Insectmgmtfinaljan09 PDF

Insect Management on Organic
Farms
by H. M. Linker, D. B. Orr, and M. E. Barbercheck
I nsect management presents a challenge to

organic farmers. Insects are highly mobile
and well adapted to farm production
satisfactory control of chronic pest species.
Certified organic farmers can use a wide
range of practices to create an integrated pest
systems and pest control tactics. On organic management approach that complies with the
farms, where the focus is on managing insects standards of the USDA’s National Organic
rather than eliminating them, success depends Program (NOP): www.ams.usda. gov/nop/,
on learning about three kinds of information: (202) 720-3252. The standard states that a
farmer must use management practices to
• Biological information.What the insect
prevent crop pests, weeds, and diseases,
needs to survive can be used to determine
if pest insects can be deprived of some
vital resource.
• Ecological information. How the insect
interacts with the environment and other
species can be used to shape a pest-
resistant environment.
• Behavioral information about both pest and
beneficial insects. How the insect goes
about collecting the necessities of life can
be manipulated to protect crops.
This knowledge can be used to craft a

management plan that incorporates many
different elements to suppress pest insects. No Figure 1. Striped cucumber beetle (Acalymma vit-
single tactic, employed alone, is likely to give tatum) (Photo courtesy of USDA.)
Contents
Cultural Practices—Page 2 Biological Control Using Insect Natural Enemies—Page 17
Pheromones and Other Attractants—Page 8 Insecticides—Page 26
Biological Control Using Insect Pathogens—Page 10 Recommended Reading—Page 33
species and encourage their natural
including but not limited to these: crop
enemies, also referred to in this chapter as
rotation and soil and crop nutrient
beneficials.
management practices; sanitation measures to
• Pheromones and other attractants.
remove disease vectors, weed seeds, and
Organic farmers can use chemical
habitat for pest organisms; and cultural
attractants to trap pest insects, disrupt
practices that enhance crop health, including
their reproduction cycle, and monitor
selection of plant species and varieties that are
their population levels.
suitable to site-specific conditions and
Biological control using insect
resistant to prevalent pests, weeds, and
pathogens. Organisms that cause disease
diseases.
in insects can be exploited to help control
pest populations by managing the
According to the organic standard, insect pest
environment to favor insect disease or by
problems may be controlled through cultural,
applying allowable purchased products.
mechanical or physical methods; augment-
The use of insect pathogens to manage
ation or introduction of predators or parasites
pests is called microbial control.
of the pest species; development of habitat for
• Biological control using insect natural
natural enemies of pests; and nonsynthetic
enemies. Farmers can manage their fields
controls, such as lures, traps, and repellents.
to provide habitats for species that eat and
When these practices are insufficient to
live on pest insects. This can be
prevent or control crop pests, a biological,
accomplished through conserving and
botanical, or chemical material or substance
augmenting beneficial populations.
included on the National List of nonsynthetic
• Insecticides. Allowable organic and
and synthetic substances allowed for use in
inorganic chemicals, insecticidal oils and
organic crop production may be applied to
soaps, microbial insecticides, particle
prevent, suppress, or control pests. However,
films, and botanicals, when used in
the conditions for using the material must be
combination with the above pest
documented in the organic system plan.
management strategies, can help to
suppress pest insect populations.
Pest management plans are site-specific.
Farmers should develop their own strategies
based on their knowledge, available time, and All of these practices used together comprise
capital—the resources they can devote to pest an integrated pest management (IPM)
management. This chapter provides basic approach.
information on pest insects and the
management tactics that organic farmers can
CULTURAL PRACTICES: THE PLACE TO
use to keep pest insect populations at levels
START
that do not pose an economic threat to crops.
It is not a how-to guide that can be followed Pest insect problems are influenced by three
step by step. We will focus on the following components of a farming system. Farmers can
topics: manipulate all of these components to
suppress pest species.
• Cultural practices. The first key step
toward managing pest insects is using • The crop species and cultivar present a set of
cultural practices that suppress pest resources, growth habits, and structure.
Organic Production Series— Insect Management 2

• Production practices, such as rotation,
insects. This can involve one or all of the
timeliness of planting and harvesting,
following strategies:
spacing of plants, fertility and water
management, tillage, mulching, sanitation, • Reducing initial pest levels by making the
and companion planting. crop environment unattractive,
• Agroecosystem structure includes field unfavorable for pest reproduction and
borders, natural vegetation, and other growth, or both.
crop production areas that resupply fields • Producing favorable conditions for
with pest insects and beneficial species natural enemies.
when crops are replanted. • Increasing the plants’ ability to withstand
pest damage.
Insects require a basic set of resources to live
When used together, the cultural practices
and reproduce. Production practices that
described on the following pages provide
deprive a pest species of at least one needed
useful tools for reducing or preventing pest
element of life may maintain pest populations
problems.
below economically damaging levels for
extended periods. It is unlikely, however, that
cultural practices will provide permanent Monitoring
control because the most troublesome insect Monitoring insects is fundamental to good
species are those that are well-adapted to the management. Determining when a pest insect
production systems used on a farm. first colonizes a crop and measuring its abun-
Populations of these pest insects will tend to dance on a regular schedule provides the in-
increase under a particular production formation needed to make control decisions.
system, while populations of less well-
adapted species will decrease. Monitoring does not have to be a rigorous
procedure, but it needs to be done on a regular
Pest insects must be very adaptive to succeed basis using the right procedure.
because their physical environment changes
as production systems change. Insects must In some cases (as for mites and aphids) simply
deal with many environmental changes, checking crops by direct observation is all that is
including different tillage practices, fertility needed. For other pests, it is easier and quicker to
regimes, and planting dates. Each individual use a device, such as a sweep net, to sample
practice can change pest insect population crops. Many devices—from plastic lunch trays to
dynamics. In organic systems, farmers use ground cloths—are used to sample pests. Some
many different cultural practices and cultivate pests, like thrips, require a different procedure.
a wide array of crops. The interactive effect of
this array of interacting elements on pests is Local Extension offices have information on how
difficult to predict and usually can be and when to monitor many crops for pests. This
determined only through research and procedure is essentially the same for organic or
experience. conventional crops.
Farmers can use cultural control measures to

modify the crop environment enough to
increase environmental resistance to pest

Crop Cultivar mobile foliar pests—such as the Colorado
potato beetle (CPB), subterranean pests, or
Plant breeders traditionally have placed more pests with one generation a year—may be
focus on creating disease-resistant varieties substantially suppressed with proper rotation.
than on creating insect-resistant varieties. The distances required, however, may exceed
Where they are available, however, insect- the space available on small-scale operations.
resistant varieties can be an effective defense. For example, to reduce insecticide
It is important to find out about the applications for CPB by 50 percent, potatoes
mechanism of insect resistance in a crop have to be moved 1/4- to 1/2-mile away from
variety because genetically modified crops previous potato crops (Weisz et al. 1994). To
(GMOs, transgenic crops) are not allowed in be most effective, rotations between
organic production systems. Even when susceptible crops should be three to seven
insect-resistant cultivars are not available, years.
some varieties may be less attractive to pest
species or tolerate more damage than others. Planting Date and Method
Plant size, shape, coloration, leaf hairs, and
natural chemicals—both attractants and The stage of crop development can have a
repellents—all affect the outcome of insect profound effect on a crop’s attractiveness to
crop colonization. Note that changing pest insects. For some pests and crops, stage
cultivars to reduce pests can also reduce of development dictates whether or not a pest
beneficial insects either directly is a problem. If very few crops are available
(characteristics that affect pest abundance when insects emerge in the spring, pest
may also influence beneficial insects) or insects may concentrate on a few early
indirectly (through providing less prey). planted fields. Conversely, if many crop and
noncrop host plants are available in early
Although resistant varieties and natural spring, then pests may disperse widely and
controls generally work together to suppress not concentrate in any one crop. Thrips, for
pests, some exceptions have been example, often infest early planted crops in
documented. If difficult, persistent pest high numbers. But they cause fewer problems
problems occur, selection of a resistant or on later planted crops. For some pest insects,
more tolerant cultivar is an option that should planting a crop early so that it reaches a less
be tested. Most land-grant universities have susceptible physiological stage can be a
official variety tests that may include practical solution to a pest problem. For
observations or screening on insect resistance. example, corn earworm causes fewer
Often, however, farmers must depend upon problems in early planted sweet corn.
observation, experience, and exchanging Additionally, aphid-transmitted plant viruses
information with other farmers. may be minimized in early planted crops.
Crop Rotation Vigorous crop growth is also important. Seeds

should be sown when temperatures will allow
Crop rotation or sequence is designed to them to emerge and grow quickly. Using
present a nonhost crop to pest insects. seedlings or transplants instead of seeds can
Realistically, rotations are likely to have little also speed crop development. Plants
effect on highly mobile foliar insects. Less struggling to survive or plants under stress

will be more attractive to pest insects and Organic production does not allow synthetic
more affected by damage. fertilizers or sewage sludge. Check with your
certifier if you are in doubt about your fertility
Most of the time, planting date and method management materials.
are dictated by markets, weather, labor
availability, and other factors. But if a pest Although crop plants must grow vigorously
insect presents an especially difficult problem, to withstand pest damage, overly lush plants
manipulating the planting date and method often attract more pest insects and experience
may be one option to explore. more damage than other plants.
Overfertilized plants may give visual clues to
Harvest Date insects and become targets of attack. Survival
The shorter the time a crop is in the field, the less of immature insects may also be better on
time pest insects have to damage it. Combining overfertilized plants. Nutrient stress from
early planting with early maturing varieties may insufficient plant nutrients can also cause
allow a crop to mature before pest insects reach plants to be more attractive to insect pests or
damaging levels. more susceptible to damage by insect pests.
Consequently, the careful planning and
This can also be effective for minimizing insect- execution of soil fertility programs (including
transmitted plant diseases. For example, curcubit pH) is an important component of pest insect
crops may have fewer virus problems with early management.
harvest. Other factors, however, such as markets
and weather, may dictate longer seasons. This
Increasing Soil Organic Matter
must be weighed against insect pest losses.
Studies have shown that as organic matter in the
soil increases, microscopic life increases, which
Crop Population Density —Row Spacing can lead to an increase in generalist insect
& Seeding Rate predators.
Decisions about crop population densities are Additions of organic matter must be handled
dictated more by the growing characeristics of carefully because some soil-dwelling pests, such
the crop, weed management, and harvest as the seed corn maggot, can present significant
requirements than by pest insect problems. Only throughly composted materials,
management. In general, if increasing the well incorporated, should be used to minimize
population density of a crop increases soil pest insect problems.
beneficial insects, it can lead to a decrease in
pest insects. In some crops, close row spacing Water Management
increases control by beneficial insects. More
ground shading will usually increase ground- Irrigation has both direct and indirect effects
dwelling predators, such as ground beetles. on pest insects. Insect populations can
Some species of ground beetles also consume decrease if overhead sprinklers knock insects
weed seeds on the soil surface. off plants or raise microenvironment
humidity enough to encourage insect disease
Fertility Management—Nutrition, Vigor, caused by bacteria or fungi. Because irrigation
and Soil pH methods vary considerably (whether drip,
overhead sprinkler, or flood irrigation), the
Proper nutrient management is an important impact of irrigation on insects also varies. Pest
component of IPM in organic systems. insect populations can increase if irrigated

