Aspects of Western Philosophy: Dr.

Sreekumar Nellickappilly, IIT Madras

Chapter 39

Postmodernism

Key Words:
postmodern, progress, reason, metanarrative, antifoundationalism, idea of progress,
universal rationality, value-neutrality, structuralism, poststructuralism, unified self,
presence, origin, unity, transcendence of norms, fractured self, discourse,

In this chapter we shall examine the major characteristic features of postmodernism.

We shall first of all examine the concepts of the human self advocated by the
proponents of postmodernism and then try to understand the different approaches
adopted by some of the postmodern thinkers. Stuart Sim observes in The Routledge
Companion to Postmodernism:
In a general sense, postmodernism is to be regarded as a rejection of many, if
not most, of the cultural certainties on which life in the West has been
structured over the last couple of centuries. It has called into question our
commitment to cultural 'progress' (that economies must continue to grow, the
quality of life to keep improving indefinitely, etc.), as well as the political
systems that have underpinned this belief. [p.vii]

We may observe that, it is easier to give an account of what postmodernism is not,

rather than positively articulating what it is. It is not just a philosophical school or
system but refers to various developments that happened in culture in general and
particularly in the realms of literature, film, architecture, art etc. To highlight its
negative features, it is characterized by scepticism, antifoundationalism and a dislike
of authority. It radically questions the Enlightenment project and its associated
notions of progress and emancipation based on reason. In this sense, it can be
conceived as a reaction to modernism. Postmodernism raises its voice against the
liberal humanist ideology that had dominated culture since the eighteenth century.

General Features of Postmodernism

As mentioned above, the term postmodernism refers primarily to a variety of
responses towards life, culture and values and therefore, it is easy to conceive it as a
reaction against and rejection of some long established assumptions, particularly those
which became prominent with the advent of modernity. It questions the enlightenment
concept of progress and affirms a disbelief in the purity of knowledge. It proposes to

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 Aspects of Western Philosophy: Dr. Sreekumar Nellickappilly, IIT Madras

examine the goals and aspirations of modernity and is visibly anti-authoritarian. As

Jean-François Lyotard says, it is a reaction against the universalizing theories or grand
narratives/metanarratives. In his influential book The Postmodern Condition: A
Report on Knowledge Lyotard opposes the totalizing nature of metanarratives and
their reliance on some form of transcendent and universal truth. He defines
postmodernism as incredulity toward metanarratives. [p. xxiv] As Hugh J. Silverman
observes, postmodernism tries to marginalize, delimit, disseminate, and decenter the
primary (and often secondary) works of modernist and premodernist cultural
inscriptions. [p. 1] Postmodernists thus attempt to re-read the texts and traditions that
have made premodernist and modernist writing possible. They thus oppose the basic
assumptions of modernist thought. Mary Klages has listed out a few premises which
are central to humanism/modernism. We shall examine some of them. There is the
concept of an autonomous self with its ability to know itself and the world through
reason. Based on this assumption, modern philosophy had tremendous faith in the
power of science. It believes that science provides unbiased, objective and universal
truths that lead us toward progress. Reason is here taken as the ultimate judge that
decides what is true, what is right, and what is good and language, which is the
distinctive human capacity, is considered as the representation of the world.

The Modern and the Postmodern

Modernity was a reaction against the inadequacies of traditional worldviews. The
modernists contended that all the traditional ways of understanding the world and
society have become obsolete and there was an urgent need to come up with new
moral, philosophical, cultural or political principles to understand and deal with the
changing world. The (re)emerging idea of reason had provided them the hope for
building a new world on universally objective foundations.
The postmodernists in turn have argued that these modern attempts to reinvent
humanity are insufficient and futile. They have contended that reinventing new and
absolute principles amount to newer forms of authoritarianism and have concluded
that all such hopes are false. In this context the postmodernists have urged the
abandoning of all metanarratives that are foundational principles. This they thought
would expose the infinite field of differences within humanity. The idea of
constitutive otherness is derived from this insight. Through their critical approaches,

