Paper 5new PDF
Paper 5new PDF
Paper 5new PDF
6
01
-2
US
AB
LL
SY
FINANCIAL
ACCOUNTING INTERMEDIATE
STUDY NOTES
Published by :
Directorate of Studies
The Institute of Cost Accountants of India (ICAI)
CMA Bhawan, 12, Sudder Street, Kolkata - 700 016.
Printed at :
M/s. Sap Prints Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
28A, Lakshmi Industrial Estate,
S. N. Path, Lower Parel (W),
Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra.
D
15% A
25%
C
20%
B
40%
ASSESSMENT STRATEGY
There will be written examination paper of three hours
OBJECTIVES
To gain understanding and to provide working knowledge of accounting concepts, detailed procedures and documentation
involved in financial accounting system.
Learning Aims
The syllabus aims to test the student’s ability to:
U
nderstand the framework of accounting systems and the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
P
repare necessary financial statements related to different business entities
C
onstruct financial statements for understandability and relevance of stakeholders
Skill set required
Level B: Requiring the skill levels of knowledge, comprehension, application and analysis.
4. Partnership Accounts
Admission, Retirement, Death, Treatment of Joint Life Policy ,Dissolution of partnership firms including piece meal distribution,
Amalgamation of partnership firms, Conversion of partnership firm into a company and sale of partnership firm to a company
Section C: Self Balancing Ledgers, Royalties, Hire Purchase & Installment System, Branch & Departmental Accounts [20 Marks]
5. Self-Balancing Ledgers
6. Royalty Accounts, Hire Purchase and Installment System.
7. Branch and Departmental Accounts.
1.1 Basics 1
1.2 Generally Accepted Accounting Principles 11
1.3 Accounting Concepts and Conventions 11
1.4 Capital & Revenue Transactions 26
1.5 Accounting for Depreciation 56
1.6 Rectification of Errors 71
1.1 Basics
1.2 Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
1.3 Accounting Concepts and Conventions
1.4 Capital & Revenue Transactions
1.5 Accounting for Depreciation
1.6 Rectification of Errors
1.1 BASICS
Business is an economic activity undertaken with the motive of earning profits and to maximize the wealth for the
owners. Business cannot run in isolation. Largely, the business activity is carried out by people coming together with
a purpose to serve a common cause. This team is often referred to as an organization, which could be in different
forms such as sole proprietorship, partnership, body corporate etc. The rules of business are based on general
principles of trade, social values, and statutory framework encompassing national or international boundaries.
While these variables could be different for different businesses, different countries etc., the basic purpose is to
add value to a product or service to satisfy customer demand.
The business activities require resources (which are limited & have multiple uses) primarily in terms of material,
labour, machineries, factories and other services. The success of business depends on how efficiently and
effectively these resources are managed. Therefore, there is a need to ensure that the businessman tracks the use
of these resources. The resources are not free and thus one must be careful to keep an eye on cost of acquiring
them as well.
As the basic purpose of business is to make profit, one must keep an ongoing track of the activities undertaken in
course of business. Two basic questions would have to be answered:
(a) What is the result of business operations? This will be answered by finding out whether it has made profit or
loss.
(b) What is the position of the resources acquired and used for business purpose? How are these resources
financed? Where the funds come from?
The answers to these questions are to be found continuously and the best way to find them is to record all the
business activities. Recording of business activities has to be done in a scientific manner so that they reveal correct
outcome. The science of book-keeping and accounting provides an effective solution. It is a branch of social
science. This study material aims at giving a platform to the students to understand basic principles and concepts,
which can be applied to accurately measure performance of business. After studying the various chapters
included herein, the student should be able to apply the principles, rules, conventions and practices to different
business situations like trading, manufacturing or service.
Over years, the art and science of accounting has evolved together with progress of trade and commerce at
national and global levels. Professional accounting bodies have been doing intensive research to come up with
accounting rules that will be applicable. Modern business is certainly more complex and continuous updating
of these rules is required. Every stakeholder of the business is interested in a particular facet of information about
the business. The art and science of accounting helps to put together these requirements of information as per
universally accepted principles and also to interpret the results. It is interesting to note that each one of us has
an accountant hidden in us. We do see our parents keep track of monthly expenses. We make a distinction
between payment done for monthly grocery and that for buying a house or a car. We understand that while
grocery is a monthly expense and buying a house is like creating a resource that has indefinite future use. The
most common accounting record that each one of us knows is our bank passbook or a bank statement, which
the bank maintains for us. It tracks each rupee that we deposit or withdraw from our account. When we go to
supermarket to buy something, the cashier at the counter will record things we buy and give us a ‘bill’ or ‘cash
memo’. These are source documents prepared for the transaction between the supermarket and us. While these
are simple examples, there could be more complex business activities. A good working knowledge of keeping
records is therefore necessary. Professional accounting bodies all over the world have been functioning with the
objective of providing this body of knowledge. These institutions are engaged in imparting training in the field of
accounting. Let us start with some basic definitions, concepts, conventions and practices used in development of
this art as well as science.
Definitions
In order to understand the subject matter with clarity, let us study some of the definitions which depict the scope,
content and purpose of Accounting. The field of accounting is generally sub-divided into:
(a) Book-keeping
(b) Financial Accounting
(c) Cost Accounting and
(d) Management Accounting
Let us understand each of these concepts.
(a) Book-keeping
The most common definition of book-keeping as given by J. R. Batliboi is “Book-keeping is an art of recording
business transactions in a set of books.”
As can be seen, it is basically a record keeping function. One must understand that not all dealings are, however,
recorded. Only transactions expressed in terms of money will find place in books of accounts. These are the
transactions which will ultimately result in transfer of economic value from one person to the other. Book-keeping
is a continuous activity, the records being maintained as transactions are entered into. This being a routine and
repetitive work, in today’s world, it is taken over by the computer systems. Many accounting packages are
available to suit different business organizations.
It is also referred to as a set of primary records. These records form the basis for accounting. It is an art because, the
record is to be kept in such a manner that it will facilitate further processing and reporting of financial information
which will be useful to all stakeholders of the business.
(b) Financial Accounting
It is commonly termed as Accounting. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants defines Accounting
as “an art of recoding, classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions
and events which are in part at least of a financial character, and interpreting the results thereof.”
The first step in the cycle of accounting is to identify transactions that will find place in books of accounts.
Transactions having financial impact only are to be recorded. E.g. if a businessman negotiates with the customer
regarding supply of products, this will not be recorded. The negotiation is a deal which will potentially create a
transaction and will have exchange of money or money’s worth. But unless this transaction is finally entered into,
it will not be recorded in the books of accounts.
Secondly, the recording of the business transactions is done based on the Golden Rules of accounting (which
are explained later) in a systematic manner. Transaction of similar nature are grouped together and recorded
accordingly. e.g. Sales Transactions, Purchase Transactions, Cash Transactions etc. One has to interpret the
transaction and then apply the relevant Golden Rule to make a correct entry thereof.
Thirdly, as the transactions increase in number, it will be difficult to understand the combined effect of the same
by referring to individual records. Hence, the art of accounting also involves the step of summarizing them. With
the aid of computers, this task is simplified in today’s accounting world. The summarization will help users of the
business information to understand and interpret business results.
Lastly, the accounting process provides the users with statements which will describe what has happened to the
business. Remember the two basic questions we talked about, one to know whether business has made profit or
loss and the other to know the position of resources that are used by the business.
It can be noted that although accounting is often referred to as an art, it is a science also. This is because it is
based on universally applicable set of rules. However, it is not a pure science as there is a possibility of different
interpretation.
Accounting Cycle
When complete sequence of accounting procedure is done which happens frequently and repeated in same
directions during an accounting period, the same is called an accounting cycle.
Recording of
Transaction
Financial
Journal
Statement
Closing
Ledger
Entries
Adjustment
Entries
Accounting Cycle
(c) Ledger: All journals are posted into ledger chronologically and in a classified manner.
(d) Trial Balance: After taking all the ledger account’s closing balances, a Trial Balance is prepared at the end
of the period for the preparations of financial statements.
(e) Adjustment Entries: All the adjustments entries are to be recorded properly and adjusted accordingly
before preparing financial statements.
(f) Adjusted Trial Balance: An adjusted Trail Balance may also be prepared.
(g) Closing Entries: All the nominal accounts are to be closed by the transferring to Trading Account and Profit
and Loss Account.
Financial Statements: Financial statement can now be easily prepared which will exhibit the true financial position
and operating results.
Objectives of Accounting
The main objective of Accounting is to provide financial information to stakeholders. This financial information
is normally given via financial statements, which are prepared on the basis of Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles (GAAP). There are various accounting standards developed by professional accounting bodies all
over the world. In India, these are governed by The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, (ICAI). In the
US, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) is responsible to lay down the standards. The
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) is the body that sets up the International Accounting Standards.
These standards basically deal with accounting treatment of business transactions and disclosing the same in
financial statements.
The following objectives of accounting will explain the width of the application of this knowledge stream:
(a) To ascertain the amount of profit or loss made by the business i.e. to compare the income earned versus the
expenses incurred and the net result thereof.
(b) To know the financial position of the business i.e. to assess what the business owns and what it owes.
(c) To provide a record for compliance with statutes and laws applicable.
(d) To enable the readers to assess progress made by the business over a period of time.
(e) To disclose information needed by different stakeholders.
Let us now see which are different stakeholders of the business and what do they seek from the accounting
information. This is shown in the following table.
Non-Current Assets – All other Assets shall be classified as Non-Current Assets. e.g. Machinery held for long
term etc.
(vi) Liability: It is an obligation of financial nature to be settled at a future date. It represents amount of money
that the business owes to the other parties. E.g. when goods are bought on credit, the firm will create an
obligation to pay to the supplier the price of goods on an agreed future date or when a loan is taken from
bank, an obligation to pay interest and principal amount is created. Depending upon the period of holding,
these obligations could be further classified into Long Term on non-current liabilities and Short Term or current
liabilities.
Current Liabilities – A liability shall be classified as Current when it satisfies any of the following :
(a) It is expected to be settled in the Company’s normal Operating Cycle,
(b) It is held primarily for the purpose of being traded,
(c) It is due to be settled within 12 months after the Reporting Date, or
(d) The Company does not have an unconditional right to defer settlement of the liability for at least 12
months after the reporting date (Terms of a Liability that could, at the option of the counterparty, result
in its settlement by the issue of Equity Instruments do not affect its classification)
Non-Current Liabilities – All other Liabilities shall be classified as Non-Current Liabilities. E.g. Loan taken for 5 years,
Debentures issued etc.
(vii) Internal Liability : These represent proprietor’s equity, i.e. all those amount which are entitled to the proprietor,
e.g., Capital, Reserves, Undistributed Profits, etc.
(viii) Working Capital : In order to maintain flows of revenue from operation, every firm needs certain amount
of current assets. For example, cash is required either to pay for expenses or to meet obligation for service
received or goods purchased, etc. by a firm. On identical reason, inventories are required to provide the
link between production and sale. Similarly, Accounts Receivable generate when goods are sold on credit.
Cash, Bank, Debtors, Bills Receivable, Closing Stock, Prepayments etc. represent current assets of firm. The
whole of these current assets form the working capital of a firm which is termed as Gross Working Capital.
Gross Working Capital = Total Current Assets
= Long term internal liabilities plus long term debts plus the current liabilities
minus the amount blocked in the fixed assets.
There is another concept of working capital. Working capital is the excess of current assets over current
liabilities. That is the amount of current assets that remain in a firm if all its current liabilities are paid. This
concept of working capital is known as Net Working Capital which is a more realistic concept.
Working Capital (Net) = Current Assets – Currents Liabilities.
(ix) Contingent Liability : It represents a potential obligation that could be created depending on the outcome
of an event. E.g. if supplier of the business files a legal suit, it will not be treated as a liability because no
obligation is created immediately. If the verdict of the case is given in favour of the supplier then only the
obligation is created. Till that it is treated as a contingent liability. Please note that contingent liability is not
recorded in books of account, but disclosed by way of a note to the financial statements.
(x) Capital : It is amount invested in the business by its owners. It may be in the form of cash, goods, or any other
asset which the proprietor or partners of business invest in the business activity. From business point of view,
capital of owners is a liability which is to be settled only in the event of closure or transfer of the business.
Hence, it is not classified as a normal liability. For corporate bodies, capital is normally represented as share
capital.
(xi) Drawings : It represents an amount of cash, goods or any other assets which the owner withdraws from
business for his or her personal use. e.g. if the life insurance premium of proprietor or a partner of business is
paid from the business cash, it is called drawings. Drawings will result in reduction in the owners’ capital. The
concept of drawing is not applicable to the corporate bodies like limited companies.
(xii) Net worth : It represents excess of total assets over total liabilities of the business. Technically, this amount is
available to be distributed to owners in the event of closure of the business after payment of all liabilities.
That is why it is also termed as Owner’s Equity. A profit making business will result in increase in the owner’s
equity whereas losses will reduce it.
(xiii) Non-current Investments : Non-current Investments are investments which are held beyond the current
period as to sale or disposal. e. g. Fixed Deposit for 5 years.
(xiv) Current Investments : Current investments are investments that are by their nature readily realizable and are
intended to be held for not more than one year from the date on which such investment is made. e. g. 11
months Commercial Paper.
(xv) Debtor : The sum total or aggregate of the amounts which the customer owe to the business for purchasing
goods on credit or services rendered or in respect of other contractual obligations, is known as Sundry
Debtors or Trade Debtors, or Trade Receivable, or Book-Debts or Debtors. In other words, Debtors are those
persons from whom a business has to recover money on account of goods sold or service rendered on
credit. These debtors may again be classified as under:
(i) Good debts : The debts which are sure to be realized are called good debts.
(ii) Doubtful Debts : The debts which may or may not be realized are called doubtful debts.
(iii) Bad debts : The debts which cannot be realized at all are called bad debts.
It must be remembered that while ascertaining the debtors balance at the end of the period certain
adjustments may have to be made e.g. Bad Debts, Discount Allowed, Returns Inwards, etc.
(xvi) Creditor : A creditor is a person to whom the business owes money or money’s worth. e.g. money payable
to supplier of goods or provider of service. Creditors are generally classified as Current Liabilities.
(xvii) Capital Expenditure: This represents expenditure incurred for the purpose of acquiring a fixed asset which
is intended to be used over long term for earning profits there from. e. g. amount paid to buy a computer
for office use is a capital expenditure. At times expenditure may be incurred for enhancing the production
capacity of the machine. This also will be a capital expenditure. Capital expenditure forms part of the
Balance Sheet.
(xviii) Revenue expenditure: This represents expenditure incurred to earn revenue of the current period. The
benefits of revenue expenses get exhausted in the year of the incurrence. e.g. repairs, insurance, salary &
wages to employees, travel etc. The revenue expenditure results in reduction in profit or surplus. It forms part
of the Income Statement.
(xix) Balance Sheet: It is the statement of financial position of the business entity on a particular date. It lists all
assets, liabilities and capital. It is important to note that this statement exhibits the state of affairs of the
business as on a particular date only. It describes what the business owns and what the business owes to
outsiders (this denotes liabilities) and to the owners (this denotes capital). It is prepared after incorporating
the resulting profit/losses of Income Statement.
(xx) Profit and Loss Account or Income Statement: This account shows the revenue earned by the business
and the expenses incurred by the business to earn that revenue. This is prepared usually for a particular
accounting period, which could be a month, quarter, a half year or a year. The net result of the Profit and
Loss Account will show profit earned or loss suffered by the business entity.
(xxi) Trade Discount: It is the discount usually allowed by the wholesaler to the retailer computed on the list price
or invoice price. e.g. the list price of a TV set could be ` 15000. The wholesaler may allow 20% discount
thereof to the retailer. This means the retailer will get it for ` 12000 and is expected to sale it to final customer
at the list price. Thus the trade discount enables the retailer to make profit by selling at the list price. Trade
discount is not recorded in the books of accounts. The transactions are recorded at net values only. In
above example, the transaction will be recorded at ` 12000 only.
(xxii) Cash Discount: This is allowed to encourage prompt payment by the debtor. This has to be recorded in the
books of accounts. This is calculated after deducting the trade discount. e.g. if list price is ` 15000 on which
a trade discount of 20% and cash discount of 2% apply, then first trade discount of ` 3000 (20% of ` 15000)
will be deducted and the cash discount of 2% will be calculated on ` 12000 (`15000 – ` 3000). Hence the
cash discount will be ` 240/- (2% of ` 12000) and net payment will be ` 11,760 (`12,000 - ` 240)
Illustration 2.
Give one word or a term used to describe the following:-
(a) An exchange of benefit for value
(b) A transaction without immediate cash settlement.
(c) Commodities in which a business deals.
A widely accepted set of rules, conventions, standards, and procedures for reporting financial information, as
established by the Financial Accounting Standards Board are called Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
(GAAP). These are the common set of accounting principles, standards and procedures that companies use to
compile their financial statements. GAAP are a combination of standards (set by policy boards) and simply the
commonly accepted ways of recording and reporting accounting information.
GAAP is to be followed by companies so that investors have a optimum level of consistency in the financial
statements they use when analyzing companies for investment purposes. GAAP cover such aspects like revenue
recognition, balance sheet item classification and outstanding share measurements.
As seen earlier, the accounting information is published in the form of financial statements. The three basic financial
statements are
(i) The Profit & Loss Account that shows net business result i.e. profit or loss for a certain periods.
(ii) The Balance Sheet that exhibits the financial strength of the business as on a particular dates.
(iii) The Cash Flow Statement that describes the movement of cash from one date to the other.
As these statements are meant to be used by different stakeholders, it is necessary that the information contained
therein is based on definite principles, concrete concepts and well accepted convention.
Accounting principles are basic guidelines that provide standards for scientific accounting practices and
procedures. They guide as to how the transactions are to be recorded and reported. They assure uniformity
and understandability. Accounting concepts lay down the foundation for accounting principles. They are ideas
essentially at mental level and are self-evident. These concepts ensure recording of financial facts on sound bases
and logical considerations. Accounting conventions are methods or procedures that are widely accepted. When
transactions are recorded or interpreted, they follow the conventions. Many times, however, the terms-principles,
concepts and conventions are used interchangeably.
Professional Accounting Bodies have published statements of these concepts. Over years, many of these concepts
are being challenged as outlived. Yet, no major deviations have been made as yet. Path breaking ideas have
emerged and the accounting standards of modern days do require companies to record and report transactions
which may not be necessarily based on concepts that are in vogue for long. It is essential to study accounting
from the basic levels and understand these concepts in entirety.
(a) Business Entity Concept (a) Revenue Realization Concpet (a) Materiality Concept
(b) Going Concern Concept (b) Matching Concept (b) Consistency Concept
(c) Money Measurement Concept (c) Full Disclosure Concept (c) Conservatism Concpet
(d) Accounting Period Concept (d) Dual Aspect Concept (d) Timeliness Concept
(e) Accrual Concept (e) Verifiable Objective Evidence Concpet (e) Industry Practice Concept
(f) Historical Cost Concept
(g) Balance Sheet Equation Concpet
A. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
(a) Business Entity Concept
As per this concept, the business is treated as distinct and separate from the individuals who own or manage
it. When recording business transactions, the important question is how will it affect the business entity?
How they affect the persons who own it or run it or otherwise associated with it is irrelevant. Application of
this concept enables recording of transactions of the business entity with its owners or managers or other
stakeholders. For example, if the owner pays his personal expenses from business cash, this transaction can
be recorded in the books of business entity. This transaction will take the cash out of business and also reduce
the obligation of the business towards the owner.
At times it is difficult to separate owners from the business. Consider an individual, who runs a small retail
outlet. In the eyes of law, there is no distinction made between financial affairs of the outlet with that of
the individual. The creditors of the retail outlet can sue the individual and collect his claim from personal
resources of the individual. However, in accounting, the records are kept as distinct for the retail outlet and
the individual respectively. For certain forms of business entities, such as limited companies this distinction is
easier. The limited companies are separate legal persons in the eyes of law as well.
The entity concept requires that all the transactions are to be viewed, interpreted and recorded from
‘business entity’ point of view. An accountant steps into the shoes of the business entity and decides to
account for the transactions. The owner’s capital is the obligation of business and it has to be paid back to
the owner in the event of business closure. Also, the profit earned by the business will belong to the owner
and hence is treated as owner’s equity.
(b) Going Concern Concept
The basic principles of this concept is that business is assumed to exist for an indefinite period and is not
established with the objective of closing it down. So unless there is good evidence to the contrary, the
accountant assumes that a business entity is a ‘going concern’ - that it will continue to operate as usual for a
longer period of time. It will keep getting money from its customers, pay its creditors, buy and sell goods, use
assets to earn profits in future. If this assumption is not considered, one will have to constantly value the worth
of the assets and resource. This is not practicable. This concept enables the accountant to carry forward the
values of assets and liabilities from one accounting period to the other without asking the question about
usefulness and worth of the assets and recoverability of the receivables.
The going concern concept forms a sound basis for preparation of a Balance Sheet.
(c) Money Measurement Concept
A business transaction will always be recoded if it can be expressed in terms of money. The advantage of
this concept is that different types of transactions could be recorded as homogenous entries with money as
common denominator. A business may own ` 3 Lacs cash, 1500 kg of raw material, 10 vehicles, 3 computers
etc. Unless each of these is expressed in terms of money, we cannot find out the assets owned by the business.
When expressed in the common measure of money, transactions could be added or subtracted to find out
the combined effect. In the above example, we could add values of different assets to find the total assets
owned.
The application of this concept has a limitation. When transactions are recorded in terms of money, we only
consider the absolute value of the money. The real value of the money may fluctuate from time to time due
to inflation, exchange rate changes, etc. This fact is not considered when recording the transaction.
(d) The Accounting Period Concept
We have seen that as per the going-concern concept the business entity is assumed to have an indefinite
life. Now if we were to assess whether the business has made profit or loss, should we wait until this indefinite
period is over? Would it mean that we will not be able to assess the business performance on an ongoing
basis? Does it deprive all stakeholders the right to the accounting information? Would it mean that the
business will not pay income tax as no income will be computed?
To circumvent this problem, the business entity is supposed to be paused after a certain time interval. This
time interval is called an accounting period. This period is usually one year, which could be a calendar year
i.e. 1st January to 31st December or it could be a fiscal year in India as 1st April to 31st March. The business
organizations have the freedom to choose their own accounting year. For certain organizations, reporting of
financial information in public domain are compulsory. In India, listed companies must report their quarterly
unaudited financial results and yearly audited financial statements. For internal control purpose, many
organizations prepare monthly financial statements. The modern computerized accounting systems enable
the companies to prepare real-time online financials at the click of button.
Businesses are living, continuous organisms. The splitting of the continuous stream of business events into
time periods is thus somewhat arbitrary. There is no significant change just because one accounting period
ends and a new one begins. This results into the most difficult problem of accounting of how to measure
the net income for an accounting period. One has to be careful in recognizing revenue and expenses for
a particular accounting period. Subsequent section on accounting procedures will explain how one goes
about it in practice.
(e) The Accrual Concept
The accrual concept is based on recognition of both cash and credit transactions. In case of a cash
transaction, owner’s equity is instantly affected as cash either is received or paid. In a credit transaction,
however, a mere obligation towards or by the business is created. When credit transactions exist (which is
generally the case), revenues are not the same as cash receipts and expenses are not same as cash paid
during the period.
When goods are sold on credit as per normally accepted trade practices, the business gets the legal right
to claim the money from the customer. Acquiring such right to claim the consideration for sale of goods or
services is called accrual of revenue. The actual collection of money from customer could be at a later date.
Similarly, when the business procures goods or services with the agreement that the payment will be made
at a future date, it does not mean that the expense effect should not be recognized. Because an obligation
to pay for goods or services is created upon the procurement thereof, the expense effect also must be
recognized.
Today’s accounting systems based on accrual concept are called as Accrual System or Mercantile System
of Accounting.
B. BASIC PRINCIPLES
(a) The Revenue Realisation Concept
While the conservatism concept states whether or not revenue should be recognized, the concept of
realisation talks about what revenue should be recognized. It says amount should be recognized only to the
tune of which it is certainly realizable. Thus, mere getting an order from the customer won’t make it eligible
to recognize as revenue. The reasonable certainty of realizing the money will come only when the goods
ordered are actually supplied to the customer and he is billed. This concept ensures that income unearned
or unrealized will not be considered as revenue and the firms will not inflate profits.
Consider that a store sales goods for ` 25 lacs during a month on credit. The experience and past data shows
that generally 2% of the amount is not realized. The revenue to be recognized will be ` 24.50 lacs. Although
conceptually the revenue to be recognized at this value, in practice the doubtful amount of ` 50 thousand
(2% of ` 25 lacs) is often considered as expense.
This is the fundamental accounting equation shown as formal expression of the dual aspect concept. This
powerful concept recognizes that every business transaction has dual impact on the financial position.
Accounting systems are set up to simultaneously record both these aspects of every transaction; that is why
it is called as Double-entry system of accounting. In its present form the double entry system of accounting
owes its existence to an Italian expert Mr. Luca Pacioli in the year 1495.
Continuing with our example of Mr. Suresh, now let us consider he borrows ` 15 lacs from bank. The dual
aspect of this transaction-on one hand the business cash will increase by ` 15 lacs and a liability towards the
bank will be created for ` 15 lacs.
The student must note that the dual aspect concept entails recognition of the two effects of each transaction.
These effects are of equal amount and reverse in nature. How to decide these two aspects?
The golden rules of accounting are used to arrive at this decision. After recording both aspects of the
transaction, the basic accounting equation will always balance or be equal.
The above concepts find the application in preparation of the Balance Sheet which is the statement of
assets and liabilities as on a particular date. We will now see some more concepts that are important for
preparation of Profit and Loss Account or Income Statement.
(e) Verifiable Objective Evidence Concept
Under this principle, accounting data must be verified. In other words, documentary evidence of transactions
must be made which are capable of verification by an independent respect. In the absence of such
verification, the data which will be available will neither be reliable nor be dependable, i.e., these should be
biased data. Verifiability and objectivity express dependability, reliability and trustworthiness that are very
useful for the purpose of displaying the accounting data and information to the users.
(f) Historical Cost Concept
Business transactions are always recorded at the actual cost at which they are actually undertaken. The
basic advantage is that it avoids an arbitrary value being attached to the transactions. Whenever an asset
is bought, it is recorded at its actual cost and the same is used as the basis for all subsequent accounting
purposes such as charging depreciation on the use of asset, e.g. if a production equipment is bought for `
1.50 crores, the asset will be shown at the same value in all future periods when disclosing the original cost.
It will obviously be reduced by the amount of depreciation, which will be calculated with reference to
the actual cost. The actual value of the equipment may rise or fall subsequent to the purchase, but that is
considered irrelevant for accounting purpose as per the historical cost concept.
The limitation of this concept is that the Balance Sheet does not show the market value of the assets owned
by the business and accordingly the owner’s equity will not reflect the real value. However, on an ongoing
basis, the assets are shown at their historical costs as reduced by depreciation.
(g) Balance Sheet Equation Concept
Under this principle, all which has been received by us must be equal to that has been given by us and
needless to say that receipts are clarified as debits and giving is clarified as credits. The basic equation,
appears as :-
Debit = Credit
Naturally every debit must have a corresponding credit and vice-e-versa. So, we can write the above in the
following form –
Expenses + Losses + Assets = Revenues + Gains + Liabilities
And if expenses and losses, and incomes and gains are set off, the equation takes the following form –
Asset = Liabilities
or, Asset = Equity + External Liabilities
i.e., the Accounting Equation.
C. MODIFYING PRINCIPLES
(a) The Concept of Materiality
This is more of a convention than a concept. It proposes that while accounting for various transactions, only
those which may have material effect on profitability or financial status of the business should have special
consideration for reporting. This does not mean that the accountant should exclude some transactions from
recording. e.g. even ` 20 worth conveyance paid must be recorded as expense. What this convention claims
is to attach importance to material details and insignificant details should be ignored while deciding certain
accounting treatment. The concept of materiality is subjective and an accountant will have to decide on
merit of each case. Generally, the effect is said to be material, if the knowledge of an event would influence
the decision of an informed stakeholder.
The materiality could be related to information, amount, procedure and nature. Error in description of an
asset or wrong classification between capital and revenue would lead to materiality of information. Say, If
postal stamps of ` 500 remain unused at the end of accounting period, the same may not be considered for
recognizing as inventory on account of materiality of amount. Certain accounting treatments depend upon
procedures laid down by accounting standards. Some transactions are by nature material irrespective of the
amount involved. e.g. audit fees, loan to directors.
vouchers, misappropriation etc. of cash and goods. This principle is followed particularly while verifying day
to day cash balance. Principle of timeliness is also followed by banks, i.e. every bank verifies the cash balance
with their cash book and within the day, the same must be completed.
(e) Industry Practice
As there are different types of industries, each industry has its own characteristics and features. There may
be seasonal industries also. Every industry follows the principles and assumption of accounting to perform
their own activities. Some of them follow the principles, concepts and conventions in a modified way. The
accounting practice which has always prevailed in the industry is followed by it. e.g Electric supply companies,
Insurance companies maintain their accounts in a specific manner. Insurance companies prepare Revenue
Account just to ascertain the profit/loss of the company and not Profit and Loss Account. Similarly, non
trading organizations prepare Income and Expenditure Account to find out Surplus or Deficit.
Conclusion
The above paragraphs bring out essentially broad concepts and conventions that lay down principles to be
followed for accounting of business transaction. While going through the different topics, students are advised
to keep track of concepts applicable for various accounting treatment. One would have by now understood
the importance of these concepts in preparation of basic financial statements. More clarity will emerge as one
explores the ocean of different business transactions arising out of complex business situations. The legal and
professional requirements also have their say in deciding the accounting treatment. Let us see if you can apply
these concepts in the following illustrations.
Exercise:
Recognise the accounting concept in the following:
(4) The transactions recorded are those that can be expressed in money terms.
(5) Revenues will be recognized only if there is reasonable certainty that it will be paid for.
(6) Accounting treatment once decided should be followed period after period.
(8) Transactions are recorded even if an obligation is created and actual cash is not involved.
(9) Stock of goods is valued at lower of its cost and realizable value.
Voucher:
It is a written instrument that serves to confirm or witness (vouch) for some fact such as a transaction. Commonly, a
voucher is a document that shows goods have bought or services have been rendered, authorizes payment, and
indicates the ledger account(s) in which these transactions have to be recorded.
Types of Voucher - Normally the following types of vouchers are used. i.e.:
(i) Receipt Voucher
(ii) Payment Voucher
(iii) Non-Cash or Transfer Voucher
(iv) Supporting Voucher
(i) Receipt Voucher
Receipt voucher is used to record cash or bank receipt. Receipt vouchers are of two types. i.e.
(a) Cash receipt voucher – it denotes receipt of cash
(b) Bank receipt voucher – it indicates receipt of cheque or demand draft
(ii) Payment Voucher
Payment voucher is used to record a payment of cash or cheque. Payment vouchers are of two types. i.e.
(a) Cash Payment voucher – it denotes payment of cash
(b) Bank Payment voucher – it indicates payment by cheque or demand draft.
(iii) Non Cash Or Transfer Voucher
These vouchers are used for non-cash transactions as documentary evidence. e.g., Goods sent on credit.
(iv) Supporting Vouchers
These vouchers are the documentary evidence of transactions that have happened.
Source Documents
Vouchers are the documentary evidence of the transactions so happened. Source documents are the basis
on which transactions are recorded in subsidiary books i.e. source documents are the evidence and proof of
transactions.
Typically, an account is expressed as a statement in form of English letter ‘T’. It has two sides. The left hand side is
called as “Debit’ side and the right hand side is called as “Credit’ side. The debit is connoted as ‘Dr’ and the credit
by ‘Cr’. The convention is to write the Dr and Cr labels on both sides as shown below. Please see the following
example:
Each side of the account will show effects, so that one can easily take totals of both sides and find out the
difference between the two. Such difference in the two sides of an account is called ‘balance’. If the total of
debit side is more than the credit side, the balance is called as ‘debit balance’ and if the total of credit side is
more than the debit side, the balance is called as ‘credit balance’. If the debit and credit side are equal, the
account will show ‘nil balance’.
The balances are to be computed at the end of an accounting period. These balances are then considered for
preparation of income statement and balance sheet. Let us see the example:
Dr. Cash Account Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
Cash brought into business 1,00,000 Paid for goods purchased 50,000
Received for goods sold 25,000 Paid for rent 15,000
Balance at the end 60,000
1,25,000 1,25,000
It can be seen from the above example that the debit side of cash account shows the receipt of cash into
the business and the credit side reflects the cash that has gone out of the business. What is the meaning of the
balance at the end? Well, it shows that cash balance available in the business.
Types of Accounts:
We have seen that an account may be related to a person or a thing – tangible or intangible. While doing business
transactions (that may be large in number and complex in nature), one may come across numerous accounts
that are affected. How does one decide about accounting treatment for each of them? If common rules are to
be applied to similar type of accounts, there must be a way to classify the account on the basis of their common
characteristics.
Please take look at the following chart.
Natural Persons
Representative
Accounts Persons
Real Accounts
Impersonal (tangible and intangible)
Accounts
Nominal Accounts
(c) There could be representative personal accounts as well. Although the individual identity of persons
related to these is known, the convention is to reflect them as collective accounts. e.g. when salary is
payable to employees, we know how much is payable to each of them, but collectively the account is
called as ‘Salary Payable A/c’. Similar examples are rent payable, Insurance prepaid, commission pre-
received etc. The students should be careful to have clarity on this type and the chances of error are
more here.
(2) Real Accounts : These are accounts related to assets or properties or possessions. Depending on their physical
existence or otherwise, they are further classified as follows:
(a) Tangible Real Account – Assets that have physical existence and can be seen, and touched. e.g.
Machinery A/c, Stock A/c, Cash A/c, Vehicle A/c, and the like.
(b) Intangible Real Account – These represent possession of properties that have no physical existence but
can be measured in terms of money and have value attached to them. e.g. Goodwill A/c, Trade mark
A/c, Patents & Copy Rights A/c, Intellectual Property Rights A/c and the like.
(3) Nominal Account : These accounts are related to expenses or losses and incomes or gains e.g. Salary and
Wages A/c, Rent of Rates A/c, Travelling Expenses A/c, Commission received A/c, Loss by fire A/c etc.
The Accounting Process:
There are two approaches for deciding when to write on the debit side of an account and when to write on the
credit side of an account:
A. American Approach/ Modern Approach
B. British Approach/ Traditional Approach/Double Entry System
A. American approach : In order to understand the rules of debit and credit according to this approach
transactions are divided into five categories.
Illustration 4.
Ascertain the debit and credit from the following particulars under Modern Approach.
(i) Started business with capital.
(ii) Bought goods for cash.
(iii) Sold goods for cash.
(iv) Paid salary.
(v) Received Interest on Investment.
(vi) Bought goods on credit from Mr. Y
(vii) Paid Rent out of Personal cash
Solution:
Illustration 5.
Ascertain the Debit Credit under British Approach or Double Entry System. Take Previous illustration
Solution:
Accounting Equations:
The whole Financial Accounting dependes on Accounting Equation which is also known as Balance Sheet
Equation. The basic Accounting Equation is:
}
or A = L + P
or P = A - L Where A = Assets, L = Liabilities, P = Capital
or L = A – P
While trying to do this correlation, please note that incomes or gains will increase owner’s equity an expenses or
losses will reduce it.
Students are advised to go through the following illustration to understand this equation properly.
Illustration 6.
Prepare an Accounting Equation from the following transactions in the books of Mr. X for January, 2013:
Solution:
Effect of transaction on Assets, Liabilities and Capital
Illustration 7.
Mr. Anil Roy, a junior lawyer, provides the following particulars for the year ended 31st December, 2012:
`
Fees received in cash in 2013 60,000
Salary paid to Staff in 2013 8,000
Rent of office in 2013 14,000
Magazine and Journal for 2013 1,000
Travelling and Conveyance paid in 2013 3,000
Membership Fees paid in 2013 1,600
Office Expenses paid in 2013 10,000
Additional Information:-
Fees include ` 3,000 in respect of 2012 and fees not yet received is ` 7,000. Office rent includes ` 4,000 for previous
year and rent of ` 2,000 not yet paid. Membership fees is paid for 2 years.
Compute his net income for the year 2013, under – (a) Cash Basis, (b) Accrual Basis and (c) Mixed or Hybrid Basis.
Solution:
Statement of Income (Cash Basis)
For the year ended 31st December, 2013
The concepts of capital and revenue are of fundamental importance to the correct determination of accounting
profit for a period and recognition of business assets at the end of that period. The distinction affects the
measurement of profit in a number of accounting periods.
Capital has been defined by economists as those assets which are used in the production of goods and rendering
of services for further production of assets. In accounting, on the other hand, the capital of a business is increased
by that portion of the periodic income which has not been consumed by the owner.
The relationship between capital and revenue is that of between a tree and its fruits. It is the tree which produces
the fruits, and it is the fruit that can be consumed. If the tree is tendered with care, it will produce more fruits,
conversely, if the tree is destroyed, there will be no more fruits. Likewise, revenue comes out of capital and capital
is the source of revenue. Capital is invested by a person in the business so that it may produce revenue. Moreover,
as a fruit may give birth to another new tree, different revenues may also produce further new capital.
Capital can be brought in by a person into the business in different forms-cash or kind. When capital is brought in
the form of cash, it is spent away on various items of assets that make the business a running concern. Capital of
the firm is thus, represented by its inventory of assets.
Capital of a business can be increased in a two fold way:
1. When the owner brings in more capital to the business; and/or
2. When the owner does not consume the entire periodic income.
When the owner brings in further capital to his business, the amount is credited to the Capital Account. Likewise,
the net income for a period is credited to the Capital Account, and if his drawings are less than that income, the
capital is increased by the difference. Example, Capital ` 500, Profit ` 300, drawings ` 350. So the revised capital
will be ` 450 (` 500 + ` 300 - ` 350)
The difference between the two terms ‘revenue’ and ‘receipt’ should be carefully distinguished. A receipt is the
inflow of money into business, whereas revenue is the aggregate exchange value received for goods and services
provided to the customers.
Capital and Revenue Expenditures
Capital expenditure is the outflow of funds to acquire an asset that will benefit the business for more than one
accounting period. A capital expenditure takes place when an asset or service is acquired or improvement of a
fixed asset is effected. These assets are expected to provide benefits to the business in more than one accounting
period and are not intended for resale in the ordinary course of business. In short, it is an expenditure on assets
which is not written off completely against income in the accounting period in which it is acquired.
Revenue expenditure is the outflow of funds to meet the running expenses of a business and it will be of benefit for
the current period only. A revenue expenditure is incurred to carry on the normal course of business or maintain
the capital assets in a good condition.
It may be pointed out here that an expenditure need not necessarily be a payment made to somebody in
cash - it may be made by the exchange of another asset, or by assuming a liability. Expenditure incurrence
and expenditure recognition are distinct phenomena. Expenditure incurrence refers to the receipt of goods and
services, whereas expenditure recognition is a matter to be decided whether the expenditure is of capital or
revenue nature. For example, the buying of an asset is a capital expenditure but charging depreciation against
profit is a revenue expenditure, over the entire life of that asset. On the application of periodicity, accrual and
matching concepts, accountants identify all revenue expenditures for a given period for ascertaining profit. An
expenditure which cannot be identified to a particular accounting period is considered of capital nature.
The accounting treatment of capital and revenue expenditure are as under:
Revenue expenditures are charged as an expense against profit in the year they are incurred or recognised.
Capital Expenditures are capitalised-added to an Asset Account.
The following are the points of distinction between Capital Expenditure and Revenue Expenditure:
installation charges, the total cost of the machine comes upto ` 5,60,000. Similarly, if a building is purchased for
`1,00,000 and ` 5,000 is spent on registration and stamp duty, the capital expenditure on the building stands at
`1,05,000.
If an expenditure is incurred, to increase earning capacity of a business that will be considered as of capital
nature. For example, expenditure incurred for shifting the factory for easy supply of raw materials. Here, the cost
of such shifting will be a capital expenditure.
Preliminary expenses incurred before the commencement of business is considered capital expenditure. For
example, legal charges paid for drafting the memorandum and articles of association of a company or brokerage
paid to brokers, or commission paid to underwriters for raising capital.
Thus, one useful way of recognising an expenditure as capital is to see that the business will own something which
qualifies as an asset at the end of the accounting period.
Likewise, issue of shares at a premium is also a capital profit. Revenue profits are distributed to the owners of the
business or transferred to General Reserve Account, being shown in the balance sheet as a retained earning.
Capital profits are generally capitalised-transferred to a capital reserve account which can only be utilised for
setting off capital losses in future. Capital profits of a small amount (arising out of selling of one asset) is taken to
the Profit and Loss Account and added with the revenue profit-applying the concept of materiality.
Capital and Revenue Losses
While ascertaining losses, revenue losses are differentiated from capital losses, just as revenue profits are distinguished
from capital profits. Revenue losses arise from the normal course of business by selling the merchantable at a price
less than its purchase price or cost of goods sold or where there is a declining in the current value of inventories.
Capital losses may result from the sale of assets, other than inventory for less than written down value or the
diminution or elimination of assets other than as the result of use or sale (flood, fire, etc.) or in connection with
raising capital of the business (issue of shares at a discount) or on the settlement of liabilities for a consideration
more than its book value (debenture issued at par but redeemed at a premium). Treatment of capital losses
are same as that of capital profits. Capital losses arising out of sale of fixed assets generally appear in the Profit
and Loss Account (being deducted from the net profit). But other capital losses are adjusted against the capital
profits. Where the capital losses are substantial, the treatment is different. These losses are generally shown on the
balance sheet as fictitious assets and the common practice is to spread that over a number of accounting years
as a charge against revenue profits till the amount is fully exhausted.
Illustration 9.
State whether the following are capital, revenue or deferred revenue expenditure.
(i) Carriage of ` 7,500 spent on machinery purchased and installed.
(ii) Heavy advertising costs of ` 20,000 spent on the launching of a company’s new product.
(iii) ` 200 paid for servicing the company vehicle, including ` 50 paid for changing the oil.
(iv) Construction of basement costing ` 1,95,000 at the factory premises.
Solution:
(i) Carriage of ` 7,500 paid for machinery purchased and installed should be treated as a Capital Expenditure.
(ii) Advertising expenses for launching a new product of the company should be treated as a Revenue
Expenditure. (As per AS-26)
(iii) ` 200 paid for servicing and oil change should be treated as a Revenue Expenditure.
(iv) Construction cost of basement should be treated as a Capital Expenditure.
Illustration 10.
Classify the following items as capital or revenue expenditure :
(i) An extension of railway tracks in the factory area;
(ii) Wages paid to machine operators;
(iii) Installation costs of new production machine;
(iv) Materials for extension to foremen’s offices in the factory;
(v) Rent paid for the factory;
(vi) Payment for computer time to operate a new stores control system,
(vii) Wages paid to own employees for building the foremen’s offices. Give reasons for your classification.
Solution :
(i) Expenses incurred for extension of railway tracks in the factory area should be treated as a Capital Expenditure
because it will yield benefit for more than one accounting period.
(ii) Wages paid to machine operators should be treated as a Revenue Expenditure as it will yield benefit for the
current period only.
(iii) Installation costs of new production machine should be treated as a Capital Expenditure because it will
benefit the business for more than one accounting period.
(iv) Materials for extension to foremen’s offices in the factory should be treated as a Capital Expenditure because
it will benefit the business for more than one accounting period.
(v) Rent paid for the factory should be treated as a Revenue Expenditure because it will benefit only the current
period.
(vi) Payment for computer time to operate a new stores control system should be treated as Revenue Expenditure
because it has been incurred to carry on the normal business.
(vii) Wages paid for building foremen’s offices should be treated as a Capital Expenditure because it will benefit
the business for more than one accounting period.
Illustration 11.
State with reasons whether the following are Capital Expenditure or Revenue Expenditure:
(i) Expenses incurred in connection with obtaining a licence for starting the factory were ` 10,000.
(ii) ` 1,000 paid for removal of stock to a new site.
(iii) Rings and Pistons of an engine were changed at a cost of ` 5,000 to get full efficiency.
(iv) ` 2,000 spent as lawyer’s fee to defend a suit claiming that the firm’s factory site belonged to the Plaintiff. The
suit was not successful.
(v) ` 10,000 were spent on advertising the introduction of a new product in the market, the benefit of which will
be effective during four years.
(vi) A factory shed was constructed at a cost of ` 1,00,000. A sum of ` 5,000 had been incurred for the construction
of the temporary huts for storing building materials.
Solution :
(i) ` 10,000 incurred in connection with obtaining a license for starting the factory is a Capital Expenditure. It is
incurred for acquiring a right to carry on business for a long period.
(ii) ` 1,000 incurred for removal of stock to a new site is treated as a Revenue Expenditure because it is not
enhancing the value of the asset and it is also required for starting the business on the new site.
(iii) ` 5,000 incurred for changing Rings and Pistons of an engine is a Revenue Expenditure because, the change
of rings and piston will restore the efficiency of the engine only and it will not add anything to the capacity
of the engine.
(iv) ` 2,000 incurred for defending the title to the firm’s assets is a Revenue Expenditure.
(v) ` 10,000 incurred on advertising is to be treated as a Revenue Expenditure. [As per As-26]
(vi) Cost of construction of Factory shed of ` 1,00,000 is a Capital Expenditure, similarly cost of construction of
small huts for storing building materials is also a Capital Expenditure.
Illustration 12.
State clearly how you would deal with the following in the books of a Company :
(i) The redecoration expenses ` 6,000.
(ii) The installation of a new Coffee-making Machine for ` 10,000.
(iii) The building of an extension of the club dressing room for ` 15,000.
(iv) The purchase of snacks & food stuff ` 2,000.
(v) The purchase of V.C.R. and T.V. for the use in the club lounge for ` 15,000.
Solution :
(i) The redecoration expenses of ` 6,000 shall be treated as a Revenue Expenditure.
(ii) The installation of a new Coffee - Making Machine is a Capital Expenditure because it is the acquisition of an
asset.
(iii) ` 15,000 spent for the extension of club dressing room is a Capital Expenditure because it creates an asset of
a permanent nature.
(iv) The purchase of snacks & food stuff of ` 2,000 is a Revenue Expenditure.
(v) The purchase of V.C.R. and T.V. for ` 15,000 is a Capital Expenditure, because it is the acquisition of assets.
Double Entry System, Books of Prime Entry, Subsidiary Books:
Double Entry System -
Books of Prime Entry
A journal is often referred to as Book of Prime Entry or the book of original entry. In this book transactions are
recorded in their chronological order. The process of recording transaction in a journal is called as ‘Journalisation’.
The entry made in this book is called a ‘journal entry’.
Functions of Journal
(i) Analytical Function: Each transaction is analysed into the debit aspect and the credit aspect. This helps to
find out how each transaction will financially affect the business.
(ii) Recording Function: Accountancy is a business language which helps to record the transactions based on
the principles. Each such recording entry is supported by a narration, which explain, the transaction in simple
language. Narration means to narrate – i.e. to explain. It starts with the word – Being …
(iii) Historical Function: It contains a chronological record of the transactions for future references.
Advantages of Journal
The following are the advantages of a journal :
(i) Chronological Record : It records transactions as and when it happens. So it is possible to get a detailed day-
to-day information.
(ii) Minimising the possibility of errors : The nature of transaction and its effect on the financial position of the
business is determined by recording and analyzing into debit and credit aspect.
(iii) Narration : It means explanation of the recorded transactions.
(iv) Helps to finalise the accounts : Journal is the basis of ledger posting and the ultimate Trial Balance.
(v) The Trial balance helps to prepare the final accounts.
(vi) The specimen of a journal book is shown below.
Explanation of Journal
(i) Date Column: This column contains the date of the transaction.
(ii) Particulars: This column contains which account is to be debited and which account is to be credited. It is
also supported by an explanation called narration.
(iii) Voucher Number: This Column contains the number written on the voucher of the respective transaction.
(iv) Ledger Folio (L.F.): This column contains the folio (i.e. page no.) of the ledger, where the transaction is posted.
(v) Dr. Amount and Cr. Amount: This column shows the financial value of each transaction. The amount is
recorded in both the columns, since for every debit there is a corresponding and equal credit.
All the columns are filled in at the time of entering the transaction except for the column of ledger folio. This is filled
at the time of posting of the transaction to ‘ledger’. This process is explained later in this chapter.
Example:
As per voucher no. 31 of Roy Brothers, on 10.05.2013 goods of ` 50000 were purchased. Cash was paid immediately.
Ledger Folios of the Purchase A/c and Cash A/c are 5 and 17 respectively. Journal entry of the above transaction
is given bellow:
In the books of Roy Brothers
Journal Entries
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Voucher Ledger Folio Amount Amount
No. (`) (`)
10.05.2013 Purchase A/c Dr. 31 5 50,000
To, Cash A/c 17 50,000
(Being goods purchased for Cash)
Illustration 13.
Let us illustrate the journal entries for the following transactions: 2012
April
1 Mr. Vikas and Mrs. Vaibhavi who are husband and wife start consulting business by bringing in their personal
cash of ` 5,00,000 and ` 2,50,000 respectively.
10 Bought office furniture of ` 25,000 for cash. Bill No. - 2013/F/3
11 Opened a current account with Punjab National Bank by depositing ` 1,00,000
15 Paid office rent of ` 15,000 for the month by cheque to M/s Realtors Properties. Voucher No. 3
20 Bought a motor car worth ` 4,50,000 from Millennium Motors by making a down payment of ` 50,000 by
cheque and the balance by taking a loan from HDFC Bank. Voucher No. M/13/7
25 Vikas and Vaibhavi carried out a consulting assignment for Avon Pharmaceuticals and raised a bill for `
10,00,000 as consultancy fees. Bill No. B13/4/1 raised. Avon Pharmaceuticals have immediately settled `
2,50,000 by way of cheque and the balance will be paid after 30 days. The cheque received is deposited
into Bank.
30 Salary of one receptionist @ ` 5,000 per month and one officer @ ` 10,000 per month. The salary for the current
month is payable to them.
