in the water to measures the

amount of heat absorbed by the water. The heat-o-meter would be
calibrated in Btu (British thermal units). One British thermal unit is the
heat required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.

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Superheated steam
Steam only _ _ _ _ _---,
Water and steam ----, Gas
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Pure water ....-_.__W_a_te_r_on_l....
--. Vaoor(h)
5
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14.7 psia
constant Pure Steam
Pure ice pressure ---I. (dry)

~li~ Latent heat

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of
3 vaporization
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-+-y- Specific Specific =970.3 Specific heat
Latent heat heat I
heat = 0.5 Btullb

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of fusion of steam = 0.45
Btullb .oF Btullb .OF Btullb .OF
144 Btullb

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16--I~- 144--........--180 ---l~- 970.3
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-160 -144 180 1,1503
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Btullb
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Figure 2.li: Water changing to steam

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Figure 2.1i above shows how water is transformed into steam.

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The graph is based on the experiment of pouring one pound of water at

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32°F into an open pot sitting on a stove burner. Initially, the pressure
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of the water and any steam-produced remains at atmospheric pressure

(Standard atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia).
At point 3, the temperature of the water will increase when the
burner is on. The heat absorbed by the water that causes the
temperature increase is called sensible heat. Sensible heat changes the
temperature of a substance but not its state. This means that water
absorbing sensible heat stays water and will not tum to steam.
As the water temperature reaches 212°F (Point 4), there will be
a pound of water in the pot because boiling hasn't started yet. The
heat-o-meter reads 180 Btu. This matches the definition of a British

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thennal unit because there is an increased in temperature of one pound

of water 180°F (212°F - 32°F ] 80°F).
Just beyond point 4, the water is still absorbing heat because
the burner is still on, but the temperature of the water remains constant
at 212°F. This is called latent heat. Latent heat changes the state of a
substance but not its temperature. It takes extra energy to changes the
state of a substance, and at this point, latent heat is necessary to
convert water into steam.
As the water continues to boil, the heat-o-meter reading would
continue to increase, but the temperature wil1 stay at 212°F. When the

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last drop of water evaporates (Point 5), the heat-o-meter would read

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1,150.3 Btu. This is the total amount of heat required to evaporate one

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pound of water starting at 32°F. Subtract the sensible heat from this
total (1,150.3 Btu 180 Btu
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970.3 Btu) and this shows that the
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amount of latent heat required to evaporate one pound of water from

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2]2°F at 14.7 psia)

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During the evaporation process, the volume of one pound of

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water changes drastically. it starts as a liquid at 0.01672 fe (about one

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pint) and changes to steam (gas) at 26.79 fe (about one cubic yard),
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which is an increase of more than 1,600 times.

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2.2 Steam Tables

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Table 5.1a- 5.lg (Appendix B) shows the steam tables. It is a property

of saturated steam and it shows various pressures, temperatures, heat content,
and specific volumes.

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2.2.1 Saturation Line

600

400 +----f

300

200 +1-L....-t­ ...--+-.----+­

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Boiler Pressure (psig)

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Figure 2.2a: "';atllra/ion line
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The curve shown in Figure 2.2a is known as the saturation line.

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Every point below the CUlve is water, and every point above the curve
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is superheated steam.
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Every point on the line is water and/or steam at its saturated

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temperature and pressure (where the gas is at the same

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pressure/temperature as the liquid it contacts). A point on this

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saturation curve is actually on the line between Points 4 and 5 in

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Figure 2.lh.
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Point 4 is 100% water at its saturation temperature. Halfway to

Point 5 is 50% water and 50% steam. Point 5 is 100% steam.
Point 5 is dry steam (all gas and no liquid), while wet steam is
anywhere in between, but not including Point 4 and 5. The closer to
Point 4, the wetter the steam.
The steam and water are both at the same temperature and
pressure, but instead of having 100% gas, there is a mixture of liquid
and gas at the same temperature.