plants are lusher and more attractive than reliably predicted. Species shifts will occur
surrounding plants. Likewise, plants stressed and should be carefully monitored. Tillage is
by drought can be more attractive to insect not likely to have a significant effect on most
pests or less tolerant to their feeding. The common foliar-feeding insect pests.
need for irrigation is dictated by crop growth
and weather rather than the need for insect Mulches
control. But when there is some flexibility in
irrigation scheduling, a farmer should think Mulching systems fall into various categories,
about irrigation as a tool for suppressing pest including plastic (woven or nonwoven) and
insects. Several naturally occurring insect natural materials. Although allowable, the use
pathogens, especially insect-pathogenic fungi, of plastic mulch is frequently discouraged by
provide effective pest suppression when high organic certification agencies because it relies
humidity microenvironments are created. on a nonrenewable resource. Biodegradeable
plastic mulches are being developed and may
Tillage affect pests in a similar way to that of
conventional, nonbiodegradeable muclhes.
Tillage practices affect both subterranean and Organic farmers often use a straw mulch
foliar insect pests. Infrequent disturbance of because it is readily available and provides
soils in natural systems preserves food webs good weed suppression. Planting into a living
and diversity of organisms and habitats. The or killed mulch is growing in popularity as
regular disturbance of agricultural soils more information on this practice is provided
disrupts ecological linkages and allows and as specialized equipment becomes
adapted pest species to increase without the available. (See the discussion of cover crops in
dampening effects of natural controls. this chapter, under “Conserving Natural
Nevertheless, tillage can also destroy insects Enemies,” page 15) New systems, such as
overwintering in the soil as eggs, pupae, or hydromulch (which consists of wood fibers
adults, and reduce pest problems. sprayed on with an adhesive to keep them
together) may one day supplant plastic and
Organic producers usually rely on tillage to straw if they are developed with organically
control weeds and to prepare the soil for allowable components. For now, plastic and
planting. Research is being conducted on straw mulches remain high in popularity.
methods and equipment that may allow for All mulches suppress insects in comparison to
the reduction of tillage in organic systems. bare soil. Different colors of plastic have been
Some practices to reduce tillage in organic tested; and clear, white, yellow, or aluminum
systems include zone tillage, ridge tillage, and (reflective) colors may provide some
including a perennial or sod-producing crop additional suppression of aphids and
in the rotation. Reduction of tillage alters pest whiteflies. Blue and yellow may bring in more
insect dynamics considerably. Thrips cause pests. Plastic can be painted the desired color.
fewer problems in reduced-till systems. Before painting mulch, farmers should check
Ground-dwelling predators, such as ground with their certifiers to see if the practice is
beetles that prey on pest insects, can increase. allowable.
However, cutworm and slug problems can
also increase where tillage is reduced. The Straw mulches can affect insect pests. Crops
degree of pest population shifts between a that are traditionally mulched with plastic
tilled and reduced-tillage system cannot be may benefit from straw mulches. For example,

Companion Planting
suppression of the Colorado potato beetle has
been demonstrated with straw mulch in
The companion planting approach is based on
potatoes. Not enough information is available
the theory that various plants grown in close
to make definite recommendations about the
proximity to the crop plant will repel or kill
advantages of one mulch over another.
pest insects. Studies to date have not shown
Testing in a restricted area is recommended
this approach to be effective. Note that
when using mulches for the first time or
companion planting is not the same as
changing mulching materials. Mulching alone
intercropping, which may be a valuable tool
will probably not prevent pest problems.
in attracting beneficial insects.
Nevertheless, if used in combination with
other tactics, mulching may help reduce
populations of difficult insect pests. Trap Crops
Sanitation Trap crops attract pest species away from the

cash crop to be protected and into a specific
Good farm sanitation can help to prevent area where they can be destroyed. Depending
introductions of pest insects from outside on the target pest and the cash crop, trap
sources, slow their movement within the crops can be planted with or around the
farm, and eliminate them when they are perimeter of the cash crop field. This
discarded with crop materials that may approach is an appealing idea, and it has
harbor them. proven useful in some situations. Implement-
ation of trap cropping takes careful manage-
If transplants are purchased off-farm, buy ment. Knowledge of the biology and ecology
from a reputable dealer and check very of the target pest species is critical when
carefully before bringing transplants to the considering trap cropping. Species that are
farm. A simple screening process can save weak fliers or pests that are blown into a crop
time and money later. Quarantine any (such as aphids) or are dispersed in the wind
purchased transplants for at least a week, and (such as spider mites) are not good
examine them carefully for pests daily. candidates. Good target pests show a strong
preference for a particular type, variety, or
Some pests (such as spider mites and physiological stage of the crop.
whiteflies) are not very mobile but can spread
when people and equipment move from an The size and configuration of the trap-crop
infested area to uninfested areas. After area usually is not based on the size of the
working in an infested area, clean equipment cash-crop area but on the number of pests
and clothes before going to another area of the expected. A small trap-crop area that is
farm. quickly destroyed will not give satisfactory
results. If enough land is available, it is better
Culled plants and produce are often piled to have a trap-crop area that is too large rather
near the field or processing area for later than one that is too small. Some trap crops are
disposal. This can provide a suitable feeding planted within the field of the cash crop.
and breeding site for insect pests. These piles Another approach, called perimeter trap
should be composted, buried, or otherwise cropping, involves planting at least two rows
destroyed as soon as possible. of the trap crop around the entire perimeter of

insects can make a sound as loud as a
the cash crop. An approach to trap cropping
chainsaw; others have striking colors. Many
that improves efficacy is to combine it with
insects find each other over long distances by
other tactics. For example, with a push-pull
emitting chemical signals or pheromones to
approach, a trap crop is used to pull the pest
attract individuals of the same species into an
species away while the protected cash crop is
area so they can find each other to mate. Once
intercropped with a plant that repels pests.
the individuals get close together, visual
This approach has been used successfully to
cues—such as color, shape, and behavior—
protect maize in Kenya.
become more important. Entomologists have
Trap cropping was originally designed to be determined the chemical structure of
used in conjunction with a highly effective pheromones for many pest species and
insecticide to kill pest species in the trap crop. duplicated them synthetically.
In organic systems, however, there are few
Insects also use other chemical messages.
allowable insecticides, so it is important to
Chemical cues to the location of food can
know if there are allowable insecticides that
draw insects into a particular area where,
are effective and economical to use against the
once they get close enough, visual and tactile
expected target pest, or that the trap crop is
cues lead them to food sources.
destroyed before the target insect moves onto
the cash crop. Correct timing of crop Pheromones and other chemical attractants
destruction is important: Destroying the trap can be used in several different ways: to
crop either too early or too late can have monitor pests, disrupt mating, capture a large
negative consequences. In addition, any number of adults (called mass trapping),
beneficial insects colonizing the trap crop will distribute an insect pathogen or or lure pests
also be destroyed. to consume poisoned bait. Any trap baited
with an attractant must be used carefully.
Knowledge and record-keeping can help
Some research has demonstrated that a trap
improve the performance of trap cropping.
can bring more pests into an agroecosystem
For example, one approach may be to plant a
than it kills.
small area of the cash crop very early so it can
reach an attractive physiological stage before
the primary planting. Variations in growing
conditions (for example, if conditions are too
dry or too cold) can change the timing of
physiological stages so that it is possible to
end up with both crops in the same
physiological stage. Keeping good records of
weather conditions and performance of the
trap crop and the cash crop will help in
developing pest management systems.
Figure 2. Pheromone traps often have a characteris-
PHEROMONES AND OTHER tic triangular shape. (Photo courtesy of
ATTRACTANTS www.insectimages.org.)
Chemicals that trick pest insects to expect

Insects are very small creatures in a very large
food or mates can be very effective at
world. They have evolved many different
attracting insects from long distances. The
ways of finding each other to mate. Some

result. Because there are fewer immature
primary use of these chemicals has been to
insects, crop damage is minimized or
monitor pest activity. New traps and baits,
eliminated. In some cases this approach has
however, are showing the potential to reduce
worked well.
pest abundance directly.
Like most control measures based upon insect
Using Pheromones to Monitor Insect behavior, however, successful disruption of
Populations insect mating requires an understanding of
some basic concepts. For example,
Monitoring insect pests is one of the most pheromones emit a plume of chemical carried
effectives uses for pheromones. They can be on the prevailing wind. During the course of
used to detect the first arrival of a pest insect the mating season, wind shifts and eddies will
species or an increase or decrease in distribute the pheromone over a wide area.
populations. Attractants are used in several Males detect this plume and follow it into the
different types of traps (including sticky, wire, area where the pheromone is located. This
mesh, pan, and water traps) that all work on plume can be carried a long distance and may
the same basic principle: Attract insects to the actually attract males that otherwise would
trap where they can be captured and counted. not be in the immediate area. If the number of
Because each trapping location is unique and males in the vicinity is increased, then the net
the patchwork of crops and noncropland effect may be to increase the number of
shifts yearly, interpreting the importance of mating males.
the arrival time or the number of insects
Concentrated applications of pheromone are
trapped comes with experience.
generally used for this method. The proba-
bility of success increases if more pheromone
Often the peak number of insects counted is
is used and the release rate (frequency) is
less important than the length of time they are
stepped up. This approach can give results
present. Most pheromone traps attract males,
equal to or better than conventional insect-
which are indirect indicators of potential pest
icides. Instructions from the supplier should
problems. Also, when females are in the area,
be followed carefully.
they can be more successful than traps at
attracting the males. For the right species, Mating disruption is not foolproof, and it is
however, and with experience, pheromone important to understand when it may not be
traps can be effective and inexpensive useful. Pheromones are specific to each pest
monitoring tools. species and are only effective for insects that
find mates over long distances. Insects that
use visual cues to find mates will not be good
Using Pheromones to Disrupt Mating
candidates for mating disruption.
Mating disruption works by permeating the

Also, the use of pheromones is usually an
crop environment with a chemical message
expensive option. Another concern is that
that prevents pest insect adults from locating
previously mated females can fly into the
each other to mate. The logic of using
protected area and cause economic damage.
pheromones to disrupt mating is simple: If
For high value crops, the offspring of a few
enough males can be confused so they cannot
mated females can cause a large amount of
find mates, then almost all females are
crop damage. So it is wise to consider the area
unmated and fewer immature insects will

based product that you want to use is allowed
surrounding the crop of interest to determine
by your certifier.
if it is hospitable to the pest species.
Very high populations of pest insects may not Insect-Parastic Nematodes

respond to mating disruption with
pheromones if they are able to respond to Traditionally, soil-inhabiting insect pests have
visual cues from their close proximity to each been managed by the application of pesticides
other. If no other control choice is available, to the soil. Interest in biological control to
then it may be necessary to try mating manage crop pests has increased because of
disruption. For a complete discussion of concerns about the economic, environmental,
pheromones, see this Web site: and health costs of chemical crop protection
http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/flint.htm and because of the need to develop
production systems that are environmentally
Using Pheromones for Mass Trapping and economically sustainable.
Insect-parasitic nematodes show promise as

Pheromones can be so powerful that many or biological control agents for soil pests.
most of the adults insects in an area can be Nematodes are microscopic, whitish to
trapped and killed. It is easy to conclude that transparent, unsegmented round worms.
so many are caught that the number Nematodes in the families Steinernematidae
remaining cannot cause substantial crop loss. and Heterorhabditdae have been studied
Insects, however, can mate repeatedly. So the extensively as biological control agents for
remaining males will usually be sufficient to soil-dwelling insects. These nematodes occur
keep pest populations at economically naturally in soil and possess a durable and
damaging levels. Studies have demonstrated motile infective stage that can actively seek
that more than 95 percent of the males must out and infect a broad range of insects. They
be destroyed before populations decline. do not infect birds or mammals. Because of
Achieving this level of destruction is not these attributes, as well as their ease of mass
practical for most farmers. production and exemption from EPA
registration, a number of commercial
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL USING INSECT enterprises produce insect-parasitic
PATHOGENS nematodes as biological “insecticides.”
Insects have many types of natural enemies.

As with other organisms, insects can become
infected with disease-causing organisms
called pathogens. Soil serves as a natural home
and reservoir for many kinds of insect
pathogens, including viruses, bacteria,
protozoa, fungi, and nematodes. Pest control
products based on insect pathogens are
available commercially, and some products
are allowed in organic production. As with all
pest control products, it is critical to Figure 3. Tiny worm-like Heterorhabditis nematodes
determine if the specific insect-pathogen- have killed this wax moth caterpillar. (Photo cour-
tesy of www.insectimages.org.)