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the postmodernists have attempted at exposing the mistakes of modernity and have
declared that modernity has come to an end.
The two most important features of postmodernity are their opposition to the
idea of progress and their rejection of metanarratives. By opposing the idea of
progress they have questioned the modernists’ conviction that reason and science
would lead to progress. Based on this optimism all the so-called modern institutions
aim at this rational ideal. The idea of universal rationality itself is a metanarrative and
modernity has many such metanarratives which consume different local narratives.
For instance, with its notion of universal rationality, modernity has its idea of human
welfare, which it blindly applies to all possible situations and all human communities.
In this process it neglects the ideas of welfare nourished by different societies and
communities in relation with their local surroundings. It thus pretends to send out a
universal message and often forcefully suppresses or consumes the local narratives.
By advocating the idea of a concept of universal knowledge, the modern West
committed a major mistake. It contended that such a notion of value-neutral, objective
knowledge could be discovered by the human mind and the modern West did posses
it. Correspondingly, it had assumed the possibility of a disinterested knower who
possessed such knowledge. It also believed that the entire humanity was benefited by
this knowledge. The postmodernists assert that this supposition is a myth. They thus
proclaim that modernity has ended.
In one sense, ruptures were already present in the Enlightenment concept of
rational modern society. Kant’s rational project had exposed the fragmentation of the
modern society and self into three different and autonomous domains of reason; pure,
practical and aesthetic rationalities. Kant had attempted to reunite this with aesthetics,
but the problem of fragmentation persisted. This has been recognized as a problem of
the Enlightenment project in general; the central unity underlying all aspects of
human experiences Vs. fragmentation of the self and of society. Hegelian idealism
and many other philosophies of modernity tried to find a solution to this problem, but
had failed to achieve complete success. In Nietzsche’s writings we find an ultimate
proclamation of this fragmented society that was devoid of any universal sacred
values and meanings. Nietzsche’s Zarathustra preaches the death of God and the
coming of the Superhuman. As Sim observes:
Postmodernism has drawn heavily on the example set by antifoundationalist
philosophers, perhaps most notably the iconoclastic nineteenth-century

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German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, whose call for a 'revaluation of all

values' constitutes something of a battle-cry for the movement. [p. 3]

Different philosophies like Marxism, existentialism, Phenomenology and

psychoanalysis also depict the estrangement of the individual from his or her
authentic modes of experience and being and the experiences of fragmentation and
meaninglessness in an increasingly technologizing and industrializing world. The post
World-War II France had witnessed the emergence of many new philosophical
approaches like structuralism and poststructuralism. Thinkers like Deleuze, Derrida,
Foucault and Lyotard, who have later contributed significantly to the postmodern
philosophy, initially belonged to the structuralist tradition.

The Roots of Postmodernism

The term postmodernism was first used by the German philosopher Rudolf Pannwitz
in 1917, while he was referring to the nihilism of twentieth-century Western culture.
In literary criticism it appears as a reaction against aesthetic modernism during 1950s
and 60s and in philosophy it was associated with French poststructuralist philosophy.
The important 19th and 20th century intellectual and philosophical movements like
Marxism, existentialism and Phenomenology and their methods consider the notion of
self as central to their framework. They all consider the alienation of the self as an
important philosophical problem and have discussed the possibilities of authentic and
inauthentic human existence. What is common to these philosophical approaches is
their dislike toward abstract theorization. As we have seen in some previous chapters,
existentialism particularly stresses on the individual man and his/her problems in the
world.
Structuralism on the other hand, focuses on culture and hence on structures
like language, ritual and kinship that creates the self. But this does not amount to a
natural scientific enquiry of the individual subject. Yet, it does not adopt a purely
subjective approach, but concentrates on language which is thought to exhibit a
relative stability in the production of meaning. Structuralism holds that culture
decides the nature of language-world relationship. Hence the word—object
connection is arbitrary and conventional. Nevertheless, it is not merely subjective.
They maintain that language is a system of signs, which induce a predictable response
on the part of the linguistic community. But the stress on language and the attention it