12
F'

2.2.2 Absolute and Gauge Pressure

A vacuum is any pressure less than atmospheric pressure. Zero

pounds per square inch absolute (psia) is a perfect vacuum. Zero
pounds per square inch gauge (psig or psi) is atmospheric pressure.
When stating absolute pressure, psia must be used. When
stating gauge pressure, psi is all that is required, but sometimes psig is
used. At sea level, absolute pressure is 14.7.
When converting absolute pressure to gauge pressures subtract
14.7. When converting gauge pressure to absolute pressure, add 14.7.

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Absolute Pressure equals to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure

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[9].

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Pabs = Pgauge +- Palm (2.2a)
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2.2.3 Superheated Steam

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The temperature of superheated steam is higher than saturated

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steam at a given pressure. This is because after steam is produced,

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additional heat can be added to increase its temperature and heat

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content.
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Superheated steam is used for two main reasons:

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1. To provide extra energy that is used for driving a steam turbine

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II. Its higher temperature means that less of it condenses when

transported over long distances

2.2.4 Flash Stea m

Natures will neither permit water to remain in the liquid state at

temperatures higher than 212°F, nor contain more than 180 Btullb at
atmospheric pressure. Saturated water at 0 psi at 212°F contains 180

13
pi

Btu/lb. Saturated water at 150 psi at 366°F contains 399 BtuJlb. The
BtuJlb exceeding 180 Btu/lb must be jettisoned. Nature takes care of
this surplus by converting a fraction of the water to flash steam.
Live steam is generated in the boiler, while flash steam IS

produced when hot water at its saturated temperature is released to a

lower pressure.
The percentage of flash steam can be calculated by [9]:

Percentage of flash steam

= The difference in heat content between the high and low pressure

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waters, then dividing by the latent heat of the steam at the lower

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pressure.

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= Heat in flash steam x 100%

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(2.2b)
Latent Heat of 0 psi steam
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2.3 The Boiler

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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water, under pressure, is

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transformed into steam by the application of heat. In the furnace, the chemical
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energy in the fuel is converted into heat, and it is the function of the boiler to
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transfer this heat to the water in the most efficient manner.

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The purpose of any boiler is to transfer heat produced by burning fuel

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to water under pressure to generate steam. The hot water and steam in even the
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smallest boiler has a large amount of energy.

The ideal boiler includes:
1. Simplicity in construction, excellent workmanship, and materials
conductive to low maintenance cost
ll. Design and construction to accommodate expansion and contraction
properties of materials
iii. Adequate steam and water space, delivery of clean steam, and good
water circulation
IV. A furnace setting conducive to efficient combustion and maximum rate
of heat transfer

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v. Responsiveness to sudden demands and upset conditions

VI. Accessibility for cleaning and repair
VII. A factor of safety that meets code requirement

In general the boiler must be conservatively designed to assure reliable

performance over the life of the plant. This conservative design is required
because of all the variables that occur over the life of the plant, such as the use
of different fuels, degradation of performance over time, and the occurrence of
upset conditions.
Boilers may be divided into two main types as follow:

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1, Water-tube boiler in which water and steam flow through tubes

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surrounded by the furnace gases. This type is almost universally used

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in power station work because it permits of high working pressures,

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has a high rate of evaporation (up to 800 000 [lblhr]), and can be built
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in very large sizes with correspondingly high efficiency.
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11. Fire-tube boiler in which the products of combustion pass through the
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inside of tubes with the water surrounding the tubes.

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2.4 Fire-Tube Boilers

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The fire-tube boiler is the most prevalent boiler used for heating,
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commercial and industrial applications. The early boilers required extensive

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bracing. Boiler configurations are influenced by heat-transfer requirements so

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that as much of the heat released by a fuel may be extracted as material and
economic consideration permit. Fire-tube boiler are generally less expensive
for low capacity, low pressure steam systems compared to water-tube boilers.
Fire-tube boiler has tube ends exposed to the products of combustion
and has other flat surfaces that require staying with structural steel in order to
avoid excessively thick plates.

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