Life Cycle. The infective third-stage conditions — adequate moisture, tempera-
(sometimes referred to as the dauer or IJ stage) tures within the tolerance levels for the
is the only life stage wherein the nematode nematode, and protection from ultraviolet
exists outside of the host insect. This is the radiation during application.
stage that is available as a commercial
Nematodes are very sensitive to destruction
product.
by bright sunlight and to desiccation if they
are applied to plant foliage. This limits their
Upon locating a suitable insect host, the
use mainly to soil, although there are some
infective juvenile enters the insect through
instances where they have been successfully
natural openings (the anus, spiracles, and
applied above-ground to insect tunnels or
mouth) and penetrates the insect body cavity.
mines in plant tissue.
The nematodes develop and reproduce in the
infected insect. Two to three generations occur Nematodes are formulated as suspensions in
in the insect cadaver. liquid, on sponge, in gels, or as semi-dry
granules. The main application approach is as
As resources are depleted and crowding suspension in water at a typical rate of 1
occurs, infective juveniles (IJ) are produced. billion per acre, but this rate varies depending
The IJ emerge from the cadaver to search for on the crop. They can be applied with
new hosts. The reproductive potential of conventional chemical application equipment,
insect-parasitic nematodes is very high: but screens in nozzles should be removed
Thousands of nematodes can be produced when applying nematodes with a back-pack
from a single mated pair. The time from sprayer or spray rig. Nematodes tend to settle
infective juvenile to infective juvenile takes in the tank, so agitation must be provided for
about two weeks in the laboratory. Under uniform application. Nematodes can also be
natural conditions, the recycling time will applied with irrigation. However, some
vary depending on environmental conditions irrigation systems, especially low-volume
and the susceptibility of the host insect. trickle systems, may not move water fast
enough to keep nematodes suspended. When
Application. Some nematodes that are in doubt, check periodically by taking a
commercially available are Steinernema sample at the emitters to determine if live
carpocapsae, S. feltiae, S. riobrave, Heterorhabditis nematodes are being moved through the
bacteriophora, and H. megidis. Treatment with system.
these nematodes can be expensive, and they
are most commonly used for managing soil Conserving Nematodes. Insect-parasitic
insect pests in high-value crops, such as turf, nematodes occur worldwide, and they have
nurseries, citrus, cranberries, and mushrooms, been found throughout the U.S. in many
as well as in home lawns and gardens. As different soil types and habitats, both natural
production technologies improve, however, and managed. We do not yet know what level
the cost of using nematodes is falling, and it of natural insect control these nematodes
may be economical to use them in lower value exert, or how to predictably increase the levels
crops. of natural control to an economic level of
control. Native nematodes may play an
The efficacy of nematodes in the field can be important role in regulating insect
variable. Their successful use probably populations in some farm systems, but the
depends on favorable environmental level of disturbance in agricultural systems

may require the use of non-native nematodes applications are related to a poor match
that are tolerant to the farming practices being between the nematode species and target
used. insect. Species of nematodes vary in their host
range and in their host-finding behavior.
Some studies suggest that insect-parastic Some nematodes—Heterorhabditis
nematodes are more abundant in less bacteriophora, for example—are very active in
disturbed systems, such as orchards or the soil and search a relatively large area for a
pastures, and in minimum- or no-till plots host insect, whereas others—Steinernema
than in conventionally tilled plots. Different carpocapsae, for example—are relatively
nematode species are differentially tolerant to sedentary and tend to wait for a host insect to
soil disturbance. Survival of insect-parasitic pass by in close proximity. A nematode that is
nematodes is higher in mulched soil than in an active searcher will be more effective than
bare soil, probably because of differences in a sedentary nematode at finding a sedentary
soil physical structure, temperature, and insect host, such as a white grub. The rela-
moisture. tively sedentary nematodes are effective at
infecting active insect hosts, such as cutworms
Research to determine the effects of pesticides
or mole crickets. Some appropriate nematode
on insect-parasitic nematodes has shown that
host targets are known:
some pesticides and fertilizers are less
harmful to nematodes than others. • S. scapterisci against mole crickets;
Compatibility with pest and fertility • S. carpocapsae against cutworms and other
management materials is usually provided on mobile caterpillar pests;
the product labels or packaging information • S. riobrave against cutworms and other
that accompanies purchased nematodes. noctuid larvae and pupae and citrus
weevils;
Efficacy of Treatment with Nematodes. • S. feltiae against sawfly larvae and fungus
To date, the level of control achieved by gnat maggots; and
applying nematodes has varied, with some • H. bacteriophora against white grubs and
failures and some successes. The successes other sedentary soil-dwelling beetle
have occurred mostly in simplified, controlled larvae.
systems such as nursery containers. The
efficacy of nematodes is affected by
Product viability. As with any purchased
environmental conditions: They need
natural enemy, product quality can affect
adequate but not excessive moisture,
efficacy. The viability of the product can vary
temperatures within the tolerance levels for
by batch and can be affected by shipping,
the particular nematode, and protection from
storage, and application conditions.
UV radiation during application (apply early
Nematodes are living organisms that are
in the morning or in the evening). Some
subject to destruction by excessive cold or
research has indicated that the type of plant
heat and lack of moisture or oxygen. A small
an insect eats can affect its susceptibility to
sample of the mixed product should be
infection by insect-parasitic nematodes and
checked with a magnifying lens to observe
other types of pathogens.
viable, moving nematodes.
Nematode species and target insect. Most For additional information about using
failures in the effectiveness of field nematodes as pest management tools, see

www2.oardc.ohio-state.edu/nematodes — increase the speed of kill or prevent
Insect Parasitic Nematodes: Tools for Pest competition from other microbes.
Management. This SARE-funded Web site has
information on the biology and ecology of Usually after the insect has died, the fungus
insect-parasitic nematodes, instructions on grows out through the outer covering
application, a publications database, an "Ask (exoskeleton) of the insect, usually at thinner
the Expert" advice service, a list of retail areas like joints or creases, and begins to
suppliers, and links to other sites with produce spores. The spores of commercially
information about insect-parasitic nematodes. developed fungi are spread passively by
wind, rain, or contact with other hosts or
Insect-Parasitic Fungi animals in the environment. Insects killed by
fungi often have a “fuzzy” appearance caused
Fungi are a diverse group of organisms with by the growth of the fungus out of the
close ties to agriculture. Some fungi are used exoskeleton. Most commercial strains of fungi
successfully to protect crops from a variety of produce spores that are either white or green,
insect pests. Most fungi can cause natural although the color of the fungi can change
outbreaks when environmental conditions are over time as the fungus grows and ages.
favorable. Several species have been
developed as commercial products because of Spores that do not encounter a host either die
their ability to be mass-produced. Specific or persist in sheltered areas of crop plants or
fungal strains in commercial products target in the soil. Although some species of fungi
thrips, whiteflies, aphids, caterpillars, weevils, produce spores that can persist for years in
grasshoppers, ants, Colorado potato beetles, the soil, most spores are viable only for a
and mealybugs. Currently (2008), allowable growing season or at most a year.
products containing the fungus Beauveria
bassiana that are commercially available Advantages. Fungi make good insect
include Mycotrol O (Emerald BioAgriculture), control agents for a variety of reasons. They
Naturalis H&G, and Naturalis L (Troy generally do not affect people or other
BioSciences Inc.). Before applying any pest mammals, making them extremely safe to use.
control product, make sure that it is currently It is relatively easy to mass-produce spores of
allowable by the NOP and your certifier. some insect-parasitic fungi, so they are
Life-cycle. Fungi that infect insects are found comparably priced with other biological
in the environment as spores. Insects can control agents, such as bacteria. Most
become infected when they come into contact commercial fungal products are formulated as
with spores on the surface of plants, in the spores, which are easily adapted to existing
soil, in the air as windborne particles, or on application technology, such as spray rigs.
the bodies of already dead insects. Spores The relatively broad host range of many fungi
attach to the surface of the insect and infect by means one can often achieve control of
penetrating through the insect cuticle, often at multiple pests with the same product. Finally,
joints or creases where the insect’s protective successful infections can spread to other hosts
covering is thinner. Once inside, the fungus and lead to high rates of persistence within a
grows throughout the insect’s body. Many growing season, even if between-season
fungi also produce toxins in the host that persistence tends to be low for most types of
fungi.

timing of fungal applications will not
Challenges. There are some challenges to the impact them as strongly. Finally, scouting
effective use of insect-parasitic fungi to
can help discover natural outbreaks of
control pests. High concentrations of spores
fungi (for example, aphid fungi) in time to
are often needed to get adequate control of
influence control decisions.
pests in a crop, which can cut down on the
• Time applications of fungi to coincide
cost effectiveness of fungal products. The kill
with a target pest’s life stages so that pests
time is relatively long (more or less a week for
are more likely to come in contact with the
most fungi), although strains used for
spores. In general, B. bassiana products are
commercial products are chosen to kill as fast
more effective against earlier than later
as possible. Their broad host range can
stages of insects. For example, applying a
sometimes be a problem, especially if
fungal product for grasshoppers will be
beneficial insects (for example, predators,
most effective when there are active
parasitoids, and pollinators) are present in a
nymphs present that have not grown into
crop. Nontarget mortality in these
winged adults.
populations of beneficial insects can
• Do not apply fungal products during
negatively impact the success of the overall
droughts or dry spells because these
biological control program.
environmental conditions will decrease
their effectiveness.
Environmental factors can also play an
• Be aware of fungicide applications in the
important role in the success of fungi. Moist
area. Even if fungicides are not directly
conditions or high relative humidity in the
applied to the crop, drift from nearby
crop canopy are often necessary for control to
fields could impact the success of a fungal
be effective. Prolonged exposure to sunlight
biological control agent.
can also inactivate spores, reducing
• Apply fungal inoculum carefully to get
persistence in the crop. Owing to these
effective coverage. Cover all plants
environmental limitations, natural outbreaks
thoroughly. Also try to reduce spillover
of fungi tend to be sporadic and very patchy
into refuge areas where natural enemies
in the environment, which can limit their
may be present.
effectiveness in controlling pests.
• Do not apply fungal products during the
heat of the day because this will diminish
Application. As with all biological control the potency of the spores. There have been
agents, fungi work best as one component of a
some reports of phytotoxicity to young
multi-tactic IPM program. Farmers can use
vegetable transplants with products
several tactics to increase fungi effectiveness,
formulated as an emulsifiable suspension.
especially of commercial products:
Also, do not apply on rainy days, when
• Scout consistently and often. Apply only spores will be washed from plant surfaces
when the target pest is present, not as a and may not come into contact with the
preventive application as residues are not target pest.
long-lasting. The best time to apply fungi • Use cropping practices that encourage a
is before pest populations reach their diverse understory and soil surface, such
peak, so early application can increase as cover cropping or conservation tillage.
their effectiveness. Also, scouting can help These practices will help maintain fungi in
determine the population levels of the field and could increase persistence
beneficial insects and pollinators so the within and between seasons.

