Subject: Mat061 (Calculus 2)

Module 2

CHAPTER 2
Lesson Title: PARAMETRIC CURVES AND POLAR COORDINATES

SECTION 1
Section Title: PARAMETRIC CURVES AND THE CALCULUS OF PARAMETRIC
CURVES

PLANE CURVES

A plane curve is a curve that lies in a single plane. A plane curve may be closed or open. Some of the
most common open curves are the line, parabola, and hyperbola, and some of the most common closed
curves are the circle and ellipse. In this chapter, we will discuss the three curves: the parabola, the ellipse
(including the circle as a special case), and the hyperbola.

A. PARABOLA
Definition 2.1. A parabola is the set of points in a plane equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed
line. The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is called the directrix.

Theorem 2.2. An equation of the parabola having its focus at (p, 0) and as its directrix the line
x = −p is y 2 = 4px.

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 Theorem 2.3. An equation of the parabola having its focus at (0, p) and as its directrix the line
y = −p is x2 = 4py.

Theorem 2.4. If (x, y) represents a point P with respect to a given set of axes, and (x0 , y 0 ) is a
representation of P after the axes are translated to a new origin having coordinates (h, k) with
respect to the given axes, then

x = x0 + h and y = y 0 + k

⇐⇒ x0 = x − h and y 0 = y − k.

Theorem 2.5. If p is the directed distance from the vertex to the focus, an equation of the parabola
with its vertex at (h, k) and with its axis parallel to the x axis is

(y − k)2 = 4p(x − h).

A parabola with the same vertex and with its axis parallel to the y axis has for an equation

(x − h)2 = 4p(y − k).

Theorem 2.6. If in general second-degree equation

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

B = 0, and either A = 0 and C 6= 0, then the graph is one of the following: a parabola, two parallel
lines, one line, or the empty set.

B. ELLIPSE
Definition 2.7. An ellipse is the set of points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed
points is a constant. Each fixed point is called a focus.

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 Theorem 2.8. If 2a is the constant referred to in Definition 2.7 and an ellipse has its foci at (c, 0) and
(−c, 0), then if b2 = a2 − c2 , an equation of the ellipse is

x2 y2
2
+ 2 = 1.
a b

• If an ellipse has its center at the origin and its principal axis on the y axis, then an equation of
the ellipse is of the form
y2 x2
2
+ 2 = 1.
a b
• If the center of an ellipse is at the point (h, k) rather that at the origin, and the principal axis is
horizontal, then the equation of the ellipse is of the form

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
2
+ = 1.
a b2

• If the center of an ellipse is at the point (h, k) rather that at the origin, and the principal axis is
horizontal, then the equation of the ellipse is of the form

(y − k)2 (x − h)2
2
+ = 1.
a b2

Theorem 2.9. If the general second-degree equation

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

B = 0 and AC > 0, then the graph is either an ellipse, a point, or the empty set. In addition, if
A = C, the graph is either a circle, a point, or the empty set.

C. HYPERBOLA
Definition 2.10. A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane, the absolute value of the difference of
whose distances from two fixed points is a constant. The two fixed points are called the foci.

3
Theorem 2.11. If 2a is the constant referred to in Definition 2.10 and the hyperbola has its foci at
(c, 0), then if b2 = c2 − a2 , an equation of the hyperbola is

x2 y2
2
− 2 = 1.
a b

Theorem 2.12. If the hyperbola has its center at the origin and its principal axis on the y axis, the
equation of the hyperbola is
y2 x2
2
− 2 = 1.
a b

Theorem 2.13. The lines

b b
y= x and y = − x
a a
are asymptotes of the hyperbola
x2 y2
2
− 2 = 1.
a b

Theorem 2.14. If the center of the hyperbola is at (h, k) and its principal axis is parallel to the x axis,
the equation of the hyperbola is
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
2
− = 1.
a b2

Theorem 2.15. If the center of the hyperbola is at (h, k) and its principal axis is parallel to the y axis,
the equation of the hyperbola is
(y − k)2 (x − h)2
2
− = 1.
a b2

Theorem 2.16. If in general second-degree equation

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

B = 0 and AC < 0, then the graph is either a hyperbola or two interesting lines.

4
Theorem 2.17. The graph of the equation

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where A and C are not both zero, is either a conic or a degenerate conic; if it is a conic, then the graph is

i. a parabola if either A = 0 or C = 0, that is, if AC = 0;

ii. an ellipse if A and C have the same sign that is, if AC > 0;

iii. a hyperbola if A and C have opposite signs, that is, if AC < 0.