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gives to the aspects of conventions and customs make structuralism a unique

philosophical approach that is different from many modern philosophies.
Poststructauralism, on the other hand rejects structuralism and its methods.
Like structuralism, here too language is considered philosophically significant, but the
poststructuralists have opposed the scientific pretensions of structuralism. Their
approaches were influenced by the idea of constructed self. They have adopted a more
radical approach to the conceptualization of language and have challenged the
possibility of rational inquiry into truth. They have opposed the idea that the world is
knowable with the methodology suggested by stucturalism.
Poststructuralism was a reaction against modern rationalism and all forms of
foundationalism. It originated in France in the 1960s and rejected many fundamental
intellectual pillars of modern Western civilization. The poststructuralists have
challenged the conceptions of objective knowledge of the real world. They have
opposed the idea of one single textual meaning and have challenged the conceptions
of a historical human subjectivity. In this sense, the poststructuralists vehemently
criticized the notion of universal truth. The influence of this anti-foundational
approach was visible in the fields of art, literature, politics and culture in general. The
emphases on multiculturalism, feminism, identity politics etc., which are features of
postmodern scenario, reflect this poststructuralist temperament.
Following these insights, the post-modern period witnesses an opposition to
all concepts of a unified self. The postmodernist thinkers criticize the concepts of
objective and unquestionable meaning. They too emphasize the importance of
language, culture and discourse, but categorically assert the decentered aspect
highlighted by many others.
As mentioned above, postmodernism is not just an intellectual reaction against
modernity or a philosophical school that opposes modernism. It is a movement which
has contributed to the evolution of a cultural and intellectual environment which
stresses decentering, opposes all kinds of metanarratives and criticizes the conception
of a unified self and the idea of a common rational ideal for all men. Along with
philosophers, writers, artists, painters and architects have participated in this radical
reaction against and rejection of modernism. With postmodernism, art became more
and more eclectic. The postmodernists have challenged all traditional distinctions in
art are like high-low, fine-commercial, truth-seeking modern avant-garde-superficial,
classical-popular etc. Hence the impact of postmodernism is felt more intensively in

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the domain of art and culture and the difference between the two approaches of
modern and postmodern can be brought out by highlighting how modern and
postmodern artists have approached their profession
The modern artist is a person who has materialized a break with tradition and
with the past. He offers a critique of the conditions of his own culture and society, as
he takes a privileged view of the social and the psychological concerns of the day.
The example for such a modern artist is Charlie Chaplin in the movies Modern Times,
and The Great Dictator. In these movies we see the artist as a visionary, who has a
grand dream for the entire humanity. He is critical about certain practices of the
industrial society. He has a universal message to all humans, which ensures
humankind emancipation. On the contrary, the postmodern artist does not have any
privileged status. He never claims to be an authority of meaning and value. Unlike the
modern art, the text in postmodernism is decentered. It has no intrinsic value or
meaning, but it acquires value in its intertextual relations with other texts.
Several social and political developments witnessing 20th century have
significantly contributed to the development of the postmodern condition. It was a
period that has witnessed the end of European colonialism. The development of mass
communications and media culture has suggested drastic changes in the ways humans
perceive things in the world and live in it. Changes in the global economic sphere and
the growth of international marketing have suggested radical changes in culture. The
end of cold war has opened up the possibilities of new alliances in international
politics and trade, but has also led to the possibilities of new hostilities and
polarization. The decline and fall of Marxism was arguably the most significant
political event of post WW II Europe. All these developments have created new
global equations at the economic, political and social realms, which ultimately led to
the emergence of a post-industrial society, which made old meanings and values
irrelevant
The post-industrial society is characteristically different from the modern
industrialized world, as with its emergence, knowledge and information have become
crucial for economic and cultural survival. This period had witnessed a revolt against
many existent forms of authority and it challenged the rationalism and liberal
individualism that were the hallmarks of modern societies. As Sim would put it:
One of the best ways of describing postmodernism as a philosophical
movement would be as a form of scepticism-scepticism about authority,

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received wisdom, cultural and political norms, etc.-and that puts it into a long-
running tradition in Western thought that stretches back to classical Greek
philosophy. [Sim. 3]

Some Postmodern Themes

Let us now discuss some important postmodern themes. We shall focus on four of
them here.
1. Presence or presentation Vs. representation and construction
2. Origin Vs. phenomena
3. Unity Vs. plurality
4. Transcendence of norms Vs. Immanence of norms.
1. Denial of Presence
The idea of presentation refers to what is directly and immediately given in
experience. For example, the epistemological tradition of modern philosophy has
treated the perception or sensation or sense data as the directly given, which is more
reliable or certain. Countering this, the postmodernists have emphasized the notion of
representation and affirm that everything is mediated by the human factor. We
employ the mediation of linguistic signs and concepts in order to construct them.
They thus argue that nothing is immediately present.