Insect-Parasitic Viruses body of the host in fatal infections. The body
tissues of virus-killed insects are almost
completely converted into virus particles.
Insect viruses are obligate disease-causing
Infected insects often look normal until just
organisms that can only reproduce within a
prior to death, when they tend to darken in
host insect. They can provide safe, effective,
color and behave sluggishly. They often
and sustainable control of a variety of insect
develop more slowly than uninfected
pests, although they are most effective as part
individuals.
of a diverse IPM program. Some viruses are
produced as commercial products, most
Most virus-infected insects die attached to the
notably for fruit pests, but many others are
plant on which they feed. Virus-killed insects
naturally occurring and can initiate outbreaks
break open and spill virus particles into the
without additional inputs.
environment. These particles can infect new
insect hosts. Because their internal tissues are
Commercially available insect viruses that are
destroyed, dead insects often look “melted”.
allowed in organic production can be found at
The contents of a dead insect can range from
the National Organic Program’s Web site (see
milky-white to dark-brown or black.
the list of online references on page x). All are
highly specific in their host range, usually
While natural virus outbreaks tend to be
limited to a single type of insect. These
localized, virus particles can spread via the
currently (2008) include
movement of infected insects; the movement
• Gemstar LC (Certis USA), a nuclear of predators, such as other insects or birds
polyhedrosis virus of Heliothis and that come into contact with infected insects; or
Helicoverpa spp. (corn earworm, tobacco nonbiological factors, such as water runoff,
budworm); rain-splash, or air-borne soil particles. Many
• Spod-X LC (Certis USA), a nuclear virus-infected insects also climb to higher
polyhedrosis virus of Spodoptera spp. (beet positions on their host plant before they die,
armyworm); which maximizes the spread of virus particles
• CYD-X (Certis USA) and Virosoft CP4 after the insect dies and disintegrates.
(BioTEPP, Inc.), granulosis virus of Cydia
pomonella, the codling moth; and The number of virus infection cycles within a
• CLV LC (Certis USA), a nuclear growing season depends heavily on the
polyhedrosis virus of Anagrapha falcipera, insect’s life cycle. Insect pests with multiple
the celery looper. generations per season or longer life cycles
can be more heavily impacted by virus
outbreaks because a greater opportunity
Life Cycle. Insect virus particles are usually exists for multiple virus infection cycles
found on the surface of plants or in the soil. within a growing season.
Insects become infected when they consume
plant material with viral particles on the Advantages. Using viruses to control insect
surface, although some pests of low-growing pests has many advantages. Insect viruses are
plants can be infected by contact with the soil. unable to infect mammals, including humans,
which makes them very safe to handle. Most
Virus infection begins in the insect’s digestive insect viruses are relatively specific, so the
system but spreads throughout the whole risk of nontarget effects on beneficial insects is

other disease outbreaks developing in
very low. Many viruses occur naturally and
your crop, which, depending on their
may already be present in the environment.
extent, could influence other control
Even in cases where they are applied,
decisions.
successful infections can perpetuate the
• Apply the virus to maximize the longevity
disease outbreak making repeat applications
and effectiveness of its particles:
within a season unnecessary.
1. Thoroughly coat plants to maximize
coverage. Young plants can even be
Challenges. A disadvantage of using viruses
dipped in a solution of virus particles
to control insects is their relatively slow kill
to completely cover the leaf area.
time. Most insect viruses take several days to
2. Apply in the morning or evening or
kill their host insect, during which the pest is
on cloudy days when degradation
still causing damage. Insect death is also dose-
from sunlight is reduced.
dependent, and very high doses are often
3. Avoid applying on rainy days, as rain
necessary for adequate control. As insects age,
will wash virus particles off the leaf
they can become less susceptible to virus
surfaces.
infection, so viruses are usually only effective
4. Use formulations with ultraviolet
against early larval life stages.
(UV) light blockers and sticking
agents to increase longevity. Check
Although viruses can persist in the
carefully to make sure these
environment for months or years, exposed
formulations comply with organic
virus particles, such as those on plant
standards.
surfaces, are quickly inactivated by direct
• Use mixed cropping, and reduce soil
sunlight or high temperatures, which can
disturbance after application. These help
limit their persistence within a given season.
increase the persistence of virus particles
Also, some agricultural practices can reduce
in the system and may lead to better
persistence between seasons, such as tillage,
control within and between growing
which buries virus particles in the soil.
seasons.
Application. Viruses are usually not “stand-

alone” solutions to an insect pest problem, but
Insect-Pathogenic Bacteria
are most effective in conjunction with other
management strategies. Although there are
Many insect diseases are caused by bacteria.
not many commercial products available for
The most commonly used bacterial product
organic growers in the United States now,
available to organic growers is Bacillus
several are being developed and may become
thuringiensis (Bt). This bacterium produces an
available in the near future.
insecticidal protein that provides effective
control for many pest insects and has very
If there is a viral product available, the grower
little effect on nontarget insects and natural
can do several things to increase effectiveness:
enemies. Because Bt products are applied like
• Insect viruses are fairly specific, be sure insecticides, it will be discussed in the section
that the target pest is correctly identified. on insecticides in this publication. Not all
• Carefully scout fields before application formulations of Bt are allowable in organic
and apply a virus when the target pests production, so it is important to check with
are young but actively feeding. Scouting your certifier before purchasing or using Bt.
can also help you discover natural viral or

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL USING INSECT plant diversity on the farm and the absence of
NATURAL ENEMIES conventional pesticides contribute to the
provision of a suitable habitat for beneficial
The frequency and severity of insect pest insects. That is the good news. The bad news
problems depends on the biological and is this: Even high levels of natural control may
physical characteristics of the agroecosystem, not be enough to prevent economic damage
which is composed of both managed crop from insects that directly attack fruiting
areas and unmanaged areas, such as plants. Simple concepts about biological
hedgerows. An important component of the control should be re-examined in the light of
biological environment is natural enemies or new information. For example, predator
beneficials—the predators and parasitoids species (such as ladybird beetles) are often
that dampen pest insect populations. Organic credited with a great deal of biological
farmers often assume that withholding control. There is little doubt that they do
conventional pesticides will have a beneficial contribute significantly. Research has
effect on population levels of species that indicated, however, that in many cases, much
weaken and kill pest insects. The absence of of the natural control is actually provided by
conventional pesticides will likely encourage tiny parasitoids that work in relative
the natural enemies of pest insects. But that obscurity.
encouragement may not be enough to provide
substantive control of chronic pests without
additional changes in the agroecosystem,
which provide habitat for the pests and their
natural enemies.
Entomologists have different theories about

the complexity of agroecosystems and
whether diverse or simple agroecosystems are
better at enhancing pest insect biological
control (Bugg and Pickett 1998). Generally,
however, they agree that simplified
environments, such as monocultures that
consist of a single crop, foster more pest
problems. In contrast, a diversified plant
environment buffers pest problems by re-
allocating insect populations to larger areas
and encouraging natural control. This means
that the plants growing both inside and
outside of cultivated areas must be considered
when designing a system to suppress pests. Figure 4. Parasitoids such as this braconid wasp
laying its eggs into a caterpillar are important
contributors to insect pest management. (Photo
Recent research on organic farms shows that
courtesy of USDA.)
predation and parasitism of pest insect eggs,
without any augmentation by the farmer, Natural systems behave in unpredictable
could be as high as 85 percent. It appears that ways, and biological control using predators

and parasitoids is a complex undertaking. The Refugia. This is a noncrop area where
complicated interactions are not easily beneficial insects are provided with micro-
understood, and directing them in a particular habitats that contribute to their survival and
way is even more difficult. persistence. Beneficial insects have enemies,
too. They need a place to hide when they are
Natural Enemies: Their Survival Needs not searching for prey. This area should also
provide overwintering habitat.
As a first step, it is necessary to understand
that beneficials need year-round habitat and Diversity. In general, the more plant-rich an
certain resources for survival. area is, the more likely natural control will
work. But some insect natural enemies are
Nectar from Flowers or Extra-floral more effective in grass or legume
Nectaries. Adult parasitoids feed on and monocultures than in a grass-and-legume
often depend upon nectar to help them mixture, so plant diversity does not
mature. Studies have shown that longevity universally encourage natural control.
and fecundity (the number of eggs laid per No one can provide a blueprint for building a
female) increase when suitable nectar sources workable system of natural insect control on a
are available. This can have a profound effect specific farm. Many different ways of
on parasitism rates and control of pest species. conserving beneficial insects have been tested:
Not many plant species have extra-floral managing soil, water, and crop residue;
nectaries. Cotton and bachelor buttons are varying cropping patterns and noncrop areas;
examples of species that do. Flowering plants and growing plants that attract beneficial
have a limited time during which nectar is species. All of these approaches may have
available, which can make it difficult or benefits and drawbacks, and making changes
impossible for a beneficial insect to use the can be a challenging endeavor because other
nectar. So careful planning is needed to activities within the agroecosystem can
provide this resource. Pest species, especially conflict with efforts to conserve beneficial
insects. For example, cover crops are grown
moths and butterflies, will also make use of for many reasons — to add organic matter to
nectar sources, which will extend their life, soil, provide supplemental nutrients, and
improve their fecundity, and perhaps make prevent soil erosion. The timing of planting,
pest problems worse. species selection, and many other decisions
Pollen. Adult beneficial insects often use that would be best for these purposes may not
pollen as a food source. For example, adult be best for providing beneficial insect habitat.
hoverflies use pollen and may need it to Some compromises may have to be made.
mature eggs and produce their young, which When considering strategies to enhance
are aphid predators. Some predatory insects biological control, it may be helpful to look at
are able to complete their life cycle entirely on them in two categories:
supplementary food.
• Conservation. These techniques conserve
Alternate (Nonhost) Prey. Providing a naturally occurring beneficial species.
constant source of food will slow emigration • Augmentation. These techniques augment
of beneficial insects and keep them at high or supplement the actions of naturally
population levels. occurring beneficial species.

For more information about biological control
Intercropping provides a way to keep the
using insect predators and parasitoids, see
beneficials close to crops and to provide them
Pickett and Bugg, 1998; Barbosa, 1998; or
with consistent sources of food and shelter.
Landis et al. 2000 in the “Recommended
Reading” list at the end of this chapter. An Many organic farms are already intercropped
extensive discussion can be found at these to maximize land use and to suppress weeds.
Web sites: Polycultures—diversely planted crop areas—
• Michigan State University site: are common in tropical countries, but they are
http://ipm.msu.edu/natural-enemies.htm. used very little in conventional agriculture in
• Cornell University site: the United States because they do not fit well
www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol with mechanization. Some research
information is available on how a polyculture
Conserving Natural Enemies affects insect pests and their natural enemies.
Proponents of polyculture cite the concept of
Conservation biological control involves diverse stability as the basic ecological theory
managing crops and surrounding vegetation for this approach: Diverse habitats are
in a manner that encourages natural enemies considered more stable, so pest outbreaks are
and their negative impacts on pest species. dampened. The thinking that underlies this
This involves identifying anything that concept is this: If an agricultural system can
suppresses the natural enemies and mimic a natural system with many different
modifying agricultural fields and surrounding plants (and many trophic levels or levels of
vegetation to provide habitats for them. food web relationships among organisms), it
Manipulation of habitats extends to both crop will be better able to resist pests.
and noncrop areas. In the crop area,
intercropping can enhance biological control. Why Use Intercropping?
Intercropping. Keeping beneficial insects in The intercropping system should relay or
and around annual crops may be achieved by transport predators and parasitoids from crop
intercropping, which involves placing a crop to crop. The purpose is to present a continu-
plant and another plant within close ous, attractive habitat for beneficial insects.
proximity to promote insect interaction. It is
one part of a comprehensive conservation Intercropping challenges. Several problems
plan to manipulate habitats in ways that exist with the intercropping scenario. First,
enhance natural control. The resources pest population levels in a polyculture may
provided to natural enemies include pollen, stabilize, but at a level above the economic
nectar, alternate prey or hosts. These threshold for the crop. Second, the evolution
resources can considerably enhance biological of insect interactions cannot be over-
control. Because annual crops are interrupted simplified in this manner. For example, many
seasonally, they are not a continuous habitat. natural systems are functionally
Therefore, survival of a pest insect’s natural monocultures. So the dampening mechanisms
enemies depends on their success in finding that evolved under these conditions should
the other habitat and prey they need to operate best in monocultures. It is more
survive. When annual crops are planted, realistic to assume that some natural control
beneficial insects must discover and invade agents are more effective in monocultures and
the new crop. Unfortunately, beneficials are that some are more effective in polycultures.
usually slower to recolonize than pest species. These reservations are not presented as