Solution:
The entries for these transactions in a journal will look like:
In the Books of Vikash & Vaibhavi
Journal Entries Journal Folio-1
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Voucher L.F Amount (`) Amount (`)
number
01-04-2013 Cash A/c Dr. 1 7,50,000
To Vikas’s Capital A/c 2 5,00,000
To Vaibhavi’s Capital A/c 3 2,50,000
(Being capital brought in by the partners)
10-04-2013 Furniture A/c Dr. 2013/F/3 4 25,000
To Cash A/c 1 25,000
(Being furniture purchased in cash)
11-04-2013 Punjab National Bank A/c Dr. 5 1,00,000
To Cash A/c 1 1,00,000
(Being current account opened with Punjab
National Bank by depositing cash)
Dr. Cr.
(1) Cash A/c Dr 5,000
To Sales A/c 5,000
(2) X A/c Dr 5,000
To Cash A/c 5,000
X A/c Dr 5,000
To Sales A/c 5,000
Receipts Payments
Date Particulars L.F. Cash Date Particulars L.F. Cash
Receipts Payments
Date Particulars L.F. Cash Disc. Date Particulars L.F. Cash Disc.
Allowed Received
Double Column Cash Book containing contra transaction and cheque transaction
The double column Cash book has columns on both the sides of the Cash book. This cash book can have two
columns on both the sides as under :
(a) Cash and Discount Columns,
(b) Cash and Bank columns,
(c) Bank and Discount columns.
(I) Contra Transactions
Transactions which relates to allowing discount or receiving discount in cash after the settlement of the dues are
known as Contra Transactions.
Example:
1. Cash deposited in to Bank
Bank A/c Dr.
To Cash A/c
Let us see an illustration for the following cash and bank transactions in the books of Mr. Abhishek
January 1 Opening cash balance was ` 3,800 and bank balance was ` 27,500
January 4 Wages paid in cash ` 1,500
January 5 received cheque of ` 19,800 from KBK enterprises after allowing discount of ` 200
January 7 Paid consultancy charges by cheque for ` 7,500
January 10 Cash of ` 2,500 withdrawn from bank
January 12 Received a cheque for ` 4,500 in full settlement of the account of Mr. X at a discount of 10% and
deposited the same into the Bank.
January 15 X’s cheque returned dishonoured by the Bank
In the Books of Mr. Abhishek
Dr. Cash Book Cr.
Receipts Payments
Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank Discount Date Particulars L.F. Cash Bank Discount
(`) (`) Allowed (`) (`) received
(`) (`)
1-Jan Opening Balance 3,800 27,500 4-Jan Wages paid 1,500
5-Jan Recd from KBK 19,800 200 7-Jan Consultancy fees 7,500
10-Jan Cash withdrawn 2,500 10-Jan Cash withdrawn 2,500
12-Jan Mr. X 4,500 500 15-Jan Mr. X 4,500 500
Closing balance 4,800 37,300
6,300 51,800 700 6,300 51,800 500
Please note that the balance of discount columns is not taken and these are posted directly to the respective
ledger account separately. The balance of cash and bank columns are posted into cash and bank accounts
periodically. The posting into ledger is explained later in this chapter.
Purchase Day Book
The purchase day book records the transactions related to credit purchase of goods only. It follows that any cash
purchase or purchase of things other than goods is not recorded in the purchase day book. Periodically, the totals
of Purchase Day Book are posted to Purchase Account in the ledger. The specimen Purchase Day Book is given
below:
In the Books of .........
Purchase Day Book
The format for Purchase Return is exactly the same; hence separate illustration is not given.
Let us see an illustration for following transactions for a furniture shop:
1. Bought 20 tables @ ` 500 per table from Majestic Appliances on credit @ 12% trade discount as per invoice
number 22334 on 2nd March.
2. Purchased three dozen chairs @ ` 250 each from Metro chairs as per invoice number 1112 on 4th March.
3. Second hand furniture bought from Modern Furnitures on credit as per invoice number 375 for ` 1200 on 7th
March.
4. Purchased seven book racks from Mayur Furnitures for ` 4900 paid for in cash on 6th March.
5. Purchased Machinery for ` 30000 from Kirloskar Ltd on 9th March as per invoice number 37.
Other Subsidiary Books – Returns Inward, Return Outward, Biils Receivable,Bills Payable.
(i) Return Inward Book- The transactions relating to goods which are returned by the customers for various reasons,
such as not according to sample, or not up to the mark etc contain in this book. It is also known as Sales Return
Book.
Generally when a customer returns good to suppliers he issues a Debit Note for the value of the goods returned by
him. Similarly the supplier who receives those goods issues a Credit Note.
Returns Inward Day Book
Date Particulars Outward L.F. Details Totals Remarks
Invoice
(ii) Return Outward Book- This book contains the transactions relating to goods that are returned by us to our
creditors e.g. goods broken in transit, not according to the sample etc. It’s also known as Purchase Return Book.
Return Outward Day Book
(iii) Bills Receivable Book- It is such a book where all bills received are recorded and therefrom posted directly
to the credit of the respective customer’s account. The total amounts of the bills so received during the period
(either at the end of the week or month) is to be posted in one sum to the debit of Bills Receivable A/c.
Bills Receivable Day Book
No. of Date of From Name Name Name of Date of Due L.F. Amount How
Bills Receipt whom of the of Acceptor Bill Date of Bill disposed
of Bill Receiver Drawer off
(iv) Bills Payable Book- Here all the particulars relating to bills accepted are recorded and therefrom posted
directly to the debit of the respective creditor’s account. The total amounts of the bills so accepted during the
period (either at the end of the week or month) is to be posted in one sum to the credit of Bills Payable A/c.
Bills Payable Day Book
No. Date of To Name of Name Where Date Term Due L.F. Amount How
of Acceptance whom Drawer of the Payable of Bill Date of Bill disposed
Bills given Payee off
Journal Proper
We know that usual transactions are recorded in primary books of accounts. If any transaction is not recorded in
the primary books the same is recorded in Journal Proper. It includes Credit Purchase and Credit Sales of Assets;
Transfer Entries; Opening Entries; Closing Entries; Adjusting Entries and Rectification of Errors.
However, these are explained in subsequent Para.
Ledger Accounts
Ledger is the main book or principal book of account. The entries into ledger accounts travel through the route of
journal and subsidiary books. The ledger book contain all accounts viz. assets, liabilities, incomes or gains, expenses
or losses, owner’s capital and owner’s equity. The ledger is the book of final entry and hence is a permanent
record. There is a systematic way in which transactions are posted into a ledger account. Once the transactions
are posted for an accounting period, the ledger accounts are balanced (i.e. the difference between debit side
and credit side is calculated). These balances are used to ultimately prepare the financial statement like Profit
and Loss A/c and Balance Sheet. The ledger may also be divided as General ledger and Sub-ledgers. While the
General Ledger will have all ledger accounts, the sub-ledgers will have individual accounts of customers and
suppliers. If there are 10 customers, the general ledger will not have 10 individual accounts for each customer.
Instead, these 10 customer account will exist in what is called as ‘Receivables or Debtors Ledger’ and the general
ledger will have only one account that represents the customers. This is named as Debtors Control Account. Similar
is the case of supplier accounts. Such sub-ledgers are necessary for better control over individual accounts. Also,
this will avoid the general ledger from becoming too big, especially when number of customers and suppliers is
large.
The specimen of a typical ledger account is given below.
The student should clearly understand the nature of debit and credit.
A debit denotes:
(a) In the case of a person that he has received some benefit against which he has already rendered some
service or will render service in future. When a person becomes liable to do something in favour of the firm,
the fact is recorded by debiting that person’s account : (relating to Personal Account)
(b) In case of goods or properties, that the value and the stock of such goods or properties has increased,
(relating to Real Accounts)
(c) In case of other accounts like losses or expenses, that the firm has incurred certain expenses or has lost
money. (relating to Nominal Account)
A credit denotes:
(a) In case of a person, that some benefit has been received from him, entitling him to claim from the firm a
return benefit in the form of cash or goods or service. When a person becomes entitled to money or money’s
worth for any reason. The fact is recorded by crediting him (relating to Personal Account)
(b) In the case of goods or properties, that the stock and value of such goods or properties has decreased.
(relating to Real Accounts)
(c) In case of other accounts like interest or dividend or commission received, or discount received, that the firm
has made a gain (relating to Nominal Account)
At a glance:
Let us now understand the mechanism of posting transaction into the ledger account. Consider the transaction:
Rent paid in cash for ` 10,000. The journal entry for this transaction would be:
Jan 15 Rent A/c Dr. 10,000
To, Cash A/c 10,000
We will open two ledger accounts namely Rent A/c and Cash A/c. Let us see how the posting is made
Rent Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
Jan15 To, Cash A/c 10,000
Cash Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
Jan 15 By Rent A/c 10,000
Please observe the following conventions while posting a transaction into ledger accounts. Note that both the
effects of an entry must be recorded in the ledger accounts simultaneously.
(1) The posting in the account which is debited, is done on the debit side by writing the name of the account or
accounts that are credited with the prefix ‘To’.
(2) The posting in the account which is credited, is done on the credit side by writing the name of the account
or accounts that are debited with the prefix ‘By’.
Let us now see how we can create ledger account for the seven journal entries that we passed for Illustration 18.
Folio No. 1
Folio No. 2
Dr. Mr. Vikas’s Capital Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
30.4.2013 To Balance c/d 5,00,000 1.4.2013 By Cash A/c 1 5,00,000
5,00,000 5,00,000
1.5.2013 By Balance b/d 5,00,000
Folio No. 3
Dr. Mrs. Vaibhavi’s Capital Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
1.4.2013 By Cash A/c 1 2,50,000
Folio No. 4
Dr. Furniture Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
10.04.2013 To Cash 25,000
Folio No. 5
Dr. Punjab National Bank Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
11.4.2013 To Cash A/c 1 1,00,000 15.4.2013 By Rent A/c 1 15,000
25.4.2013 To Consultancy Fees A/c 1 2,50,000 20.4.2013 By Motor Car A/c 1 50,000
Folio No. 6
Dr. Rent Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
15.4.2013 To Punjab National Bank A/c 1 15,000
Folio No. 7
Dr. Motor Car Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
20.4.2013 To Punjab National Bank A/c 1 50,000
“ To Loan from HDFC Bank A/c 1 4,00,000
Folio No. 8
Dr. Loan from HDFC Bank Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
20.4.2013 By Motor Car A/c 1 4,00,000
Folio No. 9
Dr. Avon Pharmaceuticals Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
25.4.2013 To Consultancy Fees A/c 1 7,50,000
Folio No. 10
Dr. Consultancy Fees Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
25.4.2013 By Punjab National Bank A/c 1 2,50,000
25.4.2013 By Avon Pharmaceuticals A/c 1 7,50,000
Folio No. 11
Dr. Salary Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
30.4.2013 To Salary payable A/c 1 15,000
Folio No. 12
Dr. Salary Payable Account Cr.
Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`) Date Particulars J. F. Amount (`)
30.4.2013 By Salary A/c 1 15,000
Please carefully observe the posting of journal entries into various ledger accounts. Do you see some further
calculation in the cash A/c and Mr. Vikas’s Capital A/c? What is done is that after posting all transactions to
these accounts, the difference between the debit and credit sides is calculated. This difference is put on the
side with smaller amount in order to tally grand totals of both sides. The convention is to write “To Balance c/d” or
“By Balance c /d” as the case may be. This procedure is normally done at the end of an accounting period. This
process is called as “balancing of ledger accounts’.
Once the ledgers are balanced for one accounting period, the balance needs to be carried forward to the next
accounting period as a running balance. This is done by writing “To Balance b/d” or “By balance b/d” as the case
may be after the grand totals. This is also shown in the Cash A/c and Mr. Vikas’s Capital Account.
Could you now attempt to balance the other ledger accounts and carry the balances to the next accounting
period?
Important note : Please remember that the balances of personal and real accounts only are carried down to the
next accounting period as they represent resources and obligations of the business which will continue to be used
and settled respectively in future. Balances of nominal accounts (which represent incomes or gains and expenses
or losses) are not carried down to the next period. These balances are taken to the Profit and Loss Account (or
Income statement) prepared for the period. The net result of the P & L Account will show either net income or net
loss which will increase or decrease the owner’s equity.
In the above example, please note that the balances of Rent A/c, Consultancy Fees Account and Salary Account
will not be carried down to the next period, but to the P & L Account of that period.
Posting to Ledger Accounts from Subsidiary books
In the above section, we explained posting to ledger accounts directly on the basis of journal entries. In practice,
however, we know that use of subsidiary books is in vogue. Let us see how the posting to ledger accounts is done
based on these records.
For each of the subsidiary books, there is a ledger account e.g. for purchase book, there is Purchase Account, for
sales book there’s Sales A/c, for cash book there will be Cash A/c as well as Bank A/c and so on.
Let us continue with illustration seen in the section 1.17.3.1.3 above and post the totals into respective ledger
accounts. It considered that there was a Purchase of ` 19,000 and Sales of ` 1,72,500.
Transaction
Customers’ Sub-ledger General ledger
Such separation is made for better control. A person in charge of customer accounting is given responsibility of
all individual customer accounting in the Customers sub-ledger, whereas another person be given responsibility
for Suppliers’ sub-ledger. In bigger organizations this division of labour is an absolute necessity. The person looking
after General ledger is different.
Simultaneous posting of transactions into sub-ledgers A/cs and representative A/cs in general ledger may be quite
tedious in manual accounting. But computerised accounting automates this process as well.
Subdivisions of Ledger
Practically, the Ledger may be divided into two groups -
(a) Personal Ledger & (b) Impersonal Ledger. They are again sub-divided as :
LEDGER
Personal Ledger: The ledger where the details of all transactions about the persons who are related to the
accounting unit, are recorded, is called the Personal Ledger.
Impersonal Ledger: The Ledger where details of all transactions about assets, incomes & expenses etc. are
recorded, is called Impersonal Ledger.
Again, Personal Ledger may be divided into two groups:
Viz. (a) Debtors’ Ledger, & (b) Creditors’ Ledger.
(a) Debtors’ Ledger: The ledger where the details of transactions about the persons to whom goods are sold,
cash is received, etc. are recorded, is called Debtors’ Ledger.
(b) Creditors’ Ledger: The ledger where the details of transactions about the persons from whom goods are
purchased on credit, pay to them etc. are recorded, is called Creditors’ Ledger.
Impersonal Ledger may, again be divided into two group, viz, (a) Cash Book; and (b) General Ledger.
(a) Cash Book: The Book where all cash & bank transactions are recorded, is called Cash Book.
(b) General Ledger: The ledger where all transactions relating to real accounts, nominal accounts, details of
Debtors’ Ledger and Creditors’ Ledger are recorded, is called General Ledger.
General Ledger may, again, be divided into two groups. Viz, Nominal Ledger; & Private Ledger.
(a) Nominal Ledger: The ledger where all transactions relating to incomes and expenses are recorded, is called
Nominal Ledger.
(b) Private Ledger: The Ledger where all transactions relating to assets and liabilities are recorded, is called
Private Ledger.
It can be seen that the totals of debit and credit balances is exactly matching. This is the result of double entry
book-keeping wherein every debit has equal corresponding credit.
Feature’s of a Trial Balance
1. It is a list of debit and credit balances which are extracted from various ledger accounts.
2. It is a statement of debit and credit balances.
3. The purpose is to establish arithmetical accuracy of the transactions recorded in the Books of Accounts.
4. It does not prove arithmetical accuracy which can be determined by audit.
5. It is not an account. It is only a statement of account.
6. It is not a part of the final statements.
7. It is usually prepared at the end of the accounting year but it can also be prepared anytime as and when
required like weekly, monthly, quarterly or half-yearly.
8. It is a link between books of accounts and the Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet.
Preparation of Trial Balance:
1. It may be prepared on a loose sheet of paper.
2. The ledger accounts are balanced at first. They will have either “debit-balance” or “credit balance” or “nil-
balance”.
3. The accounts having debit-balance is written on the debit column and those having credit-balance are
written on the credit column.
The sum total of both the balances must be equal, for “Every debit has its corresponding and equal credit”.
Purpose of a Trial Balance
It serves the following purposes :
1. To check the arithmetical accuracy of the recorded transactions.
2. To ascertain the balance of any Ledger Account.
3. To serve as an evidence of fact that the double entry has been completed in respect of every transaction.
4. To facilitate the preparation of final accounts promptly.
Is Trial Balance indispensable?
It is a mere statement prepared by the accountants for his own convenience and if it agrees, it is assumed that at
least arithmetical accuracy has been done although there may be a lot of errors.
Trial Balance is not a process of accounts, but its preparation helps us to finalise the accounts. Since it is prepared
on a particular date, as at ........ / as on ........ is stated.
Trial Balance – Utility and Interpretation
The utility of Trial balance could be found in the following:
(1) It forms the basis for preparation of Financial Statements i.e. Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet.
(2) A tallied trial balance ensures the arithmetical accuracy of the entries made. If the trial balance does not
tally, the errors can be found out, rectified and then financial statements can be prepared.
(3) It acts as a quick reference. One can easily find out the balance in any ledger account without actually
referring to the ledger.
(4) If the listing of ledger accounts is systematically done in the trial balance, one can do quick time analysis.
Hence, listing is usually done in the sequence of Asset accounts, Liability accounts, Capital accounts, Owner’s
equity accounts, Income or gain accounts and Expenses or losses accounts in that order.
One can draw some quick inferences from trial balance by interpreting the same. If one plots monthly trial balances
side by side, one can analyse the movement of balances in various accounts e.g. one can see how expenses
are increasing or decreasing or showing a trend of movements. By comparing the owner’s equity balances as on
two dates, one can interpret the business result e.g. if the equity has gone up, one can interpret that business has
earned net profit and vice versa.
Insurance ` 2,000 ; Depreciation ` 4,000 ; Cash at Bank ` 80,000 ; Loan A/c (Cr) ` 66,000; Profit & Loss A/c(Cr) `
20,000; Bad Debts Recovered ` 2,000 ; Stock at 31.03.2013 ` 1,20,000; Interest Received ` 10,000; Accrued Interest
` 4,000; Investment ` 20,000; Provision for Bad Debts (01.04.2012) ` 6,000 ; General Reserve ` 20,000.
Solution:
Trial Balance of Mr. Sen
Dr. as on 31st March, 2013 Cr.
Heads of Accounts Amount (`) Heads of Accounts Amount (`)
Adjusted Purchase 8,00,000 Capital 80,000
Petty Cash 10,000 Sales 10,00,000
Sales Ledger Balance 1,20,000 Current A/c 10,000
Salaries 24,000 Purchase Ledger Balance 60,000
Carriage Inward 4,000 Outstanding Expenses 10,000
Discount Allowed 10,000 Loan A/c 66,000
Building 80,000 Profit & Loss A/c(cr) 20,000
Prepaid Insurance 2,000 Bad Debts Recovered 2,000
Depreciation 4,000 Interest Received 10,000
Cash at Bank 80,000 Provision for Bad debts 6,000
Stock (31.03.2013) 1,20,000 General Reserve 20,000
Accrued Interest 4,000
Investment 20,000
Carriage outward 6,000
12,84,000 12,84,000
Note: Closing Stock will appear in Trial Balance since there is adjusted purchase.
Adjusted purchase = Opening Stock + Purchase - Closing Stock.
It may be noted that if only adjusted purchase is considered then the matching concept is affected. Hence, to
satisfy the matching concept, closing stock is also considered in Trial Balance.
Measurement, Valuation and Accounting Estimates
At the end of the last section, it was stated that Trial Balance forms the basis for preparing financial statements.
However, there are certain other tasks that have to be completed before these final accounts are prepared. You
know that accounting entries are made on the basis of actual transactions carried out during an accounting
period. These are all included in the trial balance. However, there could be certain other business realities which
are to be recognized as either asset, liability, income, gain, expense, loss or a combination thereof. As we know
the matching concept necessitates the consideration of all aspects which may affect the financial result of the
business. Technically these are called as adjustments for which entries need to be passed, without which the
financial statements will not give a true and fair view of business activity. We discuss some of these entries and
adjustments in the following sections.
Before discussing these, let us understand the meaning of Income Statement and Balance Sheet.
Income Statement shows income & Balance Sheet shows assets and liabilities
gains and expenses & losses for an & owner’s equity. Profit or loss from income
accounting period. The net result is statement is added or deducted from
profit or loss. owner’s capital or equity.
Depending on the nature of business, the income statement is prepared in different forms like:
(a) In case of manufacturing concern, a Manufacturing, Trading and P & L A/c is prepared.
(b) In case of a trading or service organization, a Trading and P & L A/c is prepared.
The Manufacturing or Trading Accounts show Gross margins (or gross losses) and the P & L A/c shows Net Profit or
Net Loss.
The Balance Sheet exhibits the list of assets (which indicate resources owned) and the liabilities & owners’capital
and equity (which shows how the resources are funded).
For company type of organizations, standard formats for P & L and Balance Sheet are given in the Companies Act
that is to be adhered to. The accounting should be as per the prescribed Accounting Standards.
Closing Stock
We know when goods are purchased for resale we include them in Purchases A/c, while goods sold are shown in
Sales A/c. At the end of accounting period, some of these goods may remain unsold. If we show the entire cost of
purchases in income statement, it will not be as per the matching concept. We should only show the cost of those
goods that are sold during the period. The balance cost should be carried forward to the next accounting period
through the balance sheet. How should the closing stock be valued? According to the conservative principle,
the stock is valued at lower of cost or market price. If cost of stock is ` 125000 and its realizable market price is only
` 115000, then the value considered is ` 115000 only. What it means is the difference of ` 10000 is charged off to the
current periods profits.
Students are advised to refer to Accounting Standard 2 - ‘Valuation of Inventories’ to get thorough knowledge.
Please remember the closing stock figure does not appear in the trial balance, but is valued and directly taken to
the P & L A/c. The entry passed for this is:
In solving the examination problem, this entry is not actually passed, but the effect of its outcome is given. Here,
one effect is “show closing stock as asset in Balance Sheet” and second effect is “show it on the credit side of
Trading A/c”.
Note : But, if the closing stock appears in the debit side of Trial Balance, it means it has already been adjusted
against purchases. In that case, the closing stock will appear only in the asset side of the Balance Sheet.
Depreciation
When the business uses its assets to earn income, there is wear and tear of the asset life. Assets will have limited
life and as we go on using it, the value diminishes. Again the question to be asked is – at what value should the
asset be shown in the balance sheet? Consider a machine was bought on 1st April 2012 for ` 2,00,000. It’s used for
production activity throughout the year. When the final accounts are being prepared, at what value should it be
shown in Balance Sheet as on 31st March 2013?
Well, according to cost principle initial entry for purchase of machine is shown at cost paid for it e.g. `2,00,000 in
this case. But the fact that the machine is used must be recognized in financials. Hence the value in the Balance
sheet must be brought down to the extent of its use. This is called as Depreciation. How is it calculated? While there
are different methods of calculating depreciation (explained in subsequently), the simple idea is to spread it over
the useful life of the asset, so that at the end of its life the value is zero. In our example, if useful life of the machine
is taken as 10 years, the depreciation will be simply ` 2,00,000 ÷ 10 i.e. ` 20,000 every year. So a depreciation of
` 20,000 will be charged to the profit of every year and value of asset will be brought down by the same value.
Students are advised to refer to Accounting Standard 6 issued by ICAI to get thorough knowledge on Depreciation
accounting.
The effect given is one – include in the P & L A/c as expense for the period and two – reduce from asset value in
the Balance Sheet.
Accrued Expenses or Outstanding Expenses
There may be expenses incurred for the current accounting period, but not actually paid for. The matching
concept, however, necessitates that this expense must be recognized as expense for the current year and should
not be deferred till its actual payment. Typically, we know salary for the month is normally paid in the 1st week of
the next month. Imagine the accounting period close on 31st March. The salary for the month of March is not paid
till 31st March. But is it is related to this month, it must be booked as expense for the current month and also as a
liability payable in the next month (which is in next accounting period). This can be shown as follows:
Prepaid Expenses
At times we may pay for certain expenses which are period related. For example, the business has taken an
insurance policy against fire on which the annual premium payable is ` 75,000. The policy is taken on 1st January 2013
valid till 31st December 2013. But the company’s accounting period ends on 31st March 2013. When considering
the insurance expense for the accounting year, what amount should be considered? See the following.
As can be seen, out of the total premium period of 12 months, only 3 months are related to the current accounting
period and the remaining 9 months’ premium is related to the next accounting period. Hence only 3 months’
premium is to be considered as expense for the current year i.e. ` 18750 (75000 ÷ 4).
The entry for this is:
Accrued Incomes
Just as expenses accrue, there are instances of income getting accrued at the end of accounting period. The
extent to which it accrues, it must be booked as income for the current accounting period. Consider, the business
has put a One year fixed deposit of ` 1,00,000 with Citi Bank at a fixed interest of 9 % p.a. on 1st February 2013 and
the interest is credited by the bank on a semi-annual basis. Also, consider that the accounting period ends on 31st
March 2013. The Citi bank will credit the 1st semi-annual interest on 31st July 2013 and the next on 31st January
2014. Now, consider the following:
31st Mar
10 months
2 months
It can be noticed that interest for the 2 months will be considered as accrued as on 31st of March 2013 and must
be taken as income for the current accounting year.
The entry for this is:
Accrued Interest A/c Dr.
To Interest A/c
The two effects while preparing final accounts are:
One – Show as income in the P & L A/c and two – show as an asset in the Balance Sheet.
Income Received in Advance
If an income is received which is not related to the current accounting period, it cannot be included in the current
year’s P & L A/c. So, if it’s already included as income it must be reduced. The entry for this is:
Respective Income A/c Dr.
To Income received in advance A/c
The effects while preparing final account are:
One – Reduce from respective income and two – show it as liability in Balance Sheet.
Illustration 15.
Journalize the following transactions in the books of Gaurav, post them into ledger and prepare trial balance for
June 2013 :
June 1: Gaurav started business with ` 10,00,000 of which 25% amount was borrowed from wife.
June 4: Purchased goods from Aniket worth ` 40,000 at 20% TD and 1/5th amount paid in cash.
June 7: Cash purchases ` 25,000.
June 10: Sold goods to Vishakha ` 30,000 at 30% TD and received 30% amount in cash.
June 12: Deposited cash into bank ` 20,000.
June 15: Uninsured goods destroyed by fire ` 5,500.
June 19: Received commission ` 3,500.
A business or concern holds fixed assets for regular use and not for resale. The capability of a fixed asset to render
service cannot be unlimited. Except land, all other fixed assets have a limited useful life. The benefit of a fixed asset
is received throughout its useful life. So its cost is the price paid for the ‘Series of Services’ to be received or enjoyed
from it over a number of years and it should be spread over such years.
Depreciation means gradual decrease in the value of an asset due to normal wear and tear, obsolescence etc. In
short, depreciation means the gradual diminution, loss or shrinkage in the utility value of an asset due to wear and
tear in use, effluxion of time or introduction of technology in the market. A certain percentage of total cost of fixed
assets which has expired and as such turned into expense during the process of its use in a particular accounting
period.
“Depreciation accounting is a system of accounting which aims to distribute the cost or other basic value of
tangible capital assets, less salvage (if any), over the estimated useful life of the unit (which may be a group of
assets) in a systematic and rational manner. It is a process of allocation, not of valuation. Depreciation for the year
is the portion of the total charge under such a system that is allocated to the year. Although the allocation may
properly take into account occurrences during the year, it is not intended to be the measurement of the effect of
all such occurrences.”
The above definition may be criticized as under:
(i) It does not classify properly what is meant by systematic and rational manner. The word ‘rational’ may mean
that it should reasonably be related to the expected benefits in any case.
(ii) Historical cost and any other kind of cost should be allocated or not does not defined by this definition.
(iii) Some Accountants are in a belief that depreciation is nothing but an arbitrary allocation of cost. According
to them, all the conventional methods say allocation of historical cost over a number of years is arbitrary.
Certain Useful Terms
Amortization - Intangible assets such as goodwill, trademarks and patents are written off over a number of
accounting periods covering their estimated useful lives. This periodic write off is known as Amortization and that is
quite similar to depreciation of tangible assets. The term amortization is also used for writing off leasehold premises.
Amortization is normally recorded as a credit to the asset account directly or to a distinct provision for depreciation
account. Though the write off of intangibles that have no limited life is not approved by some Accountants, some
concerns do amortize such assets on the ground of conservatism.
Depletion - This method is specially suited to mines, oil wells, quarries, sandpits and similar assets of a wasting
character. In this method, the cost of the asset is divided by the total workable deposits of the mine etc. And
by following the above manner rate of depreciation can be ascertained. Depletion can be distinguishable
from depreciation in physical shrinkage or lessening of an estimated available quantity and the latter implying a
reduction in the service capacity of an asset.
Obsolescence – The term ‘Obsolescence’ refers to loss of usefulness arising from such factors as technological
changes, improvement in production methods, change in market demand for the product output of the asset or
service or legal or medical or other restrictions. It is different from depreciation or exhaustion, wear and tear and
deterioration in that these terms refer to functional loss arising out of a change in physical condition.
Dilapidation - In one sentence Dilapidation means a state of deterioration due to old age or long use. This term
refers to damage done to a building or other property during tenancy.
Nature of Depreciation
Depreciation is a term applicable in case of plant, building, equipment, machinery, furniture, fixtures, vehicles,
tools etc. These long-term or fixed assets have a limited useful life, i.e. they will provide service to the entity (in the
form of helping in the generation of revenue) over a limited number of future accounting periods. Depreciation
implies gradual decrease in the value of an asset due to normal wear and tear, obsolescence etc. In short,
depreciation means the gradual diminution, loss or shrinkage in the utility value of an asset due to wear and tear in
use, effluxion of time or introduction of technology in the market. It makes a part of the cost of assets chargeable
as an expense in profit and loss account of the accounting periods in which the assets helped in earning revenue.
Thus, International Accounting Standard (IAS)-4 provides that “Depreciation is the allocation of the depreciable
amount of an asset over its estimated useful life.”
In Accounting Research Bulletin No. 22, AICPA observed that “Depreciation for the year is the portion of the total
charge under such a system that is allocated to the year. Although the allocation may properly take into account
occurrences during the year, it is not intended to be the measurement of the effect of all such occurrences.”
Causes of Depreciation
A. Internal Causes
(i) Wear and tear : Plant & machinery, furniture, motor vehicles etc. suffer from loss of utility due to vibration,
chemical reaction, negligent handling, rusting etc.
(ii) Depletion (or exhaustion) : The utility or resources of wasting assets (like mines etc.) decreases with
regular extractions.
B. External or Economic Causes
(i) Obsolescence : Innovation of better substitutes, change in market demand, imposition of legal
restrictions may result into discarding an asset.
(ii) Inadequacy : Changes in the scale of production or volume of activities may lead to discarding an
asset.
C. Time element : With the passage of time some intangible fixed assets like lease, patents, copy-rights etc., lose
their value or effectiveness, whether used or not. The word “amortization” is a better term to speak for the
gradual fall in their values.
D. Abnormal occurrences : An accident, fire or natural calamity can damage the service potential of an asset
partly or fully. As a result the effectiveness of the asset is affected and reduced.
Characteristics of Depreciation
The Characteristics of Depreciation are:
(i) It is a charge against profit.
(ii) It indicates diminution in service potential.
(iii) It is an estimated loss of the value of an asset. It is not an actual loss.
(iv) It depends upon different assumptions, like effective life and residual value of an asset.
(v) It is a process of allocation and not of valuation.
(vi) It arises mainly from an internal cause like wear and tear or depletion of an asset. But it is treated as any
expense charged against profit like rent, salary, etc., which arise due to an external transaction.
(vii) Depreciation on any particular asset is restricted to the working life of the asset.
(viii) It is charged on tangible fixed assets. It is not charged on any current asset. For allocating the costs of
intangible fixed assets like goodwill. etc, a certain amount of their total costs may be charged against
periodic revenues. This is known as amortization.
► Depreciation as per AS 10
• Depreciable amount should be allocated on a systematic basis over useful life.
• Useful life and residual value must be reviewed at least at each financial year end. If expectations differ
from previous estimates the changes are to be accounted for as a change in an accounting estimate.
In accordance with AS-5 “Net Profit or loss for the period, Prior Period Items and Changes in Accounting
Policies” (i.e., adjusting depreciation charge for current and future periods)
• Depreciation charge for each period should be recognized as an expense unless it is included in the
carrying amount of another asset.
• AS-10 does not specify a method to be used.
• AS-10 requires that each part of an item of PPE that has a cost that is significant when compared to the
total cost of the item should be depreciated separately.
• Asset management policy may involve disposal of assets after a specified time therefore useful life may be
shorter than economic life.
• Repair and maintenance policies may also affect useful life (e.g., by extending it or increasing residual
value) but do not negate the need for depreciation.
• Residual value is estimated value of depreciable assets at the end of its useful life.
• Depreciable amount is net of residual value. Residual value is often insignificant and immaterial to the
calculation of the depreciable amount.
• Depreciation is always recognized, even if fair value exceeds carrying amount, except when residual
value is greater than carrying amount (in which case the depreciation charge is zero).
• Depreciation period
- Depreciation commences when an asset is available for use.
- Depreciation ceases at the earlier of the date the asset is:
• derecognised and
• held for disposal
• Depreciation does not cease when an asset is idle or retired from active use (unless it is fully depreciated).
However, depreciation may be zero under the “units of production method”.
• Land and buildings are separable assets and are separately accounted for, even when they are acquired
together:
- Land normally has an unlimited useful life and is therefore not depreciated.
- Buildings normally have a limited useful life and are depreciable asset.
• Where land has a limited useful life (e.g., a landfill site, mine, quarry) it is depreciated.
► Depreciation methods as per 10
- Straight line - a constant charge over useful life
- Diminishing balance - a decreasing charge over useful life
- Sum of the units - charge based on expected use or output
• The depreciation method should also be reviewed at least of each financial year end and, if there has
been a significant change in the expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits
from those assets, the method should be changed to suit this changed pattern. When such a change in
depreciation takes place the change should be accounted for as a change in accounting estimate and
the depreciation charge for the current and future periods should be adjusted.
• Three impertinent factors to be calculated:
- Useful Life
- Cost of Asset
- Residual value
• As per Schedule II of the Companies Act, 2013, depreciation to be charged on the basis of useful life
of asset. Revised AS-10 also prescribes the same. Provided that where a company adopts a useful life
different from what is specified in the Schedule or uses a residual value different from the limit specified
above, the financial statements shall disclose such difference and provide justification in this behalf duly
supported by technical advice.
Machine Cost of Expenses incurred at the time of Estimated Residual Expected Useful Life
No. Machine (`) purchase to be capitalized (`) Value (`) in years
1 90,000 10,000 20,000 8
2 24,000 7,000 3,100 6
3 1,05,000 20,000 12,500 3
4 2,50,000 30,000 56,000 5
Solution:
Machine Cost of Expenses incurred at Total Cost Estimated Expected Depreciation Rate of
No Machine the time of purchase of Asset = Residual Useful Life = (d-e)/f (`) Depreciation
(`) to be capitalize (`) (b+c) (`) Value (`) in years under SLM =
(g/d)×100
a b c d e f g h
1 90,000 10,000 1,00,000 20,000 8 10,000 10%
2 24,000 7,000 31,000 3,100 6 4,650 15%
3 1,05,000 20,000 1,25,000 12,500 5 22,500 18%
4 2,50,000 30,000 2,80,000 56,000 10 22,400 8%
Illustration 17.
A machine is purchased for ` 7,00,000. Expenses incurred on its cartage and installation ` 3,00,000. Calculate the
amount of depreciation @ 20% p.a. according to Straight Line Method for the first year ending on 31st March, 2014
if this machine is purchased on:
(a) 1st April, 2013
(b) 1st July, 2013
(c) 1st October, 2013
(d) 1st January, 2014
Solution:
Here, Total Cost of Asset = Purchased Price + Cost of Cartage and Installation
=
` 7,00,000 + ` 3,00,000 = ` 10,00,000
Amount of Depreciation:
Period from the date of purchase to date of closing accounts
= Total Cost of Asset × Rate of Depreciation ×
12
(a) The machine was purchased on 1st April, 2013:
12
Amount of Depreciation = ` 10,00,000 × 20% × = ` 2,00,000
12
Year Opening Book Value (`) Rate Depreciation (`) Closing Book Value (`)
2011 1,50,000 10% 15,000 1,35,000
2012 1,35,000 10% 13,500 1,21,500
2013 1,21,500 10% 12,150 1,09,350
Note: Cost of the machine (i.e. Opening Book Value for the year 2011)
= Cost of Purchase + Cost of Installation
= ` 1,00,000 + ` 50,000 = ` 1,50,000
Illustration 19.
A machine is purchased for `60,00,000, estimated life of which is 10 years residual value is ` 4,00,000. Expected
production of the machine is 2,00,000 during its useful life.
Production pattern is as follows:
Year Units
1-2 20,000 per year
3-6 15,000 per year
7-10 25,000 per year
Compute the amount of depreciation for each year applying Sum of the Units Method.
Solution:
Illustration 20.
On 1.1.11 machinery was purchased for ` 80,000. On 1.7.12 additions were made to the amount of ` 40,000. On
31.3.2013, machinery purchased on 1.7.2012, costing ` 12,000 was sold for ` 11,000 and on 30.06.2013 machinery
purchased on 1.1.2014 costing ` 32,000 was sold for ` 26,700. On 1.10.2013, additions were made to the amount of
` 20,000. Depreciation was provided at 10% p.a. on the Diminishing Balance Method.
Show the Machinery Accounts for three years from 2011-2013. (year ended 31st December)
Solution:
Statement of Depreciation
Date Particulars Machines – I Machines – II Machines – III Total
Cost = ` 80,000 Cost = ` 40,000 Cost = ` 20,000 Depreciation
` ` ` ` ` `
01.01.2011 Book Value 48,000 32,000
31.12.2011 Depreciation 4,800 3,200 8,000
01.01.2012 W.D.V. 43,200 28,800
01.07.2012 Purchase 28,000 12,000
31.12.2012 Depreciation 4,320 2,880 1,400 600 9,200
01.01.2013 W.D.V. 38,880 25,920 26,600 11,400
31.03.2013 Depreciation 285 285
W.D.V. 11,115
Sold For 11,000
Loss on sale 115
30.06.2013 Depreciation 1,296 1,296
W.D.V. 24,624
Sold For 26,700
Profit on Sale 2,076
01.10.2013 Purchase 20,000
31.12.2013 Depreciation 3,888 2,660 500 7,048
01.01.2014 W.D.V. 34,992 23,940 19,500
01.01.13 To, Balance b/d 1,02,800 31.3.13 By, Bank (Sale) A/c 11,000
30.06.13 ,, P & L A/c (Profit on Sale) 2,076 ,, Depreciation A/c 285
,, Bank A/c 20,000 30.6.13 ,, P & L A/c (Loss on Sale) 115
,, Bank A/c (Sale) 26,700
31.12.13 ,, Depreciation A/c 1,296
,, Depreciation A/c 7,048
,, Balance c/d 78,432
1,24,876 1,24,876
Disposal of an Asset
When an asset is sold because of obsolescence or inadequacy or any other reason, the cost of the asset is
transferred to a separate account called “Asset Disposal Account”. The following entries are to be made:
(i) When the cost of the asset is transferred:
Asset Disposal A/c Dr.
To, Asset A/c (original cost)
(ii) When depreciation provided on the asset is transferred:
Provision for Depreciation A/c Dr.
To, Asset Disposal A/c
(iii) For charging depreciation for the year of sale:
Depreciation A/c Dr.
Illustration 21.
S & Co. purchased a machine for ` 1,00,000 on 1.1.2011. Another machine costing ` 1,50,000 was purchased
on 1.7.2012. On 31.12.2013, the machine purchased on 1.1.2011 was sold for ` 50,000. The company provides
depreciation at 15% on Straight Line Method. The company closes its accounts on 31st December every year.
Prepare – (i) Machinery A/c, (ii) Machinery Disposal A/c and (iii) Provision for Depreciation A/c.
Solution:
S & Co.
Dr. Machinery Account Cr.
1.1.2013 To, Balance b/d 2,50,000 31.12.2013 By, Machinery Disposal A/c 1,00,000
31.12.2013 By, Balance c/d 1,50,000
2,50,000 2,50,000
31.12.2012 To, Balance c/d 41,250 1.1.2012 By, Balance b/d 15,000
31.12.2012 By, Depreciation A/c 26,250
(` 15,000 + ` 11,250)
41,250 41,250
31.12.2013 To, Machinery Disposal A/c 30,000 1.1.2013 By, Balance b/d 41,250
31.12.2013 To, Balance c/d 33,750 31.12.2013 By, Depreciation A/c 22,500
63,750 63,750
1.1.2014 By, Balance b/d 33,750
1,00,000 1,00,000
Working Notes
1. Depreciation for the machine purchased on 1.7.2012
For the year 2012 (used for 6 months) = ` 1,50,000 × 15% × 6/12 = ` 11,250
For the year 2013 (used for full year) = ` 1,50,000 × 15% = ` 22,500
2. Depreciation for the machine purchased on 1.1.2011
Depreciation = ` 1,00,000 × 15% = ` 15,000
So, Depreciation for 2 years = ` 15,000 × 2 = ` 30,000
Illustration 22.
On 1st April, 2011, Som Ltd. purchased a machine for `66,000 and spent `5,000 on shipping and forwarding charges,
`7,000 as import duty, `1,000 for carriage and installation, `500 as brokerage and `500 for an iron pad. It was
estimated that the machine will have a scrap value of ` 5,000 at the end of its useful life which is 15 years. On 1st
January, 2012 repairs and renewals of ` 3,000 were carried out. On 1st October, 2013 this machine was sold for `
50,000. Prepare Machinery Account for the 3 years.
Solution:
In the books of Som Ltd.
Dr. Machinery Account Cr.
01.04.2012 To, Balance b/d 75,000 31.03.2013 By, Depreciation A/c 5,000
By, Balance c/d 70,000
75,000 75,000
70,000 70,000
Working Note :
1. Total Cost = ` 66,000 + ` 5,000 + ` 7,000 + ` 1,000 + ` 500 + ` 500 = ` 80,000
Change of Method
As per AS-6, the depreciation method selected should be applied consistently from period to period. Change in
depreciation method should be made only in the following situations:
(i) For compliance of statute.
Illustration 23.
Ram Ltd. which depreciates its machinery at 10% p.a. on Diminishing Balance Method, had on 1st January,
2013 ` 9,72,000 on the debit side of Machinery Account.
During the year 2013 machinery purchased on 1st January, 2011 for ` 80,000 was sold for ` 45,000 on 1st July, 2013
and a new machinery at a cost of ` 1,50,000 was purchased and installed on the same date, installation charges
being ` 8,000.
The company wanted to change the method of depreciation from Diminishing Balance Method to Straight Line
Method with effect from 1st January, 2010. Difference of depreciation up to 31st December, 2013 to be adjusted.
The rate of depreciation remains the same as before. Show Machinery Account.
Solution:
In the books of Ram Ltd.
Dr. Machinery Account Cr.
Working Notes :
(1) At 10% depreciation on Diminishing Balance Method :
`
If balance of machinery in the beginning of the year is 10
Depreciation for the year is 1
Balance of Machinery at the end of the year 2
By using the formula, balance of asset on 1 January 2010 will be calculated as follows:
st
`
Balance as on 1 January, 2013
st
9,72,000
Balance as on 1st January, 2012 is 9,72,000 × 10/9 = 10,80,000
Balance as on 1st January, 2011 is 10,80,000 × 10/9 = 12,00,000
This balance, ` 12,00,000 is composed of 2 machines, one of ` 11,20,000 and another of ` 80,000.
`
Depreciation at 10% p.a. on Straight Line Method on ` 11,20,000 1,12,000
Total Depreciation for 2011 and 2012 (` 1,12,000 x 2) 2,24,000
Total Depreciation charged for 2011 and 2012 on Diminishing Balance Method (1,12,000 + 2,12,800
1,00,800)
Balance to be charged in 2013 to change from Diminishing Balance Method to Straight Line 11,200
Method
(2) Machine purchased on 1st January, 2011 for ` 80,000 shows the balance of ` 64,800 on 1st January
2013 as follows :
`
Purchase price 80,000
Less : Depreciation for 2011 8,000
72,000
Less : Depreciation for 2012 7,200
Balance as on Jan. 1, 2013 64,800
(3) On second machine (original purchase price ` 80,000), depreciation at 10% p.a. on ` 64,800 for 6 months, viz.,
` 3,240 has been charged to the machine on July 1 2013 i.e., on date of sale.
`
Balance of the machine as on 1.1.2013 64,800
Less : Depreciation for 6 months up to date of sale 3,240
Balance on date of sale 61,560
Less : Sale proceeds 45,000
Loss on sale 16,560
Illustration 24.
M/s. Hot and Cold commenced business on 01.07.2008. When they purchased a new machinery at a cost of
` 8,00,000. On 01.01.2010 they purchased another machinery for ` 6,00,000 and again on 01.10.2012 machinery
costing ` 15,00,000 was purchased. They adopted a method of charging depreciation @ 20% p.a. on diminishing
balance basis.
On 01.07.2012, they changed the method of providing depreciation and adopted the method of writing off
the Machinery Account at 15% p.a. under straight line method with retrospective effect from 01.07.2008, the
adjustment being made in the accounts for the year ended 30.06.2013.
The depreciation has been charged on time basis. You are required to calculate the difference in depreciation
to be adjusted in the Machinery on 01.07.2012, and show the Machinery Account for the year ended 30.06.2013.
Solution:
In the books of M/s Hot and Cold
Dr. Machinery Account Cr.
Workings:
1. Statement of Depreciation:
2. Depreciation Overcharged:
Now depreciation under Straight Line Method
Depreciation overcharged = Reducing Balance Basis – Straight Line Basis = ` (7,26,720 – 7,05,000) = ` 21,720
Opening Entries: The opening entry is an item which is passed in the Journal Proper or General Ledger. The purpose
of passing this entry is to record the opening balances of the accounts transferred from the previous year to the
new year. The accounts which are appearing on the assets side of Balance Sheet are debited in the opening entry
while which accounts are appearing in the liabilities side are credited.
At the end of each accounting period, the books of accounts need to be closed for preparation of final accounts.
Also, in the beginning of the new accounting period, new books of accounts are to be opened. For this purpose,
opening and closing entries need to be passed. These entries are passed in journal proper.
The opening entries are passed only for those ledger A/c balances which are carried forward from earlier period
to the current accounting period. In other words, the balances of assets, liabilities and owners’ capital and equity
accounts are only considered for such opening entries. The opening entry is passed with the closing balances of
assets and liabilities & capital accounts in the last year’s balance sheet.
The entry can be given as:
All Asset A/cs Dr.
To All Liabilities A/c
To Owners’ Capital A/cs
Illustration 25.
Consider the following balances in the Balance Sheet as on 31st March 2013. Pass the opening entry on 1st April 2013.
Subodh’s Capital A/c 2,75,000
Loan from HDFC Bank 4,25,000
Plant and machinery 3,30,000
Cash in hand 20,000
Balance at Citi Bank 1,75,000
Trade Debtors 3,55,000
Closing Stock 1,35,000
Trade Payables 2,95,000
Outstanding Expenses 40,000
Prepaid Insurance 20,000
Solution:
The opening entry will be as follows:
Plant and machinery A/c Dr. 3,30,000
Cash in hand A/c Dr. 20,000
Balance at Citi Bank A/c Dr. 1,75,000
Trade Debtors A/c Dr. 3,55,000
Closing Stock A/c Dr. 1,35,000
Prepaid Insurance Dr. 20,000
To Subodh’s Capital A/c 2,75,000
To Loan from HDFC Bank A/c 4,25,000
To Trade Payables A/c 2,95,000
To Outstanding Expenses A/c 40,000
Closing Entries: All the expenses and gains or income related nominal accounts must be closed at the end of
the year. In order to close them, they are transferred to either Trading A/c or Profit and Loss A/c. Journal entries
required for transferring them to such account is called a ‘closing entry’.
The Closing Entries are passed on the basis of trial balance for transferring the balances to Trading and Profit and
Loss A/c. These entries are mainly for:
(a) Transferring purchases and direct expenses (goods related) to Trading A/c
To Purchases A/c
To Trading A/c
Gross Profit
To P & L A/c
Gross Loss
To Trading A/c
To P & L A/c
Net Profit
To Capital A/c
Net Loss
To P & L A/c
Illustration 26.
Pass closing entries for the following particulars as on 31st March 2013 presented by X Ltd.
Particulars Amount (`)
Opening stock 10,000
Purchases 50,000
Wages 5,000
Returns outward 5,000
Sales 1,00,000
Returns inward 10,000
Salaries 8,000
Insurance 1,000
Bad debts 3,000
Interest received 3,000
Discount allowed 4,000
Discount received 3,000
Closing stock 15,000
Solution:
In the Books of X Ltd.
Journal
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars LF Amount (`) Amount (`)
2013 Trading A/c Dr. 75,000
31st To, Opening Stock A/c 10,000
March To, Purchases A/c 50,000
To, Wages A/c 5,000
To, Returns inward A/c 10,000
(Transfer to balances for closing the latter accounts)
Sales A/c Dr. 1,00,000
Returns outward A/c Dr. 5,000
Closing Stock A/c Dr. 15,000
To, Trading A/c 1,20,000
(Transfer of balances for closing the former accounts)
Trading A/c Dr. 45,000
To, Profit and Loss A/c 45,000
(Gross profit transferred)
Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 16,000
To, Salaries A/c 8,000
To, Insurance A/c 1,000
To, Bad Debts A/c 3,000
To, Discount allowed A/c 4,000
(Transfer of balances for closing the latter accounts)
Interest received A/c Dr. 3,000
Discount received A/c Dr. 3,000
To, Profit and Loss A/c 6,000
(Transfer of balances for closing the former accounts)
Profit and Loss A/c Dr. 35,000
To, Capital A/c 35,000
(Net profit transferred to Capital A/c)
Rectification Entries (Rectification of errors): These entries are passed when errors or mistakes are discovered in
accounting records. These entries are also known as Correction Entries. These entries are also passed in Journal
Proper.
In this study note, you were introduced to the reasons why errors could occur and to the fact that while some errors
affect trial balance and some errors do not affect it. In this section, we will see in depth how the corrections are
made to the wrong entries.
When the errors affecting the T.B. are made, the normal practice is to put the difference to an A/c called as
‘Suspense A/c’ till the time errors are located. On identification of errors, the one effect goes to the correct A/c
and the other effect to the Suspense A/c. This is done for one sided errors e.g. if sales book total is wrongly taken,
but individual customers are correctly debited. Such error will cause difference in trial balance as only Sales A/c
is wrongly credited. In such cases the rectification entry will be passed through Suspense A/c. In all other cases
the rectification is done by debiting or crediting the correct A/c head and by crediting or debiting the wrong A/c
head.