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

If x = f (t) and y = y(t) where t is called a parameter then we say that the two equations form a set of
parametric equations.
The graph of parametric equations is the set of points in the xy-plane which we get when t takes in all
possible values in the domain S of f and g.
The t scale is completely separate and does not appear in the graph.

Example: Eliminate the parameter and get an equation relating x and y.

1) x = t2 and y = 5t + 3

Solution:
x = t2 substitute to the 2nd equation
√
t=± x

√
y = 5(± x) + 3
2
√

y−3
= (± x)2
5
y 2 − 6y + 9 = 25x

y 2 − 25x − 6y + 9 = 0

(y − 3)2 = 25x ⇒ Parabola opening to the right

t -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
y -12 -7 -2 3 8 13 18

5
2) x = ln s and y = es

Solution:
x = ln s ⇒ ex = eln s
=s
ex
y=e .

3) x = 4cost and y = sint

Solution:
x2 = 16cos2 t and y 2 = 16sin2 t
x2 + y 2 = 16(cos2 t + sin2 t) = 16
x2 + y 2 = 16 ⇒ Circle, r = 4.

6
4) x = −1 + cos2 t and y = 2 + 2sin2 t

Solution:
x + 1 = cos2 t

y = 2 + 2sin2 t
p
= 2 + 2 −x2 − 2x
2
p 2
(y − 2) = (2 −x2 − 2x)

y 2 − 4y + 4 = 4(−x2 − 2x)

4x2 + y 2 + 8x − 4y + 4 = 0 ⇒ Ellipse

7
5) x = t2 + 2t + 3 and y = t2 + t − 1

Solution:

x−y =t+4

t=x−y−4

y = (x − y − 4)2 + (x − y − 4) − 1

= (x − y)2 − 8(x − y) + 16 + (x − y − 4) − 1

0 = x2 − 2xy + y 2 − 7x + 6y + 11

6) x = e2 + e−t and e2 − e−t

8
Solution:

x + y = 2et
x+y
= et
 2 
x+y
ln = ln et = t
2
 
x+y
t = ln
2

x+y

x+y

−1
x = eln 2 + eln 2

x+y 2
x= +
2 x+y
(x + y)2 + 4
=
2(x + y)
2x(x + y) = (x + y)2 + 4

x2 − y 2 = 4
x2 y2
− = 1 ⇒ Hyperbola
4 4

9
Exercises: Eliminate the parameter and get an equation relating x and y.

1) x = 2t, y = −5t

1
2) x = t, y = t

3) x = t − 1, y = t2

4) x = t2 + 2t + 3, y = t2 + t − 1

5) x = 3cosθ, y = 2sinθ

6) x = t2 , y = 2 ln t

7) x = 2t2 − 1, y = 3t + 4

DERIVATIVES AND PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

Theorem. Let x = x(t), y = y(t) be the parametric equations of the curve, and suppose that curve can
also be represented by the rectangular equation y = f (t) = f (x(t)). Assume that x(t), y(t) and f are
differentiable. Then, by chain rule, we have

  dy
dy dy dx dy dt
= or = dx
(1)
dt dx dt dx dt

dx
provided dt 6= 0.

Examples:

dy
1. Given the parametric equations x = 4 − t2 and y = t2 + 4t, find dx without eliminating t.

Solution:

x = 4 − t2 y = t2 + 4t
dx dy
dt = −2t dt = 2t + 4
Hence,
dy 2t+4 2(t+2)
dx = −2t = −2t = − t+2
t .

2. Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve

x = t2 − 2, y = t3 − 2t + 1
at the point where t = 2.

Solution:
dx dy dy 3t2 −2
When t = 2, we have x = 2, y = 5. Further, dt = 2t, dt = 3t2 − 2, and dx = 2t . The slope of the
tangent line is
3(2)2 − 2 5
= .
2(2) 2

10
 The equation of the desired line is

5
y−5= (x − 2) ⇐⇒ 5x − 2y = 0.
2

Exercise: Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve with parametric equations x = 3t2 , y = 2t at
t = 1.

ARCLENGTH

Definition. If a graph is given by a function such as y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b, and if f is continuous on the

interval, then the graph of f is called arc.