• The intercropping system should relay or
arguments against polycultures but as a
move predators and parasitoids from crop
warning: Diverse agroecosystems must be
to crop.
carefully planned if the farmer’s objective is to
• Its purpose is to present a continuous,
maximize natural control of insects.
attractive habitat for beneficial insects.
Few guidelines have been developed to aid in This habitat rotation includes the crop
the process of designing an intercropped needing protection. It will likely involve
system. Research on the effect of planting the relay crops very early,
intercropping on insect natural enemies is growing cover crops in the winter to
very difficult due to the complexity of the maintain beneficial insects, or both. As
work. For example, fewer pest species in a one crop begins to senesce or age,
polyculture could mean there are more predators and parasitoids can exploit new
predators and parasitoids, or that the crop is crop habitats.
less attractive or less nutritious due to plant • Crop relaying should continue
competition, or a combination of all of these. throughout the year.
Uncoupling the impact of intercropping from • The plant combinations are important.
the effects of surrounding vegetation (such as Different plants will support different
woods and field margins) and unraveling the sizes of insect populations. So a weed-
operating mechanisms are difficult tasks. corn intercrop will not have the same
Nevertheless, some studies indicate that poly- insect populations as a bean-corn system.
cultures may be an effective way to diversify
agroecosystems.
Often, all of the requirements for
intercropping can be met simply by
As a general rule, polycultures are a positive
incorporating native vegetation strips within
step toward pest control if carefully planned.
cropping systems. Keeping the plants mowed
For example, certain plants can serve as
at specific times can encourage beneficial
reservoirs for pest insects, such as thrips or
insects to migrate to crop plants. This is an
stink bugs. Observations from organic farms,
easy and inexpensive way to try intercropping
however, indicate that this tactic is successful
to attract and conserve beneficials. Weedy
enough that intercropping should be tried to
species, however, are likely to dominate for
determine possible benefits. The benefits and
three to four years. And many growers are not
problems associated with this strategy are
enthusiastic about encouraging weeds
very sitespecific. The pest situation, plant
because another function of intercropping is
combinations, weather, and other factors
to suppress weeds. In this case, relay cropping
make the final outcome of this approach
will have to be used. Using this approach, an
unpredictable.
intercrop is planted in strips among the crop
Intercropping design considerations. of interest so that when it senesces or is
Polycultures are often thought of as a crop-to- mowed, the crop of interest will be able to
crop combination (for example, beans and support natural control agents. This relaying
corn). But they can also include natural- continues throughout the year. Relay
vegetation-crop and living-mulch-crop cropping can also include planting into living
mixtures. Some common objectives should be mulches that naturally die in time (such as
considered when designing a polyculture: cereal rye or vetch).

The questions to ask when considering cover crop will have less effect on pest and
intercropping are, “What plants?” and “When beneficial populations than disking or
should they be planted?” Because there are plowing. Whether the cover is destroyed all at
many possible answers, the most prudent once or in stages is another factor that
plan is to introduce different species one at a influences the preservation of beneficials.
time and judge the impact before moving to Mowing a cover crop to encourage beneficials
more complex plant communities. to change habitat before disking will lessen
mortality.
Cover Crops. Cover crops are usually
Field Borders and Hedgerows. Field
planted to sequester soil nutrients, add
borders and hedgerows represent an
organic matter to the soil, prevent erosion,
important component of the whole mosaic or
and add nutrients. Cover crops can also
combination of habitats occupied by beneficial
provide food and habitat for beneficial insects.
insects. It is unlikely that all the survival
Insect natural enemies need food and shelter
needs of beneficials will be met within field
during the winter, and keeping them close to
borders. Many beneficials will spend part of
current or planned crops may help protect
their time in field borders or hedgerows.
newly planted crops. Cover crops can increase
These areas also serve as corridors that
the overall number of beneficial insects, and
beneficials use to move from one field to
beneficials can move from dying winter cover
another. Some consideration of all these areas
crops to spring-planted crops to provide some
is needed to develop a complete plan for
pest suppression. However, the kind of cover
encouraging natural control.
crop (whether it is crimson clover, cereal rye,
vetch, or some other cover) appears to be
Plants in hedgerows usually consist of natural
important. Moreover, an increase in beneficial
vegetation that, as much as practical, should
insects does not always translate into a
be preserved. Field borders, depending on
general decrease in pest species or an increase
how they are managed, usually consist of
in yield. Each cover crop provides different
annual plants. The natural complex of annual
resources and habitats that may encourage
plants may provide the habitat and resources
some species and not others. Most often, cover
needed by beneficial insects. Certain practices
crops are selected for agronomic char-
can help to maintain a desired mix of plants.
acteristics and their ability to suppress weeds.
For example, mowing at a particular time
Their influence on insect natural enemies
interval or height will stop the natural process
should be a part of the evaluation process
of succession to woody perennial vegetation.
when deciding on specific crops.
Some plans for maintaining plant mixtures
The success of cover crops in preserving or should be made. Too often, borders are left
encouraging beneficial insects depends in unattended until there is time to mow them.
large part on how the cover crop is going to Some pest problems, such as mites, can be
be destroyed or suppressed so that crops can spread by waiting until midsummer to mow.
be planted. The frequency and intensity of Gather all the information that is available
disturbance is important to the stability of about maintaining field borders before
populations of pests and their natural deciding on a maintenance schedule.
enemies. A cover crop that can be allowed to
Arranging Crops. The physical arrangement
die naturally so that beneficials have time to
of crops in an area may affect biological
find other habitat is preferable to a cover crop
control. Beneficial insects often occupy the
that must be managed all at once. Mowing a

ground under plants and the foliage. Tall- control of aphids. Many suppliers of
growing plants may afford little cover or beneficial arthropods in the U.S. market
moisture for ground-dwelling beneficials. predatory mites, greenhouse parasitoids and
Similarly, foliage-dwelling beneficials spend predators, and general predators. For
little time on the ground. Short crops example, the trichogramma wasp, a parasitoid
intercropped with taller crops may encourage of insect eggs, is the most widely produced
more interaction between these two groups and released arthropod used for
and result in more robust natural control. augmentative biological control in commercial
settings. These parasitoids are easy to rear,
Augmenting Natural Enemies and they kill pest eggs before the hatched
insects can cause injury. Trichogramma are
Some insects that are natural enemies of pests commonly used in inundative releases.
are produced and sold as pest treatments. For Careful planning is critical to the success of a
organic pest management, this may be an natural enemies release program. There are
important way to suppress damaging insects. three important considerations when using
Obtaining the best possible outcome depends natural enemies:
on understanding how to develop a successful
biological control program. • The natural enemy selected should be
correct for the specific situation and
Augmentation involves adding something to specific pest.
an agroecosystem to regulate pest population • The quality or viability of the product
densities. It usually involves either mass purchased should be adequate.
production of beneficials or genetic • The timing and rate of application should
enhancement to improve their ability to be correct.
survive negative influences. The most
common example of augmentation is
purchasing commercially available predators
or parasitoids for release into greenhouses or
commercial crop fields. If the natural enemy is
released in large numbers (tens of thousands
to hundreds of thousands), it is called an
inundative release. If a few are released
(hundreds to thousands) with the expectation
they will reproduce and increase in number,
then it is called an inoculative release.
Augmentation of natural enemies is probably

the most widely recognized form of biological
control. Commercial use of natural enemies is
most developed in Europe, where farmers Figure 5. Releasing predators and parasitoids into
commonly release natural enemies in greenhouse vegetable crops for pest management
is a common practice. (Photo by Matt Miller, De-
orchards, vineyards, and vegetable crops to
partment of Entomology, N.C. State University.)
manage pest species. Many farmers recognize
that lady beetles are “good bugs” that eat
“bad bugs” and purchase them for natural

Purchasing Natural Enemies. Buyer beware may be unknown, and no one can be sure
is a good warning to remember when the product would work for a specific pest
purchasing natural enemies. Dozens of problem.
suppliers market insect natural enemies. Some • How many natural enemeies are received?
may want to sell products that are not wanted This should be presented as an average,
or needed. Some may not be able to provide plus or minus a range. With some natural
the technical help that successful use of a enemies, only the female actually attacks
biological control requires. Suppliers of the target pest. Find out if this is the case
biological controls should maintain for any control agents being purchased
professional standards, and a thorough and, if appropriate, be sure to find out the
scientific analysis should be required for any number of females being shipped.
product. • How vigorous is the material? For the
batch of natural enemies from which a
When selecting a supplier, asking the kinds of
shipment is being made, it is fair to ask for
questions suggested here may help identify
measures of the average fecundity
those that are reputable and reliable:
(number of eggs laid), life span, and sex
• Does the company provide professional ratio (percentage of females). In some
consulting services to set up an IPM cases, it may be important to have specific
program prior to selling natural enemies? information. For example, some parasitic
This should include a thorough wasps, such as trichogramma wasps, can
understanding of the pest situation and lose the ability to fly when reared for
current crop management practices. many generations in insectary cultures.
• Does the company provide detailed When purchasing this beneficial, ask the
instructions on how to handle and apply supplier to provide the percentage of
the natural enemies before they arrive? natural enemies with wings in the batch.
• Does the product arrive by overnight Or, in the case of ladybeetles, ask the
delivery in an insulated container that supplier to indicate the percentage in the
may contain a cold pack? This will protect batch that are parasitized. Some
natural enemies from temperature ladybeetles are simply scooped from
extremes, and prevent some natural overwintering sites, and a substantial
enemies from emerging prior to arrival. portion may be parasitized and die before
they do any good in the field. The
One important question to ask is this: Does
supplier also should provide standard
the company provide any measure of the
values taken from an independent article
quality of the natural enemies received? This
in a scientific journal so that a buyer can
question involves several quality
determine if the count or ratio provided is
considerations:
adequate and make informed
• Does the company tell exactly what comparisons.
species will be shipped and who made the • How many natural enemies will actually
species determination? This determination emerge alive once they are introduced
should have been made by a recognized into the crop? The supplier should
taxonomic expert, not necessarily provide a method for determining how
someone at the company. The species many natural enemies actually emerge in
name should be a double Latin name, for the field. This can be very important
example: Encarsia formosa. If the name because it is the only way to determine the
appeared as Encarsia sp., then the species actual rate of product applied.

• Does the company offer reasonable
Timing of releases or applications. The
solutions for any difficulties
timing of natural enemy releases is critical to
encountered? Does it follow up to
the success of biological control. Because
determine success or failure?
natural enemies work better as preventives
rather than as pest management cures, it is
Names, addresses, and telephone numbers of
important to release them when pest
suppliers can be obtained from these sources:
infestations are just beginning. Sampling
Bio Integral Resource Center methods and materials for specific pests are
P.O. Box 7414 often readily available from suppliers.
Berkeley, CA 94707
Some natural enemies are affected by the
www.birc.org
season, and they can be less effective as a
Association of Natural Biocontrol Producers result. The time of day of release can also be
www.anbp.org important. When the temperature is high
during the middle of the day, natural enemies
tend to be more active and may disperse or
leave the area where released. Higher
Handling and Releasing Natural temperatures during the release can cause
Enemies. A supplier should provide specific increased mortality of the beneficials,
handling instructions prior to or at the time reducing the number available to attack pests.
the natural enemy shipment arrives, and the Other weather conditions, especially rain,
instructions should be followed carefully. may also have an impact on natural enemy
Many natural enemies are tiny insects and survival during release. As a general rule,
mites. They should be kept under relatively releases should be made in a cool part of the
cool conditions (at room temperature) and out day (early or late), under favorable weather
of direct sunlight. If the beneficials arrived in conditions, and at a time of year that the
an insulated container, they should probably specific natural enemy finds favorable.
be kept there until time for release. Usually, Suppliers can and should provide this
the sooner the beneficials can be released after information.
arrival, the better. For example, some If a reliable and knowledgeable supplier of
predatory mites are shipped with a small food natural enemies has been selected, then the
supply. Once that food is exhausted, they feed quality of material received should be
on one another or starve. consistently high. However, some factors,
How many to release. Suppliers should such as shipping conditions, are out of a
provide detailed instructions regarding the supplier’s control. It may be helpful to work
application “rate” for the natural enemies with suppliers to develop a quality-assurance
supplied. Usually this is expressed as a protocol. The condition of the natural enemies
number of natural enemies per given “unit,” when they are received can have a dramatic
such as a number of natural enemies per effect on the results.
infested leaf, plant, square-foot, or acre. The Environmental conditions in the release
recommended rate should be followed very area. Like all living organisms, natural
closely. Any questions that may arise enemies have specific requirements and limits
regarding application numbers can be for survival. The conditions present in the
directed to the supplier. area where the natural enemies will be