Let us recapitulate the types of errors and the ways to rectify them in the following table
Rectification of Errors
Particulars ` Particulars `
Suspense Account
If the Trial Balance does not agree we cannot prepare final accounts. In order to prepare final account, the
difference so appeared in trail balance is to be passed through Suspense Account. When the errors will be
located and rectified suspense account will automatically be Nil or closed. The suspense account will appear in
the Balance Sheet. When it appears in the debit side of trial balance, the same will appear in the assets side of
the Balance Sheet and vice-versa.
Example: Sales Day Book was overcast by ` 1,000.
` `
Sales A/c Dr. 1,000
To Suspense A/c 1,000
Illustration 27.
Rectify the following errors assuming that the errors were detected (a) Before the Preparation of Trial Balance; (b)
After the preparation of Trial Balance and (c) After the preparation of Final Accounts.
(i) Purchase Plant for ` 10,000 wrongly passed through Purchase Account.
(ii) Sales Day Book was cast short by ` 1,000.
(iii) Cash paid to Mr. X for ` 1,000 was posted to his account as ` 100.
(iv) Purchase goods from Mr. T for ` 3,500 was entered in the Purchase Day Book as ` 500.
(v) Paid salary for ` 3,000 wrongly passed through wages account.
Solution:
In the Books of …………………….
Journal (without narration)
Date Before preparation of Trial After preparation of Trial Balance After preparation of Final Accounts
Balance
(i) Plant A/c Dr. 10,000 Plant A/c Dr. 10,000 Plant A/c Dr. 10,000
To Purchase A/c 10,000 To Purchase A/c. 10,000 To P&L Adjustment A/c 10,000
(ii) Sales account will be credited Suspense A/c Dr. 1,000 Suspense A/c Dr. 1,000
with ` 1,000 To Sales A/c 1,000 To P&L Adjustment A/c 1,000
(iii) X Account will be debited when X A/c Dr. 900 X A/c Dr. 900
` 900 To Suspense A/c 900 To Suspense A/c 900
(iv) Purchase A/c Dr. 3,000 Purchase A/c Dr. 3,000 P&L Adjustment A/c Dr. 3,000
To T A/c 3,000 To T A/c 3,000 To T’s A/c. 3,000
(v) Salary A/c Dr. 3,000 Salary A/c Dr. 3,000 P&L Adjustment A/c. Dr. 3,000
To Wages A/c 3,000 To wages A/c 3,000 To P&L Adjustment A/c 3,000
llustration 28.
A merchant, while balancing his books of accounts notices that the T.B. did not tally. It showed excess credit of `
1,700. He placed the difference to Suspense A/c. Subsequently he noticed the following errors:
(a) Goods brought from Narayan for ` 5,000 were posted to the credit of Narayan’s A/c as ` 5,500
(b) An item of ` 750 entered in Purchase Returns Book was posted to the credit of Pandey to whom the goods
had been returned.
(c) Sundry items of furniture sold for ` 26,000 were entered in the sales book.
(d) Discount of ` 300 from creditors had been duly entered in creditor’s A/c but was not posted to discount A/c.
Pass necessary journal entries to rectify these errors. Also show the Suspense A/c.
Solution:
(a) Goods bought from Narayan are posted to credit of his A/c as ` 5,500 instead of ` 5,000. Here, it is correct to
credit Narayan’s A/c. But the mistake is extra credit of ` 500. This is one sided error, as posting to purchases
A/c is correctly made. So the rectification entry will affect the suspense A/c. This needs to be reversed by the
rectification entry:
Narayan’s A/c Dr. 500
To Suspense A/c 500
(b) Goods bought from Pandey were returned back to him. It should have appeared on the debit side of his A/c.
For rectifying we will need to debit his A/c with double the amount i.e. ` 1500 (` 750 to cancel the wrong credit
and another ` 750 to give effect for correct debit) and the effect will go to Suspense A/c. The correction entry
is:
Pandey A/c Dr. 1,500
To Suspense A/c 1,500
(c) Sale of furniture was recorded in sales book. What’s wrong here? Remember that sales book records sale of
goods only and nothing else. Sale of furniture will appear in either cash book (if sold for cash) or journal proper
(if sold on credit). Hence, wrong credit to Sales A/c must be removed and credit should be given to Furniture
A/c. It’s important to note that this rectification entry will not affect the Suspense A/c. The correction entry is:
Sales A/c Dr 26,000
To Furniture A/c 26,000
(d) The discount received from creditor is not entered in discount A/c but was correctly recorded in creditors’ A/c.
This is one sided error and will therefore be routed through suspense for correction. A discount is received; it
must be credited being an income.
Dr Suspense Account Cr
2,000 2,000
Please observe that after correcting passing all rectification entries, the Suspense A/c tallies automatically.
Illustration 29.
Pass necessary journal entries to rectify the following errors:
(a) An amount of ` 200 withdrawn by owner for personal use was debited to trade expenses.
(b) Purchase of goods of ` 300 from Nathan was wrongly entered in sales book.
(c) A credit sale of ` 100 to Santhanam was wrongly passed through purchase book.
(d) ` 150 received from Malhotra was credited to Mehrotra.
(e) ` 375 paid as salary to cashier Dhawan was debited to his personal A/c.
(f) A bill of ` 2,750 for extension of building was debited to building repairs A/c
(g) Goods of ` 500 returned by Akashdeep were taken into stock, but returns were not posted.
(h) Old furniture sold for ` 200 to Sethi was recorded in sales book.
(i) The period end total of sales book was under cast by ` 100.
(j) Amount of ` 80 received as interest was credited to commission.
Solution:
Sl No. Particulars Debit (`) Credit (`)
(a) Wrong Entry Trade Expenses Dr 200
To Cash 200
Correct entry Drawings Dr 200
To cash 200
Rectification entry Drawings Dr 200
To Trade Expenses 200
(b) Wrong Entry Nathan Dr 300
To Sales 300
Correct entry Purchases Dr 300
To Nathan 300
Rectification entry Purchases Dr 300
Sales Dr 300
To Nathan 600
(c) Wrong Entry Purchases Dr 100
To Santhanam 100
A/c reflects items of incomes, gains, expenses and losses. All these accounts are nominal accounts. When an error
occurs which affects a nominal account, it will affect profit or loss otherwise not. So, errors that affect real and
personal accounts will not affect profit or loss.
Illustration 30.
Rectifying the following errors by way of journal entries and work out their effect on profit or loss of the concern:
a. Return inward book was cast short by ` 500.
b. ` 300 received from Ram has been debited to Mr. Shyam.
c. Wages paid for the installation of a machine debited to wages account for ` 1,000.
d. A purchase made for ` 1,000 was posted to purchase account as ` 100.
e. Purchase of furniture amounting to ` 3,000 debited to purchase account.
f. Goods purchased for proprietor’s use for ` 1,000 debited to purchase account.
Solution:
In the Books of …………
Journal
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars L.F Amount (`) Amount (`)
(a) Return Inward A/c Dr. 500
To, Suspense A/c 500
(Return Inward Book was cast short, now rectified.)
(b) Suspense A/c Dr. 600
To, Ram A/c 300
To Shyam A/c 300
(Received from Mr. Ram has been debited to Mr.
Shyam A/c, now rectified.)
(c) Machinery A/c Dr. 1,000
To, Wages/c 1,000
(Wages paid for maintenance of machinery debited to
Wages A/c, now rectified.)
(d) Purchase A/c Dr. 900
To, Suspense A/c 900
(Purchase account was short by ` 900, now rectified.)
(e) Furniture A/c Dr. 3,000
To, Purchase A/c 3,000
(Furniture purchased wrongly debited to purchase
account, now rectified)
(f) Drawings A/c Dr. 1,000
To, Purchase A/c 1,000
(Goods purchased for proprietor’s use, debited to
purchase account, now rectified.)
Effect on Profit
llustration 31.
The books of M/s Shakti trading for the year ended 31st March 2013 were closed with a difference that was posted
to Suspense A/c. The following errors were found subsequently:
(a) Goods of ` 12,500 returned to Thick & Fast Corporation were recorded in Return Inward book as ` 21,500 and
from there it was posted to the debit of Thick & Fast Corporation.
(b) A credit sale of ` 7,600 was wrongly posted as ` 6,700 to customer’s A/c in sales ledger.
(c) Closing stock was overstated by ` 5,000 being totaling error in the schedule of inventory.
(d) ` 8900 paid to Bala was posted to the debit of Sethu as ` 9,800.
(e) Goods purchased from Evan Traders for ` 3,250 was entered in sales book as ` 3,520.
(f) ` 1,500, being the total of discount column on the payment side of the cash book was not posted.
Rectify the errors and pass necessary entries giving effects to Suspense A/c and P & L Adjustment A/c.
Solution:
(a) There are 2 errors: one – return outward is wrongly recorded as return inward and two – amount is also recorded
wrongly. First, we need to remove extra debit to Thick & Fast corporation i.e. ` 9,000 (21,500-12,500) by crediting
it. Also we need to remove wrong credit of ` 21,500 in sales return by debiting it and credit ` 12,500 to Purchase
returns A/c.
The rectification entry will be:
Suspense A/c Dr. 21,500
To Thick & Fast Corp 9,000
To P & L Adjustment A/c 12,500
(b) In this case, error has occurred only in customer’s A/c. hence, profit or loss won’t be affected and the P & L
Adjustment A/c will not be in picture. As customer’s A/c is debited for ` 6,700 instead of ` 7,600, it needs to
be corrected.
The rectification entry will be:
Sundry Debtors A/c Dr. 900
To Suspense A/c 900
(c) Over casting of closing stock had affected profit which must be reduced through P & L Adjustment A/c.
The rectification entry is:
P & L Adjustment A/c Dr. 5,000
To Suspense A/c 5,000
(d) As only personal accounts are affected, there won’t be an effect on Profits. So rectification will be done
through Suspense A/c only. The rectification entry is:
Bala A/c Dr. 8,900
Suspense A/c Dr. 900
To Sethu A/c 9,800
(e) This transaction involves correction of purchase as well as sales, and hence will affect profit. As the purchases
were booked as sales, we will need to cancel sales by debiting and freshly debit purchase. So overall effect
on profit will be 3,250 + 3,520 i.e. 6,770. The rectification enry will be:
P & L Adjustment A/c Dr. 6,770
To Evan Traders 6,770
(f) If discount is appearing on payment side of cash book, it indicates discount received while making payment
and is an item of income. Hence, it will affect profit. The accounting entry will be:
Suspense A/c Dr. 1,500
To P & L Adjustment A/c 1,500
Illustration 32.
You are presented with a trial balance of S Ltd as on 30.06.2013 showing the credit is in excess by ` 415 which was
been carried to Suspense Account. On a close scrutiny of the books, the following errors were revealed:
a. A cheque of ` 3,456 received from Sankar after allowing him a discount of ` 46 was endorsed to Sharma in
full settlement for ` 3,500. The cheque was finally dishonored but no entries are passed in the books.
b. Goods of the value of ` 230 returned by Sen were entered in the Purchase Day Book and posted therefrom
to Das as ` 320.
c. Bad debts aggregating ` 505 written off during the year in the Sales Ledger but were not recorded in the
general ledger.
d. Bill for ` 750 received from Mukherjee for repairs to Machinery was entered in the Inward Invoice Book as `
650.
e. Goods worth ` 1,234 Purchased from Mr. Y on 28.6.2013 had been entered in Day Book and credited to him
but was not delivered till 5th June 2013. Stock being taken by the purchase on 30.06.2013. The title of the
goods was, however, passed on 28.06.2013.
f. ` 79 paid for freight on Machinery was debited to freight account as ` 97.
You are required to pass the necessary journal entries for correcting the books.
Solution:
In the books of S Ltd.
Journal
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars L.F. Amount Amount
(`) (`)
(a) Sankar A/c Dr. 3,502
Discount Received A/c Dr. 44
To, Sharma A/c 3500
To Discount Allowed A/c 46
(Cheque received from Sankar was endorsed to Sharma after allowing
discount `46 , it was dishonored, now rectified)
Illustration 33.
The books of accounts of A Co. Ltd. for the year ending 31.3.2013 were closed with a difference of `21,510 in books
carried forward. The following errors were detected subsequently:
(a) Return outward book was under cast by ` 100.
(b) ` 1,500 being the total of discount column on the credit side of the cash book was not posted.
(c) ` 6,000 being the cost of purchase of office furniture was debited to Purchase A/c.
(d) A credit sale of ` 760 was wrongly posted as ` 670 to the customers A/c. in the sales ledger.
(e) The Sales A/c was under casted by ` 10,000 being the carry over mistakes in the sales day book.
(f) Closing stock was over casted by ` 10,000 being casting error in the schedule or inventory.
Pass rectification entries in the next year.
Prepare suspense account and state effect of the errors in determination of net profit of last year.
Solution:
In the Books of A Co. Ltd.
Journal
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars L/F Amount (`) Amount (`)
(a) 2013 Suspense A/c Dr. 100
April To Profit & Loss Adjustment A/c 100
1 (Returns outward book was under cast now rectified).
Effect on Profit
Increase Decrease
(+) (-)
` `
Item (a)……………………………….. - 100
(b)……………………………….. - 1,500
(c)……………………………….. - 6,000
(d) No effect - -
e)……………………………….. - 10,000
(f)……………………………….. 10,000 -
10,000 17,600
Profit will be decreased by 7,600 -
17,600 17,600
Illustration 34.
The Trial Balance of a concern has agreed but the following mistakes were discovered after the preparation of
final Accounts.
(a) No adjustment entry was passed for an amount of ` 2,000 relating to outstanding rent.
(b) Purchase book was overcast by ` 1,000.
(c) ` 4,000 depreciation of Machinery has been omitted to be recorded in the book.
(d) ` 600 paid for purchase of stationary has been debited to Purchase A/c.
(e) Sales books was overcast by ` 1,000.
(f) ` 5,000 received in respect of Book Debt had been credited to Sales A/c.
Show the effect of the above errors in Profit and Loss Account & Balance Sheet.
Solution:
Effects of the errors in profit and loss A/c and Balance Sheet
Adjusting Entry
Adjusting Entries are passed in the journal to bring into the books of accounts certain unrecorded items like closing
stock, depreciation on fixed assets, etc. These are needed at the time of preparing the final accounts.
E.g. Depreciation A/c Dr.
To, Fixed Assets A/c
(8) The cost of a Fixed Assets of a business has to be written off over its
(A) Natural Life
(B) Accounting Life
(C) Physical Life
(D) Estimated Economic Life
Answer:
1. (B) 2. (B) 3. (C) 4. (D) 5. (B) 6. (D) 7. (B) 8. (D)
QUESTIONS:
1. State whether the following items are in the nature of Capital, Revenue and/or Deferred Revenue Expenditure.
(i) Expenditure on special advertising campaign ` 66,000; suppose the advantage will be received for six
years.
(ii) An amount of ` 8,000 spent as legal charges for abuse of Trade Mark.
(iii) Legal charges of ` 15,000 incurred for raising loan.
(iv) Share issue expenses ` 5,000.
(v) Freight charges on a new machine ` 1,500 and erection charges ` 1,800 for that machine.
Answer:
(i) Revenue expenditure ` 66,000.
(ii) Revenue expenditure ` 8,000.
(iii) Capital expenditure ` 15,000.
(iv) Capital expenditure ` 5,000.
(v) Capital expenditure = ` 1,500 + ` 1,800 = ` 3,300.
2. Classify the following Accounts into Personal, Real and Nominal Accounts. Also state whether it is recorded
as asset, liability, expenses/loss or revenue:
(i) Returns Inward Account
(ii) Bad Debt Recovered Account
(iii) Interest On Investment Account
(iv) Outstanding Rent Account and
(v) Capital Work-in-Progress Account
Answer:
(i) Nominal, Revenue
(ii) Nominal, Revenue
(iii) Nominal, Revenue
(iv) Personal, Liability
(v) Real, Asset
Answer:
Personal Account (ii) Outstanding Rent
(iii) Drawings
(v) Bank Overdraft
Real Account (i) Patent Rights
(iv) Live Stock
(viii) Securities and Shares
(x) Work-in-progress
Nominal Account (vi) Advertisement
(vii) Export duty
(ix) Suspense
4. Mr. X is owner of a Cinema Hall. He spent a heavy amount for complete renovation of the hall, for installation
of air-condition machines and for sitting arrangement with cushion seats. As a result the revenue has been
doubled. He also spent for few more doors for emergency exit. State your opinion amount the treatment of
the entire expenditure.
Answer:
The size of the expenditure is not the criteria to decide whether subsequent expenditure should be capitalized. The
important question is whether the expenditure increases the future benefits from the asset beyond its pre-assessed
standard of performance as per AS-10. Only then it should capitalized.
In the instant case, the first part f expenditure i.e., Renovation etc., Renovation etc. should be capitalized because
it has enhanced the revenue earning capacity of the hall. The second part of expenditure for making more
emergency exists does not enhance the revenue of the asset. So it should be charged to revenue.
5. Mr. Agarwal could not agree the Trial Balance. He transferred to the Suspense Account of ` 296, being
excess of the debit side total. The following errors were subsequently discovered.
(i) Sales Day Book was overcast by ` 300
(ii) An amount of ` 55, received from Mr. Y was posted to his account as ` 550
(iii) Purchases Return Book total on a folio was carried forward as ` 221, instead of ` 112
(v) A car sale of ` 1,235 duly entered in the Cash Book but posted to Sales A/c as ` 235
(vi) Rest of the difference was due to wrong total in Salaries A/c. Show the Journal entries to rectify the
above errors.
Answer:
6. Shyama Limited purchased a second-hand plant for ` 7,50,000 on 1st July, 2011 and immediately spent `
2,50,000 in overhauling. On 1st January, 2012 an additional machinery at a cost of ` 6,50,000 was purchased.
On 1st October, 2013 the plant purchased on 1st July, 2011 became obsolete and it was sold for ` 2,50,000.
On that date a new machinery was purchased at a cost of ` 15,00,000. Depreciation was provided @ 15%
per annum on diminishing balance method. Books are closed on 31st March in every year.
You are required to prepared Plant and Machinery Account upto 31st March, 2014.
Answer:
Books of Shyama Limited
Plant & Machinery Account
Date Particulars ` Date Particulars `
1.7.11 To Bank A/c 10,00,000 31.3.12 By Depreciation A/c 1,36,875
(7,50,000 + 2,50,000)
1.1.12 To Bank A/c 6,50,000 31.3.12 By Balance c/d 15,13,125
16,50,000 16,50,000
1.4.12 To Balance b/d 15,13,125 31.3.13 By Depreciation @ 15% on ` 15,13,125 2,26,969
By Balance c/d 12,86,156
15,13,125 15,13,125
1.4.13 To Balance b/d 12,86,156 By Bank A/c (Sale) 2,50,000
1.10.13 To Bank A/c 15,00,000 By P&L A/c (Loss on Sale) 4,47,797
By Depreciation A/c 2,48,845
By Balance c/d 18,39,514
27,86,156 27,86,156
Working Notes:
Written down value of Machinery which is purchased on 01.07.2011.
Particulars `
On 01.07.2011 10,00,000
Less: Depreciation for 2011 – 12 of 9 months (10,00,000 × 15% × 9/12) 1,12,500
W.D.V. for 2012-13 8,87,500
Less: Depreciation for 2012-13 1,33,125
W.D.V. for 2013-14 7,54,375
Less: Depreciation for 6 months on (7,54,375 × 15% × /12)
6
56,578
W.D.V. 6,97,797
Less: Selling Price 2,50,000
Less: On Sale of Machinery 4,47,797
Total Depreciation
(a) Machinery Purchased on 01.01.2012
Particulars `
On 01.01.2012 6,50,000
Less: Depreciation for 3 months of 2011 - 12 24,375
W.D.V. 6,25,625
Less: Depreciation for 2012-13 (6,25,625 × 15%) 93,844
W.D.V. 5,31,781
Less: Depreciation for 2013-14 79,767
W.D.V. 4,52,014
(b)
Particulars `
Machinery Purchased on 01.01.2013 15,00,000
Less: Depreciation for 6 months (15,00,000 × 15% × 6/12) 1,12,500
13,87,500
∴ Total Depreciation ` (1,12,500 + 79,767 + 56,578) = ` 2,48,845.
7. On 31st December, 2011 two machines which were purchased on 1.10.2008 costing ` 50,000 and ` 20,000
respectively had to be discarded and replaced by two new machines costing ` 50,000 and ` 25,000
respectively.
One of the discarded machine was sold for ` 20,000 and other for ` 10,000. The balance of Machinery Account
on April 1, 2011 was ` 3,00,000 against which the depreciation provision stood at ` 1,50,000. Depreciation
was provided @ 10% on Reducing Balance Method.
Prepare the Machinery Account, Provision for Depreciation Account and Machinery Disposal Account.
Answer:
Machinery Account
Date Particulars ` Date Particulars `
1.4.11 To Balance b/d 3,00,000 31.12.11 By Machine Disposal A/c 70,000
To Bank A/c 75,000 31-3.12 By Balance c/d 3,25,000
3,75,000 3,75,000
Hence, Provision for Depreciation on Machine Disposal = 3,500 + 6,650 + 5,985 = 16,135.
EXERCISE:
1. Classify the following Accounts into Personal, Real and Nominal Accounts:
(i) Patent Rights A/c
(ii) Drawings A/c
(iii) Purchase Return A/c
(iv) South Sports Club A/c
(vi) Prepaid Insurance A/c
(vii) Bank Overdraft A/c
(viii) Free samples A/c
Answer:
Real A/c (i)
Personal A/c (ii), (iv), (v), (vii)
Nominal A/c (iii), (vi), (vii)
2. State which of the following items are (i) Capital Expenditure; (ii) Revenue expenditure; (iii) Deferred Revenue
expenditure:
(i) Legal charges of ` 15,000 incurred for raising loan.
(ii) An amount of ` 7,500 spent as legal charges for abuse of Trade-Mark.
(iii) Carriage paid on a new machine purchased for ` 18,000.
(iv) ` 25,000 spent on construction of animal-huts.
Answer:
Capital Expenditure (i), (iii), (iv)
Revenue Expenditure (ii)
3. The total of debit side of the Trial Balance of Lotus Stores as at 31.03.2016 is ` 3,65,000 and that of the credit
side is ` 2,26,000.
After checking, the following mistakes were discovered:
Items of account Correct figures (as it should be) Figures as it appears in the Trial Balance
(`) (`)
Opening Stock 15,000 10,000
Rent and Rates 36,000 63,000
Sundry Creditors 81,000 18,000
Sundry Debtors 1,04,000 1,58,000
Ascertain the correct total of the Trial Balance.
Answer:
The correct total is — ` 2,89,000
4. On 1st April, 2010, M/s. N. R. Sons & Co. purchased four machines for ` 2,60,000 each. On 1st April, 2011, one
machine was sold for ` 2,05,000. On 1st July, 2012, the second machine was destroyed by fire and insurance
claim received ` 1,75,000 on 15th July, 2012. A new machine costing ` 4,50,000 was purchased on 1st
October, 2012. Books are closed on 31st March every year and depreciation has been charged @ 15% per
annum on diminishing balance method. You are required to prepare machinery account for 4 years still 31st
March, 2014. (Calculations to be shown in nearest rupee).
Answer:
Machinery A/c Balance as on 01.04.2014 (Dr.) `6,25,256.
Depreciation as on 31.03.2014 — `1,10,339.
Introduction
Business activity involves exchange of goods or services for money. A business transaction gets ‘closed’ if the
exchange is settled immediately. When goods are purchased from supermarket and paid for in cash the settlement
is instant. Same is the case when we go to a restaurant, have food and pay either by cash or credit card. Most
of the settlements are not on cash basis, where payment for goods or services is deferred at the behest of both
parties to the transaction. Such deferred payments are done through instruments like cheques, pay order, letter of
credit, promissory note, bills of exchange, hundies etc. These instruments facilitate credit transactions and hence
sometimes they are referred to as credit instruments or negotiable instruments. Even in ancient times some credit
instrument like hundies were extremely popular.
In case of credit transaction, the supplier normally gets a promise from the customer that he will settle the payment
at a future date as agreed. It could either be a promissory note or bill of exchange. The promissory note is written by
the customer as an undertaking to pay the money, whereas the bill of exchange is a note drawn by the seller and
accepted by the buyer. In India, the Negotiable Instruments Act 1981 governs the provisions for bills of exchange.
As per this act, the bill of exchange is defined as “ an instrument in writing containing an unconditional order signed
by the maker, directing a certain person to pay a certain some of money only to the order of the certain person
or to the bearer of the instrument”
Based on this definition the following features of a bill of exchange are noticed:
(a) It’s an instrument in writing.
(b) It contains an unconditional order.
(c) It’s signed by the drawer.
(d) It’s drawn on a specific person.
(e) There is an order to pay a specific sum of money.
(f) It must be dated.
(g) It specifies to whom the payment is to be made e.g. to the maker or to person mentioned by him or to the
bearer.
(h) The amount of money to be paid must be certain.
(i) It must be properly stamped
(j) It may be made payable on demand, or after a definite period of time.
Whereas, a bill of exchange is drawn by seller and accepted by buyer; a promissory note, on the other hand, is
created by the buyer as an undertaking to pay to the seller.
Three months after date pay to a sum of ` 50,000 (Fifty Thousands only) far the value received.
To B accepted
2. If period of the bill matures on a date which is not there in the month in question, then the due date is taken
as the last date of the month. For example, if a bill is drawn on 31.1.2013 and the period of the bill is 3 months,
the period bill becomes payable on 30.4.2013 and after including grace days, due date is 3.5.2013.
3. In case the expiry date of a bill falls on a holiday, the bill becomes payable on the preceding day. But when
the maturity date is a bank holiday or a Sunday and the second day of grace is also a holiday, the bill is
payable on the next working day.
4. The tenure of the bill can be explained in months or in days. The due date of bill should be computed
considering this fact in mind. Hence, if S draws bill on A on 31.1.2013 of one month, the maturity date of the
bill is computed as follows :
Renewal of Bills
Sometimes the drawee of a bill is not able to meet the bill on due date. He may request the drawer to draw a
new Bill for the amount due. Sometimes he pays a certain amount out and accepts a first bill for the balance for
which he has to pay a certain amount of interest which is either paid in cash or is included with the fresh bill. This
bill is known as Renewal of Bills. That, the amount of the new bill will be face value of the original bill minus cash
payment, if any, plus interest for the renewed period.
Retirement of Bill
Sometimes the drawee pays the bill before the date of maturity. Under the circumstances, the drawer allows certain
amount of rebate or discount which is calculated on certain percentage p.a. basis. The rebate is calculated from
the date of payment to the date of maturity.
Accounting entries
For the convenience of accounting, bills are classified into (i) Bills Receivable and (ii) Bills Payable. All bills are –
(i) Bills Receivable to those who receive the bills, and
(ii) Bills Payable to those who accept the bills.
Thus, the same bill is both a Bill Receivable and a Bill Payable.
Holder, of the bill, however, has following four options available to him :
(a) He may retain the bill till the date of maturity
(b) He may get the bill discounted
(c) He may endorse it to a third party in settlement of a debt
(d) He may send it to his banker for collection.
Usual entries for bill transactions are given below:
Illustration 1.
On 1.4.2017 A draws a bill on B for `1,00,000 3 months after date. B accepts the bills signs on it and returns to A. Pass
necessary journal entries in the books of A and B in each of the following cases:
1. The bill is hold by A till maturity.
2. The bill is discounted with bank on 4.4.2017 at a discount of 6 % p.a.
3. The bill is endorsed to C to make a final settlement of a due of `1,05,000 on 1.4.2017.
Solution:
Working notes:
1. The bill is discounted with bank for 6% p.a . so the amount of discount will be
=100000 x 6/100 x 3/12 = 6000 x 3/12 = `1,500.
Calculation is made for 3 months because the bill is for three months and is discounted with the bank exactly
before three months before maturity.
2. Amount due to C was for ` 1,05,000. However the bill is given for `1,00,000 to make full and final settlement.
Therefore Mr. A has received `5,000 as discount.
Important: Students must not confuse with discount received and discount on bills.
Journal
BOOKS OF A BOOKS OF B
Date Particulars Debit Credit Date Particulars Debit Credit
` ` ` `
1.4.2017 Billls Receivable A/c 1,00,000 1.4.2017 A 1,00,000
To B A/c 1,00,000 To Bills Payable 1,00,000
(for the bill drawn) (for the bill drawn)
Situation 1 Situation 1
4.7.2017 Cash A/c 1,00,000 4.7.2017 Bills payable A/c 1,00,000
To Billls Receivable A/c 1,00,000 To Cash A/c 1,00,000
Amount received at Amount paid at
maturity maturity
Situation 2 Situation 2
4.4.2017 Bank A/c 98,500 NO ENTRY IS REQUIRED
Discount on bill A/c 1,500
To Bills receivable A/c 1,00,000
Bill discounted with bank
Situation 3 Situation 3
1.4.2017 To C A/c 1,05,000 NO ENTRY IS REQUIRED
To Bills Receivable A/c 1,00,000
To Discount received A/c 5,000
The bill is endorsed to C
AT MATURITY
Situation 2 Situation 2
4.7.2017 NO ENTRY 4.7.2017 Bills payable A/c 1,00,000
To Bank A/c 1,00,000
Amount paid at
maturity
Situation 3 Situation 3
NO ENTRY 4.7.2017 Bills payable A/c 1,00,000
To Bank A/c 1,00,000
Amount paid at
maturity
Normally, the amount paid by the insolvent person is expressed as percentage of the amount due and is called
the ‘Rate of Dividend’. For example, if ` 25,000 is payable by Mr. A to Mr. B and Mr. A is declared insolvent and a
dividend of 20% is declared, journal entries for the final settlement are passed as under:
Illustration 2.
Sagar purchased goods worth ` 1,000 from Ravi for which the latter drew a bill on the former, payable after one
month. Sagar accepted it and returned it to Ravi. Ravi endorsed it to Kamal, and Kamal to Amal. Amal discounted
the bill with State Bank of India at 6% p.a. On maturity, the bill was dishonoured, noting charge being ` 10.
Show the entries in the books of all the parties including the books of State Bank of India.
Solution:
In the books of Ravi
Journal Entries
Illustration 3.
Sunil owed Anil ` 80,000. Anil draws a bill on Sunil for that amount for 3 months on 1st April. Sunil accepts it and
returns it to Anil. On 15th April, Anil discounts it with Citi Bank at a discount of 12% p.a. On the due date the bill was
dishonoured, the bank paid noting charges of ` 100. Anil settles the bank’s claim along with noting charges in cash.
Sunil accepted another bill for 3 months for the amount due plus interest of ` 3,000 on 1st July. Before the new bill
became due, Sunil retires the bill with a rebate of ` 500. Show journal entries in books of Anil.
Solution:
Journal entries in the books of Anil
Date Particulars L.F. Dr. (`) Cr. (`)
April, 1 Bills Receivables A/c Dr 80,000
To, Sunil’s A/c 80,000
(Being acceptance by Sunil)
April, 15 Bank A/c Dr 78,000
Discount A/c Dr 2,000
To, Bills Receivables A/c 80,000
(Being discounting of the bill @ 12% p.a. & discounting
charges for 2.5 months)
June, 30 Sunil’s A/c Dr. 80,100
To, Bank A/c 80,100
(Being dishonour of the bill & noting charges paid by bank)
June, 30 Bank A/c Dr. 80,100
To, Cash 80,100
(Being cash paid to bank)
July, 1 Sunil’s A/c Dr. 3,000
To, Interest 3,000
(Being interest due from Sunil)
July, 1 Bills Receivables A/c Dr. 83,100
To, Sunil’s A/c 83,100
(Being new acceptance by Sunil for ` 80,100 & interest of
` 3,000)
July, 1 Bank A/c Dr. 82,600
Rebate A/c Dr. 500
To, Bills Receivables A/c 83,100
(Being the amount received on retirement of the bill)
Illustration 4.
On 1st April Mr. Bala draws a bill of ` 1,20,000 on Mr. Lala for the amount due for 4 months. On getting acceptance,
on 5th April, Bala endorses it to Mr. Kala in full settlement of his claim of `1,40,000 by paying the difference in cash.
Lala approached Bala on 25th July saying that he needed to renew the bill for a further period of 4 months at an
interest of 12% p.a. which Bala accepted. A fresh bill including interest was accepted by Lala on 1st August. Bala
settled his liability to Kala by cheque. This was duly settled on the due date. Pass journal entries in the books of Bala
and Lala. Also show Bills Receivables A/c and bills Payable A/c.
Solution:
Journal entries in the Books of Bala
2,44,800 2,44,800
Illustration 5.
Pass journal entries in the books of Hema for the following transactions :
(i) Hema’s acceptance to Nanda for ` 5,000 renewed for 3 month with interest at 10% p.a.
(ii) Nalini’s acceptance to Hema was for ` 10,000 was retired one month before due date at a discount of 12%
p.a.
(iii) Discounted Natasha’s acceptance to Hema for ` 4,000 with the bank for ` 3,920
(iv) Neela requests Hema to renew her acceptance for ` 3,500 for 3 months. Hema accepted on the condition
that interest of ` 100 was paid in cash which Neela did.
(v) Received an acceptance from Geeta for ` 1,200 and it was endorsed to Seeta in full settlement of her claim.
Solution:
In the Books of Hema
Journal Entries
Particulars L.F Debit (`) Credit (`)
(i) Bills Payable A/c Dr. 5,000
To, Nanda’s A/c 5,000
(Being cancellation of Nanda’s bill for renewal)
Interest A/c Dr. 125
To, Nanda’s A/c 125
(Being interest due to Nanda)
Nanda’s A/c Dr. 5,125
To, Bills Payable A/c 5,125
(Being acceptance given for new bill)
Illustration 6.
X bought goods from Y for ` 4,000. Y draws a bill on 1.1.2013 for 3 months which was accepted by X for this purpose.
On 1.3.2013, X arranged to retire the bill at a rebate of 12% p.a. Show the entries in the books of X and Y.
Solution:
In the books of Y
Journal
In the books of X
Journal
Illustration 7.
Following information is given to you by Govind from his books:
On 1st April 2012 he had with him bills of ` 1,50,000 accepted by his customers and ` 1,00,000 worth accommodation
bills accepted by his friends. He had accepted bills worth ` 90,000 for his suppliers and ` 75,000 worth accommodation
bills for his friends.
During the year the following transactions took place:
(i) He raised bills of ` 3,75,000 which were accepted by his customers.
(ii) He accepted bills of ` 2,25,000 for his suppliers.
(iii) He accepted accommodation bills of ` 60,000 for his friends.
(iv) His friend accepted accommodation bills of ` 1,25,000 for him.
(v) He honoured on due dates trade bills of ` 1,75,000 and accommodation bills of ` 85,000.
(vi) He received payments on due dates for trade bills of `4,00,000 and accommodation bills of
` 1,50,000.
(vii) He endorsed bills of ` 25,000 to his suppliers, which were honoured by the acceptors.
(viii) His customers endorsed bills of ` 30,000 to him which he accepted in favour of his suppliers.
(ix) Accommodation bills were settled on the due dates and money was paid and received duly.
Prepare Bills Receivable A/c and Bills Payable A/c for both trade and accommodation bills.
Solution:
3,15,000 3,15,000
31.3.2013 To, Bank A/c 1,50,000 1.4.2012 By, Balance b/d 1,00,000
31.3.2013 To, Balance c/d 75,000 31.3.2013 By, Accommodation B/R A/c 1,25,000
2,25,000 2,25,000
1.4.2012 To, Balance b/d 75,000 31.3.2013 By, Bank A/c 85,000
31.3.2013 To, Accommodation B/P A/c 60,000 31.3.2013 By, Balance c/d 50,000
1,35,000 1,35,000
Illustration 8.
Vijay draws a bill for ` 60,000 and Anand accepts the same for mutual accommodation of both of them to the
extent of Vijay 2/3rd and Anand 1/3rd. Vijay discounts it with bank for ` 56,400 and remits 1/3rd share to Anand.
Before the due date, Anand draws another bill for ` 84,000 on Vijay in order to provide funds to meet the first bill on
same sharing basis. The second bill is discounted at ` 81,600. With these proceeds, the first bill is settled and ` 14,400
were remitted to Vijay. Before the due date of the second bill, Vijay becomes insolvent and Anand receives a
dividend of only 50 paise in a rupee in full satisfaction. Pass journal entries in the books of Vijay.
Solution:
In case of accommodation bills, the proceeds of discounting are shared by parties as agreed. The discounting
charges are also shared in agreed proportion. Here, the ratio between Vijay and Anand is given as two-thirds and
one-third. The first bill of ` 60,000 is discounted at ` 56,400 which means the discounting charges are ` 3,600. The
share of each one is:
Further, as Vijay has become insolvent, the amount due to Anand is settled at 50% of total. To calculate this amount,
it’s necessary to post all transactions to Anand’s account and arrive at the balance.
1,60,000 1,60,000
Illustration 9.
Rahim, for mutual accommodation, draws a bill for ` 3,000 on Ratan. Rahim discounted it for ` 2,925. He remits
` 975 to Ratan. On the due date, Rahim is unable to remit his dues to Ratan to enable him to meet the bill. He,
however, accepts a bill for ` 3,750 which Ratan discounts for ` 3,625. Ratan sends ` 175 to Rahim after discounting
the above bill. Rahim becomes insolvent and a dividend of 80 paise in the rupee is received from his estate.
Pass the necessary journal entries in the books of both the parties.
Solution:
In the books of Rahim
Journal Entries
Date Particulars L.F. Dr. Cr.
(`) (`)
Bills Receivable A/c Dr. 3,000
To, Ratan A/c 3,000
(Bill drawn for mutual accommodation and accepted by Ratan.)
Bank A/c Dr. 2,925
Discount A/c Dr. 75
To, Bills Receivable A/c 3,000
(Bill discounted by the bank.)
Ratan A/c Dr. 1,000
To, Bank A/c 975
To Discount A/c 25
(1/3 Proceeds remitted to Ratan.)
Ratan A/c Dr. 3,750
To, Bills Payable A/c 3,750
(Bill accepted.)
Bank A/c Dr. 175
Discount A/c Dr. 75
To, Ratan A/c 250
(Proceeds received from Ratan including discount charges.)
Bills Payable A/c Dr. 3,750
To, Ratan A/c 3,750
(Bill dishonored since e became insolvent.)
Ratan A/c Dr. 2,250*
To, Bank A/c 1,800
To Deficiency A/c 450
(Cash paid to Ratan @80 paise in the rupee and balance transferred
to deficiency account.)
Note:
Sharing discount:
After discounting of the 1st bills, Rahim received ` 2,000 (including discount)
Add: Amount remitted by Ratan (after discounting of the 2 nd
bill). ` 175
Total benefit received by Rahim. ` 2,175
Now,
After discounting of the 2nd bill Ratan received ` 3,625 (Net)
` 2,175
∴ Proportion of Rahim to Ratan = ` 3,625 x 125 = ` 75
Introduction
The sales activity of any business can be organized in different ways. With the customers spread all over, the business
entity cannot afford to have only minimum selling points nor can it have its own resources to have the outlets all
over. The business volumes cannot be limited in any case. The core competence of a manufacturing company is to
produce a good quality product. It creates a network of its own outlets, dealers, commission agents, institutions etc
to distribute its products efficiently and effectively. Thus the selling may be handled directly through own salesmen
or indirectly through agents.
In case of direct selling, the company usually has depots all over. The stocks are transferred to these depots and
from there finally sold to ultimate customers. This involves huge expenses and problems of maintaining the same on
a permanent basis. Hence, the firm could appoint agents to whom stocks will be given. These agents distribute the
products to ultimate customers and receive commission from the manufacturer. One such way of indirect selling is
selling through consignment agents. The relationship between consignor and consignee is that of Principal-Agent
relationship.
Proforma Invoice – When the consignor sends the goods to the consignee, he prepares only a proforma invoice
and not an invoice. A proforma invoice looks like an invoice but is really not one. The objective of the proforma
invoice is only to convey information to the consignee regarding quantity, varieties and prices of goods sent and
expenses incurred and not to make him liable like a trade debtor.
Over-riding Commission – It is an extra commission allowed over and above the normal commission is generally
offered for the following reasons :
(i) When the agent is required to put in hard work in introducing a new product in the market.
(ii) Where he is entrusted with the work of supervising the performance of other agents in a particular area.
(iii) For effecting sales at prices higher than the price fixed by the consignor.
Ordinary Commission – This is a fee payable by consignor to consignee for sale of goods when the consignee
does not guarantee the collection of money from ultimate customer. The % of such commission is generally lower.
Del Credre Commission – This is additional commission payable to the consignee for taking over additional
responsibility of collecting money from customers. In case, the customers do not pay the consignee takes over the
loss of bad debts in his books. Although it’s paid for taking over risk of bad debts that arise out of credit sales only,
this commission is calculated on total sales and not on credit sales.
Account Sales – This is a periodical statement prepared by consignee to be sent to the consignor giving details of
all sales (cash and credit), expenses incurred and commission due for sales, destroyed-in-transit or in godown and
deducting the amount of advance remitted by him.
Sometimes, the consignor may send the goods at a price higher than cost so that the consignee gets no knowledge
of the real cost of goods which is confidential for the consignor.
The consignor and consignee keep their own books of accounts. The consignor may send goods to many consignees.
Also, a consignee may act as agent for many consignors. It is appropriate that both of them would want to know
profit or loss made on each consignment. There are certain new accounts that are to be opened in addition to
regular accounts as cash or bank.
(i) To ascertain the results (profit/loss) of consignment and incorporate them in his profit and loss account.
To achieve these objectives, he prepares respectively two accounts, viz. ‘Consignment Account’ and ‘Consignee
Account’. The former is a nominal account and latter is a personal account. A separate consignment account
as well as consignee account is prepared in respect of every consignment. It is important to observe that the two
accounts are prepared by the consignor in addition to other accounts in his ledger to incorporate the results of
consignments in his books.
When goods are dispatched on Consignment no entry can be made in the Sales Account as this is not a sale, and,
until the goods are sold, they remain the legal property of the consignor. For the same reason the consignee’s
personal account cannot be debited with the value of the goods consigned. He is not a debtor until the goods
are sold.
As an agent, the consignee is not liable to pay for the goods received on consignment. Therefore, he makes no
entry in his financial books on such receipts. As, however, he is liable to account for the goods received, he keeps as
adequate record in an appropriate memorandum book. Apart from this his only concern is to record the expenses
he has incurred, the sales, his commission and his financial relationship with the consignor. A personal account for
the consignor is the only additional account a consignee needs to record his consignment transactions.
For Loss
To Consignment A/c
For the final settlement Cash/ Bank/ B/R A/c Dr. Consignor A/c Dr.
To Consignment A/c
Valuation of Stock
Unsold stock on consignment should properly valued; otherwise final accounts cannot be prepared. Usually, unsold
stock on consignment is value at cost price plus proportionate expenses of the consignor plus proportionate non
recurring expenses of consignee.
Alternatively, total cost of goods plus total expenses incurred by the consignor plus total non recurring expenses of
the consignee are to be added and stock should valued on the basis of proportionate unsold goods.
But it must be remember while valuing stock on consignment, the usual principle for valuation of stock, that stock
should be valued at cost price or market price whichever is less.
Needless to say that unsold stock on consignment will appear in the asset side of Balance Sheet.
Illustration 10.
X Ltd. of Gujrat purchased 5,000 sarees @ ` 100 per saree. Out of these 3,000 sarees were sent on consignment to
Y Ltd. of Kolkata at the selling price of ` 150 per saree. The consignors paid ` 5,000 for packing and freight.
Y Ltd. sold 2,500 sarees @ ` 160 per saree and incurred ` 500 for selling expenses and remitted ` 2,50,000 to Gujrat
on account. They are entitled to a commission of 5% on total sales plus a further of 25% commission on any surplus
price realized over ` 150 per saree.
1,500 sarees were sold at Gujrat @ ` 110 per saree.
Owing to fall in market price, the value of stock of saree in hand is to be reduced by 5%. Your are required to
prepare (i) Consignment Account, and (ii) Y Ltd. Account.
Solution:
(i) In the books of X Ltd.
Dr. Consignment Account Cr.
Workings:
1. Valuation of unsold stock
(`)
Total cost (500 × `100)(without considering expenses) 50,000
Less: Reduction in price @5% 2,500
47,500
Less: Y Ltd.’s commission @5% 2,375
45,125
2. Computation of Commissions
(`)
Total sales @`160 per saree (2,500 × `160) 4,00,000
Less: In excess of `150 per saree 3,75,000
Surplus price realised 25,000
Commission to be calculated as under:
On total sales @5% (`4,00,000 × 5%) 20,000
Add: 25% on `25,000 6,250
26,250
1,500 sarees which were sold @`110 is not related to consignment account
Losses on Consignment
There are two types of losses which may arise in case of a consignment transaction, viz.
(a) Normal Loss, and
(b) Abnormal Loss
(a) Normal Loss – Normal Losses arise as a result of natural causes, e.g. evaporation, leakage, breakage etc.,
and they are inherent in nature. Since normal loss is a charge against gross profit no additional adjustment is
required for this purpose. Moreover, as the same is a part of cost of goods, when valuation of unsold stock is
made in case of consignment account the quantity of such loss (not the amount) should be deducted from
the total quantity of the goods received by the consignee in good condition. Thus,
Unsold quantity
Value of closing stock will be = Total Value of goods sent ×
Good quantity received by consignee
Illustration 11.
From the following particulars ascertain the value of unsold stock on Consignment.
Goods sent (1,000 kgs.) ` 20,000
Consignor’s expenses ` 4,000
Consignees non-recurring expenses ` 3,000
Sold (800 kgs.) ` 40,000
Loss due to natural wastage (100 kgs.)
Solution:
Value of unsold stock `
Total cost of goods sent 20,000
Add : Consignor’s expenses 4,000
Add : Non-recurring expenses 3,000
Cost of (1,000 kgs – 100 kgs) = 900 kgs. 27,000
100 kgs.
∴ Value of unsold stock (1,000 – 800 – 100) = 100 kgs. will be = ` 27,000 x
900 kgs.
= ` 3,000
(b) Abnormal Losses - Abnormal Losses arises as a result of negligence/accident etc., e.g., theft, fire etc. Before
ascertaining the result of the consignment, value of abnormal loss should be adjusted. The method of
calculation is similar to the method of calculating unsold stock. Sometimes insurance company admits the
claim in part or in full. The same should also be adjusted against such abnormal loss.
While valuing the abnormal loss the proportionate expenses are taken only upto the stage of the loss. For
example, if goods are lost in the transit on way to the consignee’s place, the value of abnormal loss will include
the basic cost of the goods plus proportionate expenses of the consignor only and not the proportionate
expenses of consignee because consignee has spent nothing on account of these goods.
Illustration 12.
5,000 shirts were consigned by Raizada & Co. of Delhi to Zing of Tokyo at cost of ` 375 each. Raizada & Co. paid
freight ` 50,000 and Insurance ` 7,500.
During the transit 500 shirts were totally damaged by fire. Zing took delivery of the remaining shirts and paid ` 72,000
on custom duty.
Zing had sent a bank draft to Raizada & Co. for ` 2,50,000 as advance payment. 4,000 shirts were sold by him at
` 500 each. Expenses incurred by Zing on godown rent and advertisement etc. amounted to ` 10,000. He is entitled
to a commission of 5%
One of the customer to whom the goods were sold on credit could not pay the cost of 25 shirts.
Prepare the Consignment Account and the Account of Zing in the books of Raizada & Co. Zing settled his account
immediately. Nothing was recovered from the insurer for the damaged goods.
Solution:
In the books of Raizada & Co.
Dr. Consignment Account Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Goods Sent on Consignment A/c 18,75,000 By, Zing A/c 19,87,500
(5,000 x ` 375) - Sale proceeds (3,975 x ` 500)
To, Bank A/c By, Consignment Debtors A/c
- Freight 50,000 - Credit Sales (25 x ` 500) 12,500
- Insurance 7,500 57,500 By, Abnormal Loss A/c (W.N. 1) 1,93,250
To, Zing A/c By, Stock on Consignment A/c 2,01,250
- Custom Duty 72,000 (W.N.2)
- Godown Rent, Advertisement etc 10,000
- Commissions @5% on total Sales 1,82,000
(4,000×500×5%) 1,00,000
19,87,500 19,87,500
To, Consignment A/c 1,93,250 By, Profit and Loss A/c 1,93,250
1,93,250 1,93,250
Workings:
`18,11,250 x 500
2. Value of unsold Stock = ` 2,01,250
4,500
Note:
Since Del Credere Commission is not given by the consignor to the consignee, amount of bad debt is to be charged
against Consignment Account.
Illustration 13.
Lubrizols Ltd. of Mumbai consigned 1,000 barrels of lubricant oil costing ` 800 per barrel to Central Oil Co. of Kolkata
on 1.1.2013. Lubrizols Ltd. paid ` 50,000 as freight and insurance. 25 barrels were destroyed on 7.1.2013 in transit.
The insurance claim was settled at ` 15,000 and was paid directly to the consignor.
Central Oil took delivery of the consignment on 19.1.2013 and accepted a bill drawn upon them by Lubrizols Ltd.,
for ` 5,00,000 for 3 months. On 31.3.2013 Central Oil reported as follows:
(i) 750 barrels were sold as ` 1,200 per barrel.
(ii) The other expenses were:
(`)
Clearing charges 11,250
Godown Rent 10,000
Wages 30,000
Printing, Stationery, Advertisement 20,000
25 barrels of oil were lost due to leakage which is considered to be normal loss.
Central Oil Co. is entitled to a commission of 5% on all the sales affected by them. Central Oil Company paid the
amount due in respect of the consignment on 31st March itself.
Show the Consignment Account, the Account of Central Oil Co., and the Lost –in-Transit Account as they will
appear in the books of Lubrizols Ltd.
Solution:
In the books of Lubrizols Ltd.
Dr. Consignment to Kolkata Account Cr.
2013 2013
Jan. 7 To, Consignment to Kolkata 21,250 Jan.7 By Bank-Insurance Claim A/c 15,000
A/c Mar.31 By, Profit and Loss A/c (bal. fig.) 6,250
21,250 21,250
Workings:
Valuation of Goods Lost-in-transit and Unsold Stock:
(`)
Total Cost (1,000 x ` 800) 8,00,000
Add: Consignor’s Expenses 50,000
Value of 1,000 barrels 8,50,000
` 8,50,000 21,250
Less: Lost-in-transit 25 × 1,000
Add: Non-recurring expenses of Consignee 11,250
Value of (1,000 – 25 – 25) = 950 Kg. 8,40,000
` 8,40,000
Therefore, Value of Stock = 200 x ` = ` 1, 76, 842 (App.)