2. Denial of the Notion of Origin

Both traditional and modern philosophies have subscribed to this notion of origin. In
the modern period we have a rational and secular interpretation of this notion of
origin. This refers to the idea of the ultimate source of meaning, of selfhood, of life,
of reality found by reason. There is an attempt to understand the deeper realities of the
phenomenal world. Many philosophies and theoretical approaches that were dominant
during the first half of 20th century like existentialism, psycho-analysis,
phenomenology and Marxism attempt to discover the origin of the self. In early
hermeneutics, particularly in the works of Schleiermacher and Dilthey we find an
approach that tries to locate the meaning of the text in the author’s intentional life,
which they believed was an historical sphere from where it needed to be discovered
using a method. Contrary to this postmodernism has proclaimed the death of the
author.

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3. Denial of Unity
The postmodernists have challenged the idea of unity manifested in the notions of
meanings and conceptions of self. They assert that all cultural elements like words,
meanings, experiences, human selves, societies etc. are constituted by relations to
other elements. They maintain that nothing is simple, immediate or totally present.
They also oppose the possibility of a complete analysis of anything and therefore
argue against the idea of absolute meaning.
4. Transcendence of Norms Vs. Immanence of Norms
The postmodernists have opposed the notion of transcendence of norms and have
argued that values like truth, goodness, beauty, rationality, etc. are not independent
but are products of and are immanent in the processes they find application as norms.
Every such norm is conditional to the time and place and serves certain interests.
They depend on certain social contexts.
From this radically different idea about meaning, the postmodernists have
derived another important theoretical insight; the idea of constitutive otherness. They
categorically affirm that all normative claims are problematic and hence there are no
fixed norms or guidelines to decipher the meaning of the text. In this context, the
postmodernists suggest textual analysis through constitutive otherness. As Cahoone
says:
The apparent identity of what appear to be cultural units — human beings,
words, meanings, ideas, philosophical systems, social organizations — are
maintained in their apparent unity only through...an active process of
exclusion, opposition, and hierarchization. A phenomenon maintains its
identity...only if other units are represented as foreign or “other” through a
hierarchical dualism in which the first is privileged or favored, and the other is
deprivileged or devalued in some way. [p. 11 ]

They deny the idea of textual unity and argue that every text needs to be
understood in terms of the dependency of its elements to others. They then emphasize
on the excluded or "marginalized" elements of the text and argue that it is the margins
that constitute the text. Accordingly, we must be sensitive to the elements that are not
mentioned or devalued in the text explicitly. In other words, they claim that every text
implies a repression and the privileged theme of the text depends on the marginalized,
which will be brought out in the analysis.

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The Postmodern Subject

Since the postmodernists oppose all kinds of unity, they reject the idea of a unified
subject with a self-sufficient agency. They refuse to identify anything universal or a-
historical in the conception of the self. They also deny the idea of one-dimensionality
associated with the notion of self and argue that the subject is necessarily fractured
and indefinite due to the complex social relationships it enters into and the multiple
ways it interacts with the world.
This idea of a fractured self is directly in contradiction with the idea of self,
advocated by modern philosophers. The modern self is the autonomous knowing
subject for whom the world is an object of knowledge. They have contended that the
perceptions of the self are representations of an external world and knowledge is
based on representations. The Cartesian-Kantian ideals of the self posit a rational,
universal, knowing subject as the human self.
Contrary to this, the postmodern view of the subject is conditioned by several
factors. As Foucault observes, our subjective experience is socially and historically
constituted by factors that we unconsciously internalize. He emphasizes the social
aspect of discourse in which the self is situated and formed. Fredric Jameson presents
another very interesting idea of the self. He presents the picture of a subject that lacks
cognitive maps, which allow us to position ourselves in this world and to know where
we are. The post-industrial postmodern scenario forces us to have serious rethinking
about subjectivity from the context of humans-technology interfacing. This is because
science and technology have drastically altered the subject, its interactions, its
potentials and its self-conceptions. It is a fact that certain drugs can significantly alter
our behaviour and thereby our subjectivity. As Deleuze and Guattari observe in A
Thousand Plateaus: Cybernetic and informational machines form third age that
reconstructs a generalized regime of subjection: recurrent and reversible "humans-
machines systems" replace the old nonrecurrent and nonreversible relations of
subjection between the two elements; the relation between human and machine is
based on internal, mutual communication, and no longer on usage or action. [p. 458]