released should be considered before making Evaluating Control Efforts with Natural
a release. For example, some species of Enemies
predatory mites will perform better under
hot, dry conditions, whereas others will To determine the success of a biological
perform better under cool, humid conditions. control program, develop a strict set of
Light can also have a dramatic impact on conditions in the planning stage before the
natural enemies. For example, the mealy-bug program starts. Program success will be easier
destroyer beetle will slow or stop its to determine if there is at least one pair of
reproduction, feeding, and growth if treated versus untreated areas. Use natural
supplemental lighting is not sufficient in enemies only in the treated plot(s). The
winter months. If releasing a mobile stage of a untreated plot(s) should not receive natural
natural enemy (for example, adults that can enemies. The treated and untreated plots
fly) it may sometimes be advisable to cage the should be far enough apart to avoid
natural enemies on infested plants for a day dispersion of natural enemies from a treated
or two to allow them to become accustomed to an untreated plot. The supplier can help
to their new surroundings. The presence of determine how to do this.
pest insects will also encourage reproduction Define what measurements to take in the
and reduce the likelihood that the beneficials plots. These are some examples of useful
will leave the area. In some cases, the information:
presence of nectar-bearing plants or other
food sources (such as aphid honeydew) may • The density (number per plant or feet of
also encourage natural enemy populations. row) of the damaging stage of the pest
before and after treatment. Remember
Insecticide use may be the most important that natural enemies usually require time
consideration when including natural enemies to be effective.
in a pest management program. Spraying for • The percentage of natural enemies that
pests other than those being targeted by actually were released.
natural enemy releases may interfere with or • The percentage of the target pest
eliminate the natural enemies. Care should be population that is parasitized (if the
taken to avoid spraying materials harmful to beneficial released was a parasitoid).
natural enemies directly before, during, and • The level of pest damage.
after release. If spraying must be conducted, it • The final yield.
is important to find out which pesticides have
the least effect on natural enemies.
Developing a Biological Control Plan: When
Encouraging natural enemies after their Are Natural Enemy Releases Appropriate?
release. Following a release of natural
As with other pest management methods, the
enemies, it is extremely important to make
success or failure of biological control will be
sure that sufficient numbers have been
determined by the population levels of pests
established to control a pest problem.
when natural enemies are applied. For example,
Scouting procedures used to monitor for pest
if a pest population level is too high, the natural
populations can be modified to monitor
enemies released may not be able to act quickly
natural enemy populations as well.
enough to protect crops. In this case, an

A producer must know which organic
insecticide application may be needed prior to
pesticides are allowable, what materials are
the introduction of natural enemies.
labeled for their crops, and the efficacy of
If, on the other hand, the pest population is very those materials against the intended target
small, then naturally occurring enemies may pests. Pest control materials are classified as
already be present. Another approach to take in allowable, restricted, or prohibited for use in
this case might be to treat only infested areas organic systems. To avoid the risk of losing
with insecticide, rather than spending the time organic certification, make certain you know
and money to treat the entire crop. if and under what circumstances the material
that you are planning to use is allowed.
Usually, natural enemies work best as a
Examples of types of materials that are
preventive pest management method. That is,
currently allowed in organic production
they should be introduced into a crop before an
include allowable formulations of insecticidal
economically damaging pest infestation begins.
soap, diatomaceous earth, potassium or
If pests reach economically damaging levels sodium bicarbonate, spinosad, various
before the release of natural enemies, successful microbials, bentonite and kaolinite particle
control is not likely. This means that pest films, plant extracts and oils, and
problems must be anticipated by carefully pheromones. Some products with allowable
monitoring pest populations so that the active ingredients may contain unacceptable
response can be planned and timed correctly. adjuvants, so it is important to check the label
Well-established monitoring or sampling and with your certifying agency before using a
record-keeping methods have been developed material.
for a wide variety of pest and crop situations.
Some types of materials that are restricted in
organic production include dormant and
summer oils (narrow-range petroleum, fish,
INSECTICIDES and plant oils), sulfur compounds, copper
compounds, and botanical pesticides.
When nonchemical practices documented in
Examples of materials that are NOT allowed
the Organic System Plan are not sufficient to
in organic production include: transgenic
prevent or control populations of insect pests
crops; synthetic insecticides and miticides,
from rising above a level that is economically
unless specifically allowed on the National
damaging, a biological or botanical material
List; heavy-metal-based pesticides, such as
or a substance included on the national list of
arsenates and lead; synthetic wetting agents;
synthetic substances allowed for use in
nicotine sulfate and other tobacco products;
organic crop production may be applied to
strychnine; and some botanicals.
prevent, suppress, or control pests. The
National List of Allowed and Prohibited
The conditions for using the allowable
Substances provides information on allowed
material or substance must be documented in
and prohibited synthetic and nonsynthetic
the Organic System Plan. The producer
substances for organic crop and livestock
should have a plan for how and when they
production:
will react to an insect pest outbreak with an
http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/NationalList/
allowable substance. In all cases, if you have
ListHome.html
any questions as to whether a material is

unacceptable level of damage may differ
allowable or not, you should check with your
in direct, wholesale, and retail markets.
organic certification agency to determine if
• Total control may not be necessary. Just
specific materials are allowed, restricted, or
slowing the rate of pest population in-
prohibited in your organic system. Use of a
crease may be sufficient to allow natural
nonallowed substance can result in the loss of
control to provide suppression.
certification and the need to re-transition the
• Repeat applications may be necessary if
affected land for 36 months.
total control is needed.
• Unusual pests may become more of a
The decision to employ an insecticide in
problem. Wide-spectrum insecticides
organic systems, even if it is an allowed
often keep species other than the target
material, is difficult for several reasons:
pests under control. Narrow-spectrum
• Insecticides may disrupt a balance biological insecticides may allow these
between beneficial and pest species, other pests to flourish.
making the original problem worse or • Beneficial species can be negatively
causing secondary pest outbreaks. affected by organic insecticides.
• Most organic insecticides are expensive to
In view of these issues, these use guidelines
use.
should be followed:
• Insecticides represent a temporary
solution. This is the most important • Use insecticides selectively, as unintended
consideration: Without more permanent effects can lead to using more insecticides.
interventions, the same species is likely to • Use insecticides with the least negative
cause problems regularly. consequences. For example, Bacillus
thuringiensis insecticides, which are toxic
to a relatively narrow range of pests, will
Insecticides approved for use in organic
have the potential to cause far fewer
systems can be less efficacious than
problems than products that are toxic to a
insecticides available for use in nonorganic
broader range of pests.
systems, so trying to determine if the control
• Use rates and application methods that
delivered is worth the cost can be a difficult
correspond to the size of the crop plant.
decision. In many cases, the degree of success
Small plants can be more easily covered
will be site specific. Usually only after an
than large plants. A large, dense plant
insecticide has been used several times under
may require an increase in insecticide rate,
various conditions is it possible to reach a full
application volume and pressure, or all of
appreciation of what a particular product will
these.
deliver. Before using any insecticide, a farmer
• Consider environmental conditions that
should consider the following issues:
can affect the efficacy of an insecticide.
• Determine if the insecticide that you Conditions such as temperature,
intend to use is allowable in organic humidity, sunlight, and rainfall or
systems. The use of some insecticides, irrigation can all affect how long organic
even if allowed, is restricted. Check with insecticides are able to protect plant
your certifier to determine under what surfaces. Usually, the greater the
conditions the insecticide may be used. environmental extremes, the shorter the
• Consider the level of insect damage that is period of protection. Never spray during
acceptable to your market. What is an the hottest part of the day (in the

afternoon). Apply dusts only when plants
are dry. Inorganic Insecticides
• Observe recommended harvest intervals
for organic insecticides. Read and follow Diatomaceous Earth. This is a restricted
all label instructions. material that can be used as a pest lure,
• Follow mixing and application repellent, or as part of a trap, or as a disease
instructions exactly. control. It may be used for other pesticidal
• Use all pesticides carefully. They can be purposes only if nonchemical practices
toxic or irritating to humans and animals. documented in the Organic System Plan are
Follow label guidelines on safe insufficient to prevent or control insect pests.
application, including necessary This product, which is silicon dioxide, is the
protective clothing or gear. Some are very finely milled fossilized remains of single-
toxic and can have negative nontarget or celled organisms (diatoms). The milling
off-site effects. process produces a glass-like product that can
scratch an insect’s exoskeleton or puncture
Organic Insecticides gut linings. When used as a desiccant, it is
dusted or placed around plants to be
Historically, conventional insecticides have protected. The dust scratches away the thin,
not been approved for use in certified organic waxy, waterproof layer on the exterior of
systems. Recently, however, some companies insects, making them less tolerant of
that manufacture and sell agricultural environmental conditions. Care should be
chemicals have been using active ingredients taken to protect workers from the dust
from natural sources. An example is the generated during mixing and application.
insecticide spinosad. Spinosad is a
Kaolin. This is a naturally occurring clay
fermentation product of the soil-dwelling
resulting from the weathering of aluminous
actinomycete Saccharopolyspora spinosa.
minerals with kaolinite as their prinipcal
incredient, such as feldsspar. Kaolin is ground
There are commercially available
to a uniform particle size for application as a
formulations of spinosad insecticides
plant protectant applied as a water
allowable for use in organic systems.
suspension to plant parts. This material has
Allowable formulations of spinosad will
demonstrated efficacy for both insect and
provide excellent control of many caterpillar
disease control. Kaolin controls insects by
species, but they are less efficacious on
making the protected plant unattractive
piercing-sucking insects (such as stinkbugs
because it leaves a white film on leaves. The
and plant bugs). Formulations of spinosad are
white film may interfere with the insect’s host
labeled for a wide array of vegetables—for
finding. It also acts as a physical barrier
example, potatoes, eggplant, tomatoes,
preventing insects from reaching vulnerable
cucurbits (melons, cucumbers, pumpkins,
parts, and acts as a repellent by crerating an
squash), cole crops, and sweet corn, as well as
unsuitable surface for feeding or egg-laying.
some field crops (such as peanuts). Spinosad
The particles also cling to insects and make
controls Colorado potato beetle larvae.
their normal activities more difficult. It has
Farmers should consult local Extension
proven highly effective for some pest species
specialists for specific applications and follow
and less for others. In regions with high light
label instructions.