950
When goods are sent at invoice price, to ascertain correct profit/loss on consignment, the items recorded at
invoice price should be brought down to Cost Price level. For this purpose, the loading included in various items
(like Opening Stock, Goods Sent on Consignment, Goods Returned by Consignee, Closing Stock) should be
eliminated by passing the necessary adjusting entries in the books of Consignor only.
Entries in the books of Consignor :
When goods are invoiced at cost When goods are invoiced at invoice price
For goods sent on Consignment A/c ... Dr. Consignment A/c ... Dr.
consignment
To Goods Sent on Consignment A/c To Goods Sent on Consignment A/c
(with the cost of goods) (with the invoice price of goods)
Adjustment Entry for No Entry Goods Sent on Consignment A/c ... Dr.
removing loading
To Consignment A/c
(with the amount of loading)
For goods returned Goods Sent on Consignment A/c ... Dr. Goods Sent on Consignment A/c ... Dr.
by consignee
To Consignment A/c To Consignment A/c
(with the cost of goods) (with the invoice price of goods)
Adjustment Entry for No Entry Consignment A/c ... Dr.
removing loading
To Goods Sent on Consignment A/c
(with the amount of loading)
For opening stock Consignment A/c ... Dr. Consignment A/c ... Dr.
To Stock on Consignment A/c To Stock on Consignment A/c
(with the cost of opening stock) (with the invoice price of opening stock)
Adjustment Entry for No Entry Stock Reserve A/c ... Dr.
removing loading
To Consignment A/c
(with the amount of loading)
For closing stock Stock on Consignment A/c ... Dr. Stock on Consignment A/c ... Dr.
To Consignment A/c To Consignment A/c
(with the cost of closing stock) (with the invoice price of closing stock)
Adjustment Entry for No Entry Consignment A/c ... Dr.
removing loading
To Stock Reserve A/c
(with the amount of loading)
Illustration 14.
Mr. X, the consignor, consigned goods to Mr. Y 100 Radio sets valued ` 50,000. This was made by adding 25% on
cost. Mr. X paid ` 5,000 for freight and insurance. 20 sets are lost – in- transit for which Mr. X recorded ` 5,000 from
the Insurance company.
Mr. Y received remaining goods in good condition. He incurred ` 4,000 for freight and miscellaneous expenses
and ` 3,000 for godown rent. He sold 60 sets for ` 50,000. Show the necessary ledger account in the books of Mr. X
assuming that Mr. Y was entitled to an ordinary Commission of 10% on sales and 5% Del Credere Commission on
sales. He also reported that ` 1,000 were provide bad .
Solution:
In the books of Mr. X
Dr. Consignment Account Cr.
Workings:
(1) Calculation of Loading: I.P. Load C.P.
125 25 100
100 x 50,000
50,000 = ` 40,000
125
20 x 55,000
100 44,000
Add: Non recurring Expenses of Mr. Y 4,000
I. P. of 80 sets 48,000
\ For Unsold Stock of (100 – 20 -60) = 20 sets
48,000 x 20
= = ` 12,000
80
Illustration 15.
On 1.7.2012, Mantu of Chennai consigned goods of the value of ` 50,000 to Pandey of Patna.
This was made by adding 25% on cost. Mantu paid ` 2,500 for freight and ` 1,500 for insurance.
1
During transit th of the goods was totally destroyed by fire and a sum of ` 2,400 was realised from the
10
insurance company. On arrival of the goods, Pandey paid ` 1,800 as carriage to godown. During
the year ended 30th June 2013, Pandey paid ` 3,600 for godown rent and ` 1,900 for selling expenses.
1
th of the remaining goods was again destroyed by fire in godown and nothing was recorded from
9
1
the insurance company. On 1.6.2013, Pandey sold half ( ) the original goods for ` 30,000 and charged
2
a commission of 5% on sales as on 30.6.2013, Pandey sent a bank draft to Mantu for the amount so far due from
him.
You are required to prepare the following ledger accounts in the books of Mantu of Chennai for the year ended
30.6.2013.
(a) Consignment to Patna Account;
(b) Goods Destroyed by Fire Account; and
(c) Personal Account of Pandey.
Solution:
In the books of Mantu of Chennai
Dr. Consignment to Patna Account Cr.
Working:
Valuation of goods destroyed by fire and unsold stock
Particulars Amount (`)
Invoice Price of Goods sent 50,000
Add: Consignor’s Expenses 4,000
54,000
1
Less: Lost-in-Transit ( 10
x ` 54,000) 5,400
9
Goods received ( th of ` 54,000)
10 48,600
Add: Non- recurring expenses of Pandey 1,800
50,400
Less: Value of goods destroyed by fire in godown 5,600
1
( 9 th of ` 50,400)
8
Value of 10 th 44,800
9 1 9 9 1 8
∴ Goods available for sale 10 - ( th of ) = 10 - 10 = 10
9 10
1 8 1 3
Goods sold ∴ Unsold goods = - = 10 th
2 10 2
3 10
∴ Value of unsold stock = ` 44,800 x x = ` 16,800
10 8
2
Loading on goods destroyed = ` 10,000 x = ` 2,000
10
3
Loading on unsold stock = ` 10,000 x = ` 3,000.
10
Illustration 16.
Shri Babubhai oil mills of Baroda sent 10000 kg of oil to M/s Gupta & Sons in Delhi. The cost of oil is ` 40 per kg.
Babubhai paid ` 5,000 as freight and ` 2,500 as insurance. In transit 250 kg of oil was accidently destroyed for which
insurance company paid ` 450 in full settlement to Babubhai.
M/s Gupta & Sons took delivery of the balance. Later they reported that 7500 kg was sold @ ` 60 per kg. Expenses
incurred by them were rent ` 2,000, advertisement ` 5,000 and salaries ` 5000. M/s Gupta & Sons are entitled to
commission of 3% and Del Credre commission of 1.5%. One customer who purchased 1000 kg paid only 80% of
the amount due. M/s Gupta & Sons also reported loss of 100 kg due to leakage. The final amount due was settled.
Prepare necessary ledger accounts in the books of Babubhai.
Solution:
In the Books of Shri Babubhai
Dr. Consignment to Delhi Account Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Goods Sent on Consignment A/c 4,00,000 By, M/s Gupta & Sons’ A/c (sales) 4,50,000
To, Bank A/c (Freight and Insurance) 7,500 By, Abnormal Loss A/c 10,188
To, M/s Gupta & Sons’ A/c : By, Consignment Stock A/c 86,849
Expenses 12,000
Commission 20,250
To P & L A/c (Balancing figure) 1,07,287
5,47,037 547,037
As the consignee has paid Del Credre Commission, the responsibility of bad debts is his. Hence no entry is needed
to be passed in the books of consignor.
Illustration 17.
Sangita Machine Corporation sent 200 sewing machines to Rita agencies. It spent ` 7500 on packing. The cost of
each machine was ` 2,000, but it was invoiced at 20% above cost. 20 machines were lost in transit & insurance
company accepted claim of ` 20,000 only.
Rita agencies paid freight of ` 9,000, carriage ` 3,600, Octroi ` 1,800 and rent ` 1800. They sold 150 machines at ` 3,500
per machine. They were entitled to commission of 5% on invoice price and additional 20% of any excess realized
on invoice price and 2% Del Credre commission. They accepted a bill drawn by Sangita Machine Corporation for
` 3,00,000 and remitted the balance by demand draft along with account sale. Draw up necessary ledger accounts
in the books of Sangita Machine Corporation and Rita Agencies.
Solution:
Books of Sangita Machine Corporation
Dr. Consignment to Rita Agencies Account Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Goods Sent on Consignment A/c 4,80,000 By Goods Sent on Consignment A/c 80,000
(loading)
To, Bank A/c 7,500 By Abnormal Loss A/c 48,750
(Packing Expenses)
To Rita Agencies A/c By Consignment Stock A/c 75,525
Freight 9,000 By Rita Agencies’ A/c 5,25,000
(sales 150 @ 3500)
Carriage 3,600
Octroi 1,800
Rent 1,800
Commission 61,500
To Abnormal loss A/c 8,000
(load removed)
To Stock Reserve A/c 12,000
To P & L A/c 1,44,075
7,29,275 7,29,275
Calculation of Commission
Invoice price of machines sold `
(2400*150) 360,000
Commission @ 5% on this 18,000 (a)
Illustration 18.
Ram of Patna consigns to Shyam of Delhi for sale at invoice price or over. Shyam is entitled to a commission @ 5%
on invoice price and 25% of any surplus price realized. Ram draws on Shyam at 90 days sight for 80% of the invoice
price as security money. Shyam remits the balance of proceeds after sales, deducting his commission by sight
draft.
Goods consigned by Ram to Shyam costing ` 20,900 including freight and were invoiced at ` 28,400. Sales made
by Shyam were ` 26,760 and goods in his hand unsold at 31st Dec, represented an invoice price of ` 6,920. (Original
cost including freight ` 5,220). Sight draft received by Ram from Shyam upto 31st Dec was ` 6,280. Others were
in- transit.
Prepare necessary Ledger Accounts in the books of Ram.
Solution:
In the books of Ram
Dr. Consignment to Delhi Account Cr.
Workings:
Calculation of Commission: `
Invoice value of goods 28,400
Less: Unsold stock 6,920
Invoice value of goods sold 21,480
Total sale proceeds 26,760
Less: Invoice value of goods sold 21,480
Surplus price 5,280
Commission @ 5% on ` 21,480 1,074
Add: @ 25% on ` 5,280 1,320
2,394
Deficiency of Stock
The consignee may discover some deficiency in stock on his actual physical stock taking. The value of loss arising
out of such deficiency will be calculated in the same way as the value of unsold stock. This will be brought into
account by debiting Stock Deficiency Account and crediting Consignment Account. Stock Deficiency Account
will be closed by transfer to the debit of Consignment Account or preferably of Profit & Loss Account. If, however,
there is an arrangement that any deficiency of stock will be made good by the consignee, the Deficiency Account
will be closed by transfer to the debit of the Consignee’s Personal Account.
Illustration 19.
R of Ranchi consigned goods costing ` 1,60,000 to B of Bombay. The terms of the consignment were:
(a) Consignee to get a commission of 5 per cent on cash sales and 4 per cent on credit sales.
(b) Any goods taken by the consignee himself or goods lost through consignee’s negligence, shall be valued at
cost plus 12½ per cent and no commission will be allowed on them.
The expenses incurred by the consignor were: Carriage and freight ` 6,720 and Insurance ` 3,440. The consignor
received ` 50,000 as advance against the consignment. Account Sales together with a draft for the balance due
was received by the consignor showing the following position:
Goods costing ` 1,28,000 were sold for cash at ` 1,40,000 and on credit at ` 1,08,000. Goods costing ` 8,000
were taken by B and goods costing ` 4,000 were lost through B’s negligence. The expenses incurred by B were:
Advertisement ` 1,720; other selling expenses ` 1,080.
Show the ledger accounts in the books of R.
Solution:
Books of R
Dr. Consignment to Bombay Account Cr.
20,000
Value of unsold stock: 1,60,000 x ` 1,70,160 = ` 21,270
B (Consignee) Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount (`)
(`)
To Consignment to Bombay A/c : By Bank—advance 50,000
Cash sales 1,40,000 ” Consignment to Bombay A/c :
Goods taken over 9,000 Advertisement 1,720
Goods lost 4,500 Selling expenses 1,080
Commission 11,320
” Bank—remittance 89,380
1,53,500 1,53,500
1,60,000 1,60,000
Introduction
Joint Venture is a temporary form of business organization. There are certain business activities or projects that may
involve higher risks; higher investments and even they demand multi-skills. In such cases, an individual person may
not be able to muster all resources. Hence two or more people having requisite skill sets come together to form
a temporary partnership. This is called a Joint Venture. There is a Memorandum of Undertaking (MOU) signed for
this purpose.
The business activities for which Joint Ventures (JV) are formed could be :
- Construction of dams, bridges, roads etc
- Buying & selling of goods for a particular season
- Producing a film
- Purchasing land selling plots
Accounting Entries
There may be three ways of maintaining the books of account for the joint venture business. They are:
(a) Where separate books of accounts are maintained
(b) Where no separate books of accounts are maintained
(c) Memorandum Joint Venture
For credit
By any Co-venturers
To Co-Venturers A/c
10 Unsold goods taken over by co- Co-Venturers A/c Dr.
venturers
To Joint Venture A/c
11 Shares taken over by co-venturers Co-Venturers A/c Dr.
To Shares
12 If shares are sold in open market Joint Bank A/c Dr.
To Shares
13 For profit on joint venture Joint Venture A/c Dr.
To Co-Venturers A/c
14 For loss on joint venture Co-Venturers A/c Dr.
ACCOUNTING SYSTEM
1. When a separate set of books is kept
2. When no separate set of books is kept
Generally when the size of the business is large a separate set of books is maintained by opening the following
accounts:
(a) Joint Bank account
(b) Joint Venture account and
(c) Co venturers account
Follow the following format to understand how the accounts are maintained:
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Joint Bank Account – Purchase By Joint Bank Account – Sales
To Co Venturers A/C – Goods Supplied By Co Venturers A/c – Goods Taken Over
By Co Venturers By Co Venturers
To Joint Bank Account – Expenses By Debtors A/c – Credit Sale
To Crditors – Credit Purchase
To Co Venturers A/C – Profit On Venture
Total Total
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Co Venturers Account – Cash By Creditors – Payment To Creditors
Introduced By Co Venturers
To Debtors – Collection From Debtors By Joint Venture – Purchase
To Joint Venture – Sales By Joint Venture – Expenses
BY Co Venturers – Final Payment
Total Total
Co Ventures Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Joint Venture – Goods Taken Over By Joint Bank Account – Cash Introduced
BY CO VENTURERS – GOODS SUPPLIED
To Joint Bank – Final Payment
Total Total
1. JOINT VENTURE ACCOUNT : in this account in the debit side all expenses(paid personally by the co venturers or
out of join bank) irrespective of its nature (i.e capital or revenue) are recorded. In the credit side all sales (to
outsiders as well a to the co venturers ) are recorded. I n this way the difference is considered as profit / Loss
on venture transferred to co venturers account in their profit sharing ratio.
2. JOINT BANK ACCOUNT : This is basically the cash book of the business. All cash inflows are recorded in the
debit side and the outflows are recorded in the credit side. Final settlement of the co venturers are lastly put
into this account so that it tallies.
3. CO VENTURERS ACCOUNT : It is like the capital account in the partnership business and is opened in
multicolumnar form to record the transaction of individual venture. Balance in this account refer to the claim
of a co venture to / from the business and is settled through the joint bank account.
Note :
1. Since the type of business is very short lived normally a firm name is not used in this kind of business.
2. As a basic feature of accounting for special transaction all transactions are recorded in the name of joint
venture. You must refer to consignment accounts where all expenses and incomes were charged to a single
consignment account. Similarly here all expenses and incomes of the business are recorded in the name of
joint venture account so that the transactions of the main business are not mixed with this kind of terminable
business.
Illustration 20.
Prabir and Mihir doing business separately as building contractors undertake jointly to build a skyscraper for a
newly started public limited company for a contract price of ` 1,00,00,000 payable as ` 80,00,000 in cash and the
balance by way of fully paid equity shares of the new company. A Bank A/c was opened for this purpose in which
Prabir paid ` 25,00,000 and Mihir ` 15,00,000. The profit sharing ratio was agreed as 2:1 between Prabir and Mihir.
The transactions were:
(a) Advance received from the company ` 50,00,000
(b) Wages to contractors ` 10,00,000
(c) Bought materials ` 60,00,000
(d) Material supplied by Prabir ` 10,00,000
(e) Material supplied by Mihir ` 15,00,000
(f) Architect’s fees paid from Joint Bank account ` 21,00,000
The contract was completed and the price was duly paid. The joint venture was duly closed by Prabir taking all
the shares at ` 18,00,000 and Mihir taking over the balance material for ` 3,00,000. Prepare the Joint Venture A/c,
Joint Bank A/c. Co-venturer’s A/cs and Shares A/c.
Solution:
To, Prabir A/c 25,00,000 By, Joint Venture A/c – wages 10,00,000
To, Mihir A/c 15,00,000 By, Joint Venture A/c – materials 60,00,000
To, Joint Venture A/c - advance 50,00,000 By, Joint Venture A/c – Architect 21,00,000
To, Joint Venture A/c - balance 30,00,000 By, Prabir A/c - balance paid 7,00,000
1,20,00,000 1,20,00,000
To, Shares A/c – taken 18,00,000 By, Joint Bank A/c 25,00,000
To, Joint Venture A/c - loss 10,00,000
To, Joint Bank A/c - Balance paid 7,00,000 By, Joint Venture A/c - material 10,00,000
35,00,000 35,00,000
To, Joint Venture A/c – stock taken 300,000 By, Joint Bank A/c 15,00,000
To, Joint Venture A/c – Loss 500,000
To, Joint Bank A/c - Balance paid 22,00,000 By, Joint Venture - material 15,00,000
30,00,000 30,00,000
20,00,000 20,00,000
Illustration 21.
P and Q entered into a joint venture for underwriting the subscription at par of 25,000 shares of ` 10 each of a Joint
Stock Company. They agreed to share profits or losses in the ratio of 3 and 2 , respectively. The consideration for
5 5
guaranteeing the subscription was 250 other shares of ` 10 each fully paid to be issued to them.
The public took up 24,000 of the shares and the remaining shares of the guaranteed issue were taken up by P and
Q who provide cash equally. The entire shareholding of the venture was then sold through other brokers, 60% at
a price of ` 9.50 less brokerage 50 paisa per share, 20% at a price of ` 9.75 less brokerage 50 paisa per share and
the balance were taken over by P and Q equally at ` 9.00 per share.
Prepare a Joint Venture Account, the Joint Bank Account, and Capital Accounts of P and Q.
Solution :
In the books of P and Q
Dr. Joint Venture Account Cr.
Working :
Cost of 1,000 shares @ ` 10 = ` 10,000 to be contributed by P and Q equally, i.e., ` 5,000 each
Calculation of sale proceeds :
`
Share purchased 1,000
Taken as Com. 250
1,250
60% of 1,250 = 750 × ` 9 (i.e. ` 9.50 – .50) = ` 6,750
20% of 1,250 = 250 × ` 9.25 (i.e. ` 9.75 – .50) = ` 2,313
80% 9,063
20% of 1,250 = 250 × ` 9 = ` 2,250 to be taken by P and Q equally, i.e. ` 1,125 each.
After closure the business of joint venture, the co-venturer who has received surplus cash will remit it to the other
co-venturer.
As a variation from this system, the co-venturers may decide to maintain a separate ‘Memorandum Joint Venture
A/c’ in joint books. In this transactions made by each co-venturer is shown against their name. This A/c will show profit
or loss. The co-venturers will keep an account called “Joint venture with co-venturer A/c” wherein all transactions
done by him only are recorded.
When the size of the business is small and co venturers are living in distant places this method is generally applicable
and in that case the venturers write transactions in his own books. This may again be done in two ways:
(a) When venturer maintains a complete records of all joint venture transactions:
Each co-venturer will record the transactions in the following ledger —
Joint venture account and personal account of joint venture. For example if Anil and Mukesh are two
venturers Anil will keep Joint venture account and Mukesh account . In the same way Mukesh will keep Joint
Venture account and Anil account.
Example:
Anil and Mukesh enter into a venture to take a job for `2,40,000. they provide the following information regarding
the expenditure incurred by them:
ANIL MUKESH
` `
Materials 68,000 50,000
Cement 13,000 17,000
Wages 27,000
Architects fees 10,000
License fees 5,000
Plant 20,000
Plant was valued at `10,000 at the end of the contract and Mukesh agreed to take it at that value. Contract
amount was received by Anil. Show necessary accounts.
Solution:
IN THE BOOKS OF ANIL
JOINT VENTURE ACCOUNT
Dr. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Bank A/c: By Bank A/c : contract price 2,40,000
Materials 68,000 By Mukesh A/c : plant taken over 10,000
Cement 13,000
Architects Fees 10,000
To Mukesh A/c:
Materials 50,000
Cement 17,000
Wages 27,000
License Fees 5,000
Plant 20,000
To Mukesh A/c: Share of Profit 20,000
To P/L A/c : Share of Profit 20,000
Total 2,50,000 Total 2,50,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Joint Venture A/c 10,000 By Joint venture A/c 1,19,000
By Plant 10,000
To Balance C/d 1,29,000
Total 1,39,000 Total 1,39,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Anil A/c: By Anil A/c : Contract Price 2,40,000
Materials 68,000 By Mukesh A/c : Plant Taken Over 10,000
Cement 13,000
Architects Fees 10,000
To Bank A/c:
Materials 50,000
Cement 17,000
Wages 27,000
License Fees 5,000
Plant 20,000
To Mukesh A/c: Share of Profit 20,000
To P/L A/C : Share of Profit 20,000
Total 2,50,000 Total 2,50,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Joint Venture A/c 2,40,000 By Joint Venture A/c 91,000
By Joint Venture 20,000
By Balance C/d 1,29,000
Total 2,40,000 Total 2,40,000
(b) When venturer maintains a records of his own transactions (memorandum method)
Example:
A and B decided to work on a joint venture for the sale of electric motors. On 21.05.2016 A purchased 200 electric
motors @ `175 each and dispatched 150 motors to B incurring `1,000 as freight and insurance charges, 10 motors
were damaged in transit. On 01.02.2017 `500 was received by A from the insurance company in full settlement of
claim. On 15.03.2017 A sold 50 motors @`225 each. He received `15,000 from B on 01.04.2017.
Solution:
IN THE BOOKS OF A
JOINT VENTURE WITH B ACCOUNT
Dr. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Bank A/c : Purchase 35,000 By Bank : Insurance Claim 500
To Bank A/c : Freight 1,000 By Bank : Sale Proceeds 11,250
To Commission Received 1,125 By Bank : Amount Received 15,000
To P/L A/c: Share Of Profit 4,000 By Bank : Balance Received 14,375
Total 41,125 Total 41,125
Particulars ` ` Particulars ` `
To A : By A :
Cost of Motors 35,000 Sale 11,250
Freight And Insurance 18,000 Insurance Claim 500 11,750
Commission 1,125 37,125
To B :
Clearing Charges 125 By B : Sale 36,000
Repairs 300
Godown Rent 600
Commission 3,600 4,625
To Net Profit:
A 2/3 4,000
B 1/3 2,000 6,000
Total 47,750 Total 47,750
Illustration 22.
John and Smith entered into a joint venture business to buy and sale garments to share profits or losses in the ratio
of 5:3. John supplied 400 bales of shirting at ` 500 each and also paid ` 18,000 as carriage & insurance. Smith
supplied 500 bales of suiting at ` 480 each and paid ` 22,000 as advertisement & carriage. John paid ` 50,000 as
advance to Smith.
John sold 500 bales of suiting at ` 600 each for cash and also all 400 bales of shirting at ` 650 each for cash. John is
entitles for commission of 2.5% on total sales plus an allowance of ` 2,000 for looking after business. The joint venture
was closed and the claims were settled.
Prepare Joint Venture A/c and Smith’s A/c in the books of John and John’s A/c in the books of Smith.
Solution:
Books of John
Dr. Joint Venture Account Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Goods A/c - shirting (400x500) 2,00,000 By, Cash A/c – sales
To, Bank A/c - carriage & insurance 18,000 shirting (500 x 600) 3,00,000
To, Smith A/c - suiting (500x480) 2,40,000 suiting (400 x 650) 2,60,000
To, Smith A/c - advt & Carriage 22,000
To, Commission A/c - 2.5% 14,000
To, Allowance A/c 2,000
To, P & L A/c (5/8th share) 40,000
To, Smith A/c (3/8th share) 24,000
5,60,000 5,60,000
Books of Smith
Dr. John’s Account Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Joint Venture A/c - sales 5,60,000 By, Cash A/c - advance 50,000
By, Joint Venture A/c - shirting 2,00,000
By, Joint Venture A/c - expenses 18,000
By, Joint Venture A/c - commission 14,000
By, Joint Venture A/c - Allowance 2,000
By, Joint Venture A/c - profit 40,000
By, Cash A/c - balance paid 2,36,000
5,60,000 5,60,000
Illustration 23.
M and N decided to work in partnership with the following scheme, agreeing to share profits as under :
M — ¾th share.
N—¼th share.
They guaranteed the subscription at par of 10,00,000 shares of ` 1 each in U Ltd. And to pay all expenses up
to allotment in consideration of U. Ltd. issuing to them 50,000 other shares of ` 1 each fully paid together with a
commission @ 5% in cash which will be taken by M and N in 3 : 2.
M and N introduced cash as follows:
`
M— Stamp Charges, etc., 4,000
Advertising Charges 3,000
Printing Charges 3,000
N— Rent 2,000
Solicitor’s Charges 3,000
Application fell short of the 10,00,000 shares by 30,000 shares and N introduced ` 30,000 for the purchase of those
shares.
The guarantee having been fulfilled, U Ltd. handed over to the venturers 50,000 shares and also paid the commission
in cash. All their holdings were subsequently sold by the venturer N receiving ` 18,000 and M ` 50,000.
Write-up necessary accounts in the books of both the parties on the presumption that Memorandum Joint Venture
Account is opened for the purpose.
Solution :
Dr. Memorandum Joint Venture Account Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`)
To, N : Cost or Shares 30,000 3
By M : Commission ( 5 )
To, M : Stamp Charges etc, 4,000 30,000
N : Commission ( 2 )
Advertising Charges 3,000 5 20,000
By M : Sale Proceeds
Printing Charges 3,000 10,000 50,000
N : Sale Proceeds
To, N : Rent 2,000 18,000
Solicitor’s Charges 3,000 5,000
In the books of M
Dr. Joint Venture with N Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Bank : Stamp, Adv. and 10,000 By, Bank : Commission 30,000
Printing Charges By, Bank : Sale Proceeds 50,000
To, Share of Profit 54,750
To, Bank (Remittance) 15,250
80,000 80,000
In the books of N
Dr. Joint Venture with M Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Bank : Cost of Shares 30,000 By, Bank : Commission 20,000
To, Bank : Rent and Solicitor’s Charges 5,000 By, Bank : Sale Proceeds 18,000
To, Share of Profit 18,250 By, Bank (Remittance) 15,250
53,250 53,250
Illustration 24.
Sahani and Sahu entered into a joint venture to sale 800 bags of food grains. The business risks are to be
shared in the ratio of 3:2 between them. Sahani supplied 400 bags at ` 800 per bag and paid freight
` 8,000 and insurance ` 2,000. Sahu sent 400 bags at ` 1,000 per bag. He paid ` 2,500 as freight, Insurance ` 8,000
and sundry expenses as ` 500. Sahani paid ` 50,000 as advance to Sahu.
They appointed Sandeep as agent for sale of grains. Sandeep sold all bags at ` 1,200 per bag. He deducted ` 21,000
as his expenses and commission of 5% on sales. He remitted ` 6,00,000 by cheque to Sahani and the balance to
Sahu by way of a bill of exchange. The co-venturers settled their accounts. Prepare Joint Venture A/c Sahu’s A/c
and Sandeep’s A/c in the books of Mr. Sahani.
Solution:
Books of Sahani
Dr. Joint Venture Account Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Food grains A/c (400*800) 3,20,000 By, Sandeep A/c - sales (800*1200) 9,60,000
To, Bank A/c - freight & insurance 10,000
To, Sahu A/c -food grains(400*1000) 4,00,000
To, Sahu A/c - expenses 11,000
To, Sandeep A/c - expenses 21,000
To, Sandeep A/c - commission 5% 48,000
To, Profit & Loss A/c 3/5th share 90,000
To, Sahu A/c 2/5th share 60,000
9,60,000 9,60,000
Conversion of Consignment in to JV
A variation could be that an ongoing consignment arrangement may get converted into a joint venture
arrangement. In Such case, a normal accounting for consignment business is done till the conversion. Upon the
conversion, the balance stock on consignment is transferred to the Joint Venture A/c and from that day onwards,
accounting is done on the basis of principles followed for joint venture.
Illustration 25.
Daga of Kolkata sent to Lodha of Kanpur goods costing ` 40,000 on consignment at a commission of 5% on gross
sales. The packaging and forwarding charges incurred by consignor amounted to ` 4,000. The consignee paid freight
and carriage of ` 1,000 at Kanpur. Three-fourth of the goods were sold for ` 48,000. Then the consignee remitted
the amount due from him to consignor along with the account sale, but he desired to return the goods still lying
unsold with him as he was not agreeable to continue the arrangement of consignment. He was then persuaded
to continue on joint venture basis sharing profit or loss as Daga 3/5th and Lodha 2/5th.
Daga then supplied another lot of goods of ` 20,000 and Lodha sold out all the goods in his hand for
` 50,000 (gross). Daga paid expenses ` 2,000 and Lodha ` 1,700 for the second lot of goods.
Show necessary Ledger A/c in the books of both parties. No final settlement of balance due is yet made.
Solution:
Books of Daga
Dr. Consignment to Lodha Account Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Goods Sent on Consignment A/c 40,000 By, Lodha’s A/c (sales) 48,000
To, Bank A/c (packing & dispatching) 4,000 By, Joint Venture with Lodha A/c
To, Lodha’s A/c : (stock transferred on conversion to JV) 11,250
Freight & Carriage 1,000
Commission 2,400
To, P & L A/c 11,850
59,250 59,250
Books of Lodha
Dr. Daga’s Account (as consignor) Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Cash A/c- expenses 1,000 By, Bank A/c – sales 48,000
To, Commission A/c 2,400
To, Bank A/c - remittance 44,600
48,000 48,000
Working note:
Dr. Memorandum Joint Venture Account Cr.
Particulars Amount ` Particulars Amount `
To, Daga A/c - goods 11,250 By, Lodha A/c – sales 50,000
To, Daga A/c- goods 20,000
To, Daga A/c- expenses 2,000
To, Lodha A/c- expenses 1,700
To, Net Profit :
Daga 3/5th Share 9,030
Lodha 2/5th share 6,020
50,000 50,000
Illustration 26.
Satish and Sunit made a JV to underwrite the subscription at par of the equity share capital of Soft Systems Ltd.
consisting of 100,000 shares of ` 10 each. They agreed to pay all expenses up to the allotment of shares. They
agreed to share profits or losses in the ratio of 3:2. The consideration in return for this underwriting was allotment
of 12,000 other shares of ` 10 each at par to be issued to them fully paid. Satish provided for ` 12,000 registration
fees, ` 11,000 advertisement, ` 7,500 for printing & distributing prospectus and ` 2,000 for printing & stationery. Sunit
paid ` 3,000 office rent, ` 13,750 as legal charges, and ` 9,000 salary of clerks. The issue fell short by 15,000 shares.
Satish took these over on joint A/c by paying for the same in full. He sold the entire holding at ` 12 (net). Sunit sold
the 12,000 shares allotted as consideration at the same price.
Prepare necessary ledger accounts in the books of both parties.
Solution:
Books of Satish
Dr. Joint Venture Account Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Bank A/c - expenses : By, Bank A/c- sales
Registration Fees 12,000 15000 shares @12 1,80,000
Advertising 11,000 By, Sunit’s A/c – sales
Prospectus Printing 7,500 12000 shares @12 1,44,000
Printing & Stationery 2,000
To, Sunit’s A/c - expenses :
Office rent 3,000
Legal charges 13,750
Salary 9,000
To, Bank A/c - 15,000 shares @ ` 10 1,50,000
To, P & L A/c (3/5th share) 69,450
To, Sunit A/c (2/5th share) 46,300
3,24,000 3,24,000
Books of Sunit
Dr. Satish’s Account Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`)
To, Joint Venture A/c - sales 1,80,000 By, Joint Venture A/c - expenses 32,500
To, Bank A/c - balance paid 71,950 By, Joint Venture A/c - cost of shares 1,50,000
By, Joint Venture A/c - profit 69,450
2,51,950 2,51,950
In course of running a business, an abnormal or accidental loss may occur in the form of a fire, theft, natural
calamity, strike, etc. As a result, the assets of the business and mainly stock of goods are destroyed partially or
wholly. Such an accident also causes a disruption of the normal business activities. To replenish the mutilated
assets, the business immediately needs some money. So, to cover the risks of such losses, it takes on a policy with
the Insurance Companies so as to recover a part or whole of the loss.
The business pays insurance premium yearly or quarterly or as per agreement. If any accidental loss occurs, the
business has to compute the amount of loss and file a claim for compensation to the Insurance Company. The
Insurance Company, in turn, appoints loss assessors to investigate the reasons and extent of the loss. As per the
report of the loss assessor, insurance claims are met.
Loss of Stock
Of the different forms of accidental losses, loss by fire is the most common one. A fire insurance policy is taken to
cover two types of losses: 1. Loss of assets (including Stock) and 2. Loss of Profits.
As stocks constitute a considerable portion of the working capital of any business and specially for trading
concerns, any loss of stock directly affects the solvency of the business. A business has to cover this risk adequately.
If stock records and stock are destroyed, it becomes difficult to ascertain the amount of stock lost. When the loss
suddenly occurs, up-to-date value of stock does not become available.
Trading Account
For the period (1st day of the current accounting year to the date of fire)
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
To Opening Stock By Sales (less returns)
To Purchase (less returns) By Stock on sale Return
To Any other Expense like Wages, etc. (If goods sent on approval are
chargeable to Trading A/c lying with customers but yet to be
To Gross Profit confirmed, then Cost price of such
goods)
(Calculated at usual rate on sales)
By Stock on consignment (lying with
consignee at cost)
By Closing Stock (Balancing figure)
Note :
(a) Usual rate of gross profit may not be given. In that case, it should be found out from information given. If
required a Trading Account for the preceding accounting period/periods may have to be prepared to find
out the rate of gross profit.
(b) Adjustments may be necessary while preparing the Trading Accounts of the current period and preceding
accounting years for slow-moving items, abnormal or defective items not fetching same rate of gross profit,
goods distributed as samples, goods taken away by proprietors, over or under valuation of stocks, omission
of recording of stocks, etc.
The Insurance Policy contains provisions regarding the claim for Stock Lost.
Please remember that-
(i) Even if the insured value of the goods is higher, the claim should be limited to the amount of actual loss.
(ii) If actual loss exceeds the amount of the insured value, the claim is to be limited usually by applying the
Average clause.
Average Clause: It is a clause contained in a fire insurance policy. It encourages full insurance and discourages
under-insurance. The insured person also has to bear a portion of loss himself in case the value of-stock lost is more
than the value of the policy. The net claim as per this clause is—
Policy Value
Net Claim = Actual Loss of Stock ×
Value of Stock on the date of fire
In this respect, it should be remembered that—
(a) If there is any Salvaged Stock, that is deducted from the Value of Stock on the date of fire. If there is no
Salvaged Stock, It is a case of total loss. The net claim should be limited to the Policy Value.
(b) Average clause cannot be applied in case the Policy value is equal to or more than the Actual Stock Lost
[that is, there is equal or over insurance].
Elimination of Abnormal/ Defective Items : Goods which cannot fetch the usual rate of gross profit are considered
as unusual or abnormal items.
For preparing the Memorandum Trading Account, the portion of the value of such goods which has not yet been
written off, should be deducted from the Opening Stock. If any such goods have been purchased in the current
period, the Cost Price of such goods should be deducted from purchases. If any portion of such goods have been
sold in the current period, the Selling Price should be deducted from current sales. Lastly if any portion of such,
goods remains unsold on the date of fire, the agreed value of such portion should be added with the estimated
value of normal stock to arrive at the estimated value of (total) stock on that date.
Similar adjustments may be required while preparing the Trading Account of the last financial year/s, if abnormal
items existed then.
As an alternative measure, columnar Trading Account Showing normal and abnormal items separately may be
prepared.
Illustration 27.
A fire occurred on 15th September 2013 in the premises of Sen & Co. from the following figures, calculate the
amount of claim to be lodged with the insurance company for loss of stock.
Particulars Amount
`
Stock at cost on 1.1.2012 40,000
Stock at cost on 1.1.2013 60,000
Purchases in 2012 80,000
Purchase from 1.1.2012 to 15.9.2013 1,76,000
Sales in 2012 1,20,000
Sales from 1.1.2013 to 15.9.2013 2,10,000
During the current year cost of purchase has risen by 10% above last years’ level. Selling prices have gone up by
5%. Salvage value of stock after fire was ` 4,000.
Solution:
Memorandum Trading Account for the period from 1.1.2013 to 15.9.2013
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Current Year Last Year Particulars Current Year Last Year
` ` ` `
To Opening Stock 60,000 60,000 By, Sales 2,10,000 2,00,000
,, Purchase 1,76,000 1,60,000 By, Closing Stock 1,32,000 1,20,000
,, Gross Profit 1,06,000 1,00,000
(bal. fig.) (50% of Sales)
3,42,000 3,20,000 3,42,000 3,20,000
Working:
1. Value of Closing Stock
`
Stock at last years’ level 60,000
Add: 10% increase in cost of purchase 6,000
66,000
Amount of Claim `
Closing Stock 1,32,000
Less: Stock Salvaged 4,000
Actual Value of Stock last 1,28,000
Actual Value of Stock Loss
Illustration 28.
Mr. X’s godown was destroyed by fire on 1.6.2013 when the goods in stock were insured for ` 60,000. The following
particulars are given:
Balance Sheet (Extract)
as at 31st December 2012
Liabilities Amount Asset Amount
` `
Creditor for goods 20,000 Stock (including goods held by agent ` 2,000) 36,000
Debtors 70,000
Additional information
(i) Debtors on 31.5.2013, included an amount owing from the agent from sales to date ` 4,000 less 10% commission
and his expenses amounting to ` 100 on 31.5.2013 – the agent still held the said goods valued at ` 3,600 (at
selling price).
(ii) Sales (total) for the periods include ` 1,600 for goods which have the selling price reduced by 50% and also `
6,000 reduced by 25%.
(iii) The normal mark up is 50% on cost and except the above, all sales can be assumed to be at the full selling
price.
(iv) All the goods were destroyed and there was no salvage value of the goods.
Calculate the amount of claim.
Solution:
In the Books of Mr. X
Debtors Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
2013 2013
Jan 1 To Balance b/d 70,000 May 31 By Cash Received 3,40,000
May 31 ,, Sales (bal. fig.) 3,40,000 ,, Bad Debts 3,5001
,, Balance c/d 66,500
(excluding form agent)
4,10,000 4,10,000
Creditors Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
2013 2013
May, 31 To Cash paid 2,20,000 Jan. 1 By Balance b/d 20,000
,, Discount Received 1,000 2013
,, Balance c/d 30,000 May 31 ,, Purchase (bal. fig) 2,31,000
2,51,000 2,51,000
Godown Stock Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
2012 34,000 2012 By Cost of Goods Sold 2,29,0662
May, 31 To Balance b/d May ,, Stock at Agents 3,0673
(` 36,000 – ` 2,000) 2,31,000 31. ,, Stock Destroyed by fire (bal. fig) 32,867
,, Purchase from the Creditors) 2,65,000 2,65,000
Thus, amount of claim which will be lodged for ` 32,867.
Workings:
1. Bad Debts
Particulars Amount
`
Sales 4,000
Less: Commission @10% 400 500
Expenses 100 3,500
3. Stock at Agent
Sales (`) Cost (`)
4,000 2,667 (` 4,000 × 2/3)
— 2,400 (` 3,600 × 2/3)
Less: Agents’ hand at the beginning 5,067
2,000
3,067
Illustration 29.
X Ltd. has taken out a fire policy of ` 1,60,000 covering its stock. A fire occurred on 31st March, 2013. The following
particulars are available :
`
Stock as on 31.12.2012 60,000
Purchases to the date of fire 2,60,000
Sales to the date of fire 1,80,000
Carriage Inwards 1,600
Commission on purchase to be paid @2%
Gross Profit Ratio @ 50% on cost
You are asked to ascertain (i) total loss of stock; (ii) amount of claim to be made against the Insurance Company
assuming that the policy was subject to average clause. Stock salvage amounted to ` 41,360.
Solution:
In the books of X Ltd.
Memorandum Trading Account
Dr. for the period ended 31st March, 2013 Cr.
Particulars ` ` Particulars `
To, Opening Stock 60,000 By, Sales 1,80,000
“ Purchase 2,60,000 “ Closing Stock 2,06,800
Add: Carriage Inward 1,600 (bal. figure)
Add: Com. on Purchase 5,200 2,66,800
“ Gross Profit 60,000
(@ 50% on cost or 33 % on sale)
3,86,800 3,86,800
Note: Carriage Inward and Com. on Purchase are direct expenses and hence, these are added to purchases.
Loss of Stock:
`
Stock at the date of fire 2,06,800
Less: Stock Salvaged 41,360
Loss of Stock 1,65,440
Illustration 30.
A fire occurred in the premises of Sri. G. Vekatesh on 1.4.2013 and a considerable part of the stock was destroyed.
The stock salvaged was ` 28,000. Sri Venkatesh had taken a fire insurance policy for ` 17,10,000 to cover the loss
of stock by fire.
You are required to ascertain the insurance claim which the company should claim from the insurance company
for the loss of stock by fire. The following particulars are available:
` `
Purchases for the year 2012 9,38,000 Stock on 1.1.12 1,44,000
Sales for the year 2012 11,60,000 Stock on 31.12.2012 2,42,000
Purchases from 1.1.13 to 1.4.13 1,82,000 Wages paid during 2012 1,00,000
Sales from 1.1.13-1.4.13 24,00,000 Wages paid 1.1.13-1.4.13 1,80,000
Sri Venkatesh had in June 2012 consigned goods worth ` 50,000, which unfortunately were lost in an accident.
Since there was no insurance cover taken, the loss had to be borne by him full.
Stocks at the end of each year for and till the end of calendar year 2011 had been valued at cost less 10%. From
2012, however there was a change in the valuation of closing stock which was ascertained by adding 10% to its
costs.
Solution:
In order to find the rate of gross profit on sales for the year 2012, the following Trading Account is to be prepared
for the same year as:
Trading Account
For the year ended 31st Dec. 2012
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To, Opening Stock 1,60,000 By, Sales 11,60,000
1,44,000 × (100/90) By, Stock lost by Accident 50,000
To, Purchases 9,38,000 By, Closing Stock (2,42,000 ×100/110) 2,20,000
To, Wages 1,00,000
To, Profit & Loss A/c (G.P. transferred) 2,32,000
14,30,000 14,30,000
Rate of Gross Profit on Sales = 2,32,000/11,60,000 × 100 = 20%
Illustration 31.
On 1.4.2013, godown of Y Ltd. was destroyed by fire. The records of the company revealed the following particulars:
`
Stock on 1.1.2012 75,000
Stock on 31.12.2012 80,000
Purchases during 2012 3,10,000
Sales during 2012 4,00,000
Purchase from 1.1.2013 to the date of fire 75,000
Sales from 1.1.2013 to the date of fire 1,00,000
In valuing Closing Stock of 2012, ` 5,000 was written off whose cost was ` 4,800. Part of this stock was sold in 2013 at
a loss of ` 400, at ` 2,400. Stock salvaged was ` 5,000. The godown and the cost of which was fully insured.
Indicate from above amount of claim to be made against the insurance company.
Solution:
(a) For ascertaining the rate of Gross Profit
Particulars ` ` Particulars ` `
To, Opening Stock 75,000 By, Sales 4,00,000
Less: Purchase of Abnormal 4,800 3,05,200 Add: Loss on value of 200 80,200
items of goods abnormal items
` 1,00,000
Percentage of Gross Profit on sales = ×100
` 4,00,000
= 25%
Alternative approach
In a combined form
Trading Account
for the year ended 31st December, 2013
Dr. Cr.
Normal Abnormal Normal Abnormal
Particulars Items ` Items Total Particulars Items ` Items Total
` ` ` `
To Opening Stock 75,000 --- 75,000 By Sales 4,00,000 --- 4,00,000
,, Purchase ,, Closing Stock 80,200 (-) 200 80,000
,, Gross Profit @25% 3,05,200 4,800 3,10,000 ,, Gross Loss
on sales 1,00,000 --- 1,00,000 --- 5,000 5,000
4,80,200 4,800 4,85,000 4,80,200 4,800 4,85,000
Amount of Claim `
Value of Stock at the date of fire 84,100
Less: Stock Salvaged 5,000
79,100
Illustration 32.
On 30.09.2013 the stock of Harshvardhan was lost in a fire accident. From the available records the following
information is made available to you to enable you to prepare a statement of claim of the insurer:
In valuing the stock on 31.03.2013 due to obsolescence 50% of the value of the stock which originally cost ` 12,000
had been written-off. In May 2013, ¾th of these stocks had been sold at 90% of original cost and it is now expected
that the balance of the obsolete stock would also realize the same price, subject to the above, G.P had remained
uniform throughout stock to the value of ` 14,400 was salvaged.
Solution:
Memorandum Trading Account
for the period ended 30.09.2013
Dr. Cr.
Normal Abnormal Normal Abnormal
Particulars Items Items Total Particulars Items Items Total
` ` ` ` ` `
To Opening Stock 98,000 6,000 1,04,000 By Sales 3,60,000 8,100 3,68,100
,, Purchase 2,90,000 --- 2,90,000 (Less returns)
(Less: Returns) ,, Closing
Stock
,, Gross Profit 90,000 4,800 94,800 1,18,000 2,700 1,20,700
(25% on Normal
Sales) 4,78,000 10,800 4,88,800 4,78,000 10,800 4,88,800
∴ Amount of Claim `
Stock at the date of fire 1,20,700
Less: Stock Salvaged 14,400
1,06,300
Workings:
Trading Account
for the year ended 31.03.2013
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Opening Stock 75,000 By Sales (Less: Returns) 6,30,000
B. LOSS OF PROFIT
Introduction
A fire may create a consequential loss to a business over and above the instantaneous damage of stock. It
disrupts normal activities for some time during which the business has to go on paying standing charges like rent,
salaries etc. without any effective return. It also causes a loss of profits which the business could have earned if
normality was not disturbed by the accident.
A business may cover the risk of such loss by taking out a “Loss of Profit” or “Consequential Loss Policy”. It is a
separate Policy. But any claim under this Policy is admitted provided the claim for loss of asset is also admitted
under a different policy.
We should remember that loss of profit insurance cover the following risk which happened as a result of fire. Viz,
(a) Loss of Net Profit; (b) payments made for standing (fixed) overhead charges, e.g., Salaries, Rent, Depreciation
etc. (c) Any additional cost of working.
Indemnity Period
“The period commences at the date of damage and ends not later than the stated number of months thereafter.
This is the maximum period in respect of which the insurers are liable and should the business recover and becomes
normal before the expiry of such period, liability at once ceases.” In short, it comes from the period of damage
upto the date when the business begins its normal operational activities or it is the period commencing on the day
on which the damages occurs and may vary from three months to a period of years. The period is selected by the
proposer and should be sufficient to extend over the full period of any likely interruption.
Indemnity
Indemnity is the difference between the actual profit earned after the damage and that which should have been
earned had no damage occurred.
Standard Turnover
The turnover during that period in the twelve months immediately preceding the date of the damage which
corresponds with the indemnity period.
Annual Turnover
It is the period of 12 months immediately before the date of damage.
Net Profit
It is the ordinary net profit of the business which is disclosed by the income statement excluding capital receipts
and payments. It excludes non-operating income (i.e., income from investment) for the purpose of insurance
indemnity.
Gross Profit
Gross Profit is the total of the net profit plus insured standing charges. If there is no net profit the amount would be
insured standing charges less such a proportion of any net trading loss.
Example:
Particulars Amount
`
Gross Profit (from Trading Account) 12,000
(Sale ` 16,000 Less: non-standing charges ` 4,000)
All standing charges 15,000
Net Loss
3,000
Insured standing charges say 14,000
Now, for profit for insurance purpose
Gross profit will be considered as: ` 14,000/15,000 × ` 12,000 = ` 11,200
5. Add (3) and (4). From the total deduct saving in any insured standing charge during the period of indemnity.
The result is gross claim.
Policy Value
6. Under average clause : Net Claim = Gross Claim × Gross Profit on Aannual Turnover
Illustration 33.
From the following particulars prepare a claim for loss of profits under the Consequential Loss Policy.
Date of Fire: June 30, 2013
Period of indemnity: Six Months
Particulars Amount
`
Sum Insured 25,000
Turnover for the year ended June 30, 2013 1,00,000
Net Profit for the accounting year ending March 31, 2013 6,250
Standing charges for the accounting year ending March 31, 2013 14,250
Turn Over for the year ending March 31, 2013 99,000
Turn Over for the indemnity period from 1.7.13 – 31.12.13 28,000
Turn Over for the period from 1.7.12 – 31.12.12 55,000
The turnover of the year 12-13 had shown a tendency of increase of 10% over the turnover of the preceding year.
Solution:
Short Sales
Particulars Amount
`
Standard Turnover (from 1.7.12 – 31-12-12) 55,000
Add: 10% increase in 12-13 5,500
60,500
Less: Actual Sales 28,000
Short Sales 32,500
Gross Claim
Particulars Amount
`
Gross Profit on short sales = 32,500 x 20.70% 6,730
Add : Increased Cost of Workings NIL
6,730
Illustration 34.
There was a serious fire in the premises of M/s ABC on 1.9.2013. Their business activities were interrupted until 31st
December, 2013, when normal trading conditions were re-established. M/s. ABC are insured under the loss or profit
policy for ` 42,000 the period of indemnity being six months. You are able to ascertain the following information.
(i) The net profit for the year ended 31st December, 2012 was ` 20,000
(ii) The annual insurable standing charges amounted to ` 30,000, of which ` 2,000 were not included in the
definition of insured standing charges under the policy.
(iii) The additional cost of working in order to investigate the damage caused by the fire amounted to ` 600 and
but for the expenditure the business would have had to shut down.
(iv) The savings in insured standing charges in consequence of the fire amounted to ` 1,500.
(v) The turnover for the period for four months ended April 30, August 31, December 31, in each of the years 2012
and 2013 was as follows:
You are required to compute the relevant claim under the terms of the loss of profit policy.