Theorem. Suppose f is a function with a continuous derivative on an interval containing a ≤ x ≤ b. Then,

the length of the arc C = {(x, y) : a ≤ x ≤ b, y = f (x)}, is given by
Rbp
a
1 + [f 0 (x)]2 dx.

Suppose that an arc C is given in the parametric form x = x(t), y = y(t), a ≤ t ≤ b.

Rbp
Formula for arclength: s = a [x0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 dt

Examples:

1. Find the length of arc C given by x = 3cost, y = 3sint, 0 ≤ t ≤ π.

Solution:

x0 (t) = −3sint

y 0 (t) = 3cost

Z π p
∴ s= (−3sint)2 + (3cost)2 dt
0
Z πq
= 9(sin2 t + cos2 t) dt
0
Z π
=3 dt
0
π
= 3t

0

= 3π units

2. Find the length of arc C given by x = t3 and y = 23 t2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 3.

Solution:
x0 (t) = t3

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 y 0 (t) = 3t
R3p
s= 0
(3t2 )2 + (3t)2 dt
R3√
= 0 9t4 + 9t2 dt
R3 √
= 0 3t t2 + 1 dt
R 10 1
= 3 1 u 2 du2 , u = t2 + 1
du = 2 dt
t = 0; u = 1
t = 3; u = 10
h 3
i10
3 2
= 2 3u
2
1
3
= 10 2 − 1
9
3. Given that x = t3 + 1, y = 2t 2 − 4. Find the length of the arc from the point where t = 1 to the
point where t = 3.
Solution:

x0 (t) = 3t2
7
y 0 (t) = 9t 2
R3q 7
s = 1 (3t)2 + (9t 2 )2 dt
R3√
= 1 9t4 + 81t7 dt
R 3 q1
=9 1 3 2
9 + t t dt
R 244 1 du
= 9 109 u 2 3 , u = 19 + t3
9

du = 3t2 dt
1 10
t=1: u= 9 +1= 9
1 244
t=3: u= 9 + 27 = 9
   244 9
3
= 3 23 u 2 
10
  3 9 
244 2
3
10 2
=2 9 − 9
2
√ √

= 27 244 244 − 10 10

4. Find the length of one arc of a cycloid, given that x = a(θ − sinθ), y = a(1 − cosθ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

Solution:
dx
dθ = a(1 − cosθ)
dy
= asinθ
dθ
R 2π q
s= 0 a2 (1 − cosθ)2 + a2 sin2 θ dθ
R 2π √
=a 0 2 − 2cosθ dθ
R 2π q
= 2a 0 sin θ2 dθ , sin θ2 = 1−cosθ 2
2π
= −4a cos θ2 

0

12
 = 8a.

π 3π
5. y = ln sinx, 4 ≤x≤ 4

Solution:

y = ln sinx
y 0 = sinx1
cosx = cotx
R 3π √
s = π4 1 + cot2 x dx
R 43π √
= π4 csc2 x dx
R 43π
= π4 cscx dx
4
  3π
4
= −ln cscx + cotx π
√ 4 √

= −ln | 2 − 1| + −ln | 2 + 1|

6. Find the length of arc C = {(x, y) x = t3 and y = 23 t2 , 1 ≤ t ≤ 3}.

Solution:

x0 (t) = 3t2 t 1 2 3
y 0 (t) = 3t x 1 8 27
p √ √ 3 27
[x0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 = 9t4 + 9t2 = 3t t2 + 1 y 2 6 2

R3 1
s= 1
3t(t2 + 1) 2 dt
R3 1
=3 1
(t2 + 1) 2 t dt
3 10 1
R
= 2 2 u 2 du,
du = 2t dt
du
10 2 = t dt
3
= 32 · 23 u 2 

√ 2 √
= 10 10 − 2 2 units

t 1 2 3
x 1 8 27
3 27
y 2 6 2

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Exercises: Find the length of arc in each case.

1. y = 41 x2 − 12 ln x, 1≤x≤2

2. y = 16 x3 − 12 x, 1≤x≤3
√
3. y = 36 − x2 , 0≤x≤4
3
4. y = 2x 2 , 0≤x≤2

1
ex + e−x ,


5. y = 2 0≤x≤2

π π
6. x = 6cost, y = 6sint, 3 ≤t≤ 2

2
7. y = x 3 , −8 ≤ x ≤ −2

8. x = 3t2 − 7, y = 2t2 + 3, 0≤t≤2

9. x = e−3t , y = e−2t , 0≤t≤∞

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