and temperature levels, kaolin also acts as an farmers can prevent phytotoxicity by paying
antitranspirant, reducing plant stress and careful attention to rate, method, and timing
sunburn. Care should be taken to protect of application. It is a good idea to test a small
workers from the dust generated during sample of a summer oil for both phytotoxicity
mixing and application. Local and efficacy before applying it to an entire
recommendations should be followed. crop area. Dormant oils are restricted-use
materials. As the name implies, dormant oils
Sulfur. Elemental sulfur is a restricted use
are used in the winter when plants are not
material that may be used for pesticidal
growing. The timing of application can be
purposes only if nonchemical practices
critical as some insect life stages are
documented in the Organic System Plan are
unaffected by dormant oils.
insufficient to prevent or control insect pests.
This product is applied as a finely ground Plant and fish oils are long-chain hydrocarbon
powder or spray for control of spider mites. It lipids that include fatty acids, some alcohols,
must be used carefully or it can burn foliage. glycerides, and sterols. Plant oils are derived
from seeds, whereas fish oils are byproducts
Insecticidal Oils of the fish processing industry. Essential plant
oils, including mixtures of wintergreen, clove,
Oils kill insects and mites by smothering eggs and rosemary, are generally derived from
or adults. Oil products can control a wide stems and leaves rather than seeds. Plant and
range of soft-bodied insects, such as aphids, fish-derived oils are also used as spreader-
mites, thrips, and whiteflies. stickers, surfactants, emulsifiers, and carriers.
Such oils may not contain synthetic pesticides.
Narrow-range (median boiling points 415 – Plant and fish oils are becoming more
440º F) insecticidal oils are highly refined available than in the past, and they show
petroleum oils and are restricted use promise for mite control. Recent tests have
materials. Narrow-range oils may be used for demonstrated that these oils are effective on
pesticidal purposes only if nonchemical plant-eating mites and less harmful to
practices documented in the Organic System predaceous mites.
Plan are insufficient to prevent or control
insect pests. Petroleum derivatives outside the Follow label recommendations to reduce the
narrow range are prohibited in organic risk of phytotoxicity of insecticidal oils.
production. Oils have become more widely Conditions that slow evaporation increase the
used in crop production as new refining risk of phytotoxicity. Crops vary in their
methods have made it possible to make oils sensitivity, and oils are incompatible with
less phytotoxic to plants. They still must be sulfur and copper on some crops.
used carefully to avoid foliage burn. Allowed
oils also can be derived from vegetable and Insecticidal Soaps
fish sources. Approved products must not
contain any prohibited inert ingredients. Insecticidal soaps are restricted-use materials
that may be used for pesticidal purposes only
Oils are classified as summer oils and dormant if nonchemical practices documented in the
oils. Summer oil is usually used as a 0.5 to 3 Organic System Plan are insufficient to
percent finished solution. Because this prevent or control insect pests. Soaps or fatty
material is used during the growing season, acid salts are manmade fatty acids that are

used to control soft-bodied pests like aphids and different midgut environments within
and mites. species. Bt toxins have a third name
associated with them to differentiate the
Insecticidal soaps work by smothering soft- various strains. For example, Bt kurstaki and
bodied insects and disrupting their cuticle Bt aizawai are more active on caterpillars and
layer. Soaps do not have residual activity and worms, whereas Bt tenebrionis and Bt san diego
do not provide lasting control. They are work better on beetle pests. For this reason, it
effective only on contact, so thorough is very important to match the product with
coverage of the infested area is critical to the target pest.
success. Soap products are most effective
when they dry slowly. Once dry on the plant Even within strains that demonstrate activity
surface, they are not effective againsts insects on similar insect groups, there can be
and mites. Soaps are not effective against differences in control among species. For
insect eggs. example, Bt aizawai is more active than Bt
kurstaki on army worms. Some weaknesses of
Phytotoxicity can be a concern with soap these products must be considered before use:
products, and crops vary in their sensitivity.
• Bt products have a short residual period
Test effectiveness and phytotoxicity before
because the ultraviolet radiation in
spraying a large area.
sunlight breaks down the toxin. Farmers
traditionally have extended residual
Microbial Insecticides effectiveness by spraying just before dark.
• Timing of application should be matched
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This product to the pest’s feeding habits. Bt must be
contains a bacteroa; toxin that kills insects. It consumed to work. An insect that hatches,
is derived from a naturally occurring soil feeds for a short time, and then bores into
bacterium and is harmless to other animals, the plant or fruit will probably not ingest
including man. Bt must be ingested to work. enough toxin to be affected. For boring
After the bacterium is eaten, the toxin causes insects, applications must be made at or
midgut paralysis in insects, which stops their just before egg laying and thoroughly
feeding, usually within 24 hours. Next, the cover the plant.
midgut lining is perforated, allowing leakage
between the gut and the insect body cavity. In recent years, Bt products and plant
The insect dies in two to four days. Bt will not varieties genetically modified to express Bt
kill other pests, such as aphids, mites, or toxins have been relied upon to control pest
thrips. Not all formulations of Bt are allowed species that are resistant to conventional
in organic production. Check with your insecticides, and some pests have developed
certifier to determine which formulations are resistance to Bt. The diamondback moth is an
currently allowed. example of a pest with Bt resistance. Farmers
should be very watchful when using Bt on
Thousands of Bt strains have been discovered vegetable pests to be sure that they are
and usually have more activity on specific achieving the desired control, especially if
groups of insects—beetles, caterpillars and their farms are surrounded by land where
worms, or flies and mosquitoes. This varying conventional vegetable production occurs.
toxicity is apparently due to different toxins Even if a farmer has used Bt very little in the

past, highly mobile resistant adults can
immigrate into their crops from nearby farms, Some botanicals, however, are very toxic to
leading to control failures. fish, other wildlife, and humans. Some have
potential user and off-site problems that
Beauveria bassiana. This common insect- require careful safety precautions. The
pathogenic soil fungus has been formulated botanical insecticide rotetone is prohbited for
into an insecticidal product. Fungal use in organic systems. Petitions have been
insecticides have two advantages. First, they made to the National Organic Program to
are contact insecticides. The insect does not prohibit the use of other botanicals. Always
have to ingest them to become infected. check with your certifier to determine if the
Spores land on an insect, germinate, and botanical pesticide that you plan to use is
penetrate the exoskeleton. Once inside, the allowed.
fungus proliferates, adsorbs nutrients, and Contact Botanicals. All of the contact
emits toxic compounds. After the insect is insecticides are nerve poisons that cause
dead, the fungus grows out to the surface of insects to stop feeding and die quickly.
the exoskeleton and forms millions of spores.
Second, fungi can initiate an epizootic (a Pyrethrum. This is the generic name of a
widespread, self-sustaining disease of insects) plant-based insecticide derived from the
which can be very effective at controlling powdered flowers of a chrysanthemum
insects at high population levels. Beauveria species. Synthetic pyrethroids are not allowed
has been formulated into several in organic production. Most pyrethrum is
commerically available products to control imported from Africa. It is a contact poison
insects, such as aphids, whiteflys, thrips, that acts quickly as a “knockdown.”
mealybugs, mites, and various caterpillars. Pyrethrum is a broad-spectrum insecticide
These products are sold under different that used against true bugs, caterpilars,
tradenames, such as BotaniGard, Naturalis, beetles, aphids, flies, whiteflies, thrips,
and Mycotrol. leafhoppers, and mites. Some insects may be
able to recover after the initial knockdown if
Botanical Insecticides the dose is too low. Pyrethrum is highly toxic
to honeybees, other beneficial insects, and
Botanical insecticides are made from plants fish, and moderately toxic to birds. Pyrethrin
that have insecticidal properties. Botanical degrades rapidly and offers little residual
insecticides are restricted-use materials. They control.
may be used for pesticidal purposals only if
nonchemical practices documented in the Synergists, such as piperonyl butoxide (PBO),
Organic System Plan are insufficient to are often added to pyrethrum products. PBO
prevent or control pests. These materials have is not allowed in organic production. Care
several common characteristics: should be taken to avoid products that
contain synergists and additives not allowed
• They are broad spectrum insecticides.
in organic production. Check with your
• They break down rapidly in the
certifier to determine if the product that you
environment and so provide little, if any,
plan to use is allowed
residual control.
• They are less toxic to mammals than Citrus oils (d-limonene, l-limonene) are
synthetic insecticides in most, but not all, extracts from citrus peels and are usually
cases. combined with soaps as contact poisons

Ryania comes from the stems of a tropical
against soft-bodied insects and mites. This
plant. It does not kill quickly, but it can cause
material works only on contact and will
pests to stop feeding relatively quickly.
provide no residual control.
Ryania can be effective at controlling
Other Botanical Insecticides. These caterpillars and some thrips. It should be
botanicals act to poison insects through their tested on a small scale before use because it is
digestive systems or to repel insects with ineffective on some species. It is considered
strong odors and tastes. Some interrupt life slightly toxic to mammals.
cycle stages with hormone-like substances.
Sabadilla comes from a South American lily.
Always check with your certifier to determine
It is not acutely toxic to mammals but must be
if the botanical pesticide that you plan to use
carefully used because it is a powerful irritant
is allowed.
and, if inhaled, may result in circulatory and
Neem (nonsynthetic extracts and derivatives) respiratory problems. It may be used in a
is a restricted material that can be used as a spray or dust and acts as a contact material,
pest lure, repellent, or as part of a trap, or as a but it has some activity as a stomach poison.
disease control. It may be used for other Sabadilla has some activity on the group of
pesticidal purposes only if nonchemical insects known as the true bugs. True bugs are
practices documented in the Organic System insects in the order Heteroptera that have two
Plan are insufficient to prevent or control pairs of wings and needle-like mouthparts for
insect pests. Neem products are derived from sucking fluids from plants (squash bugs, for
the seeds of the neem tree, Azadiracta indica, example). This material deteriorates rapidly
grown from India to Africa. when exposed to light, so it offers little or no
residual control. Always check with your
Neem products have been used extensively certifier to detemine if the botanical pesticide
for insect control in tropical countries in field that you plan to use is allowed.
crops and in stored products. Chemically,
neem mimics certain insect hormones used to Garlic barrier is an oil extracted from garlic. It
control metamorphosis. Neem interrupts this is intended as a repellent for a wide variety of
process and the insect dies. It is also effective insects. Efficacy tests have resulted in highly
as a repellent and stomach poison. Some variable control. This product should be
residual activity can be expected. Neem extensively tested before depending on it for
products are generally formulated as control.
emulsifiable concentrates. Follow label
directions for specific application guidelines Other Control Approaches
and re-entry and pre-harvest intervals. Neem
extracts have been shown to affect a broad Chitin. Chitin is a material that makes up the
range of insects, but efficacy varies among exoskeleton of arthropods (insects and
species. Used alone or in combination with crustaceans) and nematodes. Chitin is a
Bacillus thuringiensis or pyrethrum it has restricted use pesticide, and may be used as a
provided satisfactory control of resistant pest lure, repellant, or as part of a trap or for
pests, such as cabbage loopers and other pesticideal purposes, such as
diamondback moths. Thrips and whiteflies nematicidal purposes only if non-chemical
may also be controlled. practices documented in the Organic System

Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies
Plan are insufficient to prevent or control in North America.
insect pests. Only products derived from http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/
nonsynthetic sources may be used. Use of biocontrol/
chitosan, a polysaccharide obtained by de- Enhancing Beneficial Insects with Native Plants.
acetylation of chitin, is prohibited. When http://www.nativeplants.msu.edu/
chitin is added to the soil, microbes produce Identifying Natural Enemies.
toxins (forms of ammonia), digestive enzymes http://ipm.msu.edu/natural-enemies.htm
that destroy the cuticles of insect and Manage Insects on Your Farm: A Guide to
nematode pests, or both. Field tests of efficacy Ecological Strategies.
have not been consistent. http://www.sare.org/publications/insect/ind
ex.htm
Home Remedies. Bug juices made from National Organic Program. www.ams.usda.
insects blended into a liquid and sprayed on gov/nop/
crops have been the subjects of much Resource Guide for Organic Insect and Disease
anecdotal information. Very few of these Management.
materials have been scientifically tested. Any http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/pp/resource
of these approaches should be tested on a guide/
small area until they have been thoroughly
examined. Consult with your certifier to
determine if your proposed method is Additional Reading
allowable.
Altre, J., E. Grafius, J. Sirota, E. Eliason, and B.
Scriber. 1994. Colorado potato beetle control
RECOMMENDED READING with biorationals, 1993. Arth. Mgmt. Tests.
Ent. Soc. Amer. 19:108.
Bartels, D. W., P. C. Bolin, and W. D. Hutchison.
Sources Cited 1996. Microbial and insecticidal control of
Barbosa, P., Ed. 1998. Conservation biological lepidopteran pests in Minnesota cabbage,
control. Acad. Press. San Diego, Calif. 1995. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer:
Bugg, R. L. and C. H. Pickett. 1998. Introduction: 21:89.
Enhancing biological control—Habitat Bird, G. W., T. Edens, F. Drummond, and E.
management to promote natural enemies of Groden. 1990. Design of pest management
agricultural pests. pp. 1-23. In enhancing systems for sustainable agriculture. In
biological control: Habitat management to Sustainable Agriculture in Temperate Zones. C.
promote natural enemies of agricultural pests. A. Francis, C. B. Flora, and L. D. King, eds.
Univ. Calif. Press. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Landis D.A., S. D. Wratten, and G. M. Gurr. Boucher, J. and G. Nixon. 1997. Evaluation of
2000. Habitat management to conserve mechanical control and alternative insec-
natural enemies of arthropod pests in ag- ticides for managing squash vine borer on
riculture. Ann. Rev. Ent. 45: 175-201. summer squash, 1996. Arth. Mgmt. Tests.
Ent. Soc. Amer. 22:167.
Boucher, J. and G. Nixon. 1996. Evaluation of
On-Line Resources alternative insecticides for squash vine borer
control on summer squash, 1995. Arth.
Biointensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 21:175.
http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/ipm.html