Solution:
Short Sales
Particulars Amount (`)
Standard Turnover (four months ended 31 December, 2012
st
95,000
Less: Actual Sales (four months ended 31 December, 2013)
st
15,000
Short Sales 80,000
` 20,000 + ` 28,000
= × ` 600 = ` 576
` 20,000 + ` 30,000
Total Claim
Particulars Amount
`
Gross Profit on short sales 16,000
Add: Additional cost of workings 576
16,576
Less: Savings in Standing Charges 1,500
Gross Claim 15,076
* Gross Profit on Annual Turnover = Sales for 12 months ended 31st August, 2012 is ` 2,45,000
= ` 2,45,000 × 20% = ` 49,000
Illustration 35.
A fire occurred on 1st July, 2012 in the premises of A. Ltd. and business was practically disorganized up to 30th
November 2012. From the books of account, the following information was extracted:
Solution:
Particulars Amount
`
Short Sales:
Standard Turnover (from 1.7.2012 to 30.11.2012) 4,00,000
Add: Increase @ 20% 80,000
4,80,000
Less: Actual Sales during indemnity period 1,20,000
(i.e., from 1.7.2013 to 30.11.2013) 3,60,000
∴ Gross Profit @30% on Short Sales (` 3,60,000 x 30%) = 1,08,000
Additional Expenses:
Least of the following:
18,000
(a) Actual amount
(b) Gross Profit on additional sales @30% 36,000
QUESTIONS:
1. Babai sold goods to Kachari for ` 90,000 on 1st April, 2014 for which the later accepted three bills of ` 30,000
each due respectively in 1,2 and 3 months. The first bill is retained by Babai and is duly met. The second bill
was discounted (discount being ` 600) and is met in due course. The third bill is also discounted (discount
being ` 900) and is dishonoured, the Noting charges being ` 150.
New arrangements were duly made whereby Kachari pays Cash ` 10,150 and accepted and new bill due
in 2 months for the balance of the amount with interest at 15% p.a. The bill is retained, on due date the same
is dishonoured, noting charges being ` 180. Kachari declared insolvent on 15th Sept. 2014 and 35 paise in a
rupee were received from his estate.
Required:
[Answer: Total of Journal Entries — `2,82,660. Interest on renewal of bills — [`20,000 × 15% × 2/12] =`500.],
Received from estate - `20,680 × 0.35 =`7,238.]
2. Gouru and Gyani were friends and in need of funds. On 1st April, 2015 Gouru drew a bill for ` 2,00,000 for three
months on Gyani. On 04.04.2015 Gouru got the bill discounted at 15% per annum and remitted half of the
proceeds to Gyani. On the due date, Gyani could not meet the bill, instead, Gouru accepted Gyani’s bill
for ` 1,20,000 on 4th July, 2015 for two months. This was discounted by Gyani at 15% per annum and out this `
19,500 was paid to Gouru after deducting ` 500 discounting charges. Due to financial crisis, Gouru became
insolvent and the bill drawn on his was dishonoured and his estate paid 40%.
Required:
[Answer: Total of Journal Entries — `8,80,000,Amount transferred to Deficiency A/c - `1,20,000 × 60% = `72,000.]
3. On 15th December, 2014 the premises of Nagar Ltd. were destroyed by fire, but sufficient records were saved
from which the following particulars were ascertained:
Purchases less returns, 1st April, 2014 to 15th December, 2014 10,15,000
Sales less returns, 1st April, 2014 to 15th December, 2014 11,62,000
In valuing stock for Balance Sheet as at 31st March, 2014 ` 6,900 had been written off for certain stock which
was a poor selling line, having cost of ` 20,700. A portion of these goods were sold in June, 2014 at a loss of
` 750 on the original cost of ` 10,350. The remainder of this stock was now estimated to be worth the original
cost. Subject to the above exception, gross profit had remained at a uniform rate throughout. The stock
salvaged was ` 17,500. The stock was insured for ` 2,50,000.
Required:
Calculate the amount of claim to be lodged with the Insurance company for Loss of Stock.
4. Mr. Naitik sends goods to the value of ` 9,37,500 at cost to Mr. Jatin on consignment basis to be sold at 5%
commission on sales on 01.01.2015. Jatin accepted a bill of ` 2,50,000 drawn by Naitik for 4 months on the
same date. Naitik discounted the bill with his banker @ 15% p.a. on 04.02.2015. Naitik incurred ` 75,000 by way
of freight and other expenses, whereas expenses of Jatin were ` 50,000 out of which 60% were non-recurring.
Jatin sent the final balance of ` 7,68,750 to Naitik on 31.03.2015 along with account sales. The Gross Profit
margin is 25% on Sales and 10% of Goods Remained unsold with Jatin.
[Answer: Amount transferred to General P& L A/c — `1.10.500, Amount of goods sold on consignment —
(`9,37,500/0.90)×0.90 = `11,25,000
Or , (`8,43,750/0.75)×0.90 =`11,25,000]
5. X and Y entered into a joint venture for purchase and sale of some household items. They agreed to share
profits and losses in the ratio of their respective contributions. X contributed ` 10,000 in cash and Y ` 13,000.
The whole amount was placed in a Joint Bank Account. Goods were purchased by X for ` 10,000 and
expenses paid by Y amounted to ` 2,000. They also purchased goods for ` 15,000 through the Joint Bank
Account. The expenses on purchase and sale of the articles amounted to ` 6,000 (including those met by Y).
Goods costing ` 20,000 were sold for ` 45,000 and the balance were lost by fire.
Prepare Joint Venture Account, Joint Bank Account and the Ventures’ Accounts closing the venture.
6. Jiban and Mitrik decided to work in joint venture with the following scheme, agreeing to share profits in the
ratio of 2/3 and 1/3:
They guaranteed the subscription at par of 50 lakhs shares of ` 10 each in Rainbow Ltd. and to pay all
expenses up to allotment in consideration of RAINBOW LTD. issuing to them 3,00,000 other shares of ` 10 each
fully paid together with a commission @ 5% in cash which will be taken by Jiban and Mitrik in 3 : 2.
Application fell short of the 50 lakhs shares by 1,20,000 shares and Mitrik introduced ` 12,00,000 for the
purchase of those shares.
The guarantee having been fulfilled, Rainbow Ltd. handed over to the ventures 3,00,000 shares and also paid
the Commission in cash. All their holdings were subsequently sold by the venture Mitrik receiving ` 12,50,000
and Jiban ` 25,00,000.
You are required to prepare the:
(i) Memorandum Joint Venture Account and
(ii) Joint Venture Account with Mitrik – in the Books of JIBAN.
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Bad Debts
3.3 Preparation of Financial Statements
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Preparation of final accounts is the final destination of the accounting process. As discussed earlier these final
accounts include two statements – Income statement which reflects the outcome of business activities during
an accounting period (i.e. profit or loss) and the balance sheet which show the position of the business at the
end of the accounting period (i.e. resources owned as assets and sources of funds as liabilities plus capital). The
objective of financial statements is to provide information about the financial strength, performance and changes
in financial position of an enterprise that is useful to a wide range of users in making economic decisions. Financial
statements should be understandable, relevant, reliable and comparable. Reported assets, liabilities and equity
are directly related to an organization’s financial position. Reported income and expenses are directly related to
an organization’s financial performance.
Financial statements are intended to be understandable by readers who have “a reasonable knowledge of business
and economic activities and accounting and who are willing to study the information diligently”.
In this chapter, we will see how conceptually these statements are prepared and what each of them contains.
Debts : The amount which is receivable from a person or a concern for supplying goods or services is called Debt.
Debts may be classified into :
(i) Bad debts;
(ii) Doubtful debts and
(iii) Good debts
(i) Bad Debts : Bad debts are uncollectable or irrecoverable debt or debts which are impossible to collect is
called Bad Debts. If it is definitely known that amount recoverable from a customer can not be realized at all,
it should be treated as a business loss and should be adjusted against profit. In short, the amount of bad debt
should be transferred to Profit and Loss Account for the current year to confirm the principles of matching.
(ii) Doubtful Debts : The debts which will be receivable or cannot be ascertainable at the date of preparing the
final accounts (i.e., the debts which are doubtful to realise) is known as doubtful debts. Practically it cannot
be treated as a loss on that particular date, as such, it cannot be written off. But, it should be charged against
Profit and Loss Account on the basis of past experience of the firm.
(iii) Good Debts : The debts which are not bad i.e., there is neither any possibility of bad debts nor any doubts
about its realization, is called good debts. As such, no provision is necessary for it.
Debtors
The debtors becoming bad are deleted from the list of debtors and the amount is deducted for the amount of
gross debtors. The balance remains is all doubtful and hence provision for doubtful debt is maintained on the
amount of doubtful debt. When such provision is also deducted from the net debtors the balance remains is
expected to be good and are supposed to clear their dues in due time. Therefore a provision for discount allowed
is made on such amount.
Let us see the same chart with some figure added:
Debtors (`1,00,000)
The above chart is explained below which will help to solve sums.
`
Debtors 1,00,000
Less Bad debt 2,000
Doubtful 98,000
Less Provision for doubtful debt @10 %( say) 9,800
Good 88,200
Less provision for discount @ 5% (say) 4,410
Net balance 83,790
Accounting Steps
The 1st year
(a) For Bad Debts
Bad Debts A/c Dr.
To Sundry Debtors A/c
(b) For creating provision for Doubtful Debts
Profit and Loss A/c Dr.
To Provision for Doubtful Debts A/c
(c) For Transferring Bad Debts
Profit and Loss A/c Dr.
To Bad Debts A/c
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Sundry Debtors 6,000 By Provision for Doubtful Debt A/c 6,000
(3,000+3,000)
6,000 6,000
Bad Debt Recovery Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To P/L A/c 500 By Bank A/c 500
500 500
Profit and Loss Account (includes)
Dr. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Provision for Doubtful Debt A/c By
New Provision 4,700
Add Bad Debt 6,000
10,700
Less Old Provision 5,000
5,700
Balance sheet (includes)
Liabilities ` Assets `
Sundry Debtors 50,000
Less Further Bad Debt 3,000
47,000
Less New Provision 4,700
42,300
Note 1. Similar treatment will be done for discount allowed and provision for discount allowed.
Note 2. Further bad debt should only be deducted from the debtors because the bad debt during the year is
already adjusted with debtors.
Illustration 1.
Prepare Bad Debts Accounts, Provision for Bad Debts Accounts under each of the above methods from the
following information and also the Profit and Loss Account and Balance sheet:-
Dr. Profit and Loss Account (Extract) for the year ended 31st Dec, 2012 Cr.
Dr. Profit and Loss Account (Extract) for the year ended 31st Dec., 2013 Cr.
Second Method
Dr. Bad Debts Account Cr.
The Balance Sheet under this method will be similar to the First Method stated above.
Illustration 2.
On 01.01.2013 the balance of Provision for doubtful debts was ` 5,000. The Bad Debts during the year were ` 900.
The Sundry Debtors as on 31.12.2013 stood at ` 40,400 out of these debtors of ` 400 are bad and cannot be
realized. The Provision for Doubtful Debts is to be raised to 5% on Sundry Debtors. Show the necessary ledger
accounts and the balance sheet.
Solution:
In the Books of ………..
Dr. Bad Debts Account Cr.
Accounting Steps
Illustration 3.
On 01.04.2012, M/s Singh Bros. had a provision for bad debts of ` 6,500 against their book debts. During 2012-13,
` 4,200 proved irrecoverable and it was desired to maintain the provision for bad debts @4% on debtors which
stood at ` 1,95,000 before writing off Bad Debts. They also decided to maintain a provision for discount on debtors
@2%. Show Provision for Bad Debt Account and Provision for Discount on Debtors Account as would appear in the
books of the firm in 2012-13.
Solution:
In the books of …………….
Dr. Provision for Bad Debt Account Cr.
Illustration 4.
A company maintains its reserve for bad debts @ 5% and a reserve for discount on debtors @ 2%.
You are given the following details :
2012 2013
(`) (`)
Bad debts 800 1,500
Discount allowed 1,200 500
Sundry debtors (before providing all bad debts and discounts) amounted to ` 60,000 on 31.12.2012 and ` 42,000
on 31.12.2013.
On 1.1.2012, Reserve for bad debts and Reserve of discount on debtors had balance of ` 4,550 and
` 800 respectively.
Show Reserve for Bad Debts and Reserve for Discount on Debtors Account.
Solution:
In the books of …………..
Dr. Reserve for Bad Debts Account Cr.
31-12-2012 To Balance c/d 1,102 31-12-2013 “ Profit & Loss A/c 1,502
(2% on ` 58,000-` 2,900) -further provision required
2,302 2,302
31-12-2013 To, Discount Allowed A/c. 500 1-1-2013 By, Balance b/d 1,102
31-12-2013 To Balance c/d 760 31-12-2013 “ Profit & Loss A/c 158
(2% on ` 40,000-` 2,000) -further provision required
1,260 1,260
Accounting Steps
(a) When bad debts are recovered
Cash/Bank A/c. Dr.
To Bad Debts Recovery A/c.
Illustration 5.
On 31.12.2012, Sundry Debtors and Provision for Doubtful Debts are ` 50,000 and ` 5,000 respectively. During the
year 2013, ` 3,000 are bad and written off on 30.9.2013, an amount of ` 400 was received on account of a debt
which was written off as bad last year on 31.12.2013, the debtors left was verified and it was found that sundry
debtors stood in the books were ` 40,000 out of which a customer Mr. X who owed ` 800 was to be written off as
bad.
Prepare Bad Debt A/c. Provision for Doubtful A/c. assuming that some percentage should be maintained for
provision for Doubtful debt as it was on 31.12.2012.
Show also how the illustration appear in Profit & Loss A/c. and Balance Sheet.
Solution:
In the books of ……….
Dr. Bad Debt Account Cr.
Profitability Statement – This statement is related to a complete accounting period. It shows the outcome of business
activities during that period in a summarized form. The activities of any business will include purchase, manufacture,
and sell.
Balance Sheet – Business needs some resources which have longer life (say more than a year).
Such resources are, therefore, not related to any particular accounting period, but are to be used over the useful
life thereof. The resources do not come free. One requires finance to acquire them. This funding is provided by
owners through their investment, bank & other through loans, suppliers by way of credit terms. The Balance Sheet
shows the list of resources and the funding of the resources i.e. assets and liabilities (towards owners and outsiders).
It is also referred as sources of funds (i.e. liabilities & capital) and application of funds (i.e. assets). Let us discuss
these statements in depth.
Trading Account: It is an account which is prepared by a merchandising concern which purchases goods and sells
the same during a particular period. The purpose of it to find out the gross profit or gross loss which is an important
indicator of business efficiency.
The following items will appear in the debit side of the Trading Account:
(i) Opening Stock: In case of trading concern, the opening stock means the finished goods only. The amount of
opening stock should be taken from Trial Balance.
(ii) Purchases: The amount of purchases made during the year. Purchases include cash as well as credit purchase.
The deductions can be made from purchases, such as, purchase return, goods withdrawn by the proprietor,
goods distributed as free sample etc.
(iii) Direct expenses: It means all those expenses which are incurred from the time of purchases to making the
goods in suitable condition. This expenses includes freight inward, octroi, wages etc.
(iv) Gross profit: If the credit side of trading A/c is greater than debit side of trading A/c gross profit will arise.
The following items will appear in the credit side of Trading Account:
(i) Sales Revenue: The sales revenue denotes income earned from the main business activity or activities. The
income is earned when goods or services are sold to customers. If there is any return, it should be deducted
from the sales value. As per the accrual concept, income should be recognized as soon as it is accrued and
not necessarily only when the cash is paid for. The Accounting standard 7 (in case of contracting business)
and Accounting standard 9 (in other cases) define the guidelines for revenue recognition. The essence of
the provisions of both standards is that revenue should be recognized only when significant risks and rewards
(vaguely referred to as ownership in goods) are transferred to the customer. For example, if an invoice is made
for sale of goods and the term of sale is door delivery; then sale can be recognized only on getting the proof
of delivery of goods at the door of customer. If such proof is pending at the end of accounting period, then
this transaction cannot be taken as sales, but will be treated as unearned income.
(ii) Closing Stocks: In case of trading business, there will be closing stocks of finished goods only. According to
convention of conservatism, stock is valued at cost or net realizable value whichever is lower.
(iii) Gross Loss: When debit side of trading account is greater than credit side of trading account, gross loss will
appear.
Additional Information:
(1) Stock on 31.3.2013: (i) Market Price ` 24,000; (ii) Cost Price ` 20,000;
(2) Stock valued ` 10,000 were destroyed by fire and insurance company admitted the claim to the extent of
` 6,000.
(3) Goods purchased for ` 6,000 on 29th March, 2013, but still lying in-transit, not at all recorded in the books.
(4) Goods taken for the proprietor for his own use for ` 3,000.
Solution:
In the books of M/s. P. Sen
Trading Account
Dr. For the year ended 31st March, 2013. Cr.
To Wages 30,000
Add: Outstanding 4,000 34,000
(ii) Other Incomes: The business will generate incomes other than from its main activity. These are purely incidental.
It will include items like interest received, dividend received, etc .The end result of one component of the P &
L A/c is transferred over to the next component and the net result will be transferred to the balance sheet as
addition in owners’ equity. The profits actually belong to owners of business. In case of company organizations,
where ownership is widely distributed, the profit figure is separately shown in balance sheet.
Dr. Profit and Loss Account for the year ended Cr.
Solution:
In the Books of Sri Tirlhankar
Profit and Loss Account
for the year ended 31st March 2013
Dr. Cr.
Dr. Profit and Loss Appropriation Account for the year ended ——————— Cr.
Illustration 8.
X,Y and Z are three Partners sharing profit and Losses equally. Their capital as on 01.04.2012 were: X
` 80,000 ; Y ` 60,000 and Z ` 50,000.
They mutually agreed on the following points (as per partnership deed)
(a) Interest on capital to be allowed @ 5% P.a. (b) X to be received a salary @ ` 500 p.m. (c) Y to be received a
commission @ 4% on net profit after charging such commission. (d) After charging all other items 10% of the net
profit to be transferred General Reserve.
Profit from Profit and Loss Account amounted to ` 66,720. Prepare a Profit and Loss Appropriation Account for the
year ended 31st March, 2013.
Solution:
In the books of X,Y and Z
Profit and Loss Appropriation Account
Dr. For the year ended 31st March, 2013 Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`)
X 4,000
Y 3,000
Z 2,500 9,500
“ Salaries
X : (`500 x 12) 6,000
“ Commission
Y 19701
X 14,775
Y 14,775
Z 14,775 44,325
66,720 66,720
Workings:
1. Net Profit before charging Y’s Commission = ` (66,720 – 15,500) = ` 51,220
4
Less: Y’s Commission @ 4% i.e.- ( 104 X ` 51,220) = ` 1,970
49,250
2. Transfer to General Reserve = ` 49,250 x 10% = ` 4,925
Balance Sheet: Horizontal format of Balance Sheet is also used by the business other than company
A. Liabilities
(a) Capital: This indicates the initial amount the owner or owners of the business contributed. This contribution
could be at the time of starting business or even at a later stage to satisfy requirements of funds for expansion,
diversification etc. As per business entity concept, owners and business are distinct entities, and thus, any
contribution by owners by way of capital is liability.
(b) Reserves and Surplus: The business is a going concern and will keep making profit or loss year by year. The
accumulation of these profit or loss figures (called as surpluses) will keep on increasing or decreasing owners’
equity. In case of non-corporate forms of business, the profits or losses are added to the capital A/c and
not shown separately in the balance sheet of the business.
(c) Long Term or Non-Current Liabilities: These are obligations which are to be settled over a longer period
of time say 5-10 years. These funds are raised by way of loans from banks and financial institutions. Such
borrowed funds are to be repaid in installments during the tenure of the loan as agreed. Such funds are
usually raised to meet financial requirements to procure fixed assets. These funds should not be generally
used for day-to-day business activities. Such loan are normally given on the basis of some security from the
business e.g. against a charge on the fixed assets. So, long term loan are called as “Secured Loan” also.
(d) Short Term or Current Liabilities: A liability shall be classified as Current when it satisfies any of the following :
• It is expected to be settled in the organisation’s normal Operating Cycle,
• It is held primarily for the purpose of being traded,
• It is due to be settled within 12 months after the Reporting Date, or
• The organization does not have an unconditional right to defer settlement of the liability for at least 12
months after the reporting date (Terms of a Liability that could, at the option of the counterparty, result
in its settlement by the issue of Equity Instruments do not affect its classification)
B. Assets
In accounting language, all debit balances in personal and real accounts are called as assets. Assets are broadly
classified into fixed assets and current assets.
(a) Fixed Assets: These represent the facilities or resources owned by the business for a longer period of time. The
basic purpose of these resources is not to buy and sell them, but to use for future earnings. The benefit from use
of these assets is spread over a very long period. The fixed assets could be in tangible form such as buildings,
machinery, vehicles, computers etc, whereas some could be in intangible form viz. patents, trademarks,
goodwill etc. The fixed assets are subject to wear and tear which is called as depreciation. In the balance
sheet, fixed assets are always shown as “original cost less depreciation”.
(b) Investments: These are funds invested outside the business on a temporary basis. At times, when the business
has surplus funds, and they are not immediately required for business purpose, it is prudent to invest it outside
business e.g. in mutual funds or fixed deposit. The purpose if to earn a reasonable return on this money instead
of keeping them idle. These are assets shown separately in balance sheet.
Non-current Investments are investments which are restricted beyond the current period as to sale or disposal.
Whereas, current investments are investments that are by their nature readily realizable and is intended to be
held for not more than one year from the date on which such investment is made.
(c) Current Assets: An asset shall be classified as Current when it satisfies any of the following :
• It is expected to be realised in, or is intended for sale or consumption in the organisation’s normal Operating
Cycle,
• It is Cash or Cash Equivalent unless it is restricted from being exchanged or used to settle a Liability for at
least 12 months after the Reporting Date.
(i) Stocks: This includes stock of raw material, semi-finished goods or WIP, and finished goods.
Stocks are shown at lesser of the cost or market price. Provision for obsolescence, if any, is also reduced.
Generally, stocks are physically counted and compared with book stocks to ensure that there are no
discrepancies. In case of discrepancies, the same are adjusted to P & L A/c and stock figures are shown as
net of this adjustment.
(ii) Debtors: They represent customer balances which are not paid. The bad debts or a provision for bad debt is
reduced from debtors and net figure is shown in balance sheet.
(iii) Bills receivables: Credit to customers may be given based on a bill to be signed by them payable to the
business at an agreed date in future. At the end of accounting period, the bills accepted but not yet paid
are shown as bills receivables.
(iv) Cash in Hand: This represents cash actually held by the business on the balance sheet date. This cash may be
held at various offices, locations or sites from where the business activity is carried out. Cash at all locations is
physically counted and verified with the book balance. Discrepancies if any are adjusted.
(v) Cash at Bank: Dealing through banks is quite common. Funds held as balances with bank are also treated
as current asset, as it is to be applied for paying to suppliers. The balance at bank as per books of accounts
is always reconciled with the balance as per bank statement, the reasons for differences are identified and
required entries are passed.
(vi) Prepaid Expenses: They represent payments made against which services are expected to be received in a
very short period.
(vii) Advances to suppliers: When amounts are paid to suppliers in advance and goods or services are not received
till the balance sheet date, they are to be shown as current assets. This is because advances paid are like
right to claim the business gets.
Please note that both current assets and current liabilities are used in day-to-day business activities. The current assets
minus current liabilities are called as working capital or net current assets. The following report is usual horizontal
form of balance sheet. Please note that the assets are normally shown in descending order of their liquidity. Also,
capital, long term liabilities and short term liabilities are shown in that order.
Total Total
Method of preparing:
Normally final accounts are prepared from the ledger balances. Trial balance may also be given to prepare final
account. All items in the trial balance should be posted once to any of the above three part depending on its
nature. There may be some additional information for which adjustment entry is required to be passed. Effect of
these adjustments must be posted twice in any of the three parts depending on the nature of the transaction.
For example if there is an outstanding rent as an additional information, it should be added to Rent A/c in P/L A/c
and should be recorded as a liability in the balance sheet. However, if outstanding rent is already there in the trial
balance it will be posted once to the balance sheet as liability.
Let us illustrate the whole process with an example.
The trial balance of a business is given below:
Prepare Trading Account and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31.12.2017 and a balance sheet as on
that date after taking into account the following adjustments:
1. The market price of the closing stock is ` 1,00,000 which includes a profit margin of `15,000.
2. Outstanding liabilities for salaries `4,500 and for wages ` 9,800.
3. Depreciate Furniture by 15 % and Plant and Machinery by 20%.
4. Sundry Debtors include `1,800 as bad which is to be written off.
5. Create a provision for bad debt @ 5 % on sundry debtors.
6. Goods distributed as free sample ` 500.
7. Goods lost by fire ` 20,800 and insurance claim admitted for ` 16,000.
8. Goods drawn for personal use ` 2,100.
9. Commission received ` 1,500 is yet to be earned.
Solution:
First scan the items in the Trial Balance to identify their positions in this way
You have almost done the sum. Now consider the adjustment entries one by one which will be posted twice.
1. Closing stock will be posted to Trading A/c as well as in the Balance Sheet as an Asset.
2. Outstanding Expenses will be added with respective item and will be posted to the Liability side of the Balance
Sheet.
3. Depreciation will be posted to the P/L A/c and will be deducted from the respective Asset in the Balance
Sheet.
4. Bad Debt will be debited to P/L A/c and will be deducted from the Sundry Debtors in the Balance Sheet.
Provision will be debited in the P/L A/c and again will be deducted from the Sundry Debtors.
5. Goods Distributed as Free Sample is to be treated as advertisement expenses and to be debuted to P/L A/c.
Since it an outflow of stock it is to be either credited in the Trading A/c or may be deducted from purchase.
6. Goods Lost by Fire will also be credited to Trading A/c as an outflow of stock and will be debited to P/L A/c
as loss (after adjusting the insurance claim.). So the insurance claim admitted will be posted to the Asset side
of the Balance Sheet as the amount is expected to be received shortly.
7. Commission that is received but not yet earned is a liability and to be posted to the Balance Sheet accordingly.
At the same time this is to be deducted from the commission earned in the P/L A/c since it is not yet earned
in this year.
8. Goods Drawn for Personal Use is again an item of outflow of stock and may be credited to Trading A/c or may
be deducted from Purchase. This is to be deducted from the Capital A/c as well as erosion of capital.
9. 6% interest on Bank loan is also to be provided. Here you can assume the loan is taken at the mid of the year
and in that case the interest to be debited to P/L A/c will be 6/100 × 20000 × 6/12 = `600. As a liability this is
again to be posted to the Balance sheet accordingly.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Opening stock 35,900 By Sales 6,12,700
To Purchase 3,40,000 Less returns (25,900)
Less returns (10,900) By Closing stock* 85,000
Less free sample (500)
Less drawings (2,100)
To Wages/direct expenses 65,800 By Abnormal loss 20,800
Add/less: due / advance 9,800 (Goods lost by fire)
To Carriage inward 14,900
To Freight 12,400
To P/L A/c : 2,27,300
(GP transferred)
Total 6,92,600 Total 6,92,600
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Salaries 15,500 By Gross profit c/d 2,27,300
Add: due + 4,500 By Discount received 5,200
By Commission 11,500
Less: not yet earned (1,500)
To Abnormal loss (20800-16000) 4,800
To Discount allowed 6,500
To Bad debts 1,800
To Depreciation: On Plant 7,290
On Furniture 17,120
To Provision for bad debt 4,200
(new prov.)
Less Old provision (1,000)
To Interest on bank loan 600
To carriage outward 15,200
To Advertisement (free sample) 500
To Capital account 1,65,490
(NP transferred)
Total 2,42,500 Total 2,42,500
Liabilities ` Assets `
5,04,290 5,04,290
Illustrations 9.
Following is the Trial Balance of M/s Brijesh and Sons. Prepare final accounts for the year ended on 31st March 2013.
Particulars Debit (`) Credit (`)
Stock as on 01.04.2012: Finished goods 2,00,000
Purchases and Sales 22,00,000 35,00,000
B ills receivables 50,000
R eturns 1,00,000 50,000
Carriage Inwards 50,000
Debtors and Creditors 2,00,000 4,00,000
Carriage Outwards 40,000
Discounts 5,000 5,000
Salaries and wages 2,20,000
Insurance 60,000
R ent 60,000
Wages and salaries 80,000
Bad deb ts 10,000
Furniture 4,00,000
Brijesh’s capital 5,00,000
Brijesh’s drawing 70,000
Loose tools 1,00,000
Printing & stationery 30,000
Advertising 50,000
Cash in hand 45,000
Cash at b ank 2,00,000
Petty Cash 5,000
Machinery 3,00,000
Commis sion 10,000 30,000
T otal 44,85,000 44,85,000
Adjustments: (i) Finished goods stock. Stock on 31st March was valued at Cost price ` 4,20,000 and market price
` 400,000. (ii) Depreciate furniture @ 10% p.a. and machinery @ 20% p.a. on reducing balance method. (iii) Rent
of ` 5,000 was paid in advance. (iv) Salaries & wages due but not paid ` 30,000. (v)Make a provision for doubtful
debts @ 5% on debtors. (vi) Commission receivable ` 5,000.
Solution :
Dr. Trading Account for the year ended 31st March 2013 Cr.
38,00,000 38,00,000
Dr. Profit & Loss Account for the year ended 31st March 2013 Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`)
Administrative expenses - Gross Profit b/d 13,20,000
Salaries & wages 2,20,000 Discount received 5,000
Add: Not paid 30,000 2,50,000 Commission received 30,000
Depreciation on furniture 40,000 Add : receivable 5,000 35,000
Depreciation of Machinery 60,000
Insurance 60,000
Rent 60,000
Less: Paid in advance 5,000 55,000
Printing & Stationery 30,000
Selling & Distribution
expenses:
Advertising 50,000
Carriage Outwards 40,000
Discounts 5,000
Bad debts 10,000
Commission 10,000
Provision for doubtful debts 10,000
Net profit 740,000
13,60,000 13,60,000
Liabilities Amount (`) Amount (`) Assets Amount (`) Amount (`)
Brijesh’s Capital 5,00,000 Fixed Assets:
Less : Drawings 70,000 Furniture 400,000
Add : Net Profit for the year 7,40,000 11,70,000 Less: Depreciation 40,000 3,60,000
Long term Liabilities: - Machinery 300,000
Less: Depreciation 60,000 2,40,000
Loose tools 1,00,000
Current Liabilities:
Sundry creditors 4,00,000
Outstanding salaries & wages 30,000 Current Assets:
Stocks 4,00,000
Sundry debtors 200,000
Less: Provision for doubtful
debts 10,000 1,90,000
Bills receivables 50,000
Cash in hand 45,000
Cash at bank 2,00,000
Petty cash 5,000
Prepaid Rent 5,000
Commission receivable 5,000
16,00,000 16,00,000
Notes :
(1) Closing stock is valued at market price here as it is less than cost price (conservatism concept)
(2) Returns in debit column mean sales return, while that in credit column means purchase returns
(3) Discounts in debit column mean allowed (expense) and that in credit means received (income)
(4) Commission in debit column mean allowed (expense) and that in credit means received (income)
(5) There are two peculiar items given in the TB. One is Salaries & wages and the other is Wages and salaries. The
interpretation is – where first reference is made to wages, it’s assumed to be directly for goods and taken to
Trading A/c. If the first reference is to salaries, it’s assumed to be related to office and taken to P & L.
Illustrations 10.
Mr. Arvindkumar had a small business enterprise. He has given the trial balance as at 31st March 2013
Additional information:
(1) Stock as on 31st March 2013 was valued at ` 60,000
(2) Write off further ` 6,000 as bad debt and maintain a provision of 5% on doubtful debt.
(3) Goods costing ` 10,000 were sent on approval basis to a customer for ` 12,000 on 30th March, 2013. This was
recorded as actual sales.
(4) ` 2,400 paid as rent for office was debited to Landlord’s A/c and was included in debtors.
(5) General Manager is to be given commission at 10% of net profits after charging his commission.
(6) Works manager is to be given a commission at 12% of net profit before charging General Manager’s commission
and his own.
You are required to prepare final accounts in the books of Mr. Arvindkumar.
Solution :
In the books of Mr. Arvindkumar
Dr. Trading Account for the year ended 31st March 2013 Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`)
Opening stock: Sales 4,98,000
Finished goods 74,000 Less: Sent on approval (12,000) 4,86,000
Purchases 2,50,000
Less: Purchases returns (3,000) 2,47,000 Closing stock:
Finished goods 60,000
Wages 54,000 Add sent on approval 10,000 70,000
Gross Profit c/d 181,000
5,56,000 5,56,000
Dr. Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st March 2013 Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`)
Administrative expenses: Gross Profit b/d 1,81,000
Salaries 21,000 Discount received 7,080
Repairs to machinery 5,200
Depreciation of Machinery 4,000
Depreciation of Building 5,000
Rent 2,400
Selling & Distribution
expenses:
Bad debts 2,000
Additional bad debts 6,000
Provision for doubtful debts 2,480
Less: Provision opening (10,000) 480
Commission to works
manager 18,000
Commission to General
Manager 12,000
Net profit 1,20,000
1,88,080 1,88,080
Liabilities Amount (`) Amount (`) Assets Amount (`) Amount (`)
Arvind kumar’s Capital 1,00,000 Fixed Assets:
Less: drawings (income tax) (1,000) Land & building 1,49,000
Add: Net Profit for the year 1,20,000 2,19,000 Machinery 36,000
Long term Liabilities: - Current Assets:
Current Liabilities: Stocks 60,000
Sundry creditors 62,520 Add: Sent on approval 10,000 70,000
Outstanding salaries 4,000 Sundry debtors 70,000
Less: Goods on
approval (12,000)
Citi Bank Overdraft 7,600 Less: Bad debts (6,000)
Less: Related to
Bills payable 16,000 landlord (2,400)
Less: Provision for
Commission payable 30,000 doubtful debts (2,480) 47,120
Bills receivable 30,000
Cash in hand 4,000
Accrued Income 3,000
3,39,120 3,39,120
Notes:
(1) The closing entries are passed for the items: depreciation, accrued income, outstanding salary. Hence,
they are directly taken to the respective places in Balance sheet and P & L A/c.
(2) Income tax paid for Mr. Arvindkumar will be treated as drawings.
(3) Commission payable to works manager & general manager is computed as below:
`
Profit before charging any commission 1,50,000
Commission to works manager @ 12% on 1,50,000 18,000
Profit after works manager’s commission 1,32,000
Commission to General Manager 12,000
(1,32,000/110 x 100)
Illustrations 11.
Abhay runs a small shop and deals in various goods. He has not been able to tally his trial balance and has closed
it by taking the difference to Suspense A/c. It is given below.
Mr. Abhay has requested you to help him in tallying his trial balance and also prepare his final accounts. On
investigation of his books you get the following information:
(i) Closing Stock on 31st March 2013 was ` 45,000 at cost and could sell over this value.
(ii) Depreciation of ` 13,500 needs to be provided for the year.
(iii) A withdrawal slip indicated a cash withdrawal of ` 15,000 which was charged as drawing. However, it was
noticed that ` 11,000 was used for business purpose only and was entered as expenses in cash book.
(iv) Goods worth ` 19,000 were purchased on 24th March 2013 and sold on 29th March 2013 for `23,750. Sales
were recorded correctly, but purchase invoice was missed out.
(v) Purchase returns of ` 1,500 were routed through sales return. Party’s A/c was correctly posted.
(vi) Expenses include ` 3,750 related to the period after 31st March 2013.
(vii) Purchase book was over-cast by ` 1,000. Posting to suppliers’ A/c is correct.
(viii) Advertising will be useful for generating revenue for 5 years.
To Bank 15,000
But it was charged to drawing and ` 11,000 was recorded as expenses as well i.e.
To Cash 26,000
To Drawings 11,000
Based on these rectifications we can now proceed to complete the final accounts.
Dr. Trading Account for the year ended 31st March, 2013 Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`)
To Opening stock - 36,500 By Sales 8,50,000
To Purchases 6,75,000 Less: Returns (34,000)
Less: Returns (13,500) Add: Rectification 1,500 8,17,500
Less: Additional returns (1,500) By Closing stock 45,000
Add: Purchases missed out 19,000
Less: Over-casting rectified (1,000) 6,78,000
To Gross Profit c/d 1,48,000
8,62,500 8,62,500
Dr. Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st March, 2013 Cr.
Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`) Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`)
2,55,500 2,55,500
Liabilities Amount (`) Amount (`) Assets Amount (`) Amount (`)
1,61,000 1,21,500
Current Assets:
Miscellaneous Expenditure:
4,30,000 4,30,000
Note : The expenditure incurred on intangible items after the date AS 26 became/becomes mandatory (01.04.2003
or 01.04.2004, as the case may be) would have to be expensed when incurred since these do not meet the definition
of an ‘asset’ as per AS 26. Hence, full amount of Advertisement expense is charged to Profit & Loss Account.
Illustration 12.
Mr. Oswal maintains his accounts on Mercantile basis. The following Trial Balance has been prepared from his
books as at 31st March, 2013 after making necessary adjustments for outstanding and accrued items as well as
depreciation:
Trial Balance
as at 31st March, 2013
Particulars Dr. Cr.
(`) (`)
Plant and Machinery 2,12,500
Sundry Creditors 2,64,000
Sales 6,50,000
Purchases 4,20,000
Salaries 40,000
Prepaid Insurance 370
Advance Rent 2,000
Outstanding Salary 6,000
Additional Information:
(i) Salaries include ` 10,000 towards renovation of Proprietor’s residence.
(ii) Closing Stock amounted to ` 75,000.
Mr. Oswal, however, request you to prepare a Trading and Profit & Loss Account for the year ended 31st March,
2013 and a Balance Sheet as on that date following cash basis of accounting.
Solution:
In the books of Mr. Oswal
Trading and Profit and Loss Account
Dr. for the year ended 31st March, 2013 Cr.
Particulars Amount Amount Particulars Amount Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`)
To, Opening Stock 50,000 By, Sales 6,50,000
`` Purchases 4,20,000 `` Closing Stock 75,000
`` Profit & Loss A/c.
Gross Profit transferred 2,55,000
7,25,000 7,25,000
To, Salaries 40,000 By, Trading A/c.
Less: Outstanding 6,000 -Gross Profit transferred 2,55,000
Salaries 34,000 `` Dividend 8,000
Add: Advance Salary 2,500 Less: Accrued Dividend 1,500 6,500
36,500
Less: Renovation (Drawings) 10,000 26,500
``Insurance 1,200
Add: Prepaid 370 1,570
``Rent 10,000
Add: Advance Rent 2,000 12,000
``Electricity Charges 2,650
Less: Outstanding 450 2,200
``Miscellaneous Expenses 14,000
``Stationery & Printing 1,200
``Depreciation:
Plant & Machinery 37,500
Furniture & Fixtures 8,000 45,500
``Interest on Loan 8,000
Less: Outstanding 1,500 6,500
``Telephone Charges 6,000
`` Capital Account
Net Profit transferred 1,46,030
2,61,500 2,61,500
Illustration 13.
The following Trial Balance has been prepared from the books of Mr. Sexena as on 31st March, 2013 after making
necessary adjustments for depreciation on Fixed Assets, outstanding and accrued items and difference under
Suspense Account.
Trial Balance as at 31st March, 2013
Solution:
In the books of Mr. Sexena
Trading and Profit and Loss Account
Dr. for the year ended 31st March, 2013 Cr.
Particulars Amount Amount Particulars Amount Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`)
To, Opening Stock 80,000 By, Sales
(` 6,80,000 - ` 30,000) 6,50,000
`` Purchases 4,60,000 `` Closing Stock 47,500
Less: Drawings 5,000 4,55,000
`` Profit & Loss A/c.
Gross Profit transferred 1,62,500
6,97,500 6,97,500
To, Salaries: 49,000 By, Trading A/c. 1,62,500
(Gross Profit)
`` Rent 5,000 `` Bank Interest 1,200
`` Insurance 1,500 `` Selling Commission
`` Audit Fees 1,000 (15% on ` 30,000) 4,500
`` Printing & Stationery 1,500 `` Discount Received 1,800
`` Miscellaneous Expenses 21,200
`` Discount Allowed 1,200
`` Travelling Expenses 6,500
`` Depreciation:
Machinery 37,500
Furniture 5,000 42,500
`` Capital Account
(Net Profit transferred) 40,600
1,70,000 1,70,000
Balance Sheet
as at 31st March, 2013
Notes:
`
1. Machinery as per Trial Balance 1,70,000
Add: Depreciation 30,000
2,00,000
Additions 50,000
2,50,000
2. Furniture 49,500
Add: Depreciation 5,500
55,000
Less: Wrong Debit 5,000
3. Suspense A/c. is eliminated by item 50,000
(i) ` 45,000 (50,000 – 5,000) and item
(ii) by 5,600 (debited), respectively.
Illustration 14.
The following Trail Balance has been extracted from the books of Mr. Agarwal as on 31.3.2013:
Trial Balance as on 31.3.2013
Particulars Dr. Particulars Cr.
(`) (`)
Purchase 6,80,000 Sales 8,38,200
Sundry Debtors 96,000 Capital Account 1,97,000
Drawings 36,000 Sundry Creditors 1,14,000
Bad Debts 2,000 Outstanding Salary 2,500
Furniture & Fixtures 81,000 Sale of Old Papers 1,500
Office Equipments 54,000 Bank Overdraft (UBI) 60,000
Salaries 24,000
Advanced Salary 1,500
Carriage Inward 6,500
Miscellaneous Expenses 12,000
Travelling Expenses 6,500
Stationery & Printing 1,500
Rent 18,000
Electricity & Telephone 6,800
Cash In Hand 5,900
Cash at Bank (SBI) 53,000
Stock (1.4.2012) 50,000
Repairs 7,500
Motor Car 56,000
Depreciation:
Furniture 9,000
Office Equipment 6,000 15,000
12,13,200 12,13,200
Additional Information:
(i) Sales includes ` 60,000 towards goods for cash on account of a joint venture with Mr. Reddy who incurred
` 800 as forwarding expenses. The joint venture earned a profit of ` 15,000 to which Mr. Reddy is entitled to
60%
(ii) The motor car account represents an old motor car which was replaced on 1.4.2012 by a new motor car
costing ` 1,20,000 with an additional cash payment of ` 40,000 laying debited to Purchase Account.
(iii) UBI has allowed an overdraft limit against hypothecation of stocks keeping a margin of 20%. The present
balance is the maximum as permitted by the Bank.
(iv) Sundry Debtors include ` 4,000 as due from Mr. Trivedi and Sundry Creditors include ` 7,000 as payable to him.
(v) On 31.3.2013 outstanding rent amounted to ` 6,000 and you are informed that 50% of the total rent is
attributable towards Agarwal’s resident.
(vi) Depreciation to be provided on motor car @ 20% (excluding sold item).
Mr. Agarwal requests you to prepare a Trading and Profit & Loss Account for the year ended 31.3.2013 and
a Balance Sheet as on that date.
Solution:
In the books of Mr. Agarwal
Trading and Profit and Loss Account
Dr. for the year ended 31st March, 2013 Cr.
`` Capital Account
- Net Profit transferred 76,900
1,88,200 1,88,200
Balance Sheet
as at 31st March, 2013
Workings
`
Cost of new Motor Car 1,20,000
Less: Exchange Value 56,000
Cash Payment 40,000 96,000
Profit on replacement 24,000
3. Closing Stock
Maximum allowable limit (100 – 20)% = 80% of stock.
Overdraft is ` 60,000 which is equal to 80%.
100
So, closing stock = ` 60,000 x
80
=
` 75,000.
Additional Information:
(i) Closing Stock amounted to ` 1,20,000;
(ii) Provide Interest on drawings (on an average 6 months) and interest on capital @ 6% and 4% respectively.
(iii) Y is to get a salary of ` 400 p.m.
(iv) X is to get a commissions @ 2% on gross sales
(v) 50% of the profit is to be transferred to Reserve Fund.
(vi) Depreciations on furniture @ 10% p.a.
The partners share profit and loss equally.
Solution:
In the books of M/s. X & Y
Dr. Trading and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st March, 2013 Cr.
Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars X Y Particulars X Y
(`) (`) (`) (`)
To, Drawings 12,000 10,000 By, Balance b/d. 24,000 16,000
`` Interest on Drawings 360 300 `` Interest on Capital 960 640
`` Balance c/d. 59,715 41,855 `` Salary --- 4,800
`` Commission 16,400 ---
`` Share of Profit 30,715 30,715
72,075 52,155 72,075 52,155
Balance Sheet
as at 31st March, 2013
Liabilities Amount (`) Assets Amount (`) Amount (`)
Capital : Land 11,000
X 59,715 Furniture 10,000
Y 41,855 Less: Depreciation 1,000 9,000
Reserve Fund 61,430
Loan 20,000
Closing Stock 1,20,000
Cash 3,000
1,63,000 1,63,000
4. Wages paid for installation of machinery: to be deducted from wages and to be added with the cost of
machinery. Depreciation will be calculated on the value of machinery after adding the cost of installation.
5. Carry forward of advertisement expenses for the next year: this is a case of deferred revenue expenditure. The
carry forward amount should be deducted from the advertisement expenses in P/L A/c and to be shown in
the asset side of the Balance Sheet as fictitious asset.
6. Pilferage of cash: to be debited to P/L A/c and to be deducted from the balance of cash in hand.
7. Dishonour of cheque received from a debtor: to be deducted from the cash at bank and to be added back
to the amount of debtor. Provision for doubtful debt to be calculated on the adjusted value of such debtors.
8. Unexpired insurance premium: unexpired means the benefit is yet to receive. In simple terms it means prepaid
insurance. Therefore the amount is to be deducted from the insurance in P/L A/c and to be shown as current
asset in the Balance Sheet.
9. When same party is debtor as well as creditor: this is a case of mutual indebtedness. It is termed as set off. The
rule is to deduct the lower amount from both debtor as well as creditor. Remember that any provision is to be
made after this adjustment.
10. Under valuation of opening stock: opening stock undervalued means the closing stock of last year was
undervalued due to which the gross profit of the last year as well as the net profit was also undervalued.
Ultimately the capital is also understated. So, in current year the opening stock should be increased and
capital also to be increased by the amount of such undervaluation.
4. When Sales = `1,80,000, Purchase = `1,60,000, Opening Stock = `34,000 and rate of the Gross Profit is 20% on
cost, the Closing Stock would be
(A) `50,000
(B) `44,000
(C) `46,000
(D) None of the above
Answer:
QUESTIONS:
1. Prepare trading and profit and loss account for the year ended 31st December, 2014 from the following
details:
` `
Purchase 1,50,000 Rent, rates and taxes 2,450
Sales 2,70,000 Interest received 540
Returns outward 20,000 Discount allowed 600
Returns inward 30,000 Discount received 460
Wages 25,000 Insurance charges 500
Salaries 15,000 Bad debts 650
Carriage inward 3,000 Trade expenses 200
Carriage outward 2,000 Advertisement 900
Duty and clearing charges 500 Depreciation : on plant 1,250
Factory rent 2,500 on furniture 300
Office rent 1,500 Stock on 1.1.14 37,000
Fuel and power 1,000 Stock on 31.12.14 55,000
Travelling and conveyance 950
[Answer: Gross Profit ` 96,000, Net Profit ` 70,700.]
2. The following is the trial balance of Hari as on 31st March, 2014. You are requested to prepare the trading
and profit and loss account for the year ended 31st March, 2014 and a balance sheet as on that date after
making the necessary adjustments:
Dr. Cr.
` `
Purchases 3,10,000
Sales 4,20,000
Discount on sales 20,000
Stock of goods as on 1.4.13 50,000
Cash in hand 2,100
Cash at bank 12,000
Mr. Hari’s capital 2,88,600
Drawings 4,000
Rates and taxes 5,000
Salaries 32,000
Postage and telephones 11,500
Commission paid to salesmen 35,000
Insurance 9,000
Furniture and fittings 22,000
Advertising 17,000
Printing and stationery 3,000
3. From the following trial balance and information, prepare trading and profit and loss account of Mr. Rishabh
for the year ended 31.3.14 and a balance sheet as on that date :
Dr. Cr.
` `
Capital - 1,00,000
Drawings 12,000 -
Land and buildings 90,000 -
Plant and machinery 20,000 -
Furniture 5,000 —
Sales — 1,40,000
Returns outward — 4,000
Debtors 18,400 -
Loan from Gajanand on 1.7.13 @ 6% p.a. — 30,000
Purchases 80,000 —
Returns inward 5,000 —
Carriage 10,000 -
Sundry expenses 600 -
Printing and stationery 500 —
Insurance expenses 1,000 -
Provision for bad and doubtful debts — 1,000
Provision for discount on debtors — 380
4. On 1st April, 2013 the balance of provision for bad and doubtful debts was ` 13,000. The bad debts during the
year 2013-14 were ` 9,500. The sundry debtors as on 31st March, 2014 stood at ` 3,25,000 out of these debtors
of ` 2,500 are bad and cannot be realized. The provision for bad and doubtful debts is to be raised to 5% on
sundry debtors.
(i) Pass necessary adjustment entries for bad debts and its provision on 31st March, 2014.
(ii) Prepare the necessary ledger accounts.
(iii) Show the relevant items in the profit and loss account and Balance Sheet.
[Answer: Provision for Bad and Doubtful Debts as on 31st March,2014 (as per P& L A/c) — `15,125,
Sundry Debtors as on 31st March,2014 (as per Balance Sheet) — `3,06,375.]
5. On 31st December, 2014 sundry debtors and provision for bad debts stood at ` 60,000 and ` 4,500 respectively.
During the year 2015, bad debts amounting to ` 3,460 were written off. On 30th June, 2015 an amount of ` 240
was received on account of a debt written off as bad last year. The debtors list on 31st December, 2015 was
verified and it was found that amongst sundry debtors amounting to ` 40,680, Sri Becharam who owed ` 680
was to be written off as bad. It was decided to maintain the provision for bad debts at the same percentage
as it was on 31st December, 2014.
Prepare bad debts account and provision for bad debts account. Also show how the relevant items would
appear in the profit and loss account and balance sheet.
[Answer: Provision for Bad Debts as on 31st March, 2014 (as per P& L A/c) — `2,400,
Sundry Debtors as on 31st March, 2014 (as per Balance Sheet) — `37,000]
Until now, we have seen accounting treatment for business transaction of business entities whose main objective is
to earn profit. There are certain organisations that are not established for making profit but to provide some service.