This novel conception of subjectivity has very important social and political
implications. With its rejection of universalizing theories, it opposes oppressive
ideologies like Fascism and Communism. Various political initiatives like the

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feminist movement, racial equality movements, homosexual rights movements, peace

movements, anti-globalization movement etc., have also gained importance with the
postmodern era. Here too, like its theoretical position, postmodernists do not postulate
any ideal for all humanity, but criticize and oppose the existing structures that are
oppressive and exploitative.

Quiz
1. Which of the following was opposed by postmodernism?
(a) Liberal humanist ideology (b) Capitalistic ideology (c) Industrial
rationality (d) Secularism
2. Which of the following is not a feature of postmodernism?
(a) The disbelief in the purity of knowledge (b) Opposition to the
enlightenment concept of progress (c) Advocacy of the concept of an
autonomous self (d) Rejection of the idea that reason is the ultimate judge.
3. Which of the following did Structuralism emphasize?
(a) Universal rationality (b) Culture (c) Literary works (d) Human existence
4. Which of the following is not a feature of poststructuralism?
(a) Language is philosophically significant (b) The idea of constructed self
(c) Belief in the possibility of rational inquiry into truth (d) Opposes the
scientific pretensions of Stucturalism.
5. Which of the following is not implied or suggested by the idea of constitutive
otherness?
(a) The excluded or marginalized elements of the text are more important
(b) Every text exhibits an internal unity (c) Every text implies a repression
(d) The privileged theme of the text depends on the marginalized.
6. Which of the following is not applicable to the postmodern notion of subject?
(a) Rejection of self-sufficient agency (b) Autonomy (c) Rejection of
universal human nature (d) Essentially fractured

Answer Key
1. [a]
2. [c]
3. [b]
4. [c]
5. [b]
6. [b]

Assigements

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 Aspects of Western Philosophy: Dr. Sreekumar Nellickappilly, IIT Madras

1. Discuss the postmodern conception of the subject.

2. Discuss some of the key features of postmodernism.

References

Books
1. Cahoone, L, “Introduction”, in L. Cahoone (Ed.), From Modernism to
Postmodernism: An Anthology (pp. 1-13). Malden, Blackwell Publishing,
2003.
2. Deleuze, Gilles and Guattari, Felix, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and
Schizophrenia, translated by Brian Massumi, Minneapolis and London,
University of Minnesota Press, 1987.
3. Elliott, Anthony, Contemporary Social theory, Oxon, Routledge, 2009.
4. Hall, Donald E, Subjectivity, New Youk, Routledge, 2004.
5. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on
Knowledge, translated by G. Bennington and B. Massumi, Minneapolis,
University of Minnesota Press, 1984.
6. Sim, Stuart (Ed.), The Routledge Companion to Postmodernism, London,
Routledge, 2001.
7. Nick Mansfield, Subjectivity: Theories of the Self from Freud to Haraway,
2000.

Web Resources
1. http://www.artsconnected.org/collection/142161/modern-and-postmodern-
art?print=true#%281%29.
2. http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/irvinem/theory/pomo.html.
3. General Introduction to the Postmodern, available at :
http://www.cla.purdue.edu/English/theory/postmodernism/modules/introducti
on.html.
4. http://www.uibk.ac.at/amerikastudien/das/m04t01.html.
5. http://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/postmodernism/modules/introductio
n.html.
6. http://www.indigogroup.co.uk/foamycustard/fc035.htm
7. Postmodernism: available at : http://allwebhunt.com/dir-
wiki.cfm/postmodernism.
8. Klages, Mary, “Postmodernism”, available at:
http://www.bdavetian.com/Postmodernism.html

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