Boucher, J. R. Adams, G. Nixon, and J. Clark. Hoy, C. W. and M. J. Dunlap.1996. Control of
1995. Evaluation of insecticides for squash cabbage looper, diamondback moth and
vine borer control on summer squash, 1993. imported cabbageworm on cabbage with
Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 20:131. microbial insecticides, 1996. Arth. Mgmt.
Carson, W. G. and J. T. Trumble. 1997. Impact of Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 22:94.
insecticides on tomato insects, 1996. Arth. Ignoffo, C. M. 1992. Environmental factors
Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 22:174. affecting persistence of entomopathogens.
Chalfant, R. B. 1997. Control of lepidopterous Fla. Ent. 75:516-525.
pests, 1992. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Kerns, D. L. and T. Tellez. 1997. Control of
Amer. 22:89. lepidopterous larvae on lettuce with garlic,
Cranshaw, W. D. C. Sclar, A. Spriggs, and J. 1996. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer.
Bishop. 1996. Flea beetle control on broccoli, 22:135.
Ft. Collins, CO, 1995. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Knowles, B. H. 1994. Mechanism of action of
Ent. Soc. Amer. 21:86. Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal delta-en-
Cranshaw, W. D. and F. C. Schwessing. 1996. dotoxins. In Advances in Insect Physiology,
Squash bug control by basal stem treat- Volume 24, pp.275-308. Academic Press,
ments, Rocky Ford, Co., 1995. Arth. Mgmt. London.
Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 21:174. Linduska, J. J. M. Ross, K. Mulford, and J. Not-
Cranshaw, W.,D. Patrick, L.Rice, and D. Cooper. tingham. 1995. Colorado potato beetle
1995. Control of Western black flea beetle on control on potatoes with microbial insec-
cabbage, Ft. Collins, CO 1990. Arth. Mgmt. ticides, 1994. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc.
Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 20:70. Amer. 20:117.
Cranshaw, W. and F. Schweissing. 1995. Corn Liu, T. X, J. M. Conner, and P. A. Stansly. 1997.
earworm control, Rocky Ford, 1990. Arth. Use of Beauveria bassiana, an ento-
Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 20:85. mopathogen, to control nymphs of Bemisia
Edelson, J. V. and M. Peters.1997. Control of argentifolii under field conditions, 1995.
lepidopterous pests on collards, 1996. Arth. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 22:133.
Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 22:119. Marutani, M. and E. Rivera. 1996. Control of
Edelson, J. V. and M. Peters. 1997. Control of silverleaf whitefly on tomato, 1995. Arth.
aphids on spinach, 1996. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 21: 182.
Ent. Soc. Amer. 22:165. Mau, R.F.L, L.R. Gusukuma-Minuto, K. Dart,
Flint, H. M., N. J. Parks, J. E. Holmes, J. A. Jones, and R. S. Shimabuku. 1997. Evaluation of
and C. M. Higuera. 1995. Tests of garlic oil Bacillus thruingiensis against DBM, 1994.
for control of the silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 22:103.
argentifolii Bellows and Perring (Homoptera: Minzenmayer, R. and T. Fuchs. 1994. Insecti-
Aleyrodidae) in cotton. Southwest. Ent. cides for control of aphids in cotton—1994.
20:137-150. Results demonstration report. Texas Ag. Ext.
Gerace, D., D. C. Sclar, and W. Cranshaw. 1997. Serv. Texas A&M Univ.
Control of onion thrips using Beauveria Noetzel, D. M., J. Miller, and C. Holen. 1996.
bassiana formulations, 1996. Arth. Mgmt. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 21. 152.
Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 22:144. Palmer, C. R. and J. F. Walgenbach. 1996.
Hazzard, R. V. and M. A. Mazzola. 1997. Foliar Insect control on staked tomatoes, 1995.
sprays of Bacillus thuringiensis in early corn, Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 21:183.
1996. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: Palumbo, J. C.1997. Evaluations of selective
22:122. insecticides for control of lepidopterous
Hoy, C. W. and M. J. Dunlap.1997. Control of larvae in lettuce. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent.
lepidoptera on cabbage, 1995. Arth. Mgmt. Soc. Amer. 22:136.
Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 21:91.

Peters, M. R. and J. V. Edelson. 1996. Control of Shamyeh, N. B. and R. A. Straw.1997. Control of
lepidopterous larvae on tomatoes, summer, lepidopterous insects on cabbage, 1996.
1995. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 22:107.
21:184. Shelton, A. M. and W. T. Wilsey. 1997. Control
Pickett, C. H. and R. L. Bugg, eds. 1998. En- of lepidopterous insects on corn with foliar
hancing biological control: Habitat man- applications, 1996. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent.
agement to promote natural enemies of Soc. Amer: 22:124.
agricultural pests. Univ. Calif. Press. Siegel, J. P. 2001. The mammalian safety of
Prostak, D. J. 1994. Foliar sprays to control fall Bacillus thuringiensis-based insecticides. Jour.
armyworm on late planted sweet corn, 1993. Inv. Path. 77(1):13-21.
Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 19:92. Slocombe, A. C. and D. N. Ferro. 1995. Potato
Prostak, D. J. 1994. Insecticidal, biological, and insect control, 1994. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent.
botanical control with foliar sprays for Soc. Amer. 20:122.
whorl-infesting insects in sweet corn, 1993. Slocombe, A. C. and D. N. Ferro. 1995. Potato
Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 19:92. insect control. 1994. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent.
Prostak, D. J. 1995. Control of fall armyworm in Soc. Amer. 20:120.
whorl-stage corn using botanical foliar Sorensen, K. A. and C. W. Holloway. 1997.
sprays, 1994. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Control of lepidopterous larvae with in-
Amer. 20:88. secticides, 1996. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc.
Prostak, D. J. 1995. Foliar sprays to control Amer: 22:110.
European corn borer and fall armyworm on Sorensen, K. A. and C. W. Holloway. 1994.
sweet corn, 1994. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Cabbage looper control, Johnston Co., 1993.
Soc. Amer. 20:87. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 19:85.
Prostak, D. J. 1995. Using garlic and seaweed Speece, J. 1996. Use of biorational and standard
extracts to deter European corn borer and insecticides to control insects in potatoes,
fall armyworm on whorl stage sweet corn. 1995. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer:
Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 20:88. 21:162.
Rummel, D. R., S. C. Carroll, P. W. Kidd, M. D. Stansly, P. A. and J. M Conner. 1995. Control of
Arnold, and K. C. Neece. 1995. Evaluation of diamondback moth and cross-striped
organic and biological materials for control cabbageworm on cabbage. Arth. Mgmt.
of the boll weevil. Report to the Texas Boll Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 20:80.
Weevil Eradication Foundation. Texas A & Stansly, P. A. and M. Conner. 1997. Control of
M Univ. 17p. southern armyworm, Spodoptera eridania in
Schuster, D. J. 1997. Evaluation of biorational staked tomatoes, 1995. Arth. Mgmt. Tests.
pesticides for management of the silver-leaf Ent. Soc. Amer. 22:186.
whitefly on fresh market tomatoes, Spring Stansly, P. A. and B. M. Cawley. 1995. Control of
1994. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: sweetpotato whitefly, gemnivirus
22:179.. transmission, tomato pinworm, and leaf-
Schuster, D. J. 1997. Control of armyworm and miner on staked tomato, spring 1991. Arth.
pepper weevil on bell pepper, 1995. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 21:139.
Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 22:149. Stoltz, R. L. 1996. Colorado potato beetle control
Schuster, D. J. 1995. Control of armyworms on with foliar sprays II, 1995. Arth. Mgmt.
bell pepper in west-central Florida, fall 1993. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: 21:169.
Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer. 20:103. Walgenbach, J. F. and C. R. Palmer. 1997.
Schuster, D. J. 1995. Control of insects on fresh Control of lepidoperous insects on cabbage,
market tomatoes in west-central Florida, 1996. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer:
spring 1994. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. 22:114.
Amer: 20:134.

Walgenbach, J. F. and C. R. Palmer. 1995. Weisz, R., Z. Smilowitz, and B. Christ. 1994.
Control of lepidoperous insects on cabbage, Distance, rotation, and border crops affect
1994. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chry-
20:81. somelidae) colonization and population
Walgenbach, J. F. and C. R. Palmer. 1995. density and early blight (Alternaria solani)
Control of lepidoperous insects on cabbage, severity in rotated potato fields. J. Econ.
1993. Arth. Mgmt. Tests. Ent. Soc. Amer: Entomol. 87(3):723-729).
19:76. Zehnder, G., G.M. Gurr, S. Kuhne, M.R. Wade,
Weinzierl, R., and T. Henn. 1991. Alternatives in S.D. Wratten, E. Wyss. 2007. Arthropod pest
insect management: Biological and bio- management in organic crops. Annu. Rev.
rational approaches. North Central Regional Entomol. 52: 57-80.
Extension Publication 401. Cooperative Zehnder, G. W. and J. Hough-Goldstein. 1990.
Extension Service, University of Illinois at Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera:
Urbana-Champaign. –Online: Chrysomelidae) population development
www.ag.uiuc.edu/~vista/abstracts/ and effects on yield of potatoes with and
aaltinsec.html without straw mulch. J. Econ. Ent.
83(3):1982-1987.
Prepared by
H. M. Linker, Integrated Pest Management Coordinator Emeritus
D. B. Orr, Professor of Entomology
N.C. State University
M. E. Barbercheck, Professor of Entomology

Penn State University
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a
convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial
products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by North Carolina Cooperative
Extension nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who
use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current
regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage
regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance,
contact your county Cooperative Extension agent.

The Organic Production publication series was developed
by the Center for Environmental Farming Systems,
a cooperative effort between

North Carolina State University,
North Carolina A&T State University, and the
North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services.
The USDA Southern Region Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program
and the USDA Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems Program
provided funding in support of the Organic Production publication series.
Published by
NORTH CAROLINA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
Distributed in furtherance of the acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. North Carolina State University and North
Carolina A&T State University commit themselves to positive action to secure equal opportunity regardless of race, color,
creed, national origin, religion, sex, age, or disability. In addition, the two Universities welcome all persons without regard to
sexual orientation. North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and
local governments cooperating.
01/2009—BS—E06-45788 AG-659W-09

Insectmgmtfinaljan09 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Insectmgmtfinaljan09 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Insectmgmtfinaljan09 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Insect Management on Organic

I nsect management presents a challenge to

This knowledge can be used to craft a

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 2

Farmers can use cultural control measures to

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 3

Crop Rotation Vigorous crop growth is also important. Seeds

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 4

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 5

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 6

Sanitation Trap crops attract pest species away from the

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 7

Chemicals that trick pest insects to expect

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 8

Mating disruption works by permeating the

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 9

Very high populations of pest insects may not Insect-Parastic Nematodes

Insect-parasitic nematodes show promise as

Insects have many types of natural enemies.

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 10

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 11

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 12

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 13

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 14

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 15

Application. Viruses are usually not “stand-

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 16

Entomologists have different theories about

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 17

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 18

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 19

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 20

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 21

Augmentation of natural enemies is probably

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 22

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 23

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 24

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 25

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 26

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 27

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 28

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 29

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 30

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 31

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 32

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 33

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 34

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 35

M. E. Barbercheck, Professor of Entomology

Organic Production Series— Insect Management 36

a cooperative effort between

NORTH CAROLINA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE

You might also like