These services are generally given to members who make subscriptions to avail them. These are also called as
non-trading entities. The examples of such organisations are:
Gymkhana / sports clubs; Educational institutions; Public hospitals; Libraries; Cultural clubs like Rotary or Lions club;
Religious institutions; Charitable trusts
These organisations get their funds in the form of contributions by way of entrance fees, life membership fees, annual
subscriptions, donations, grants, legacies etc. The accounting of such organisations is based on similar principles
followed by the other organisations. Given the nature of these institutions, there are certain items of revenue and
expenses that need special understanding so that accounting treatment could be correctly decided.
Special Items
There are certain items of revenue and expenses that are unique for the non-trading entities. They could be listed as:
Revenue items Expenditure items
Donations Upkeep of grounds
Entrance fees Tournament expenses
Subscriptions Prizes
Grants received Events
Let us see what accounting treatment should be given to some of the special items:
(a) Entrance Fees – These are received at the time of admission of a new member and thus are one-time fees.
They are non-recurring in nature. It could be either capitalized as they are non-recurring or taken as revenue
as per the rules of the institution. There’s a view that addition of member is an ongoing activity and thus every
year the institute will get entrance fees. So it may be taken as a normal revenue receipt.
(b) Donations – They could be used for meeting capital or revenue expenses. If donations are received for a
special purpose, the amount is credited to a fund from which the amounts are disbursed. The fund may be
invested in specified securities. Income from such investments is credited to the fund A/c only. Small donation
amounts which are not earmarked for any specific purpose may be treated as revenue receipts.
(c) Legacy – Many times trusts are formed in the memory of certain persons by their will. In such case after the
demise of the person, the funds pass on to the institution. Such legacies are of course one-time and therefore
should be taken to the capital fund.
(d) Endowments – Sometimes, donations are also in the form of endowments to be used as per instructions of the
donor. These are to be treated as capital receipts.
(e) Life membership fees – These could be taken as capital receipts and every year a charge is debited based
on some logic. In other words, when received, it could be treated as deferred receipt in the balance sheet
and every year a specific amount is credited to I & E A/c.
(f) Subscriptions – These are annual receipts and therefore taken as revenue receipts. These must be recognised
as revenue on the accrual concept.
Financial Statements
These non-profit organisations prepare:-
Receipt and Payment Account – This is similar to cash book. Entries are made on cash basis and items pertaining
to previous year or current year or subsequent years are also recorded. Receipts are shown on debit side and
payments are shown on credit side. Capital as well as revenue items are entered in the R & P A/c. This account
is real account in nature. No provisions are recorded in this account. The account has an opening and a closing
balance which is reflected as an asset in the balance sheet.
Features of Receipts and Payments Account
1. It is an Account which contains all Cash and Bank transactions made by a nonprofit organization during a
particular financial period.
2. It starts with the opening balances of Cash and Bank. All Cash Receipts both capital & revenue during the
period are debited to it.
3. All Cash Payments both capital & revenue during the period are credited to this Account. It ends with the
closing Cash and Bank Balances.
4. While recording the Cash and Bank transactions all entries are made on Cash Basis.
5. It is a summary of Cash Book.
6. It follows Real Account.
Income and Expenditure Account – This is similar to the Profit and loss A/c and is prepared exactly based on same
principles. As the name suggests only revenue items are recorded herein. Incomes are recorded on the credit side
while the expenses on the debit side. Both incomes and expenses must be taken on the basis of accrual concept.
This account should reflect only items that are pertaining to current period. Previous and subsequent year items are
to be excluded. This account shows either a surplus or deficit. Excess of income over expenditure is called surplus
and excess of expenditure over income is called as deficit.
Features of Income and Expenditure Account
1. It follows Nominal Account.
2. All expenses of revenue nature for the particular period are debited to this Account on accrual basis.
3. Similarly all revenue incomes related to the particular period are credited to this account on accrual basis.
4. All Capital incomes and Expenditures are excluded.
5. Only current year’s incomes and expenses are recorded. Amounts related to other periods are deducted.
Amounts outstanding for the current year are added.
6. Profit on Sale of Asset is credited. Loss on Sale of Asset is debited. Annual Depreciation on Assets is also debited.
7. If income is more than expenditure, it is called a Surplus, and is added with Capital or General Fund etc. in
the Balance Sheet.
8. If expenditure is more than income, it is a deficit, and is deducted from Capital or General Fund etc. in the
Balance Sheet.
Balance Sheet – It is prepared as on the last day of the accounting period. It also has assets and liabilities and
prepared based on accounting equation. But, there’s no capital account. Instead there is a capital fund. The
surplus or deficit from Income & Expenditure A/c is adjusted against this capital fund at the end of the year.
Receipt and Payment Account
Difference between Receipts and Payments Account and Income and Expenditure Account
Receipts & Payments Account Income & Expenditure Account
1. It is a summarised Cash Book It closely resembles the Profit & Loss Account of a Trading
concern.
2. Receipts are debited and Payments are credited. Incomes are credited and Expenditures are debited.
3. Transactions are recorded on Cash basis. Transactions are recorded on Accrual Basis
4. Amounts related to previous period or future Transactions are recorded on accrual basis. All amounts
period may remain included. Outstanding not related to the current period are excluded.
amount for current year is excluded.
Outstanding amounts of current period are added.
5. It records both Capital and Revenue transactions. It records Revenue transactions only.
6. It serves the purpose of a Real Account. It serves the purpose of a Nominal Account.
7. It starts with opening Cash and Bank It does not record such balances,rather its final balance
shows a surplus or a deficit for the period.
Balances and ends with closing Cash and Bank
Balances.
8. It does not record notional loss or noncash It considers all such expenses for matching against
expenses like bad debts, depreciations etc. revenues
9. Its closing balance is carried forward to the same Its closing balance is transferred to Capital Fund or
account of the next accounting Period. General Fund or Accumulated Fund in the same period’s
Balance Sheet.
10. It helps to prepare an Income & Expenditure A/c. It helps to prepare a Balance Sheet.
Other Treatments
(a) If the Special Fund is used to meet an expense
Special Fund A/c Dr.
To Bank A/c (amt. of expense)
The balance of the Fund is shown as a liability.
If the balance is transferred to Capital Fund, the entry will be—
Special Fund A/c Dr.
To Capital Fund A/c (Balance of Special Fund )
(iv) Legacy received : It is to be directly added with Capital Fund after deduction of tax,( if any). It is a kind of
donation received according to the will made by a deceased person.
(vi) Subscriptions
(a) Annual subscriptions are credited to Income & Expenditure Account on accrual basis.
(b) Life membership subscription is usually credited to a separate account shown as a liability.
Annual Subscription apportioned out of that is credited to Income & Expenditure Account and deducted from
the liability. Thus the balance is carried forward till the contribution by a member is fully exhausted. If any member
dies before hand, the balance of his life Membership contribution is transferred to Capital Fund or General Fund.
Illustration 1.
On 31st December 2012, a club had subscription in arrears of `16,000 and in advance `4,000. During the year ended
31-12-2013, the club received subscription of `2,08,000 of which `10,400 was related to 2014. On 31st December
2012, there were 4 members who had not paid subscription for 2013 @ `1,600 per person. Write up subscription A/c
for the year 2013.
Solution:
A single subscription account should be prepared to reflect both advance and arrears figures. The balancing figure
will reflect the subscription amount that will be recognised as Income and transferred to I & E A/c as shown below:
Dr. Subscription Account Cr.
Illustration 2.
The sports club of Orissa had received in 2012-2013 ` 2,000 towards subscription. Subscription for 2011-12 unpaid
on 1.4.2012 were ` 200.
Subscriptions paid in advance on 31.3.2012 were ` 50 and the same on 31.3.2013 was ` 40. Subscriptions for 2012-
2013 unpaid on 31.3.2013 were ` 90.
Show how the subscriptions item will appear in the Income and Expenditure Account.
Solution:
Particulars Amount
(`)
Subscriptions received during the year 2012-2013 2,000
Add : Subscription outstanding on 31.3.2013 90
2,090
Less : Subscription outstanding on 1.4.2012 200
1,890
Add : Subscription paid in advance on 31.3.2012 50
1,940
Less : Subscription received in advance on 31.3.2013 40
Subscription Income for 2012-2013 1,900
Illustration 3.
The amount of Subscription appears in the Income and Expenditure Account of South Indian Club is
` 3,000.
Adjustments were made in respect of the following:
Subscription for 2012 unpaid at 1st Jan. 2013, ` 400; ` 200 of which was received in 2013.
Subscription paid in advance at 1.1.2013 ` 100.
Subscription paid in advance at 31.12.2013 ` 80.
Subscription for 2013 unpaid at 31.12.2013 ` 140.
Prepare Subscription Account.
Solution:
Dr. Subscription Account Cr.
Illustration 4.
From the following information, prepare the Subscription Account for the year ending on March, 31, 2013
(i) Subscription in arrears on 31.03.2012 ` 1,500
(ii) Subscription received in advance on 31.03.2012 ` 1,000
(iii) Amount of Subscription received during 2012-13 ` 40,000, which includes ` 500 for the year 2011-12, `
1,500 for the year 2013-14.
(iv) Subscription outstanding ` 1,000.
Solution:
Dr. Subscription Account Cr.
Illustration 5.
The accumulated balance of Life Membership fees at the beginning of the year 2012 was `6,40,000. This represents
the balance of life membership fees paid by 20 members since the club started about 6 years ago. In the current
year, 10 new life memberships were received totaling ` 4,00,000.
It’s the policy of the club to spread these fees over 20 years to income. The amount payable per person is always
` 40,000.
What is the amount to be recognised as income for the current year and what amount will be deferred through
the balance sheet?
Solution:
Income to be recognised for new members
Life membership fees per person `40,000
Income to be spread over 20 years
Income to be recognised each year `2,000
Members added during the year 10
Income to be recognised (10×2000) `20,000
Amount to be carried forward `3,80,000
No. of members 20
Illustration 6.
The following summary of the Cash Book has been prepared by the treasurer of a club:
On April 1, 2012 the club’s assets were:- Furniture ` 48,000, Restaurant stock ` 2,600; Stock of prizes ` 800; ` 5,200
was owing for supplies to the restaurant.
On March, 31, 2013, the Restaurant stocks were ` 3,000 and prizes in hand were ` 500, while the club owed ` 5,600
for restaurant supplies.
It was also found that subscriptions unpaid at March 31, 2013, amounted to ` 1,000 and that the figure of ` 29,720
shown in the Cash Book included ` 700 in respect of previous year and ` 400 paid in advance for the following year.
Prepare an account showing the Profit or Loss made on the Restaurant and a General Income and Expenditure
Account for the year ended 31.3.2013, together with a Balance Sheet as at that date, after writing 10% off the
Furniture.
Solution:
Restaurant Trading Account
For the year ended 31st March, 2013
Dr. Cr.
Balance Sheet
as at 1st April, 2012
Illustration 7.
‘Citizen Club’ was registered in a city and the accountant prepared the following Receipts and Payments Account
for the year ended Dec. 31, 2013 and showed a deficit of ` 14,520 :
(`) (`)
Receipts : Subscriptions 62,130
Fair Receipts 7,200
Variety Show Receipts (net) 12,810
Interest 690
Bar Collection 22,350
Cash spent more 1,000 1,06,180
Cash overspent represents honorarium to secretary not withdrawn due to Cash deficit. His annual honorarium is
` 12,000. Depreciation on premises and car is to be provided at 5% and 20% on written-down value.
You are required to prepare the correct Receipts and Payments Account, Income and Expenditure Account and
Balance Sheet as at Dec. 31, 2013.
Solution:
In the Books of Citizen Club
Receipts and Payments Account
for the year ended 31st December, 2013
Dr. Cr.
Receipts Amount (`) Payments Amount (`)
To Balance b/d 450 By, Premises 30,000
” Bank (24,690 – 270) 24,420 ” Honorarium to Secretary 11,000
” Subscription 62,130 ” Rent 2,400
” Fair Receipts 7,200 ” Rates and Taxes 3,780
” Variety Show Receipts 12,810 ” Printing and Stationery 1,410
” Interest 690 ” Sundry Expenses 5,350
” Bar Receipts 22,350 ” Wages 2,520
” Fair Expenses 7,170
” Bar Purchases 17,310
” Repairs 960
” New Car 37,800
” Bank Balance (10,440 – 90) 10,350
1,30,050 1,30,050
Balance Sheet
as at 31st December, 2013
Liabilities Amount Amount Assets Amount Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Capital Fund as on 1.1.13 65,130 Premises at Cost 1,17,000
Add: Surplus 43,490 1,08,620 Less: Depreciation 59,430 57,570
Creditors (for bar purchase) 1,290 Car at Cost 46,800
Secretary’s honorarium Less: Depreciation 9,360 37,440
outstanding 1,000 Bar Stock 2,610
Outstanding Subscription 2,940
Cash at bank 10,350
1,10,910 1,10,910
Balance Sheet
as at 1st January, 2013
Liabilities Amount Amount Assets Amount Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Capital Fund (bal. in figure) 65,130 Premises at Cost 87,000
Creditors (for bar purchase) 1,770 Less: Depreciation 56,400 30,600
Car at Cost 36,570
Less: Depreciation 30,870 5,700
Bar Stock 2,130
Outstanding Subscription 3,600
Cash at bank 24,420
Cash in Hand 450
66,900 66,900
Dr. Bar Trading Account for the year ended 31.12.2013 Cr.
Illustration 8.
Prepare Income & Expenditure A/c for the year ended 31-12-2013 and the balance sheet as on 31-12-2013 in the
books of an Education society.
Additional information :
Subscription receivable `22,500, subscription received for 2014 `7,850, Interest accrued on investments `6,250, salary
outstanding for 2013 `12,500, Prepaid insurance `4,500.
Depreciate Books @ 15%, Building @ 1% and Furniture @ 10%.
Solution:
Dr. Income & Expenditure Account for the year ended 31.12.2013 Cr.
Expenditure Amount (`) Amount (`) Income Amount (`) Amount (`)
To Salary 1,55,900 By Examination fees 32,500
Add: Outstanding 12,500 1,68,400 By Certificate fees 7,800
To Printing & Stationery 8,500 By Subscriptions 2,75,800
To Postage & Telephone 2,500 Add: Receivable 22,500
To Insurance 10,400 Less: Pre-received (7,850) 2,90,450
Less: Prepaid (4,500) 5,900 By Hire charges 95,500
To Examination Expenses 24,000 By Interest 85,000
To Periodicals 15,600 By Other Receipts 4,400
To General Expenses 5,250 By Accrued interest 6,250
To Depreciation on Books 38,415
To Depreciation on Building 37,890
To Depreciation on
Furniture 17,725
To Surplus 1,97,720
5,21,900 5,21,900
Liabilities Amount (`) Amount (`) Assets Amount (`) Amount (`)
Buildings 37,89,000
Less: Depreciation @ 1% (37,890) 37,51,110
Capital Fund 54,71,720 Library Books 2,30,000
Add: Entrance fees 2,02,600 Add: Purchased in 2012 52,200
Add: Donations 1,99,000 Less: depreciation @ 15% (38,415) 2,43,785
Add: Surplus 1,97,720 60,71,040 Furniture & fixture 1,59,500
Add: Purchased in 2012 35,500
Less: Depreciation @ 10% (17,725) 1,77,275
Investment Reserve Fund 1,85,000
Prize Fund 2,15,000 Investment 21,25,000
Add: Fund Income 10,200 Prize Investments 2,10,400
Less: Fund Expenses (9,500) 2,15,700 Debtors 59,700
Creditors 1,77,900 Prize Bank balance 2,450
Subscription received in 7,850 Bank balance 65,500
advance
Salary Outstanding 12,500 Cash in hand 1,520
Subscription receivable 22,500
Interest Accrued 6,250
Prepaid Insurance 4,500
66,69,990 66,69,990
Illustration 9.
From the following Receipts and Payments account prepare an Income and Expenditure account for the year
ended 31.12.2016
Receipts and Payments Account for the year ended 31.12.2016
Receipts ` Payments `
To Balance b/d : Cash in hand 1,200 By Purchase of furniture 10,000
: Cash at Bank 3,400 By Rent 3,600
To Subscriptions 24,500 By Honourarium 4,000
To Entrance fees 3,000 By Salaries 2,100
By Sports expenses 4,700
By Sundry expenses 1,100
By Printing and Stationery 800
By Balance c/d : Cash in hand 1,700
: Cash at Bank 4,100
32,100 32,100
Additional information:
60 % of the entrance fees are to be capitalized. Interest on savings bank account for ` 280 has not been entered
in the cash book. An old furniture (WDV ` 8,000) was exchanged at an agreed price of ` 5,000 for a new furniture
costing ` 15,000.
Solution:
Income and Expenditure Account for the year ended 31.12.2016
Expenditure ` Income `
To Rent 3,300 By Subscriptions 24,300
To Honourarium 4,000 By Entrance fees (3000 × 40%) 1,200
To Salaries 2,400 By Interest 280
To Sports expenses 4,700
To Sundry expenses 1,100
To Printing and stationery 800
To Loss on exchange of furniture 3,000
To Depreciation on furniture 2,000
To Surplus 4,480
25,780 25,780
Note :
1. Subscription `
Subscription 24,500
Add: due for 2016 3,200
Add : advance for 2015 1,400
Less : advance for 2016 2,700
Less : due for 2015 2,100
Transfer to income and expenditure A/c 24,300
2. Salaries
Salaries 2,100
Add : advance for 2015 1,200
Less : advance for 2016 900
Transfer to income and expenditure A/c 2,400
3. Rent
Rent 3,600
Add: due for 2016 300
Less : due for 2015 600
Transfer to income and expenditure A/c 3,300
5. Depreciation on furniture
Dr. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance b/d 18,000 By Creditors 5,000
To Creditors 15,000 By Loss on Exchange 3,000
By Balance c/d 23,000
By Depreciation 2,000
33000 33000
Illustration 10.
The following information was obtained from the books of Young Bengal Club as on 31-03-2013 at the end of first
year of the club. Prepare the Receipts & Payments A/c, Income & Expenditure A/c and Balance sheet of the club
(1) Donations received for Building & Books - ` 2,00,000
(2) Other revenue incomes and receipts were:
Donations were utilized to the extent of `25,000 for buying books, balance were unutilized. In order to keep it safe,
9% Govt. Securities were purchased on 31-3-2013 for `1, 60,000. Remaining amount was put in bank as term deposit
on 31-3-2013. Depreciate Furniture and books @ 10% for the whole year.
Solution:
Dr. Receipt and Payments for the year ended 31.3.2013 Cr.
Expenditures ` ` Incomes ` `
To Salary 4,800 By Subscriptions 19,000
Add: Outstanding 200 5,000 Add: Outstanding 1,000 20,000
`` Playground maintenance 1,000 `` Locker Rent 600
Add: Outstanding 1,000 2,000 `` Sundry Income 1,060
`` Rent 8,000 -Add: Outstanding 540 1,600
`` Depreciation on: `` Profit on Refreshment 8,000
Furniture 14,600
Library Books 2,500 17,100 `` Deficit
(Excess of Expenditure over 1,900
Income)
40,100 40,100
Liabilities ` ` Assets ` `
Capital Fund --- Land 10,000
Entrance Fees 17,000 Furniture 1,46,000
Donation for Building. Library Less: Depreciation 14,600 1,31,400
Room Fund 2,00,000 Library Books 25,000
Creditors for Furniture 16,000 Less: Depreciation 2,500 22,500
Outstanding Salaries 200 9% Govt. Bond 1,60,000
Outstanding Expenses for Subscription Receivable 1,000
Playground
1,000 Accrued Sundry Income 540
Bank Term Deposit 15,000
Bank overdraft
1,08,140 Deficit 1,900
3,42,340 3,42,340
Workings:
(1) Refreshment Account
Dr. Cr.
Illustration 11.
Following is the receipt and payment A/c of a club for the year ended 31-03-2013
Dr. Receipt and Payments for the year ended 31.3.2013 Cr.
“ Advertisements 5,00,000
“ F.D. with bank 75,000
“ Interest on savings A/c 700
“ Interest on F.D 22,000 “ Closing balance:
“ Sale of tickets - Programmed 25,000 Cash 2,700
“ Govt. Security Maturity Bank 5,000
(cost 80,000 & interest 8,000) 1,00,000
9,12,700 9,12,700
(a) Membership fee for 2012-13 due is `25,000; and `1,000 from a member who has not yet paid for 2011-12 as
well. A provision needs to be done on this.
(b) Income receivable on 31-03-2013 on ICICI bond is `30,000 and on Govt. Securities is `24,000
Solution:
Dr. Subscription Account Cr.
Dr. Income & Expenditure Account for the year ended 31.3.2013 Cr.
Expenditures ` Incomes `
To Administrative Expenses 1,21,000 By Subscriptions 1,85,000
” Depreciation on Assets 12,500 ” Interest Income 84,700
” Provision on subscription 2,000 [700+22,000+30,000+24,000+8,000]
” Surplus 3,96,200 ” Surplus from Programme 2,50,000
[25,000 + 5,00,000 – 2,75,000]
” Profit on sale of investment 12,000
5,31,700 5,31,700
Illustration 12.
Prepare the Balance Sheet of Ocean Blue club based on following information: `
Income from building fund 2,000 Entrance fees (50% be funded) 4,000
Solution:
Balance Sheet as at ...............
Liabilities Amount (`) Amount (`) Assets Amount (`) Amount (`)
Capital Fund Fixed Assets:
Op balance 60,000 Swimming Pool 40,000
Add: Capital grants 10,000 Equipments 20,000
Add: Legacies 8,000 Furniture 8,000
Add: Entrance fees (50%) 2,000 80,000 Less: Depreciation 800 7,200
General Fund Investment
Op balance 10,000 General fund 36,000
Surplus 20,000 30,000 Prize fund 10,000 46,000
Building Fund Receivables
Op balance 30,000 Subscription 10,000
Add: Income 2,000 32,000 Cash & bank
Prize Fund Cash in hand 800
Op balance 10,000 Current A/c 10,000
Add: Income 1,000 Fixed deposit 20,000 30,800
Less: Expenses 800 10,200
Allowances
Outstanding 800
Consultancy
Outstanding 1,000
1,54,000 1,54,000
Preparation of opening and closing Balance Sheet from a given Receipt and Payment Account and Income and
Expenditure Account
Students must remember –
A. While preparing opening Balance Sheet
(a) At first, take the opening balance of Cash and Bank which are given in the Receipts and Payments
Account as “Balance b/d”. The same will appear in the assets side of the opening Balance Sheet.
(b) All the opening assets will appear in the assets side of the opening Balance Sheet which are given in the
form of adjustments. Similarly, all the opening liabilities will also appear in the liabilities side of the opening
Balance Sheet.
(c) Ascertain the difference between the assets side and the liabilities side of the opening Balance Sheet
which will be treated as “Capital Fund”.
Illustration 13.
The following are the items of Receipts and Payments of the Bengal Club as summarized from the books of account
maintained by the Secretary:
It was ascertained from enquiry that the following represented a fair picture of the Income and Expenditure of the
Club for the year 2013 for audit purpose:
Expenditure Amount (`) Amount (`) Income Amount (`)
Manager’s Salary 1,500 Entrance Fees 10,500
Printing & Stationery 2,000 Subscription 15,600
Add: Accrued 400 2,400 Interest on Investments 4,000
Advertising (accrued Nil) 1,600
Audit Fees 500
Fire Insurance 1,000
Depreciation 4,940
Excess of Income over Expenditure 18,160
30,100 30,100
You are required to prepare the Balance Sheet of the Club as on 31.12.2012 and 31.12.2013, it being given that the
values of the Fixed Assets as on 31.12.2012 were: Building ` 44,000, Cricket Equipment ` 25,000 and Furniture ` 4,000.
The rates of depreciation are Building 5%, Cricket Equipments 10%, Furniture 6%.
Your are entitled to make assumptions as may be justified.
Solution:
In the books of Bengal Club
Balance Sheet as at 31st December, 2012
Liabilities Amount Assets Amount
(`) (`)
Outstanding Liabilities: Building 44,000
Advertisement (1,800 – 1,600) 200 Furniture 4,000
Printing and Stationery (2,600 – 2,000) 600 Cricket Equipment 25,000
Capital Fund 78,000 Entrance Fees in arrear 1,000
(Balancing figure) Subscription in arrear 600
Cash 4,200
78,800 78,800
Balance Sheet as at 31st December, 2013
Liabilities Amount Amount Assets Amount Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Capital Fund: Building 44,000
Balance on 1.1.2012 78,000 Less: Depreciation 5% 2,200 41,800
Add: Excess of Income
over Expenditure 18,160 96,160 Furniture 4,000
Subscription Received in Advance 400 Less: Depreciation 6% 240 3,760
Outstanding Liabilities:
Printing and Stationery 400 Cricket Equipment 25,000
Manager’s Salary: Less: Depreciation 10% 2,500 22,500
(1,500 – 1,000) 500 Investments 20,000
Audit Fees 500 Subscriptions in arrear 600
(15,600 – 15,000)
Entrance Fees in arrear 500
(10,500 – 10,000)
Accrued Interest on
Investments 1,000
(4,000 – 3,000)
Prepaid Insurance 200
(1,200 – 1,000)
Cash 7,600
97,960 97,960
Note: Advertisement expenses and Printing and Stationery which were paid in excess over Income and Expenditure
A/c are assumed to be outstanding for the previous year.
Preparation of Receipts and Payments Account from a given Income and Expenditure Account and a Balance Sheet
Preparation of Receipts and Payments Account
Preparation of Receipts and Payments Account has already been highlighted in the previous paragraph. But if
we are asked to prepare a Receipts & Payments Account from a given Income and Expenditure Account and
the opening Balance Sheet, in that case, we are to consider each and individual items both from Income and
Expenditure Account and the Balance Sheet.
Illustration 14.
The Income and Expenditure Account of the Calcutta Club is:
Solution:
In the books of Calcutta Club
Receipts and Payments Account
for the year ended 31st December, 2013
Dr. Cr.
Receipts Amount Payments Amount
` `
To Balance b/d 160 By Salaries 1,750
,, Donations 1,050 ,, General Expenses 500
,, Subscriptions (Cash received) 2,100 ,, Sundry Assets 400
,, Balance c/d 660
3,310 3,310
Workings:
Subscription Account
Dr. Cr.
2. Which of the following item(s) is (are) shown in the Income and Expenditure Account?
(A) Only items of Capital nature
(B) Only items of Revenue nature, which are received during the period of Accounts
(C) Only items of Revenue nature pertaining to the period of Accounts
(D) Both the items of Capital and Revenue nature
3. Salary debited to Income and Expenditure Account for the year was `48,000. Outstanding ? salary paid in the
beginning of the year and the outstanding salary at the end of the year were `6,000 and `7,500 respectively.
The amount of Salary to be shown in Receipts and Payments Account will be:
(A) `48,000
(B) `40,500
(C) `54,000
(D) `46,500
4. Which of the following item does not match with receipts and payments account?
(A) It is a summarized cash book
(B) Transactions are recorded in it on cash basis
(C) It records revenue transactions only
(D) It serves the purpose of a real account
6. The Income and expenditure Account and the Receipts and Payments Account of a Local Club at the end
of a particular year show the following amounts:
Answer:
1. (A) 2. (C) 3. (D) 4. (C) 5. (D) 6. (B) 7. (C) 8. (B)
QUESTIONS:
1. From the following Receipts and Payments Account of Jaipur Krida Parishad for the year ended 31st March,
2014 and additional information given, prepare an income and expenditure account for the year ended 31st
March, 2014 and balance sheet as on 31st March, 2014.
Receipts and Payments Account for the ended 31.3.14
There was no purchase and sale of office equipments and furniture during the year. Legacies receipts shall be
capitalized. Investments are made in securities, the rate of interest being 9% per annum, the date of investment
was 1st July, 2012 and the amount of investment was ` 3,00,000. Due date of interest was 31st March every year.
Answer:
Jaipur Krida Parished
Income & Expenditure Account for the year ending 31st March, 2014
Working Note:
Balance Sheet as on 31st March, 2013
2. The Income & Expenditure Account of Jayashree Sangha Club for the year ended 31.12.2012 as given below:
Expenditure ` Income `
To Salaries 20,500 By Subscription 52,000
To Newspaper 1,500 By Sale of Newspaper 2,500
To Audit Fees 2,500 By Admission Fees 12,000
To General Expenses 22,000 By Donation 15,000
To Printing & Stationery 7,500 By Miscellaneous Income 500
To Travelling Expenses 2,000
To Rent 3,500
To Depreciation of Furniture 2,500
To Surplus 20,000
82,000 82,000
Prepare Receipts & Payments Account for the year ended 31.12.2012 taking into account the following
adjustments:
(i) Subscription received in advance ` 1,500
(ii) Salary due for ` 1,500 but not paid for the year
(iii) 60% of the admission fee to be capitalized
(iv) Subscription due for 2012 but not received ` 3,000
Answer:
Jayashree Sangha Club
Receipt and Payment Account for the year ended 31.12.2012
Receipts ` Payments `
To Balance b/d 10,000 By Salary A/c (W/N – 2) 21,000
To Admission Fees ` 12,000 ÷ 40% 30,000 By General Expenses 22,000
To Sale of News Paper 2,500 By Audit Fees 2,500
To Donation 15,000 By Printing & Stationary 7,500
To Misc. Income 500 By Rent 3,500
To Subscription (W/N-1) 53,000 By Travelling Expenses 2,000
By News Paper 1,500
By Balance c/d at 31.12.2012 51,000
1,11,000 1,11,000
Working Notes:
(1) Subscription received during the year
Particulars ` `
Subscription on accrual basis for 2012 52,000
Add: Subscription of 2011 received in 2012 5,000
Subscription received in advance 1,500
58,500
Less: Subscription for 2012 3,000
Subscription for 2012 received in 2011 2,500 5,500
53,000
Particulars `
Salary as per Income & Expenditure A/c 20,500
Add: Paid for 2011 2,000
Less: Outstanding for 2012 1,500
21,000
3. Following is the Balance Sheet of the Rashtriya Club as on 1st April, 2014:
7,42,500 7,42,500
Answer:
Receipts and Payments Account
for the year ended 31st March, 2015
Dr. Cr.
Receipts ` Payments `
To Balance in hand 42,500 By Salaries 4,00,000
To Subscriptions for: By Investment purchased 1,00,000
2012-13 1,80,000 By Purchase of provisions 90,000
2013-14 1,70,000 By Creditors (W.N.3) 10,50,000
2014-15 (W.N.4) 4,00,000 By Balance in hand 1,77,000
To Cash Sales 1,20,000
To Interest 4,500
To Debtors (W.N.2) 8,60,000
To Subscriptions (for 2015-16) 40,000
18,17,000 18,17,000
Working Notes:
(1) Provisions Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Opening Stock 60,000 By Sales - Credit ` 9,00,000
To Purchases 10,90,000 Cash ` 1,20,000 10,20,000
To Profit 1,20,000 By Closing Stock (Balance in figure) 2,50,000
12,70,000 12,70,000
EXERCISE:
1. Jodhpur Club furnishes you the Receipts and Payments Account for the year ended 31.03.2013.
2. The Income and Expenditure Account of the Bhartia Club for the year ended 31st March, 214 is as follows:
Dr. Cr.
Expenditure ` Income `
To Salaries 95,000 By Subscription 1,50,000
To General Expenses 20,000 By Entrance Fee 5,000
To Audit Fee 5,000 By Collection for Annual Sports Meet 65,000
To Stationery and Printing 9,000
To Secretary’s Honorarium 20,000
To Interest 2,000
To Bank Charges 1,000
To Depreciation 6,000
To Expenditure on Annual Sports Meet 50,000
To Surplus 12,000
2,20,000 2,20,000
Other Information:
Expenditure `
Subscription outstanding on 31.03.2013 12,000
Subscription received in advance on 31.03.2013 9,000
Subscription outstanding on 31.03.2014 15,000
Subscription received in advance on 31.03.2014 5,400
Salaries outstanding on 31.03.2013 8,000
Salaries outstanding on 31.03.2014 9,000
Audit fee outstanding on 31.03.2013 4,000
Audit fee outstanding on 31.03.2014 5,000
General expenses period on 31.03.2014 1,200
Sports equipments as on 31.03.2014 52,000
Sports equipments after depreciation on 31.03.2014 54,000
Other balances as on 31.03.2014:
Freehold Ground 2,00,000
Bank Loan 40,000
Cash & Bank 32,000
You are required to prepare the Receipts and Payments Account for the year ended 31st March, 2014 and
Balance sheet as at 31st March, 2014.
Answer:
(i) Receipts and payment A/c Balance for the year ended 31.03.2014 — `32,000;
(ii) Subscription Received during 2013-14 — `1,43,400.
(iv) Salary paid during 2013-14 — `94,000.
(v) Balance Sheet Total as on 31.03.2014 — `3.02.200.
3. Income and Expenditure Account and the Balance Sheet of Nav Bharat Club are as under:
Income and Expenditure Account for the year ending 31st March, 2012
Dr. Cr.
Expenditure ` Income `
To Upkeep of Ground 21,000 By Subscription 56,640
To Printing & Stationery 2,800 By Sale of old newspapers 530
To Salaries 28,000 By Lectures 8,000
To Depreciation: By Entrance Fee 2,900
Ground & Building 9,000 By Miscellaneous Incomes 1,200
Furniture 1,000 10,000
To Repairs 3,500
To Surplus 3,970
69,270 69,270
Answer:
(i) Receipts and payments A/c Balance 19,400,
(ii) Subscription received during 2011-12 `56,740.
Introduction
“Single entry system is considered as a no system at all. Experts believe unlike double entry system it has no
scientific basis. Questions may arise – “why should this to be learnt”? It is true that like double entry system it has
no such scientific system. However it is also true that arithmetically through a simple statement business logics can
be explained and profit can be ascertained by comparing the opening capital and closing capital under single
entry system.
The traditional concept of profit is closing capital minus opening capital. For example if a peddler starts his day
with ` 1,000 and finds ` 1,200 in his hand at the end of the day he considers ` 200 as his net earnings for the day.
However this ignores the financial happenings during the day. During the day he may take lunch and spent ` 50.
In that case his earning increases by `50 because even if spending `50 for personal consumption he is left with
`200. so his actual earnings become `250. On the other hand he may bring ` 100 from home during afternoon for
his business which will reduce his net earnings by ` 100”.
Thus the formula for ascertaining profit is modified as (Closing Capital + Drawings – Opening Capital - Further
Introduction of Capital). From the above example profit = `(1,200 + 50 -1,000 -100 = 150). Small traders, grocery
shop owners may maintain such type of accounts which may not follow the true spirit of double entry system and it
may not be possible to record all transactions. This results in incomplete recording of the transactions in the books.
This is the reason it is called “final accounts from incomplete records”.
Many times small business organizations do not maintain a comprehensive accounting system which is based
on the double entry principle. The businessman is usually happy with the minimum information like the balances
of cash and bank accounts and whether he has made a profit or loss. These people maintain rough or sketchy
records that serve a limited purpose. Because, the principle of double entry is not followed, it is often referred to
as a ‘single entry system’. Such system maintains only personal accounts and cash book. Expenses and incomes
are reflected in the cash book, whereas personal accounts reflect the debtors’ and creditors’ position. This system
usually follows the principle of ‘cash basis accounting’ and hence no accrual or non-cash entries are passed. For
example, entries like depreciation, provision for expenses, accrued incomes have no place under such system.
(d) Collection of information from original documents : For information one has to depend on original vouchers,
example, in the case of credit sales, the proprietor may keep the invoice without recording it anywhere and
at the end of the year the total of the invoices gives an idea of total credit sales of the business.
(e) Lack of uniformity : It lacks uniformity as it is a mere adjustment of double entry system according to the
convenience of the person.
(f) Difficulty in preparation of final accounts : It is much difficult to prepare trading, profit and loss account and
balance sheet due to the absence of nominal and real accounts in the ledger.
The method
As the records are incomplete, how does a businessman find out whether he has made a profit or loss? There is
no fixed methodology but some techniques can give rough calculations that help assessing the business results.
Consider a businessman had cash of `15,000. He purchased goods for `10,000, sold the same for `17,000. Here, the
estimate of profit is `7,000 (17,000-10,000) and a closing cash of `22,000. Another way is to find out the increase or
decrease in capital (or net assets).
This method is called statement of affairs method. The statement of affairs is similar to the Balance Sheet with regard
to the format and is based on the same accounting equation of
Capital = Assets less Liabilities
The opening as well as closing statement of affairs is made on the basis of information available. Then a statement
of profit or loss is prepared. This is made by considering the changes in capital due to additional money brought
in by the businessman and the drawings made by him during the period.
1. Preparation of Final Accounts —
Under this system two statements are prepared – a. Statement of profit and loss and b. Statement of affairs.
Step 1 — Prepare statement of affairs at the beginning as well as at the year end to find out the opening and
closing capital respectively.
Step 2 — Prepare statement of profit and loss to ascertain the trading profit.
Step 3 — Prepare statement of affairs as at the year end to show the financial position of the business.
Add : Drawings xx
xx
Less : Further Capital (if any) xx
Profit/Loss xx
Less : Adjustments, if any say, Bad debts,
Depreciation etc. xx
Net Profit/Loss for the period xx
Less : Appropriation items :
(i) Interest on partner’s capital xx
(ii) Partners’ salaries etc. xx xx
Divisible Profit xx
Illustration 1.
Mr. Prakash keeps his accounts on single entry system. He has given following information about his assets and
liabilities.
Item On 31-3-2015 On 31-3-2016
Creditors 55,200 58,500
Cash at bank 600 1500
Bills payable 26,400 28,200
Bills receivables 16,200 18,300
Debtors 45,600 56,000
Stock in trade 31,000 47,300
Machinery 66,200 78,000
Computer 18,000 17,000
During the year, Prakash brought in additional ` 7,500 cash in business. He withdrew goods of `2,100 and cash of
` 7,200 for his personal use. Interest on opening capital is to be given at 5% and interest on drawing is to be charged
at 10%.
Prepare statement of profit or loss for the year ended 31-03-2016.
Solution:
Here the information about opening and closing capital is not given. Both these figures can be computed based
on statement of affairs as on 31-03-2015 and 31-03-2016. These can be worked out on the basis of information given.
The balancing figures in both statements will represent capital figures as on those two days.
These figures will then be used together with the information to find out profit or loss. The interest on capital will
increase it while, interest on drawings will result in decrease in capital. This will be included in the statement of profit
or loss for the year ended 31-03-2016.
Illustration 2.
On 1st April 2012, Neha started a beauty Parlour. She acquired a shop for `12,00,000 and paid `2,00,000 for interior
fittings. She put `4,00,000 into business bank A/c. She carried on till 31st March 2013, when she wanted to know
what the parlour has earned over the period. She has approached you to find out the business results with following
information as on 31-03- 2013:
In addition to the shop and fitting she had following possessions: Stock `6,00,000, Motor car (purchased on 30-09-
2012) `5,50,000, Cash at bank `2,50,000. Based on her limited knowledge she has told you to charge depreciation
of 2% p.a. on shop, 5% p.a. on fittings and 20% on car.
On 31-3-2013, ` 1,40,000 was payable to creditors, and ` 1,00,000 to a friend for money borrowed for business. She
had withdrawn ` 2,000 per month from the business.
Prepare her statement of profit or loss for the year.
Solution:
Statement of Affairs as on 01-04-2012
Illustration 3.
Mr. Raman starts a business with `30,000 cash as her capital on January 1, 2016. At the close of the year the
financial position of her business was as follows:
Creditors ` 20,000, Cash at Bank ` 15,000, Debtors ` 25,000, Stock ` 20,000, Plant ` 40,000.
During the year, Mr Raman drew ` 1000 every month. On July 1 2016, he introduced further capital amounting to
` 15000.
You are required to ascertain profit or loss made by her during the year. Following adjustments are required to be
made:
Plant to be depreciated at 10 % and reserve of 2 ½ % is to be raised against debtors.
Particulars ` Particulars `
Capital (closing) 80,000 Cash at bank 15,000
- Balancing Figure Debtors 25,000
Creditors 20,000 Stock 20,000
Plant 40,000
1,00,000 1,00,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
Capital 30,000 Cash at Bank 15,000
Further capital 15,000 Debtors(25,000 - 625) 24,375
Drawings (12,000) stock 20,000
Net profit 42,375 Plant(40,000 - 4,000) 36,000
Creditors 20,000
95,375 95,375
Illustration 4.
The following information is available from Sachin who maintains books of accounts on single entry system.
Sachin withdrew `5,000 from the business every month for meeting his household expenses. During the year he sold
investments held by him privately for `35,000 and invested the amount in his business. At the end of the year 2015-
16, it was found that full years interest t on loan from Mrs. Sachin had not been paid. Depreciation @ 10% p.a was
to be provided on furniture for the full year. Shop assistant was to be given a share of 5% on the profits ascertained
before charging such share. Calculate profit earned during the year ended 31.03.2016 by Sachin.
Solution:
Statement of profit and loss for the year ended 31.03.2017
Illustration 5.
The books of Mr. Z showed the following information:
January 1, 2016 December 31, 2016
` `
Bank balance nil 50,000
Debtors nil 87,500
Creditors nil 46,000
Stock 50,000 62,500
Fixed assets 7,500 9,000
The following are the details of the bank transactions (figures in `.)
Receipts from customers 3,40,000 Expenses paid 49,250
Payment to Creditors 2,80,000 Drawings 25,000
Capital brought in 5,000 Purchase of Fixed Assets 5,000
Sale of Fixed Assets 1,750
Other information:
1. Cost of goods sold ` 2,60,000;
2. Gross profit @25% on cost of goods sold;
3. Book value of fixed assets sold ` 2,500.
Prepare trading, profit & loss account for the year ended December 31, 2016.
Solution :
In the above example the missing informations are:
Sales, purchase, opening bank balance, opening balance of debtors, opening balance of creditors and opening
capital. To find out we need to open the debtors account, creditors account, bank account and opening balance
sheet.
Since sales as well as opening balance of debtors are unknown we need to apply the formula to find out sales as :
Sales = Cost of goods sold + Gross profit
Or, `2,60,000 + 25% of `2,60,000 = `3,25,000.
Again purchases as well as opening balance of creditors is unknown therefore we need to apply the formula as:
Opening stock + Purchase – Closing stock = Cost of goods sold.
Or, `50,000 + Purchase – `62,500 = `2,60,000
Or, Purchase = `2,60,000 + `12,500 = `2,72,500.
Now let us open the required accounts
Debtors Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Balance b/d 1,02,500 By Bank A/c 3,40,000
To Sales A/c 3,25,000 By Balance c/d 87,500
4,27,500 4,27,500
Form the above account we get the opening balance of debtors as balancing figure which will be transferred to
the opening Balance Sheet.
Creditors Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Bank A/c 2,80,000 By Balance c/d 53,500
To Balance c/d 46,000 By Purchase A/c 2,72,500
3,26,000 3,26,000
Form the above account we get the opening balance of creditors as balancing figure which will be transferred
to the opening Balance Sheet.
Bank Account
Dr. Cr.
4,09,250 4,09,250
From the above account we get the opening bank balance which is again transferred to opening balance sheet.
2,22,500 2,22,500
Putting all the balances we get the opening capital as balancing figure.
Fixed Assets
Dr. Cr.
12,500 12,500
Putting all the balances we get the depreciation as balancing figure. In these cases you have to apply common
sense to find out the balancing figure. As we have purchase, sale, loss on sale, opening and closing balance the
balancing figure must be depreciation.
Trading & Profit & Loss Account for the year ended 31.12.2016
Dr. Cr.
3,87,500 3,87,500
To depreciation 10,00
65,000 65,000
1,63,000
Creditors 46,000
2,09,000 2,09,000
Illustration 6.
From the following particulars presented by Rama Brothers, who maintain their accounts under Single Entry System,
calculate total purchase and total sales.
Balance on
Particulars 1.4.2012 31.3.2013
` `
Debtors 28,000 24,000
Bills Receivable 14,000 15,000
Creditors 16,000 32,000
Bills Payable 8,000 15,000
Solution:
In the books of Rama Brothers
Bills Receivable Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Balance b/d 14,000 By Cash 16,000
,, Total Debtors c/d 21,000 ,, Debtors (B/R Dishonours) 4,000
(bal. fig.) ,, Balance c/d 15,000
35,000 35,000
Illustration 7.
Mrs. Laxmi, a retail trader needs final accounts for the year ended 31-03-2013 for the purpose of taking a bank loan.
However, she informs you that principle of double entry had not been followed. With following inputs, prepare a Profit
& Loss A/c for the year ended 31-03-2013 and Balance sheet as on 31-03-2013. Details of receipts and payments:
(1) Cash deposited in bank ` 3,500
(2) Dividend on personal A/c deposited into bank ` 250
(3) Tuition fees of Laxmi’s daughter paid by cheque `4,500
(4) Rent for the year by cheque ` 9,000
(5) Cash received from debtors ` 52,500
(6) Paid to creditors ` 40,025
(7) Salaries & wages paid in cash ` 9,000
(8) Transportation in cash ` 2,750
(9) Office electricity in cash ` 6,600
(10) Electricity (house) in cash ` 7,200
(11) General expenses in cash ` 890.
She also informs you that she draws `6,000 from bank on monthly basis and some debtors deposit cheques directly
in bank.
Solution:
Dr. Stock Account Cr.
QUESTIONS:
1. Mr. Kumar kept no books of accounts for his business. An analysis of his rough Cash Book for the calendar
year 2015 shows the following particulars :
Receipts ` Payments `
Received from Debtors 60,000 Overdraft on 1-1-2015 7,400
Further Capital introduced 5,000 Paid to Creditors 25,000
Business Expenses 10,000
Wages paid 15,500
Proprietor’s drawings 3,000
Balance at Bank on 31-12-2015 4,000
Cash in hand 100
65,000 65,000
The following information are also available:
On 31-12-2014 On 31-12-2015
` `
Debtors 53,000 88,000
Creditors 15,000 19,500
Stock-in-trade 17,000 19,000
Plant and Machinery 20,000 20,000
Furniture and Fittings 1,400 1,400
All his sales and purchases were on credit
From the above particulars prepare Trading’and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31 -12-2015 and
a Balance Sheet as at that date after providing for dcprcciauon on Plant and Machinery @ 10 per cent, and
on Furniture and Fittings @ 5 per cent, per annum.
Solution:
Working:
Balance Sheet as at 31-12-2014
Liabilities ` Assets `
Creditors 15,000 Debtors 53,000
Bank Overdraft 7,400 Stock-in-trade 17,000
Capital (balancing figure) 69,000 Furniture and Fittings 1,400
Plant & Machinery 20,000
91.400 91,400
Dr. Total Debtors Account Cr.
` `
To Balance b/f 53,000 By Cash 60,000
” Sales (balancing figure) 95,000 ” Balance c/f 88,000
1,48,000 1,48,000
` `
To Cash 25,000 By Balance b/f 15,000
” Balance c/f 19,500 ” Purchases (balancing figure) 29,500
44,500 44,500
Mr. Kumar
Trading and Profit & Loss Account
Dr. for the year ended 31st December, 2015 Cr.
` `
To Opening Stock 17,000 By Sales 95,000
“ Purchases 29,500 “ Closing Stock 19,000
“ Wages 15,500
Gross Profit c/d 52,000
1,14,000 1,14,000
10,000 By Gross Profit b/d 52,000
To Business Expenses
“ Depreciation:
on Plant & Machinery 2,000
on Furniture & Fittings 70 2,070
“ Net Profit—transferred
to Capital 39,930
52,000 52,000
Liabilities ` Assets `
Capital: Fixed Assets:
Stock-in-trade 19,000
2. Mr. Jaiswal commenced business as a Cloth Merchant on 1stJanuary, 2015, with a capital of ` 2,000. On the
same day, he purchased furniture for cash ` 600. The books are maintained by Single Entry. From the following
particulars (i) calculate the cash on hand as on 31-12-15, (ii) prepare a Trading and Profit and Loss Account
for the year ending 31st December, 2015 and (iii) a Balance Sheet as on that date :
`
Sales (including cash sales of ` 1,400) 3,400
Purchases (including cash purchases of ` 800) 3,000
Jaiswal’s drawings 240
Salaries of Staff 400
Bad Debts written off 100
Business Expenses 140
Stock of goods on 31-12-2015 1,300
Sundry Debtors on 31 -12-2015 1,040
Sundry Creditors on 31-12-2015 720
Mr. Jaiswal took cloth costing ` 100 from the shop for private use and paid ` 40 cash to his son, but omitted to
record these transactions in his books. Provide depreciauon on furniture at 10 per cent per annum.
Solution:
Workings:
Dr. Cash Book Cr.
` `
To Capital 2,000 By Furniture 600
“ Sales 1,400 “ Purchases 800
“ Sundry Debtors (as per 860 “ Drawings (240 4- 40) 280
Debtors A/c) “ Salaries 400
“ Business Expenses 140
“ Sundry Creditors (as per Creditors A/c) 1,480
“ Balance c/f 560
4,260 4.260
` `
To Sales (3,400-1,400) 2,000 By Bad Debts 100
“ Cash (balancing figure) 860
“ Balance c/f 1,040
2,000 2,000
` `
To Cash (balancing figure) 1,480 By Purchases (3,000 – 800) 2,200
“ Balance c/f 720
2,200 2,200
3. N is a small trader. He maintains no books but only an account with a bank in which all takings are lodged
after meeting business expenses and his personsl drawings and in which all payments for business purchases
are passed through.
You are required to ascertain his trading result for the year ended 31-3-15 and Balance Sheet as on that date
from the following information:
(i) The bank statement shows deposits during the year of ` 12,020 and withdrawals of ` 11,850.
(ii) The Assets and Liabilities on 31-3-16 were: Stock— ` 1,100; Book Debts— ` 1,150; Bank balance—` 320;
Furniture—` 2,000 and Trade creditors— ` 400.
(iii) In the absence of reliable information, estimates are supplied on the following matters:
(a) The Stock and Book Debts have each increased by ` 100 during the year. There was no purchase or
sale of furniture during the year.
(b) The trade creditors were ` 200 on 1-4-95.
(c) During the year the personal expenses amounted to ` 800 and business expenses ` 700.
Solution:
Workings—
Liabilities ` Asstes `
Sundry Creditors Capital 200 Furniture 2,000
(balancing figure) 4,000 Stock (1,100-100) 1,000
Sundry Debtors 1,050
Bank 150
4,200 4,200
Mr. N
Trading and Profit & Loss Account
Dr. for the year ended 31-3-16 Cr.
` `
To Opening Stock 1,000 By Sales 13,620
Purchases 12,050 “ Closing Stock 1,100
“ Gross Profit c/d 1,670
14,720 14,720
To Business Expenses 700 By Gross Profit b/d 1,670
Net Profit—transferred to Capital 970
1,670 1,670
Liabilities ` Assets `
Capital as on 1-4-15 4,000 Furniture 2,000
Add: Net Profit 970 Stock 1,100
4,970 Sundry Debtors 1,150
Less: Drawings 800 4,170 Bank 320
Sundry Creditors 4,00
4,570 4,570
4. The Statement of Affairs of Mr. M on Saturday, the 31st December 2015 was as follows:
` `
Capital 50,000 Fixed Assets 30,000
Sundry Creditors 10.000 Stock 10,000
Liability for Expenses 1,000 Debtors 15,000
Bank 5,000
Cash 1,000
61,000 61,000
Mr. M did not maintain his books on the Double Entry System. But he carefully follows the following system:
1. Every week he draws ` 200.
2. After meeting his weekly sundry expenses (` 100 on average) and his drawings, the balance of weekly
collections is banked at the commencement of the next week.
3. No cash purchase is made and creditors are paid by cheques.
4. Sales are at fixed price which include 20% profit on sales.
5. Credit sales are few and are noted in a diary. Payments are received in cheques only from such parties.
6. Expenses other than sundries and other special drawings are made in cheques.
7. All unpaid bills are kept in a file carefully.
` `
Balance on Jan. 1 5,000 Creditors paid 40,000
Cheques deposited 2,000 Rent paid 600
Cash deposited 42,000 Expenses (other than
Sundry Expenses) 3,000
Balance on April 1 5,400
49,000 49,000
After 13 weeks on 1st April (Monday) the entire cash was missing when it was to be deposited in the bank. The
following further facts are ascertained :
1. Stock on that day was valued at ` 4,000 ;
2. Sundry Debtors amounted to ` 20,000 as per diary ;
3. Sundry Creditors were ` 8,000 as per unpaid bills file. Find out the amount of cash missing.
Solution:
Dr. Sundry Debtors Account Cr.
` `
To Balance b/f 15,000 By Bank 2,000
To Credit Sales (balancing figure) 7,000 “ Balance c/f 20,000
22,000 22,000
5. The following information is supplied from defective records. You are required to prepare Trading and Profit &
Loss Account for the year ended 31st December, 2015 and Balance Sheet as on that date:
1st January 31st January
2015 2015
` `
Creditors 15,770 12,400
General Expenses owing 600 330
Sundry assets 11,610 12,040
Stock 8,040 11,120
Cash in hand and at Bank 6,960 8,080
Debtors ? 17,870
Note : Opening Cash Book Balances: Cash at Bank : Balancing figure i.e., 80,000 - (8,500+62,500+5,000) = `4,000
` `
To Balance b/f (balancing figure) 16,530 By Cash 62,500
“ Sales (71,810 – 4,600) 67,210 “ Discount 1,500
“ Bad Debts 420
“ Returns 1,450
“ Balance c/f 17,870
83,740 83,740
` `
To Bank 60,270 By Balance b/f 15,770
Discount 700 Purchases (balancing figure) 58,000
Returns 400
Balance c/f 12,400
73,770 73,770
` `
To Opening Stock ` 8,040 By Sales: Cash 4,600
Credit 67,210
To Purchases: Cash 1,030 71,810
Credit 58,000
59,030 Less: Returns 1,450 70,360
Less: Returns 400 58,630
“ Gross Profit c/d 14,810 “ Closing Stock 11,120
81,480 81,480
“ Expenses 9,300 By Gross Profit b/d 14,810
“ Discount 1,500 “ Discount 700
“ Bad Debts 420
“ Net Profit transferred to Capital 4,290
15,510 15,510
Liabilities ` Assets `
49,110 49,110
EXERCISE:
1. Mr. Dave does not maintain his accounts strictly on double entry system. The following statement of affairs
was, however, prepared by him as on 31st March, 2014:
Statement of Affairs
` `
33,320 33,320
On 31st March, 2015 it was learnt that he had introduced further capital of `1,000 on 1st July,2014 and he had
drawn `1,580 on various dates during the year. It was also ascertained that the proprietor had taken `75 worth
of goods for his own use.
Statement prepared on the same date disclosed that book debts were `14,640, creditors were `2,039 and
bills payable were `1,775. The stock was valued at `11,417 and the cash in hand amount to `917 on the same
date.
You are required to prepare: (a) a statement of profit or loss for the year 2014 – 15; and (b) a statement of
affairs of Dave as on 31st march, 2015 taking into consideration the following:
5% reserve to be created on book debts, 7 ½ % depreciation to be written off plant and machinery, `125 to
be written off the lease, 5% interest to be allowed on capital.
[Answer: Net Profit `1,602, Total of Statement of Affairs — `32,761]
2. Mr. A does not maintain complete double entry books of accounts. From the following details determine
profit for the year and prepare a statement of affairs as at the end of the year.
`1,000 (cost) furniture was sold for `5,000 on 1st January, 2014. 10% depreciation is to be charged on furniture.
Mr. A has drawn `1,000 per month. `2,000 was invested by Mr. A in 2014.
01.01.14 31.12.14
` `
Bank balance on 1st January,2014 is as er cash book, but the bank overdraft on 31st December, 2014 is as per
bank statement. `2,000 cheques drawn in December, 2014 have not been encased within the year.
[Answer: Net Profit `7,800, Total of Statement of Affairs — `1,02,800]
Partners of a continuing business may, by common consent, decide to admit a new partner for additional
capital, technical skill or managerial efficiency. At the time of such admission, the usual adjustments required
are : (1) Adjustment regarding Profit Sharing Ratio; (2) Adjustment regarding Valuation of Assets and Liabilities;
(3) Adjustment regarding Goodwill; (4) Adjustments regarding accumulated Profits or Losses and (5) Adjustment
regarding Capital Contribution of New partner and Capitals of existing partners.
1. Adjustment regarding Profit Sharing Ratio : The new partner becomes entitled to a share of future profits which
is sacrificed by the existing (old) partners in his favour. The sacrifice may be made by one or all of the existing
partners. The new profit sharing ratio has to be found out.
It should be noted that :
(a) The new profit sharing ratio may be agreed upon by the partners. [It may be given and we need not calculate
it]
(b) The mutual profit sharing ratio among the existing partners may remain unaltered after giving away the
new partner’s share.
Example : X and Y were partners sharing profit/losses as 3 : 2. They admit as a new partner giving him 1/5th share
of future profits. What should be the new profit sharing ratio?
Solution : Z’s share = 1/5 Balance = 1 – 1/5 = 4/5
X’s share = 4/5 x 3/5 = 12/25; Y’s share = 4/5x2/5 = 8/25; Z’s share = 1/5 = 5/25. The new profit sharing ratio =
12 : 8 : 5.
(c) The mutual profit sharing ratio among existing partners may be changed by agreement.
Example : P and Q were partners sharing profits/losses as 4 : 3. R is admitted as a new partner for 1/5 th share. P
and Q decide to share the balance of profits equally.
Solution : R’s share = 1/5 Balance = 1 – 1/5 = 4/5.
P’s share = 4/5 × 1/2 = 4/10; Q’s share = 4/5 × 1/2 = 4/10; R’s share = 1/5 = 2/10. New Ratio = 4 : 4 : 2 or 2 : 2 : 1.
(d) If the sacrifice made individually by the existing partners is given then New Ratio should be calculated
by deducting the sacrifice from the old ratio.
Example : A, B & C were partners sharing profits/loses as 3 : 2: 1. They admitted D as a new partner giving him 1/6th
share of future profits. D acquired 3/24 th share from A and 1/24 share from B. Calculate the new Profit Sharing Ratio.
Proforma :
Revaluation Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Assets (Decrease) xxx By Assets (Increase) xxx
To Liabilities (Increase) xxx By Liabilities (Decrease) xxx
To Partners Capital A/c xxx By Partners Capital A/c xxx
(Share of Revaluation Profit) (Share of Revaluation loss)
xxx xxx
Solution :
Step 1 : Calculate Z’s premium : 3/15 of ` 84,000 = ` 16,800
Step 2 : Calculate sacrifices made by X and Y : X = (4/7-7/15) = 11/105
Y = 3/7-5/15 = 10/105 Sacrifice Ratio : 11:10.
Z’s Capital A/c Dr. 16,800
To X’s Capital A/c 8,800
To Y’s Capital A/c 8,000
“Para 16 of AS 10 specifies that goodwill can be recorded in the books only when some consideration in money or
money’s worth has been paid for it. It means that only purchased goodwill can be recorded in the books. At the
time of admission, retirement or death of partners, goodwill cannot be raised in the books of the firm because no
consideration in money or money’s worth has been paid for it”.
Sacrificing ratio:
It is the difference between the old ratio and new ratio. This is illustrated with an example:
Say Sujata and Sutapa are partners sharing profits in the ratio of 2:1. Sanjukta enters in the business with 1/5th share
of profit. Now new ratio will be calculated as follows:
1-1/5=4/5 is the share left for Sujata and Sutapa. So Sujata will get 4/5 x 2/3 = 8/15 and sutapa will get 4/5x 1/3=
4/15. Sanjukta is getting 1/5 =3/15. Thus the new ratio becomes 8:4:3. (eliminating the common dinominator)
From the above table you can understand sacrificing partners are Sujata and Sutapa and gaining partner is
Sanjukta where sacrifice is 2:1 and gain is 2+1=3. i.e the sacrifice made by old partners is exactly equal to the gain
by the new partner.
Note : after issuance of AS-10 read with AS-26 the question of raising the amount of Goodwill and writing it off is no
longer valid. Always follow the principle of capital adjustment as discussed above.
Other than adjustment of goodwill when a new partner is admitted the balance sheet of the firm is reformed i.e
assets and liabilities are revalued as a measure of current update. This change in the value of assets and liabilities
may lead to profit or loss on revaluation. To find out such profit or loss a Revaluation account is opened. The profit
or loss on such revaluation is shared by the old partners in their old profit sharing ratio.
Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Balance Sheet
Liabilities ` Assets `
Note : Take care of the phrases like “ increased to” and “ increase by”. For increase by take the whole amount in
revaluation account and for increased to take the difference amount.
2. Super Profits Super Profit = Future maintainable profits – Normal Return on Capital (i) Calculation of Average capital
Method Employed Employed cannot be made if
Goodwill = Super Profit × No. of years current years’ profits are not
separately given.
Steps to be followed
(ii) Trading Profits exclude any non
Steps (a) Calculation of Capital employed OR Average
trading income like Interest on Non-
Capital Employed trading investments.
(iii) Adjustments against profits
Sundry Assets 00
including provision for managerial
Excluding: remuneration, should be made.
(i) Goodwill But including Goodwill at Cost Paid for [iv) If there is any change in the value
(ii) Non-trading assets and (iii) Fictitious Assets of any fixed asset on revaluation,
Less: (i) Current Liabilities & Provisions - 00 that does not affect Annual
Trading Profit. But adjustment for
(ii) Contingent & Probable Liabilities - 00 over charged or undercharged
(Trading) Capital Employed 00 depreciation may be required to
Less: ½ of Current years trading profits after taxation - 00 adjust the profits.
(if the profits remain undistributed) (v) If there is any decrease in the value
of any Current Asset like bad debts
Average Capital Employed 000
or reduction of stock and that has
Step (b) Average Annual Adjusted Profits (Maintainable) 00 not been adjusted, the adjustment
Same as shown under Method 1. But debenture interest, if any, should be made for finding out
should be added back with Profits before making provision for correct Trading Profit of the current
taxation year.
Step (c) Calculate Normal Return on Capital Employed or Average (vi) For calculating capital employed,
Capital Employed proposed dividend need not be
[Say at 10% or 12%, etc. — as may be given or assumed] deducted.
Step(d) Deduct Normal Return (c) from Average Maintainable Profits [Please see valuation of shares’]
(b).
The difference is called Annual Super Profit
Step (e) Goodwill = Annual Super Profit × No. of Years for which the
Super Profit can be maintained.
[Usually expressed as....years purchase of super profit]
3. Capitalization Under the method follow these steps – Here also the profits should be adjusted
of Profits (a) Calculate Annual Maintainable Profit as shown above. considering necessary adjustments for
Methods managerial remunerations, change of
(b) Calculate normal Capital Employed capitalizing the above
(A) Profits depreciation, etc.
profit by applying the normal rate of return.
Maintainable Profit
Normal Capital Employed = × 100
Normal Rate of Return
4. Annuity It is a derivative of super profit concept. If super profit is expected to Here also similar principles as said
Method be earned uniformly over a number of years, Goodwill is computed before should be followed for
with the help of Annuity Table. calculating — Capital Employed or
Calculate Super Profit as discussed before Average Capital Employed, Annual
Average Profits and Annual Super
Goodwill=Annual Super ProfitxPresent Value of Annuity of `1.
Profits.
Illustration 2.
X and Y are partners having Capitals of ` 80,000 and ` 20,000 respectively and a profit sharing ratio of 4 : 1. Z is
admitted for 1/5 th share in the profits of the firm and he pays ` 30,000 as Capital. Find out the value of the Goodwill.
Solution:
Total Capital of the firm 30,000 × 5/1 = ` 1,50,000 [Taking Z’s Capital as base]
Less : Combined Adjusted Capital
80,000 + 20,000 + 30,000 = ` 1,30,000
Hidden Goodwill = ` 20,000
Illustration 4.
New partner pays premium for Goodwill but Goodwill Account is appearing at the Balance Sheet at full value.
Gargi and Khana were partners sharing profits and losses as 5 : 3. They agreed to admit Lilabati as a new partner
on payment of ` 9,000 as premium for Goodwill. The new profit sharing ratio was agreed as 3 : 2 : 1. The Goodwill
Account appearing in the books amounted to ` 54,000. Pass the necessary Journal Entries.
Solution:
Points to be noted
Lilabati brought in ` 9,000 as his share of premium for googwill for 1/6 in there.
Therefore, Full value of Goodwill = 9,000 × 6/1 = 54,000
There is neither overvaluation nor undervaluation.
Old Ratio 5 3 —
8 8
3 2 1
New Ratio 6 6 6
5/8 - 3/6 = (30 - 24)/48 = 3/8 - 2/6 = (18 - 16)/48 = Nil -1/6 = (0 - 8)/48 = 8/48
6/48 2/48 (Gain)
(Sacrifice) (Sacrifice)
Journal Entries
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars L.F. Amount Amount
` `
Gargi’s Capital A/c Dr. 33,750
Khana’s Capital A/c Dr. 20,250
To Goodwill A/c
54,000
(Goodwill Account written off between the old partners
in old ratio)
Bank A/c Dr. 9,000
To Gargi’s Capital A/c
6,750
To Khana’s Capital A/c
2,250
(Premium for Goodwill brought in by new partner and
shared by old partners in their sacrifice ratio 3 : 1)
Illustration 5.
Where the new partner pays premium for goodwill and also brings his own goodwill to the business.
Amal and Bimal are partners sharing profits in the ratio of 2 : 3. Charu is admitted as a partner on 1st January, 2013
and he pays into the firm cash ` 9,000 out of which ` 3,000 is premium on his admission to a quarter share,
the raitio between Amal and Bimal to be 1 : 2.
Charu also brings into the business his own Goodwill to be run as a separate unit and the Goodwill is agreed at
` 4,800.
Show the entries required to give effect to the above arrangements (for both the units separately).
Solution:
Points to be noted
1. For the First unit, ` 3,000 paid as premium should be shared by Amal and Bimal in their sacrifice ratio. We
should calculate the new ratio and the sacrifice ratio.
2. For the 2nd unit, an adjustment should be made for Charu’s own goodwill to be credited to his capital and
debited to Amal and Bimal in remaining ratio 2 : 3, excluding Charu’s share.
Working Notes :
1. Calculation of New Profit Sharing Ratio
Charu’s share = 1/4 ; Balance left = 1 – 1/4 = 3/4. Amal’s new share = 3/4 × 1/3 = 1/4;
Bimal’s new share = 3/4 × 2/3 = 2/4 and Charu’s new share = 1/4.
New Ratio = 1:2:1 Sacrifice Ratio = 3 : 2. [= Old Ratio - New Ratio]
Illustration 6.
X, Y and Z were in partnership sharing profits and losses in the ratio 3 : 2 : 1. Their Balance Sheet stood as under:
Balance Sheet
as at 1.4.2012
Liabilities ` Assets `
Capital Fixed Assets 80,000
X 40,000 Machinery Replacement 15,000
Y 30,000 Investment:
Z 20,000 90,000 Investment (MV ` 7,000) 10,000
General Reserve 12,000 Current Asset 33,000
Machinery Replacement Fund 16,000
Investment Fluctuation Fund 15,000
Current Liabilities 5,000
1,38,000 1,38,000
Show the entries for accumulated profits/reserves assuming that Mr. T is admitted as partner for 1/5th share.
Solution:
In the books of………
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
` `
General Reserve A/c Dr. 12,000
Investment Fluctuation Fund A/c Dr.
12,000
(` 15,000 – ` 3,000)
To X - Capital A/c
12,000
To Y - Capital A/c
8,000
To Z - Capital A/c
4,000
(Accumulated profits are distributed in 3 : 2 : 1)
Illustration 7.
A and B are partner in a firm sharing profit and losses in the ratio of 4 : 1. Their Balance Sheet as on 31st March 2013
stood as follows :
Liabilities ` Assets `
Capital A/c Furniture 20,000
A 25,000 Stock 40,000
B 65,000 90,000 Bills Receivable 10,000
Reserve 20,000 Debtors 30,000
Creditors 25,000 Cash at Bank 40,000
Bills Payable 5,000
1,40,000 1,40,000
They agreed to take C as a partner with effect from 1st April 2013 on the following terms :
(a) A, B and C will share profit and losses in the ratio of 5 : 3 : 2.
(b) C will bring ` 20,000 as premium for goodwill and ` 30,000 as capital.
(c) Half of the Reserve is to be withdrawn by the partners.
(d) The asset will be revalued as follows : Furniture ` 30,000; Stock ` 39,500; Debtors ` 28,500.
(e) A creditor of ` 12,000 has agreed to forgo his claim by ` 2,000.
(f) After making the above adjustments, the capital accounts of A and B should be adjusted on the basis of C’s
capital, by bringing cash or withdrawing cash as the case may be.
Show Revaluation Account, Partners’ Capital Account and the Balance Sheet of the new firm :
Solution :
In the books of A, B and C
Dr. Revaluation Account Cr.
Particulars A B C Particulars A B C
` ` ` ` ` `
To A’s Capital A/c — 10,000 — By Balance b/d 25,000 65,000 —
To Bank A/c 8,000 2,000 — By Bank — — 30,000
To Bank A/c (bal. fig. — 14,000 — By Revaluation
To Balance c/d 75,000 45,000 30,000 — Profit 8,000 2,000 —
By Reserve 16,000 4,000 —
By Goodwill 20,000 — —
By Capital A/c 10,000 — —
By Bank (bal. fig.) 4,000 — —
83,000 71,000 30,000 83,000 71,000 30,000
Balance Sheet
as at 1st April, 2013
Workings :
1. Sharing of Goodwill
Sacrificing Ratio :
A = 4/5 - 5/10 = (8 - 5)/10 = 3/10 (Sacrifice)
C = 2/10 (Gains)
∴ Entire goodwill to be credited to A’s Capital Account. B will have to pay A for goodwill
2. Adjustment of Capital
C brings for 2/10 ` 30,000
∴ A will have to bring for 5/10 = ` 30,000 x 5/10 x 10/2 = ` 75,000
And B should bring for 3/10 = ` 30,000 x 3/10 x 10/2 = ` 45,000
Illustration 8.
Special Points : (a) Journal Entries; (b) Portion of Premium for Goodwill and Reserve withdrawn; (c) Discount received
on payment of creditor.
Brick, Sand and Cement were partners in a firm sharing profits and losses in the ratio of 3:2:1 respectively.
Following is their Balance Sheet as on 31st December, 2012.
Liabilities ` ` Assets `
Capital Accounts : Land & Buildings 50,000
Brick 30,000 Furniture 15,000
Sand 20,000 Stock 20,000
Cement 10,000 60,000 Bill Receivable 5,000
Debtors 7,500
Reserve 29,800 Cash in hand and at Bank 2,500
Creditors 6,200
Bills Payable 4,000
1,00,000 1,00,000
Lime is to be admitted as a partner with effect from 1st January, 2013 on the following terms
(a) Lime will bring in ` 15,000 as Capital and ` 12,000 as premium for goodwill. Half of the premium will be withdrawn
by the partners.
(b) Lime will be entitled to : 1/6th share in the profits of the firm.
(c) The assets will be revalued as follows Land and Building— ` 56,000; Furniture — ` 12.000; Stock— ` 16,000;
Debtors — ` 7,000
(d) The claim of a creditor for ` 2,300 is paid at ` 2,000.
(e) Half of the Reserve is to be withdrawn by the partners.
Record the Journal entries (including cash transactions) in the books of the firm and show the opening Balance
Sheet of the new firm.
Solution :
Books of Brick, Sand, Cement and Lime
Journal Entries
Dr. Cr.
Working Notes :
1. It is assumed that after giving 1/6th share of profits to Lime, the balance will be shared by old partners in old
ratio 3 : 2 : 1. So, Sacrifice Ratio = Old Ratio = 3 : 2 : 1.
Illustration 9.
Arun and Anand were partners sharing profits in the ratio of 3:2. Their position as on 31st March, 2013 was as under :
Liabilities ` Assets `
Arun’s Capital 12,000 Land and Buildings 8,000
Anand’s Capital 10,000 Plant and Machinery 10,000
General Reserve 12,000 Sundry Debtors 11,000
Workmen’s Compensation Fund 4,000 Stock 12,000
Sundry Creditors 12,000 Cash at Bank 9,000
50,000 50,000
They decided to admit Ashok for a 20% profit on the following terms : (a) The liability on Workmen’s Compensation
Fund is to be determined at ` 2,000; (b) Ashok to bring in ` 3,000 as premium out of his share of ` 3,600. He is also
to bring in ` 20,000 as his capital; (c) General Reserve is to be maintained at its original value; (d) ` 2,000 out of
creditors to be paid at 5% discount.
Pass the necessary journal entries to give effect to the above arrangement; to show the capital accounts and
prepare the Balance Sheet of the new firm.
Points to be noted
1. Ashok pays premium ` 3,000. This should be shared by Arun and Anand in their sacrifice ratio, which is eventually
the old ratio 3 : 2. For the unpaid Premium [` 3,600 — ` 3,000 = ` 600]. Goodwill Account to be raised
at ` 3,000 × 1/5 = 600. This is to be credited to old partners in old ratio 3 : 2.
2. For General Reserve to be maintained, the following adjustment will be required.
Solution:
Arun, Anand and Ashok
Journal Entries Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars L.F. Amount Amount
` `
31.3.13 Workmen’s Compensation Fund A/c Dr. 2,000
[` 4,000 — ` 2,000]
To Revaluation A/c 2000
(Value of liability reduced)
31.3.13 Bank A/c Dr. 20,000
To Ashok’s Capital A/c 20,000
(Amount contributed as capital by incoming partner)
Bank A/c Dr. 3,000
To Arun’s Capital A/c 1,800
To Anand’s Capital A/c 1,200
(Premium for Goodwill paid by incoming partner and
shared by existing partners in their sacrificing ratio 3 : 2)
Date Particulars Arun Anand Ashok Date Particulars Arun Anand Ashok
2013 ` ` ` 2013 ` ` `
31.3. To General Res 5,760 3,840 2,400 31.3. By Balance b/d ,, 12,000 10,000 -
,, Goodwill A/c 1,440 960 600 Bank A/c 20,000
,, Bank A/c 1,800 1,200 -
“ Balance c/d 16,860 13,240 17,000 (Premium)
,, Goodwill A/c 1,800 1,200
,, General Res A/c 7,200 4,800 -
,, Revaluation A/c 1,260 840 -
24,060 18,040 20,000 24,060 18,040 20,000
1.4. By Balance b/d 16,860 13,240 17,000
71,100 71,100
Illustration 10.
No alteration of book values of assets and liabilities
Baisakhi and Srabani are partners sharing profits and losses in proportion to their capitals. Their Balance
Sheet as on 31st March, 2013 is given below :
Liabilities ` Assets `
Creditors 15,000 Freehold Premises 10,000
General Reserve 2,100 Machinery 3,500
Capitals : Furniture 1,750
Baisakhi 20,000 Office Equipments 550
Srabani 15,000 Stock 14,100
Bill Receivable 3,060
Debtors 17,500
Bank 1,590
Cash 50
52,100 52,100
(b) As General Reserve is to remain unaltered, similar adjustment will be required to be shared among old partners
in old ratio and then written back among all partner’s in new ratio.
2. Calculation of net effects on Capital Accounts. New Profit Sharing Ratio : 12 : 9 : 7
Solution :
Capital Accounts
Dr. Cr.
Baisakhi Srabani Poushli Baisakhi Srabani Poushali
Date Particulars Amount Amount Amount Date Particulars Amount Amount Amount
` ` ` ` ` `
31.3.13 To General 900 675 525 1.4.12 By Balance b/d 20000 15000 -
Reserve 270 203 157 By General 1,200 900 -
To M. Rev. A./c 31.3.13 Reserve - - 10000
By Bank A/c 360 270 -
By M. Rev. A/c 2000 1500 -
By Bank A/c
(Premium)
at 4:3.
22,390 16,792 9,318
To Balance c/d
23,560 17,670 10,000 23,560 17,670 10,000
Illustration 11.
K and L are two partners sharing profits and losses in the ratio of 5:3. Their Balance Sheet as at 30th June, 2013 is a
follows :
Liabilities ` ` Assets ` `
Creditors 30,000 Furniture 40,000
Reserve 14,000 Patent 10,000
Capital Account : Debtors 44,000
K Less : Reserve for Bad Debts 5,000 39,000
L 40,000 Stock 20,000
50,000 90,000 Cash in hand 25,000
1,34,000 1,34,000
On 1st July, 2013, they take M into partnership. M brings ` 25,000 as his capital and brings ` 3,600 as his share of
goodwill. The new profit sharing ratio of K, L and M is 2:4:1. Patent is written off from the books and a reserve for Bad
Debt is created at 5%. Reserve appears in the books of new firm at its original figure.
Show the necessary Journal entries to carry out the above transactions and prepare a Balance Sheet of the new
firm as at 1st July, 2013.
Solution:
In the books of K. L. M.
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
` `
2013 Bank A/c Dr. 28,600
July 1 To M’s Capital A/c 25,000
To Goodiwll A/c 3,600
(Cash to be brought in by M As capital)
Goodwill A/c Dr. 3,600*
To K’s Capital A/c 3,600
(Value of goodwill credited to K’s Capital only)
Reserve A/c Dr. 14,000
To K’s Capital A/c 8,750
To L’s Capital A/c 5,250
(Reserve credited to old partners capital accounts in 5:3)
K : Capital A/c Dr. 4,000
L : Capital A/c Dr. 8,000
M : Capital A/c Dr. 2,000
To Reserve A/c 14,000
(Reserve shown at its original value)
Revaluation A/c Dr. 10,000
To Patents A/c 10,000
(Patent eliminated from the book)
Reserve for Bad Debts A/c Dr. 2,800
To Revaluation A/c 2,800
(Excess provision written back)
K’s Capital A/c Dr. 4,500
L’s Capital A/c Dr. 2,700
To Revaluation A/c 7,200
(Loss on revaluation transferred)
Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars K L M Particulars K L M
` ` ` ` ` `
To Reserve A/c 4,000 8,000 2,000 By Balance b/d 40,000 50,000 —
” Revaluation A/c 4,500 2,700 — ” Goodwill A/c 3,600 — —
— Loss ” Reserve A/c 8,750 5,250 —
” K’s Capital A/c — 4,950 — ” L’s Capital A/c 4,950** — —
” Balance c/d 48,800 39,600 23,000 ” Bank — — 25,000
56,850 55,250 25,000 57,300 55,250 25,000
1,55,400 1,55,400
Illustration 12.
Red and White are partners in a firm sharing profits and losses is the ratio of 3:2. On 1st July 2013 the positions of the
firm as follows :
Liabilities ` ` Assets `
Capital Accounts : Building 50,000
Red Machinery 2,50,000
White 1,50,000 Furniture 40,000
98,000 Stock 60,000
2,48,000 Debtors 90,000
General Reserve 84,000 Cash 12,000
Sundry Creditors 1,70,000
5,02,000 5,02,000
Blue joined the firm as a partner from this date and the following terms and conditions were agreed upon :
(a) Red, White and Blue will share the future profits of the firm in the ratio 5:3:2, respectively.
(b) Blue would first pay ` 10,000 as his share of Goodwill and this sum is to be retained in the business.
(c) The value of Machinery is to be increased by ` 20,000 and stock is to be written down by 10%.
(d) Blue would introduce such an amount of Capital in Cash which should be proportionate to the combined
Capital accounts of Red and White after making all adjustments.
It was decided that the Capital Accounts of Red and White would be adjusted on the basis of
Blue’s Capital by opening Current Accounts.
Show the Capital Accounts of the partners and the Balance Sheet of the firm after Blue’s admission.
Solution :
Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
2,13,800 1,42,200 —
” Bank — — 89,000
” Current A/c 8,700 — —
2,22,500 1,423,200 89,000 2,22,500 1,423,200 89,000
Balance Sheet
as at 1st July, 2013
Liabilities ` ` Assets `
Capital A/c : Building 50,000
Red 2,22,500 Machinery (2,50,000 + 20,000) 2,70,000
White 1,33,500 Furniture 40,000
Blue 89,000 4,45,000 Stock (60,000 – 6,000) 54,000
Debtors 90,000
Sundry Creditors 1,70,000 Cash (12,000+10,000+89,000) 1,11,000
Current A/c (Red) 8,700 Current A/c (White) 8,700
6,23,700 6,23,700
Workings:
1. Capital introduced by Blue
1/4 th of the combined adjusted capital of Red & White i.e. ` 3,56,000 (` 2,13,800 + ` 1,42,200) × 1/4 = ` 89,000.
2. Now, capital account of Red & While will be in proportion of Blue
Illustration 13.
Quick and Slow are partners in a firm sharing profits and losses in the ratio of 3 : 2. The Balance Sheet of the firm as
on 31st March, 2013 was as under :
Liabilities ` Assets `
Capital Accounts Furniture & Fixtures 60,000
Quick 1,20,000 Office Equipments 30,000
Slow 77,000 1,97,000 Motor Car 75,000
Stock 50,000
General Reserve 30,000 Sundry Debtors 90,000
Sundry Creditors 96,000 Cash at Bank 18,000
3,23,000 3,23,000
Smooth was admitted as a new with effect from 1st April, 2013 and it was agreed that he would bring some private
furniture worth ` 10,000 and private stock costing ` 8,000 and in addition contribute ` 50,000 cash towards capital.
He would also bring proportionate share of goodwill which is to be valued at two year’ purchase of the average
profits of the last three years.
The profits of the last three years were :
`
2012-13 52,000
2011-12 32,000
2010-11 28,000
However, on a checking of the past records, it was noticed that on 1.4.2011 a new furniture costing ` 8,000 was
purchased but wrongly debited to revenue, and in 2012-13 a purchase invoice for ` 4,000 dated 25.3.2013 has
been omitted in the books. The firm charges depreciation on Furniture @ 10% p.a.
Your calculation of goodwill is to be made on the basis of correct profits.
On revaluation value of Stock is to be reduced by 5% and Motor car is worth ` 85,000. Smooth duly paid the required
amount for goodwill and cash towards capital.
It was decided that the future profits of the firm would be shared as Quick — 50%, Slow — 30% and Smooth — 20%.
Assuming the above — mentioned arrangements were duly carried out, show the Capital
Accounts of the partners and the Balance Sheet of the firm after Smooth’s admission.
Solution :
Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Quick Slow Smooth Particulars Quick Slow Smooth
` ` ` ` ` `
To Balance c/d 1,51,620 1,00,624 68,000 By Balance b/d 1,20,000 77,000 —
” General Reserve 18,000 12,000 —
” Revaluation A/c
— Profit 4,500 3,000 —
” Goodwill A/c 7,632 7,632 —
(a sacrificing ratio is 1 : 1)
” Furniture — — 10,000
” Stock — — 8,000
” Bank — — 50,000
” Advertisement
(for Profit) 1,488 992 —
1,51,620 1,00,624 68,000 1,51,620 1,00,624 68,000
Balance Sheet
as at April 1, 2013
Liabilities ` ` Assets ` `
Capital Accounts : Furniture & Fittings 60,000
Quick 1,51,620 Add : Brought in by Smooth 10,000
Slow 1,00,624 70,000
Smooth 68,000 3,20,244 6,480 76,480
Add : For Rectification
Sundry Creditors 1,00,000
(` 96,000+ ` 4,000) Office Equipment 30,000
Motor car 85,000
Stock 50,000
Add : Brought in by Smooth 8,000
58,000
Less : Revaluation 2,500 55,500
4,20,244 4,20,244
Working :
1. Calculation of goodwill
Illustration 14.
A and B are partners in a firm sharing profits and losses in the ratio 3 : 2. Their Balance Sheet as on 31.12.2012 stood
as follows :
Liabilities ` ` Assets ` `
Sundry Creditors 20,000 Goodwill 12,000
Capital Account Cash in hand 15,000
A Sundry Debtors
B 12,000 Less : Reserve for Bad Debts 21,000
30,000 1,000 20,000
42,000 Stock-in-trade 10,750
Fixture & Fittings 250
Profit and Loss Account 4,000
62,000 62,000
Solution.
In the books of A, B and C
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
` `
2013
Jan. 1
Bank A/c Dr. 9,420
To C’s Capital A/c 7,280
To Goodwill A/c 1,600
(Goodwill and capital to be brought in by C in cash)
Goodwill A/c Dr. 1,600
To A’s Capital A/c 800
To B’s Capital A/c 800
(Goodwill to be credited to A and B’s capital account in sacrificing
ratio)
A’s Capital A/c Dr. 400
B’s Capital A/c Dr. 400
To Bank A/c 800
(Half of the goodwill to be distributed)
A’s Capital A/c Dr. 2,400
B’s Capital A/c Dr. 1,600
To Profit and Loss A/c 4,000
(Debit balance of P&L A/c transferred to A and
B’s capital in 3 : 2)
Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars A B C Particulars A B C
` ` ` ` ` `
To Profit and Loss By Balance b/d 12,000 30,000 —
— Loss 2,400 1,600 — ” Bank — — 7,820
” Profit and Loss ” Goodwill 800 800 —
Adj. A/c — Loss ” C’s Capital 125 125 —
” A’s Capital 720 480 —
” B’s Capital — — 125
” Bank — — 125
(Withdraw of goodwill) 400 400 —
” Balance c/d
Balance Sheet
as at 1st January, 2013
Liabilities ` ` Assets ` `
Capital : Goodwill 12,000
A 9,405 Cash (` 15,000 + ` 9,420
B 28,445 – ` 800) 23,620
C 7,570 45,420 Sundry Debtors
Less : Prov. for Bad Debts 21,000
Sundry Creditors 20,000 2,100 18,900
Stock 10,750
Furniture and Fixtures 150
(` 250 – ` 100)
65,420 65,420
Working :
1. Goodwill to be brought in by C :
` Sacrificing ratio :
Agreed value of goodwill 20,000 A 3/5 - 5/10 = (6-5)/10 = 1/10 (Sacrifices)
Less : as per Balance Sheet 12,000 B 2/5 - 3/10 = (4-3)/10 = 1/10 (Sacrifices)
Under valuation 8,000 C 1/10 + 1/10 = 2/10 (gains)
∴ C is to bring ` 8,000 x 1/5 = 1,600 ∴ Goodwill to be shared between A and
B equally i.e. (1 : 1)
B 2 3 125 (Cr.)
500 375
5 10
A — 2 250 (Dr.)
250
10
3. Capital to be brought in By C
1
\ C is to bring: ` 37,850 × = ` 7,570 + ` 250 (for stock) = ` 7,820.
5
Introduction
A Partner may leave the firm by taking retirement. Normally the retirement takes place by consent of all the partners
and / or by other mode of communication by the intended partner to all other partners.
In case of retirement, for paying off the retiring partner(s) some adjustment are required to be done in the books
of accounts.
Steps for Adjustments / Books of Accounts :
Following steps to be taken and books of accounts to be prepared to calculate the due of retiring partner.
Journal entries :
In case of undistributed profit or reserves:
Profit & Loss A/c Dr.
Reserve A/c Dr.
To Old Partners Capital A/c (In old P.S.R)
Payment of dues.
(i) Payment at a time. Subject to availability of the fund, the payment may be made at a time. Journal entry :
Retiring Partner’s Capital A/c Dr.
To Bank A/c
(ii) If part payment be made by giving assets :
Retiring Partner’s Capital A/c Dr.
To Assets A/c
(iii) If the dues are transferred to Loan account.
Retiring Partner’s Capital A/c Dr.
To Retiring partners’ Loan A/c
Illustration 15.
The Balance Sheet of Baichung, Tausif and Vijayan who shared profits and losses in the ratio 3:3:2 respectively
was as follows on 31st December, 2013 :
Baichung retired from the business on 1st January, 2013. Revaluation of assets were made as : Machinery ` 34,000,
Furniture ` 5,000, Stock ` 9,600, Debtors ` 4,000 and Goodwill ` 10,000.
Baichung was paid ` 4,225 immediately and the balance was transferred to a Loan Account for payment in 4
equal half-yearly installments together with interest @ 6% p.a.
Show the necessary accounts, the Balance Sheet of the firm immediately after Baichung’s retirement and his Loan
Account till finally paid off.
Solution:
Books of Baichung, Tausif and Vijayan
Revaluation Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Amount Date Particulars Amount Amount
` ` ` `
Date Particulars Baichung Tausif Vijayan Date Particulars Baichung Tausif Vijayan
` ` ` ` ` `
1.1.13 To Bank A/c 4,225 1.1.13 By Balance b/d 24,000 10,000 8,000
To 6% Loan A/c 26,000 By Reserve [3:3:2] 1,800 1,800 1,200
(Balance transferred) – By Revaluation A/c 675 675 450
To Balance c/d 16,225 12,150 ” Goodwill 3,750 3,750 2,500
30,225 16,225 12,150 30,225 16,225 12,150
13,585 13,585
Illustration 16.
A, B and C were in partnership sharing profits in the proportion of 5:4:3. The Balance Sheet of the firm as on 31st
March, 2013 was as under :
3,33,910 3,33,910
A had been suffering from ill-health and gave notice that he wished to retire. An agreement was, therefore
entered into as on 31st March, 2013, the terms of which were as follows:
(i) The Profit & Loss Account for the year ended 31st March, 2013, which showed a net profit of ` 48,000 was
to be reopened. B was to be credited with ` 4,000 as bonus, in consideration of the extra work which had
devolved upon him during the year. The profit sharing ratio was to be revised as from 1st April, 2012 to 3:4:4.
(ii) Goodwill was to be valued at two years’ purchase of the average profits of the preceding five years. The
Fixtures were to be revalued by an independent valuer. A provision of 2% was to be made for doubtful debts
and the remaining assets were to be taken at their book values.
(iii) The valuations arising out of the above agreement were Goodwill ` 56,800 and Fixture ` 10,980.
(iv) B and C agreed, as between themselves, to continue the business, sharing profits in the ratio of 3:2 and decided
to eliminate Goodwill from the Balance Sheet, to retain the Fixtures on the books at revised value, and to
increase the provision for doubtful debts to 6%.
You are required to submit the Journal Entries necessary to give effect to the above arrangement and to draw up
the Capital Accounts of the partners after carrying out all adjustment entries as stated above.
Solution :
Books of the Firm A, B & C
Journal Entries
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Amount
` `
31.3.13 A’s Capital A/c [5/12 of ` 48,000] Dr. 20,000
B’s Capital A/c [4/12 of ` 48,000] Dr. 16,000
C’s Capital A/c [3/12 of ` 48,000] Dr. 12,000
To Profit & Loss Adjustment A/c 48,000
[Profits of ` 48,000 already shared by A, B & C as 5 : 4 : 3 written back]
Profit & Loss Adjustment A/c Dr. 4,000
To B’s Capital A/c 4,000
[B Credited with bonus of ` 4,000 for his extra work]
Profit & Loss Adjustment A/c Dr. 44,000
To A’s Capital A/c [3/11 of ` 44,000] 12,000
To B’s Capital A/c [4/11 of ` 44,000] 16,000
To C’s Capital A/c [4/11 of ` 44,000] 16,000
[The remaining profits re-distributed as 3 : 4 : 4]
Illustration 17.
On 1.1.2010, A and B started a firm of Cost Accountants sharing profits and losses equally. Each of the partners
contributed ` 2,000 towards his capital of the firm and was allowed to draw ` 400 p.m. in anticipation of profits.
On 1.1.2011, they admitted C as a third partners with equal share and he contributed ` 3,000 towards his capital
and a further sum of ` 2,000 towards premium for goodwill. He too was entitled to draw ` 400 p.m. From 1.1.2012, A
got a part-time job of cost consultant elsewhere and considering that he would be unable to devote his full time
towards the business of the firm agreed to leave half of his share in the profits to be apportioned equally between
B and C and his drawings was reduced to ` 200 p.m. for 1st January, 2012. On 1.1.2013, B got a full time job and
in consequence A had to leave his part-time job and to devote full time in the firm. It was arranged that B will
remain only a quarter of his earlier share in the firm and would be drawing nothing from 1.1.2013. A and C would
be drawing @ ` 600 p.m. instead. The interest surrendered by B would be apportioned equally by A and C. On 31st
Dec. 2013, B decided to retire altogether from the firm.
You are required to ascertain the amount due to B by the firm from the following particulars :
1 1 1
2011 3 3 3
2012 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5
3 – ( 2 of 3 ) = 6 3 + 2 of 6 = 12 3 + 2 of 6 = 12
2013 1 1 15 31 1 5 5 5 1 15 55
6 + 2 of 48 = 96 4 of 12 = 48 12 + 2 of 48 = 96
Share of profit surrendered
3 5 15
4 of 12 = 48
2013 1 1 15 31 1 5 5 5 1 15 55
6 + 2 of 48 = 96 4 of 12 = 48 12 + 2 of 48 = 96
Share of profit surrendered
3 5 15
4 of 12 = 48
1/3
Retained Balance
1/2 × 1/3 = 1/6 1/6 (Surrendered
and Distributed)
B C
1/2 × 1/3 = 1/12 1/2 × 1/6 = 1/12
1 1 4+1 5
B’s & C’s profit sharing ratio for 2012 = 3 + 12 = 12 + 12
B’s Share of Profit :
5/12
A C
1/2 × 15/48 = 15/96 1/2 × 15/48 = 15/96
1 15 31
A’s profit sharing ratio for 2013 = 6 + 96 = 96
5 15 55
C’s profit sharing ratio for 2012 = 12 + 96 = 96
2. Goodwill
B retires on 31.12.13 and for the purpose of calculating goodwill ‘previous two years’ should be taken 2012 and
2011. Thus, the value of goodwill will be:
5
B’s Share of Annual Profits of the previous two years: 2012 = 12 of 24,000 = ` 10,000
1
2011 = 3 of 18,000 = ` 6,000
` 16,000
16,000
Average of this 16,000 = 2 = ` 8,000; Two years purchase of the above amount = 2 × ` 8,000 = `16,000.
B’s Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
31.12.10 To Cash (Dra 4,800 1.1.10 By Cash — (Contribution) 2,000
wings) 5,700 31.12.10 ” Profit and Loss A/c
” Balance c/d — (Share of Profit)
(` 17,000 x 1/2) 8,500
10,500 10,500
4,800 By Balance b/d 5,700
31.12.10 To Cash — Drawings 1.1.10
7,900 ” Goodwill
” Balance c/d 31.12.10
— Share of Premium 1,000
(` 2,000 x 1/2)
” Profit and Loss A/c 6,000
— Share of Profit
(` 18,000 ×1/3)
12,700 12,700
By Balance b/d
31.12.11 To Cash — Drawings 4,800 1.1.11 7,900
” Profit and Loss A/c
” Balance c/d 13,100 — Share of Profit
31.12.11 10,000
(` 24,000 x 5/12)
17,900 17,900
31.12.12 To B’s Loan A/c 32,110 1.1.12 By Balance b/d 13,100
— amount transferred 31.12.12 ” Profit and Loss A/c 3,010
— (Share of Profit)
(` 28,896 x 5/48)
16,000
” Goodwill
32,110 32,110
Illustration 18.
P, Q & R were equal partners. R retired on 31st March, 2013. The Balance Sheet of the firm as on 31st December,
2012 was as follows :
On 31.3.13 the following adjustments were considered : (a) Buildings were appreciated by ` 18,000; Book Debts
were considered good; Investments were considered worth ` 4,700 and Stock was valued at ` 9,400; (b)
Goodwill was considered equivalent to the average annual profits of the last three years; (c) R’s share of Profit up
to the date of his retirement was calculated on the basis of the average annual profits of the preceding three
years which were ` 8,000; ` 9,000 and ` 10,000.
Show the Journal Entries and prepare the Balance Sheet immediately after R’s retirement.
Solution:
Working notes :
8,000 + 9,000 + 10,000
1. Valuation of Goodwill : Average Annual Profits = 3 = ` 9,000 Decrease in value of
Goodwill = ` 18,900 – ` 9,000 = ` 9,900
This shall be shared amongst all the Partners’ in their old ratio.
2. R retired on 31st March, 2013, that is, after 3 months from the date of the last year ending. Estimated Profits
for 3 months = 3/12 of 9,000 = ` 2,250. The retiring partner should be credited with 1/3rd of 2,250 = ` 750.
Either the continuing Partners’ Capital accounts should be debited in their Gaining Ratio OR Profit and Loss
Suspense Account may be debited.
3. Investment at cost was shown at ` 5,000. Now It is valued at ` 4,700. Loss on Revaluation is ` 300.
The fluctuation fund in excess of ` 300 (that is ` 1,200 - ` 300 = 900) should be transferred to Revaluation
Account.
Particulars P Q R Particulars P Q R
` ` ` ` ` `
To Goodwill A/c By Balance b/d 30,000 20,000 20,000
- Written off 3,300 3,300 3,300 “ P & L Suspense A/c - - 750
“ R’s Loan A/c
(Transfer) - - 25,150 “ Revaluation A/c
(Sh. of Profit)
“ General Reserve 6,366 6,367 6,367
To Balance c/d 34,400 24,400 - 1,334 1,333 1,333
37,700 27,700 28,450 37,700 27,700 28,450
P and Q
Balance Sheet as at 31st March, 2013
Liabilities Amount Amount Assets Amount Amount
` ` ` `
Capital : Goodwill 9,000
P 34,400 Buildings 40,000
Q 24,400 58,800 Add: Appreciation 18,000 58,000
Investment at Cost 5,000
R’s Loan A/c 25,150 Stock 9,400
Investment Fluctuation 300 Debtors 10,000
Fund Cash at Bank 10,000
Trade Creditors 17,900 P & L Suspense A/c 750
1,02,150 1,02,150
Illustration 19.
Compass, Cone and Circle are in partnership sharing profits and losses in the ratio of 3 : 2 : 1. The Balance Sheet of
the firm as on 31st December, 2012 was as follows :
Liabilities ` ` Assets ` `
Capital accounts : Machinery (at Cost) 50,000
Compass 40,000 Less : Provision for Dep. 8,000 42,000
Cone 60,000
Circle 20,000 1,000
Furniture
Sundry Debtors 80,000
Reserve 1,20,000
Sundry Creditors 30,000 Less : Prov. for Doubtful Debts 3,000 77,000
60,000 50,000
Stocks 40,000
Cash at Bank
2,10,000 2,10,000
On 31st Mardh 2013 Conre retired and Compass an Circle continued in partnership, sharing profits and losses in
the ratio of 3 : 2. It was agreed that adjustments were to be made in the Balance Sheet as on 31st March, 2013, in
respect of the following :
(a) The Machinery was to be revalued at ` 45,000; (b) The Stock was to be reduced by 2%; (c) The Furniture was
to be reduced to ` 600; (d) The Provision for Doubtful Debts would be ` 4,000; (e) A provision of ` 300 was to be
made for Outstanding Expenses.
The Partnership agreement provided that on the retirement of a partner, goodwill was to be valued at ` 24,000
and Cone’s share of the same was to be adjusted into the accounts of Compass and Circle. The profit up to the
date of retirement was estimated at ` 18,000.
Cone was to be paid off in full, Compass and Circle were to bring such an amount in cash so as to make their
capital in proportion to the new profit sharing ratio. Subject to the condition that a cash balance of ` 20,000 was
to be maintained as working capital.
Pass the necessary journal entire to give effect to the above arrangements and prepare the partners’ Capital
Accounts on 31st March, 2013.
Solution:
Working Notes :
1. Total value of goodwill ` 24,000
∴ Cone’s share of goodwill = 24,000 × 2/6 = 8,000 to be adjusted against Compass’s and
Circle capital in 3 : 7.
Computation of ratio :
Compass = 3/5 - 3/6 = 3/30 (gain)
Circle = 2/5 - 1/6 = 7/30 (gain)
2. Bank Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance b/d 40,000 By Cone’s Capital 84,100
” Profit — increase in Cash 18,000 ” Balance c/d 20,000
” Compass and Circle’s Capital (to be maintained)
(balance figure) 46,100
1,04,100 1,04,100
Illustration 20.
X, Y, & Z were equal partners. Their Balance Sheet as on 31.12.12 was as follows :
7,00,000 7,00,000
On 1.1.13 X retired and it was agreed that he should be paid all his dues in full on that date. For this purpose, goodwill
was to be calculated on the basis of 3 years purchase of past 3 years profits which amounted to ` 1,00,000, `
1,40,000 and ` 1,20,000 respectively.
In order to meet his obligation, a bank loan was arranged on 1.1.13 for ` 2,00,000 pledging the fixed assets as security.
Further, to compensate a loyal manager Q, it was agreed between Y and Z that Q should be admitted as a partner,
who should bring in, over and above a capital of ` 1,00,000, his share of Goodwill in cash to serve as working capital.
Y and Z agreed to forego 1/3rd of their individual share of profits to Q.
Prepare the opening Balance Sheet of the firm as on 1.1.13.
Solution :
Working Notes :
(1) Valuation of Goodwill
1,00,000 + 1,40,000 + 1,20,000
Average Annual Profits = = ` 1,20,000
3
\ Goodwill = 3 × 1,20,000 = ` 3,60,000
Premium to be paid by Q = 1/3 of 3,60,000 = ` 1,20,000 and to be shared by Y and Z equally. Similarity X should be
provided ` 1,20,000 by Y and Z equally.
(3)
Dr. Partner Capital Accounts Cr.
Particulars X Y Z Q Particulars X Y Z Q
(5)
Dr. Balance with Bankers Account Cr.
Illustration 21.
P, Q and R were partners sharing Profits & Losses as 2 : 3 : 5. P retired on 31.3.13 and X joined as a new partner on
the same date, the new profit sharing ratio between Q, R and X being 2 : 3 : 1. The Balance Sheet of P, Q
& R on 31.3.2013 was as follows :
1,85,000 1,85,000
Solution:
Working Notes :
1. Valuation of Goodwill
Profits for years ended : 31.3.11 ` 20,000
31.3.12 ` (15,000)
31.3.13 ` 40,000
` 45,000
So, Average Annual Profits = 45,000/3 = ` 15,000. Goodwill = 2 x ` 15,000 = ` 30,000
20,000 20,000
To Reversal of Items b/d By Reversal of Items b/d
Building Machinery 3,000
Stock 5,000
Provision for D/Debts 1,500
By P/Capital A/c
(Share of Rev. Profit)
Q – 3,500
R – 5,250
X – 1,750 10,500
20,000 20,000
P Q R S P Q R S
` ` ` ` ` ` ` `
To Mem. Rev A/c By Balance b/d 10,000 15,000 20,000 -
- Sh. of loss - 3,500 5,250 1,750 By General Reserve 8,000 12,000 20,000 -
To Goodwill written - 10,000 15,000 5,000
off By Memorandum 2,100 3,150 5,250 -
To P’s loss A/c 26,100 Revaluation A/c
(transfer) (Sh. of profit)
- By Goodwill raised 6,000 9,000 15,000 -
To Balance c/d 25,650 40,000 13,130 By Loan from X A/c - - - 19,880
(Transfer)
26,100 39,150 60,250 19,880 26,100 39,150 60,250 19,880
Q, R & X
Balance sheet as at 31.3.13
Illustration 22.
Shukla, Grewal, Jain and Narang were partners sharing profits and losses as 4 : 3 : 2 : 1. Their Balance Sheet as on
31.03.13 was as follows :
30,000 30,000
On that date Grewal retired and the amount due to him was paid privately by the other partners in their profit
sharing ratio. Chakraborty was then admitted as a new partner. The latter paid ` 5,000 as capital and ` 3,200 as his
share of goodwill, his share being 1/5th of the future profits. Shukla, Jain and Narang resolved to share the remaining
profits as 3 : 3 : 2. It was also decided that the capitals of Shukla, Jain, Narang and Chakraborty should be made
proportionate to their new profit sharing ratio and for this they should bring in or withdraw cash, as necessary.
Show necessary Journal Entries to give effect the above transactions.
Solution:
1. The undistributed loss should be shared by Shukla, Grewal, Jain and Narang (the old partners) in old ratio 4 :
3 : 2 : 1.
2. Grewal retired and the amount due to him was paid privately by the other Partners, Shukla, Jain, Narang in
their profit sharing ratio.
3.
(a) For 1/5th share Chakraborty’s premium is ` 3,200.
Full value of Goodwill = 3,200 × 5/1 = 16,000
(b) Write off Goodwill as per B/S
Shukla’s Capital A/c Dr. 5,143
Jain’s Capital A/c Dr. 2,571
Narang’s Capital A/c Dr. 1,286
To Goodwill A/c 9,000
(Goodwill written off in 4 : 2 : 1)
Jain & Narang shall also pay to Shukla the only sacrificing partner, in their gaining ratio. Jain’s
share = 1/70 × 16,000 = 229
Narang’s = 4/70 × 16,000 = 914
Jain’s Capital A/c Dr. 229
Narang’s Capital A/c Dr. 914
Cash A/c Dr. 3,200
To Shukla’s Capital A/c 4,343
Illustration 23.
X,Y and Z are partners sharing profits and losses in the proportion to 3:2:2, respectively. The Balance Sheet of the
firm as on 01.01.2013 was as follows:
Liabilities Amount (`) Assets Amount (`)
Capital Accounts; Plant and Machinery 72,000
X 1,00,000 Furniture 28,000
Y 80,000 Stock 1,12,000
Z 70,000 2,50,000 Sundry Debtors 96,000
Bank overdraft 20,000 Cash at Bank 18,000
Sundry Creditors 56,000
3,26,000 3,26,000
X retired on 01.01.2013 on which date R is admitted as new partner. For the purpose of adjusting the rights as
between on partners’ goodwill to be valued at ` 84,000 and Sundry Debtors and Stock to be reduced by ` 16,000
and to ` 1,00,000 respectively. X is to receive ` 44,000 in cash on the date of retirement and the balance due to
him is to remain as loan at 8% p.a. Repayment of loan to be made at the end of each year by annual installments
representing 25% of the future profit before charging interest on loan.
R is to bring in ` 1,00,000 in cash as his capital on the date of admission. The new partners are to share profits and
losses equally after paying the interest on X’s Loan.
The net profit for the year ended 31st December 2013, is ` 64,000 before taking into account the installment payable
to X.
Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars X Y Z Particulars X Y Z
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
To, Bank – Repayment 44,000 - - By, Balance c/d 1,00,000 80,000 70,000
,, X’s Loan A/c 80,000 - - ,, Revaluation A/c
,, Balance c/d - 96,000 86,000 - Profit 24,000 16,000 16,000
1,24,000 96,000 86,000 1,24,000 96,000 86,000
Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
31.12.12 To, Balance 1,12,000 1,02,000 1,16,000 1.1.12 By, Balance c/d 96,000 86,000 -
c/d ,, Bank A/c - - 1,00,000
31.12.12 ,, Share of 16,000 16,000 16,000
1,12,000 1,02,000 1,16,000 profit 1,12,000 1,02,000 1,16,000
By, Balance b/d 1,12,000 1,02,000 1,16,000
Illustration 24.
Gita and Mita are equal partners. Gita , by agreement, retires and Lata joins the firm on the basis of one third
share of profits on 01.04.2013. The balances of the books as on 31st March 2013 were:
Goodwill and Fixed Assets valued at ` 30,000 and ` 1,40,000 respectively and it was agreed to be written up
accordingly before admission of Lata as partner. Sufficient money is to be introduced so as to enable Gita to
be paid off and leave ` 5,000 cash at Bank; Mita and Lata are to provide such sum as to make their Capitals
proportionate to their share of profit. Assuming the agreement was carried out, show the journal entries required
and prepare the Balance Sheet after admission of Lata.
All working should form part of your answer.
Solution:
I .Capital of the new firm
Particulars Amount
`
Good will 30,000
Fixed Asset 1,40,000
Stock 60,000
Debtors 40,000
Cash at Bank 5,000
2,75,000
Less: Creditors 20,000
2,55,000
Mita = ` 2,55,00 x 2/3 = ` 1,70, 000
Lata = ` 2,55,000 x 1/3 = ` 85,000
II. Amount to be brought in by Mita
Particulars Amount Amount
` `
Capital to be maintained 1,70,000
Less: Opening balance 1,02,000
Profit on Revaluation 26,000
1,28,000
To be brought in by Mita 42,000
3. Revaluation Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Capital A/c By Goodwill A/c 20,000
,, Profit on Revaluation ,, Fixed Assets A/c 20,000
Gita 26,000 ,, Prov. For Depreciation A/c. 12,000
Mita 26,000 52,000
52,000 52,000
Bank Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Balance b/d 8,000 By Gita’s capital A/C 1,30,000
To Mita’s capital 42,000 ,, Balance c/d 5,000
Lata’s Capital 85,000 1,27,000
1,35,000 1,35,000
Journal
Date Particulars L.F. Debit Credit
` `
1.4.13 Goodwill A/c Dr. 20,000
Fixed Asset A/c Dr. 20,000
Prov. for Depreciation A/c Dr. 12,000
To Revaluation A/c 52,000
(Increased value of assets transferred to Revaluation A/c).
Revaluation A/c Dr.
To Gita’ s Capital A/c 52,000
,, Mita’s Capital A/c 26,000
(Profit on revaluation transferred). 26,000
Gita’s Capital A/c Dr.
1,30,000
To Bank A/c
1,30,000
(Amount paid to Gita)
Bank A/c Dr. 1,27,000
To Mita’s Capital A/c 42,000
,, Lata’s Capital A/c 85,000
(Additional cash to be brought in to make their capital in proportion).
Balance Sheet
as at April 1, 2013
Liabilities Amount Assets Amount
` `
Capital: Goodwill 30,000
Mita 1,70,000 Fixed Assets 1,40,000
Lata 85,000 Stock 60,000
Creditor 20,000 Debtors 40,000
Cash at Bank 5,000
2,75,000 2,75,000
If a partner dies, the partnership is usually dissolved. But if the surviving partners desire so, they may purchase the
share of the deceased partner and carry on the business. In that case they have to decide (1) the total amount
payable to the legal representative or executor of the deceased partner and (2) the mode of such payment.
Total Amount Payable includes:
(i) The deceased partner’s Capital and / Current Accounts last Balance.
(ii) His share of undistributed profit/loss.
(iii) His share of revaluation profit/loss
(iv) His share of goodwill.
(v) His share of Joint Life Policy, if any and
(vi) His share of profit/loss made by the firm between the last year ending and the date of his death.
The accounting procedure involved is similar to that followed in case of retirement of a partner. The mode of
payment depends on the agreement between the partners. It may be :
(i) Lump Sum Payment : If the firm has sufficient funds, the total amount payable on account of the deceased
partner is transferred to his Representative’s Account (or Executor). Such Representative’s Account is debited
and Bank Account is credited on payment of the dues.
(ii) Instalment Payment/Loan Payment : The firm may not have enough funds to make prompt payment. In such
a case, the total amount payable is transferred to a loan account in the name of the legal representative or
executor. The loan is paid off gradually by installments after considering interest on unpaid balance. The word
“Loan” may or may not be appended with the Account. But its gradual payment will definitely resemble the
payment of loan.
Illustration 25.
The following was the Balance Sheet of A, B and C who shared profits in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 2 as on 31st December,
2012.
1,00,000 1,00,000
C died on 31st March, 2013. His account is to be settled under the following terms :
Goodwill is to be calculated at the rate of 2 years purchase on the basis of the average of 5 years profit or loss.
Profit for January to March’ 13 is to be calculated proportionately on the average profit of 3 years. The profits were
: 2008 ` 3,000, 2009 ` 7,000, 2010 ` 10,000, 2011 ` 14,000, 2012 loss ` 12,000. During 2012 a Moped costing ` 4,000
was purchased and debited to Travelling Expenses Account on which depreciation is to be calculated @ 25%.
Other values agreed on assets are : Stock ` 12,000, Building ` 35,000, Machinery ` 25,000 and Investments ` 8,000.
Debtors are considered good.
Prepare new Balance Sheet of the firm, necessary Journal entries and Ledger Accounts of the Partners.
Solution:
Working Notes :
1. Adjusted profit for 2012
Loss (12,000)
Add : Cost of Moped
Wrongly treated as Travelling Expense 4,000
Less : Depreciation not charged on Moped @25%
on ` 4,000 (1,000)
Adjusted Loss (9,000)
2. Valuation of Goodwill
Total Profit/Loss for the last 5 years = 3,000 + 7,000 + 10,000 + 14,000 – 9,000 = ` 25,000
Average Profit = ` 25,000/5 = ` 5,000; Goodwill = 2 × ` 5,000 = ` 10,000
But Goodwill is appearing at Balance Sheet at ` 15,000. Over valuation of Goodwill ` 5,000 should be written
off among A, B & C as 1 : 2 : 2.
The balance of Goodwill between A & B in the ratio 1 : 2
3. Share of Profit of Deceased Partner till his date of death
Average Profit of the last 3 years [ 2010, 2011 & 2012] = (10,000 + 14,000 – 9,000)/3 = ` 5,000
Estimated Profit for 3 months [Jan to March, ‘13] = ` 5,000 × 3/12 = ` 1,250
C’s share of profit = ` 1,250 × 2/5 = ` 500
Solution :
Books of A, B & C
Journal Entries Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars L. F. Amount Amount
` `
Stock A/c Dr. 2,000
Buildings A/c Dr. 5,000
Machinery A/c Dr. 5,000
Moped A/c [4,000 – Depr. 1,000] Dr. 3,000
To Revaluation A/c 15,000
[Values of assets increased on revaluation]
General Reserve A/c Dr. 5,000
Investment Fluctuation Fund A/c Dr. 3,000
Bad Debts Reserve A/c Dr. 2,000
To A’s Capital A/c 2,000
To B’s Capital A/c 4,000
To C’s Capital A/c 4,000
[Transfer of Reserves etc. to Partners Capitals in 1 : 2 : 2]
Revaluation A/c Dr. 2,000
To Investment A/c 2,000
[Value of investments reduced]
31.3 To Goodwill A/c 1,000 2,000 2,000 31.3 By Balance b/d 10,000 20,000 20,000
To Goodwill A/c 3,333 6,667 - ” Revaluation A/c 2,600 5,200 5,200
To C’s Executors ” Sundry Reserves 2,000 4,000 4,000
A/c (Balance 27,700 A/c
transferred)
- ” P & L Suspense A/c - - 500
To Balance c/d
10,267 20,533
A and B
Balance Sheet as at 31.3.2013
Liabilities Amount Amount Assets Amount Amount
` ` ` `
Capital A/cs : Buildings 35,000
A 10,267 Machinery 25,000
B 20,533 30,800 Moped 3,000
C’s Executor’s A/c 27,700 (cost less depreciation)
Bank Loan 30,000 Investments 8,000
Sundry Creditors 10,000 Stock 12,000
Debtors 10,000
Bank 5,000
Profit & Loss Suspense A/c 500
(Dr.)
98,500 98,500
Whenever a reconstitution takes place within a Partnership in the form of admission, retirement or death of a Partner,
the existing partnership is dissolved. The Partnership firm, may however, continue, if the remaining partners desire so.
But if the partnership firm is discontinued for any reason, that is called Dissolution of the firm. Dissolution of Firm –
when does it take place [in accordance with the Indian Partnership Act of 1932]
1. By Mutual consent of all the partners or in accordance with a contract made by them [Section 40]
2. By Notice – given in writing, by any partner to all other partners if the Partnership is at will [Section 43].
3. On the happening of any one of the following events : [Section 42] : (i) expiry of the term, where the Partnership
was constituted for a fixed term; (ii) completion of the adventure for which the firm was constituted; (iii) Death
of a partner, (iv) Adjudication of a Partner as insolvent.
4. Compulsory Dissolution [Section 41]
(i) Where all the partners or all but one are adjudged insolvent.
(ii) If any event occurs making it unlawful for the business of the firm to be carried on.
5. Dissolution by Court: According to Section 44 of the Indian Partnership Act the court, at the suit of a partner,
may dissolve a firm on any one of the grounds namely –
(i) insanity of a partner;
(ii) permanent incapability of a partner to do his duties;
(iii) if a partner is guilty of misconduct that might affect prejudicially the carrying on of the business;
(iv) If a partner willfully or persistently commits breach of agreement;
(v) If a partner transfers all his shares to a third party or has allowed his share to be charged under the
Provisions of Rule 49 of order XXI of the First Schedule to the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908;
(vi) If the court considers that the business cannot be carried on except at loss;
(vii) On any other ground on which the court considers the dissolution as just and equitable.
Settlement of Accounts on Dissolution
According to Section 48 of the Indian Partnership Act the following rules should be observed for settlement of
Accounts after dissolution, subject to agreement by partners :
(a) Regarding Losses : “Losses, including deficiencies of capital, shall be paid first out of profits, next out of capital,
and lastly if necessary, by the partners individually in the proportions in which they are entitled to share profits”.
[Section 48(1)]
(b) Regarding Assets : “The assets of the firm, including any sums contributed by the partners to make up deficiencies
of capital, shall be applied in the following manner and order :
(i) in paying the debts of the firm to third parties;
(ii) In paying each partner ratably what is due to him from the firm for advances as distinguished from capital;
(iii) In paying to each partner ratably what is due to him as capital; and
(iv) The residue, if any, shall be divided among the partners in the proportions in which they are entitled to
share profits.” [Section 48(2)]
Accounting Entries Regarding Dissolution
The two separate aspects of Dissolution for which accounting entries have to be made are:
[A] Realization of Assets and Payment of liabilities and [B] Settlement of the dues of the Partners,
[A] Realization of Assets and Payment of liabilities
(i) Prepare Realisation Account
(ii) Trausfer all assets (except cash, bank & fictitious assets) and liabilities at book values to Realisation
Account.
Journal Entries
Item/Purpose Entry Special Points to be noted
1. Transfer of book values of Realization A/c..................................... Dr. (a) Cash or Bank A/c are not to be
assets as recorded in the To Sundry Assets [Book value] credited unless the firm, as a whole,
Balance Sheet (including goodwill if any, shown is sold out as a going concern.
in the Balance Sheet) (b) Debit balance of any Cap. A/c etc.
Realization A/c..................................... Dr. or Debit balance of P/L A/c not to be
transferred to Realization A/c.
To Debtors A/c
(c) If there is any Provision for bad
Provision for Bad Debts A/c................ Dr.
Debts, debit Realization A/c and
To Realization A/c. credit Debtors A/c with gross figure.
Then debit Provision A/c and credit
Realization A/c. Same treatment for
Provision for Depreciation.
2. R e a l i z a t i o n / S a l e o f Cash/Bank A/c (amt. realized).......... Dr.
above assets OR
Partners Cap. A/c................................ Dr.
(agreed value at which a partner takes
over an asset/assets)
To Realization A/c.
3. Shares etc. received as in exchange of the firm’s assets.
purchase consideration Shares A/c............................................. Dr.
To Realization A/c.
(agreed value)
4. Closing the External External Liabilities A/c.......................... Dr. (a) Alternatively – this entry may be passed
liabilities (such as creditors, outstanding (combining 4,5 & 6)
expenses, Bank Loan etc.) Liability A/c ……. Dr.
To Realization A/c. To Bank A/c (actual amt. paid)
(book value) OR,
5. External liabilities paid Realization A/c. ................................... Dr. To Partners Cap. A/c (agreed value)
off To Cash/Bank A/c To Realization A/c
(actual amt. paid) (Discount, if any received on payment/
6. External liabilities taken Realization A/c..................................... Dr. discharge)
over by any partner To Particular Partner’s (b) Where assets and liabilities are taken
Cap. A/c (agreed value) over by another business on making some
lump sum payment, separate entries for
realization of assets and / payment of
7. Unrecorded asset sold Cash / Bank A/c................................... Dr. liabilities need not be made.
or taken over by any Partners Capital A/c............................ Dr.
partner To Realisation A/c
8. If any unrecorded Realization A/c..................................... Dr.
liability is paid. To Cash/Bank A/c
(actual amt.)
9. If shares etc. received Cash/Bank A/c..................................... Dr. For sale, there may be profit or loss on sale
and shown in (3) OR, which is transferred to Realization A/c.
above are sold out or Partners Cap. A/c................................ Dr.
transferred to partners. [excluding insolvent partner]
To shares A/c
10. Payment of Expenses Realization A/c..................................... Dr. If a partner bears such expenses personally
of Realization. To Cash/Bank A/c in pursuance of a separate agreement –
(if paid by the firm) NO ENTRY is required.
OR
To Partners Cap. A/c
(if paid by any partner)
11. Balance of Realization Realization A/c..................................... Dr.
Account
To Partners Cap. A/c
representing Profit or
(Profit shared in Profit Sharing Ratio)
Loss on Realization.
OR,
Partner’s Cap. A/c............................... Dr.
To Realization A/c.
(Loss shared in Profit Sharing Ratio)
6. Any loan given to any Cash/Bank A/c….. Dr. If such amount is realized.
partner To Partner’s Loan A/c Adjustment of loan
OR against Capital
Partner's Capital A/c ..... Dr.
To Partner’s Loan A/c
7. If any Partner’s Cash/Bank A/c….. Dr. If the deficient partner is insolvent,
Capital A/c shows a To Particulars Partner’s treatment will be different-
debit balance (after
Capital A/c Vide – Insolvency of Partner.
balancing)
[Cash brought in to make up the
shortfall]
8. Payment of credit Particulars Partner’s Cap. A/c Dr. Same as above
balance (after final To Cash/Bank A/c
balancing)
Illustration 26.
A, B and C sharing profits in 3 : 1 : 1 agree upon dissolution. They each decide to take over certain assets and
liabilities and continue business separately.
Balance Sheet
as on date of dissolution
It is agreed as follows:
(1) Goodwill is to be ignored.
(2) A is to take over all the Fixtures at ` 800; Debtors amounting to ` 20,000 at ` 17, 200. The creditors of ` 6,000 to
be assumed by A at the figure.
(3) B is to take over all the stocks at ` 7,000 and certain of the sundry assets at ` 7,200 (being book value less 10%)
(4) C is take over the remaining sundry assets at 90% of book values less ` 100 allowances and assume responsibility
for the discharge of the loan, together with accruing interest of ` 30 which has not been recorded in the books
of the firm.
(5) The expenses of dissolution were ` 270. The remaining debtors were sold to a debt collecting agency for 50%
of book values.
Prepare Realisation Account, partners’ Capital Accounts and Bank Account.
Solution:
In the books of A, B and C
Realisation Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Sundry Assets: By Provision for bad debts 1,200
Capital Account A :
Sundry Assets 17,000 Fixtures 800
Debtors 24,200 Debtors 17,200
Stock 7,800 18,000
Fixtures 1,000 B: Stock 7,000
50,000 Sundry Assets 7,200
14,200
,, Bank – Expenses 270 C: Sundry Assets 8,000
,, Capital Account By Bank: Collection from Debtors 2,100
C- Interest on loan 30 By Loss on realization:
A (3/5) 4,080
B (1/5) 1,360
C (1/5) 1,360 6,800
50,300 50,300
Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars A B C Particulars A B C
` ` ` ` ` `
To Dissolution 18,000 14,200 8,000 By Balance b/d 27,500 10,000 7,000
Assets taken ,, Creditors 6,000 - -
,, Dissolution A/c 4,080 1,360 1,360 ,, Loan(with interest) - - 1,530
Loss ,, Bank
,, Bank — Final receipts - 5,560 830
Final payment 11,420 - -
Bank Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Balance b/d 3,200 By Dissolution Account
,, Dissolution A/c Expenses 270
Collection from Debtors 2,100 ,, Capital Account:
,, Capital Accounts: A 11,420
B 5,560
C 830 6,390
11,690 11,690
Working Notes: `
1. Realization of Sundry Assets:
Sundry Assets (Book Value) 17,000
Less: Taken by B [ 7,200 x (100/90)] 8,000
Remaining at book value 9,000
Taken by C: 90% of Book value
i.e. (9,000 x (90/100) = 8,100 – 100 for allowance = 8,000
Illustration 27.
X, Y and Z sharing profits & Losses in the ratio of 2 : 2: 1 agreed upon dissolution of their partnership on 31st December,
2012 on which date their Balance Sheet was as under :
Investments 8,000
Less: Fluctuation Fund 500 7,500
2,000
Capital Account –Z 23,500
1,10,500 Bank 1,10,500
Investments were taken over by X at ` 6,000, creditors of ` 10,000 were taken over by Y who has agreed to settle
account with them at ` 9,900. Remaining creditors were paid ` 7,500. Joint Life Policy was surrendered and Fixed
Assets realized ` 70,000, Stock and Debtors realized ` 7,000 and ` 9,000 respectively. One customer, whose account
was written off as bad, now paid ` 800 which is not included in ` 9,000 mentioned above. There was an unrecorded
asset estimated at ` 3,000, half of which as handed over to an unrecorded liability of ` 5,000 in settlement of claim
of ` 2,500 and the remaining half was sold in the market which realized ` 1,300.
Y took over the responsibility of completing the dissolution and he is granted a salary of ` 400 per month. Actual
expenses amounted to ` 1,100. Dissolution was completed and final payments were made on 30th April, 2013.
You are required to prepare the Realization Account, Capital Account and Bank Account.
Solution :
Dr. Realization Account Cr.
1,21,600 1,21,600
Note :
1. Unrecorded Asset and unrecorded liability were not recorded. Any part of such asset utilized to discharge
any part of such liability and discount received there on have been ignored.
But unrecorded asset realized (debts previously written off now recovered) has been recorded. Similarly
unrecorded asset sold has been recorded.
2. Y took over creditors of `10,000. This has been recorded. How he settles such liability is his personal matter. The
discount on payment does not benefit the firm.
Special considerations for a retiring partner and the estate of a deceased partner in relation to debts contracted
by the partnership firm:
(a) debts due on the date of retirement/death: the retiring partner and the estate of the deceased partner is
liable for the whole of the debts due by the firm at the date of retirement or death, to the extent of their share.
(b) debts incurred after retirement: where the notice of retirement is not published in accordance with law, the
retiring partner is liable for debts contracted after retirement.
(c) deceased/ insolvent partner: the estate of a deceased or bankrupt partner will not be liable for debts contracted
by the firm after the death or bankruptcy.
Maximum of :
Interest @ 6% p.a. on the amount due to them(i.e. if the amount is unsettled, like, rate of interest on loan to be
allowed to the retired partner or the executor is not mentioned)
Or
The share of profit earned for the amount due to the partner
Conditions :
(a) The surviving partners/continuing partners continue to carry on the business of the firm.
(b) The business is carried on without any final settlement of accounts between the continuing partners and the
outgoing partners or his estate.
(c) There is no contract to the contrary of the options contained in Section 37 i.e. share in the profits or interest @
6% p.a. on the unsettled capital.
Example : Unsettled capital of C ` 52,000 (Date of retirement : 30.9.12, financial year 2012-13). Net Profit earned by
the firm after C’s retirement ` 25,000. Capitals of A: ` 57,000 and B: ` 76,000)
C is entitled to the maximum of the following :
(i) Interest on unsettled capital = ` 52,000 × 6% × 6 months = ` 1,560
(ii) Profit earned out of unsettled capital = Profit × Retired or Deceased Partner’s unsettled
Dues/ Total Capital of the firm (including the amount due to the retired or deceased partner)
= ` (25,000 × 52,000)/(` 52,000 + 57,000 + 76,000) = ` 7,027.
If a partner becomes insolvent and fails to pay his debit balance of Capital A/c either wholly or in part, the
unrecoverable portion is a loss to be borne by the solvent partners. The question now arises is that, in what ratio they
will share this loss. Prior to the decision in the leading case of Garner vs. Murray this loss was borne by the solvent
partners in the profit sharing ratio just like ordinary losses.
Applicability in India
According to sub section (ii) of Sec 48(b) of the Indian Partnership Act, if a partner becomes insolvent or otherwise
incapable of paying his share of the contribution, the solvent partners must share ratably the available assets
(including their own contribution to the capital deficiency). That is to say, the available assets will be distributed in
proportion to their capitals.
Thus, under the Indian Partnership Act also the solvent partners are required to make good their share of the
realization loss (i.e., capital deficiency). The total cash available after making good the solvent partners’ share
of capital deficiency shall be shared by the solvent partners in proportion to their capitals. As a result of this the
ultimate debit balance of the insolvent partner’s Capital A/c. is borne by the solvent partners in capital ratio.
The provision of the Indian Partnership Act in this respect are, thus, similar to the rules laid down by the decision in
Garner vs. Murray.
When there is a specific provision in the Partnership Deed as to how the deficiency of an insolvent partner is to be
borne by the solvent partners, such provision must be followed, because the provision of the Act will apply only
when there is no specific agreement.
Illustration 28.
A, B and C are in partnership sharing profit and losses equally and agreed to dissolve the firm on 30.06.2012. On
that date their Balance Sheet stood as follows:
Balance Sheet
as at 30th June, 2013
The assets are realised at 50% of the book value. Realization expenses amounted to ` 5,000. C became insolvent
and received ` 2,000 from his estates.
Close the book of the firm under (i) Fixed Capital Method and (ii) Fluctuating Capital Method applying Garner Vs.
Murray principles.
Solution:
In the books of A, B & C
Dr. Realization Account Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Sundry Asset A/c 50,000 By Bank A/c
`` Bank A/c Amount Realised 25,000
Expense 5,000 `` Capital A/c
Loss on Realization
A 10,000
B 10,000
C 10,000 30,000
55,000 55,000
Working:
(a) Under Fixed Capital Method
Deficiency of the insolvent partner Mr. C must be borne by the solvent partner A and B as per their last agreed
capital given in the Balance Sheet i.e., 17:12.
(b) Under Fluctuating Capital Method
Deficiency of the insolvent partner Mr. C must be borne by the solvent partners A & B as the following adjusted
capital which will be considered as the last agreed capital i.e., after adjusting the debit balance of Profit and
Loss Account.
Particulars A B
` `
Capital as per Balance Sheet 34,000 24,000
Less: Debit balance of P&L A/c (-) 4,000 (-) 4,000
(equally)
30,000 20,000
\ Ratio = 3:2
Particulars A B C Particulars A B C
` ` ` ` ` `
To Balance b/d --- --- 8,000 By Balance b/d 34,000 24,000 ---
`` Realisation A/c `` Bank A/c --- --- 2,000
Loss 10,000 10,000 10,000 `` Bank A/c 10,000 10,000 ---
`` Profit & Loss A/c `` A’s Capital --- --- 11,724
Loss 4,000 4,000 4,000 `` B’s Capital --- --- 8,276
`` C’s Capital A/c 11,724 8,276 ---
`` Bank A/c 18,276 11,724 ---
(bal. fig.)
44,000 34,000 22,000 44,000 34,000 22,000
Illustration 29.
Balance Sheet as at 30.10.13
Liabilities Amount Asset Amount
` `
Capitals Fixed Assets 1,00,000
P 5,000
Q 3,000
R 2,000 Cash 10,000
Bank Loan 60,000
Sundry Creditors 40,000
1,10,000 1,10,000
All the partners were declared insolvent. Profit sharing ratio : 5 : 3 : 2. Assets realized `60,000. Prepare necessary
ledger accounts to close the books of the firm.
Solution :
Dr. Realisation Account Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Fixed Assets 1,00,000 By Cash A/c (realisation) 60,000
By Partners Capital A/cs
(loss on realisation)
P: 20,000
Q: 12,000
R: 8,000 40,000
1,00,000 1,00,000
40,000 40,000
Note :
The total deficiency of the partners i.e. the firm is `30,000. This is shared between the external liabilities in the ratio
of their amount outstanding `60,000 : `40,000 = 3 : 2
Ilustration 30.
X was admitted into partnership for 5 years, for which he paid a premium of `1,20,000. After 39 months, the partnership
firm was dissolved due to misconduct of Mr.Z , another partner of the firm. Y, being the third partner. Profit Sharing
Ratio : Y : Z : X = 5 : 3 : 2.
Solution:
X is entitled to claim the refund of premium paid at the time of admission, since the admission was for a fixed term
period and the firm is getting dissolved due to a misconduct of Mr.Z, another partner of the firm.
The amount of refund is
= (Total Premium Paid × Unexpired term of the partnership)/Total term of the partnership
= 1,20,000 × 21/60 = `42,000
This shall be shared by the other partners Y and Z in their profit sharing ratio 3 : 2.
PIECEMEAL DISTRIBUTION
Till now the discussion was based on the implicit assumption that all assets were realized and settlement was done
on the same date. In fact, on the dissolution of a partnership, assets are sometimes realized gradually over a period
of time. In such a case it may be agreed that different parties are to be paid in order of preference as and when
assets are realized without unnecessarily waiting for the final realization of all the assets.
The order of the payment will be as follows :
(i) Realisation expenses
(ii) For provision for expenses that are to be made
(iii) Preferential creditors (say, Income Tax or any payment made to the Government)
(iv) Secured creditors – upto the amount realized from the disposal of assets by which they are secured and for
the balance, if any, to be paid to unsecured creditors
(v) Unsecured creditors – in proportion to the amount of debts, if more than one creditor
(vi) Partners’ loan – if there is more than one partner – in that case, in proportion to the amount of loan
(vii) Partners’ capital – the order of payment may be made by any one of the following two methods:
(a) Surplus Capital Method/ Proportionate Capital Method/ Highest Relative Capital Method
(b) Maximum Possible Loss Method
2. Base capital: the adjusted capital is divided by the unit of profit share and the minimum amount is called the
base capital. For example if profit sharing ratio is 5:3:2 the respective capitals will be divided by 5, 3 and 2
respectively.
3. Proportionate capital: the amount is ascertained by multiplying the base capital with unit of profit share. For
example if base capital is `20,000 it is multiplied by 5,3 and 2 respectively.
4. Surplus capital: it is ascertained by the difference of adjusted capital and the proportionate capital.
The process continues until we get an absolute surplus.
Particulars ` X Y Z
` ` `
Implication:
The above table indicates that Y will get the first preference of settlement by `6,000. Thereafter, Y and Z will be
settled in the ratio of 3:2. Any balance left will then be open to X Y and Z in the ratio of 5:3:2.
Example: (Distribution of Cash)
A B and C were partners sharing profits and losses as 2:1:1. The balance sheet as on 31.03.2018 when they dissolved
their partnership was as under:
Liabilities ` Assets `
Capital :
A 60,000 Sundry assets 1,85,000
B 50,000 Cash 15,000
C 30,000
Reserves 10,000
B’s Loan 20,000
Creditors 20,000
Government due 10,000
2,00,000 2,00,000
` 2,000 was spent for packaging of materials before sale. The realization were made on different dates as under:
April `15,000; May `20,000; June ` 30,000; July ` 60,000; August `40,000.
The collections were distributed as and when realized. Prepare a statement showing the distribution of cash
collected.
Solution:
Particulars ` X Y Z
` ` `
Govt. Creditors A B C
Due
13,000
3,000 NIL
3 Realisation
rd
30,000
Surplus Capital Method/ Proportionate Capital Method/ Highest Relative Capital Method
Under this method, actual capital of the partners on the date of dissolution is compared with their proportionate
capital (determined on the basis of minimum capital per unit of profit) to determine surplus capital of the partners.
Surplus capital is paid first and any balance left thereafter is distributed in the profit sharing ratio. This ensures that
final balances of partners show their share of realisation profit/loss and thus, no settlement need to be dome at
that point of time.
Illustration 31.
Partners M, N and P have called upon you to assist them in winding up the affairs of their partnership on 30th June,
2013. Their Balance Sheet as on that date is given below :
Liabilities Amount Assets Amount
` `
Sundry Creditors 17,000 Cash at Bank 6,500
Capital Sundry Debtors 22,000
Accounts : M 67,000 Stock in trade 13,500
N 45,000 Plant and Equipment 99,000
P 31,500 Loan : M 12,000
Loan : N 7,500
1,60,500 1,60,500
July :
` 16,000 — collected from Debtors; balance is irrecoverable.
` 10,000 — received from sale of entire stock.
` 1,000 — liquidation expenses paid.
` 8,000 — cash retained in the business at the end of the month.
August :
` 1,500 — liquidation expenses paid; as part of the payment of his capital, P accepted an equipment for
` 10,000 (book value ` 4,000).
` 2,500 — cash retained in the business at the end of the month.
September :
` 75,000 — received on sale of remaining plant and equipment.
` 1,000 — liquidation expenses paid. No cash is retained in the business.
Required : Prepare a Schedule of cash payments as on 30th September, showing how the cash was distributed.
Solution :
Statement showing the Distribution of Cash (According to Proportionate Capital Method)
Working Notes :
(i) Statement showing the Calculation of Highest Relative Capital
Particulars M N P
A Balance of Capital Accounts 67,000 45,000 31,500
B Less : Loan 12,000 7,500 —
C Actual Capital (A – B) 55,000 37,500 31,500
D Profit sharing ratio 5 3 2
E Actual Capital ÷ Profit sharing ratio 11,000 12,500 15,750
F Proportionate Capitals taking M’s Capital as Base Capital 55,000 33,000 22,000
G Excess of Actual Capitals over Proportionate 4,500 9,500
Capitals (C - F)
H Profit Sharing Ratio — 3 2
I Surplus Capital ÷ Profit Sharing Ratio — 1,500 4,750
J Revised Proportionate Capital taking N’s — 4,500 3,000
Capital as Base Capital
K Excess of Surplus Capital over Revised — — 6,500
Proportionate Capitals (G - J)
Scheme of distribution of available cash : First instalment up to ` 6,500 will be paid to P. Next instalment up to `
7,500 will be distribution between N and P in the ratio of 3 : 2. Balance realisation will be distributed among M, N
and P in the ratio of 5 : 3 : 2.
(iii) Statement showing the Manner of Distribution of amount available in August and September
Illustration 32.
The firm of Blue Collars presented you with the following Balance Sheet drawn as on 31st March 2013 :
Partners shared profits and losses in the ratio of 4 : 3 : 3. Due to difference among the partners, it was decided to
wind up the firm, realise the assets and distribute cash among the partners at the end of each month.
The following realisations were made :
(i) May — ` 15,000 from debtors and ` 20,000 by sale of stock. Expenses on realisation were ` 500.
(ii) June — Balance of debtors realised ` 10,000. Balance of stock fetched ` 24,000.
(iii) August — Part of machinery was sold for ` 18,000. Expenses incidental to sale were ` 600.
(iv) September — Part of machinery valued in the books at ` 5,000 was taken by K, in part discharge at an agreed
value of ` 10,000. Balance of machinery was sold for ` 30,000 (net).
Partners decided to keep a minimum cash balance of ` 2,000 in the first 3 months and ` 1,000 thereafter.
Required : Show how the amounts due to partners will be settled.
Solution :
(i) Statement showing the Distribution of Cash
(According to Proportionate Capital Method)
Particulars Creditors Capital
` L K J
` ` `
A Amount due 37,000 40,000 26,000 24,000
B Amount distribution as on 31st May 35,500 — — —
C Balance Due (A - B) 1,500 40,000 26,000 24,000
D Amount Distributed as on 30th June
First ` 1,500 1,500
Next ` 5,333 — 5,333 — —
Next ` 4,667 — 2,667 2,000 —
Balance ` 22,500 — 9,000 6,750 6,750
E Balance due (C - D) 23,000 17,250 17,250
F Amount Distributed as on 31st August 7,360 5,520 5,520
G Balance Due (E - F) 15,640 11,730 11,730
H Add : Profit on realisation 760 570 570
(` 41,000 – ` 39,100)
I Amount Distributed (including 16,400 12,300* 12,300
Machinery taken by K) as on
30th September.
* Includes value of Machinery
` 10,000 and Cash ` 2,300
Working Notes :
(i) Assumption : As the firm is dissolved due to difference among the partners, all partners are presumed to be
solvent and the problem has been worked out on the basis of the highest relative capital.
Particulars L K J
` ` `
A Actual Capitals 40,000 26,000 24,000
B Profit sharing ratio 4 3 3
C Actual Capitals ÷ Profit ratio 10,000 8,667 8,000
D Proportionate Capitals taking 32,000 24,000 24,000
J’s Capital as Base Capital
E Surplus Capital of L and K (A - D) 8,000 2,000 —
F Profit sharing ratio 4 3 _
G Surplus Capital ÷ Profit sharing ratio 2,000 667 _
H Revised Proportionate Capital of L and J 2,667 2,000 —
I Revised Surplus Capital of L (E - H) 5,333 — —
While distributing surplus among partners, 1st instalment up to ` 5,333 will be paid to L, next instalment up to ` 4,667
will be distributed between L and K in the ratio of 4 : 3 and the Balance among L, K and J in the ratio of 4 : 3 : 3.
1,64,000 1,64,000
Illustration 33.
A partnership firm was dissolved on 30th June, 2013. Its Balance Sheet on the date of dissolution was as follows :
The assets were realised in instalments and the payments were made on the proportionate capital basis. Creditors
were paid ` 14,500 in full settlement of their account. Expenses of realisation were estimated to be ` 2,700 but actual
amount spent on this account was ` 2,000. This amount was paid on 15th September. Draw up a Memorandum of
distribution of Cash, which was realised as follows :
On 5th July ` 12,600
On 30th August ` 30,000
On 15th September ` 40,000
The partners shared profits and losses in the ratio of 2 : 2 : 1. Give working notes.
Solution :
Statement Showing the Distribution of Cash
(According to Proportionate Capital Method)
Working Notes :
(i) Statement showing the Calculation of Highest Relative Capitals
Illustration 34.
East, South and North are in partnership sharing profits and losses in the ratio 3 : 2 : 1 respectively. They decide to
dissolve the business on 31st July, 2013 on which date their Balance Sheet was as follows :
The assets were realised piecemeal as follows and it was agreed that cash should be distributed as and when
realised :
`
14th August 10,380
20th September 27,900
16th October 3,600
North took over investment as follows at a value of:-
15th November 1,260
18th November 19,200
Dissolution expenses were originally provided for an estimated amount of ` 2,700, but actual amount spent on 25th
October was ` 1,920. The creditors were settled for ` 10,080.
Required : Prepare a statement showing distribution of cash amongst the partners, according to Proportionate
Capital Method.
Solution :
Statement Showing the Distribution of Cash
(According to Proportionate Capital Method)
Particualr Creditors Loan East South North
` ` ` ` `
A Balance Due 10,320 3,000 38,700 10,680 11,100
B Paid to Creditors
[` 5,940 – ` 2,700] 3,240 — — — —
C Balance Due (A - B) 7,080 3,000 38,700 10,680 11,100
D Amount paid on 14th August 6,840 3,000 540
240 — 38,160 10,680 11,100
E Less : Written off (240) — — — —
F Balances Due (D - E) 38,160 10,680 11,100
G Amount paid on 20th September
(i) First 4,860 (i.e. ` 5,400 – ` 540) 4,860 — —
(ii) Balance ` 23,040 33,300 10,680 11,100
H Balance Due (F - G) 17,280 — 5,760
I Amount paid on 16th October 16,020 10,680 5,340
J Balance Due (H-I) 1,800 1,200 600
K Amount paid on 25th October 14,220 9,480 4,740
(being excess over estimated 390 260 130
expenses ` 780)
L Balance due (J - K) 13,830 9,220 4,610
M Cash brought in by North 630 420 210
N Balance Due (L-M) 13,200 8,800 4,400
O Amount paid on 18th November 9,600 6,400 3,200
P Balance unpaid (N-O) 3,600 2,400 1,200
Working Note :
Statement Showing the Calculation of Highest Relative Capitals
Illustration 35.
The following is the Balance Sheet of X, Y and Z, who were sharing in the ratio 5 : 3 : 2, on 31st December, 2012 when
they decided to dissolve the partnership.
Note : There was a bill for ` 4,000 due on 1.4.2013 under discount.
1st January : ` 8,85,000, 1st February : ` 3,00,000 ; 1st March : ` 8,000; 1st April : ` 5,000; 1st May : ` 10,000. The expenses
of realisation were expected to be ` 5,000, but ultimately amounted to ` 4,000 only and were paid on 1st May. The
acceptor of the bill under discount met the bill on the due date.
Required : Prepare a statement showing the monthly distribution of cash according to Maximum Loss Method.
Solution:
Statement showing the Distribution towards Firm’s Outside debts’ & Partners’ Loan
Illustration 36.
The following is the Balance Sheet of P, Q and R on 31st August, 2012 when they decided to dissolve the partnership.
They share profits in the ratio of 2 : 2 : 1.
Illustration 37.
Rahul, Roshan and Rohan were in partnership sharing profits and losses in the ratio of 3 : 2 : 1 respectively. The
partnership was dissolved on 30th June, 2013 when the position was as follows :
There was bill for ` 10,000, due on 30th November, 2013, under discount. It was agreed that the net realisations
should be distributed in their due order (at end of each month) but as safely as possible. The realisations and
expenses were as under :
The Stock was completely disposed off and amounts due from debtors were realised, the balance being
irrecoverable. The acceptor of the bill under discount met the billl on the due date. Prepare a Statement showing
the piecemeal distribution of cash according to Maximum Loss Method.
Solution :
Statement showing the Distribution of Cash
(According to Maximum Loss Method)
Particulars Creditors Rahul Roshan Rohan
` ` ` `
A Balance Due 2,10,000 1,40,000 70,000 14,000
B Cash on hand on 30th June paid to creditors 28,000 — — —
C Balance outstanding (A – B) 1,82,000 1,40,000 70,000 14,000
D Cash paid on 31st July 77,000 — — —
E Balance outstanding (C – D) 1,05,000 1,40,000 70,000 14,000
F ` 1,05,000 paid to creditors on 31st August 1,05,000 — — —
G Balance outstanding (E – F) — 1,40,000 70,000 14,000
Balance available for distribution
(`1,20,600 – ` 1,05,000 – ` 10,000)
= ` 5,600
Less : Maximum loss (` 2,24,000 – ` 5,600)
in ratio of 3 : 2 : 1 (1,09,200) (72,800) (36,400)
Balance 30,800 (2,800) (22,400)
Deficiency of Roshan and Rohan’s capital
charged to Rahul (25,200) 2,800 22,400
H Cash paid on 31st August 5,600 — —
I Balance outstanding (G – H) 1,34,400 70,000 14,000
Less : Maximum Loss (` 2,18,400 – ` 65,100) (76,650) (51,100) (25,550)
Balance 57,750 18,900 (11,550)
Deficiency of Rohan’s capital charged to
Rahul and Roshan (2 : 1) (7,700) (3,850) 11,550
J Cash paid on 30th September 50,050 15,050 —
K Balance outstanding (I – J) 84,350 54,950 14,000
Less : Maximum loss (` 1,53,300 – ` 73,500) (39,900) (26,600) (13,300)
L Cash paid on 31st October 44,450 28,350 700
M Balance outstanding (K – L) 39,900 26,600 13,300
(18,900) (12,600) (6,300)
Less : Maximum loss (` 79,800 – `42,000*)
21,000 14,000 7,000
N Cash paid on 30th November
18,900 12,600 6,300
O Unpaid Balance (M – N)
*Note : Cash available on 30th November = (` 35,500 – ` 3,500) + ` 10,000 (Reserved for Discounted B/R, now no
longer required) = ` 42,000.
Illustration 38.
E, F and G were partners in a firm, sharing profits and losses in the ratio of 3 : 2 : 1, respectively. Due to extreme
competition, it was decided to dissolve the partnership on 31st December, 2013. The Balance Sheet on that date
was as follows :
The realisation of assets is spread over the next few months as follows :
February, Debtors, ` 51,900; March : Machinery, ` 1,39,500; April, Furniture, etc. ` 18,000; May : G agreed to take
over Investments at ` 6,300; June, Stock, ` 96,000.
Dissolution expenses, originally provided, were ` 13,500, but actually amounted to ` 9,600 and were paid on 30th
April. The partners decided that after creditors were settled for ` 50,400, all cash received should be distributed at
the end of each month in the most equitable manner.
Required : Prepare a statement of actual cash distribution as is received following “Maximum Loss basis”.
Solution :
Statement showing the Distribution of Cash
(According to Maximum Loss Method)
Creditors G’s Loan Capital Accounts
Particular E F G Total
` ` ` ` ` `
A Balance due [Creditors net of discount] 51,600 15,000 1,93,500 53,400 55,500 3,02,400
Paid to Creditors and G 50,400 15,000 — — — —
B Balance due (A - B) Max. Possible — — 1,93,500 53,400 55,500 3,02,400
C Loss if remaining assets fetch
nothing (` 3,02,400 – ` 2,700)
in the ratio of 3 : 2 : 1 1,49,850 99,900 49,950 2,99,700
Adjustment of F’s Deficiency between E 43,650 (46,500) 5,550
and G in the ratio of their fixed capitals i.e.
1,13,100 : 31,500 (36,370) 46,500 (10,130)
Balance Adjustment of G’s Deficiency 7,280 — (4,580)
(charged to E) (4,580) 4,580
D Cash paid to E on 28th Feb. 2,700 — — 2,700
E Balance due (C - D) 1,90,800 53,400 55,500 2,99,700
Possible Max. Loss (` 2,99,700 – ` 1,39,500)
F Cash paid on 31st Mar. 80,100 53,400 26,700 1,60,200
G Balance Due (E - F) 1,10,700 — 28,800 1,39,500
Possible Max. Loss 80,100 53,400 26,700 1,60,200
(`1,60,200 – ` 21,900)
H Cash paid on 30th April 69,150 46,100 23,050 1,38,300
I Balance Due (G - H) 10,950 7,300 3,650 21,900
J Maximum Loss (`1,38,300 – ` 6,300) 69,150 46,100 23,050 1,38,300
K Cash brought in by G 66,000 44,000 22,000 1,32,000
L Balance Due (I + K) 3,150 2,100 1,050 (6,300)
Possible Max. Loss 66,000 44,000 22,000 1,32,000
(` 1,32,000 – ` 96,000) 18,000 12,000 6,000 36,000
M Cash paid on 30th June 48,000 32,000 16,000 96,000
N Unpaid Balance (L – N) 18,000 12,000 6,000 36,000
Working Note :
Statement showing the Calculation of Cash Available for Distribution
Particular February March April May June
` ` ` ` `
A Opening Balance 29,700 — — — —
B Add : Net Amount realised 51,900 1,39,500 18,000 — 96,000
C Less : Provision for Expenses 13,500 — — — —
D Add : Provision no longer required — — 3,900 — —
E Cash available for distribution 68,100 1,39,500 21,900 — 96,000
(A + B – C + D)
Introduction
As defined earlier, a Partnership firm is formed with two or more persons. But it can also be formed in any of the
following ways.
(A) When two or more sole proprietors forms new partnership firm;
(B) When one existing partnership firm absorbs a sole proprietorship;
(C) When one existing partnership firm absorbs another partnership firm;
(D) When two or more partnership firms form new partnership firm.
The amalgamation is used to be done to avoid competition amongst them and to maximize the profit of the
firm/firms.
Accounting entries under different situation are in below:
(A) When two or more sole proprietors form a new partnership firm
When two or more sole proprietorship businesses amalgamate to form a new partnership firm, the existing
sets of books will be closed and a new set of books of accounts to be opened, recording all assets, liabilities and
transactions of the partnership.
Steps to be taken for the existing books.
Step 1 : Prepare the Balance Sheet of the business on the date of dissolution.
Step 2 : Open a Realisation Account and transfer all assets and liabilities, except cash in hand and cash at bank,
at their book values.
However, cash in hand and cash at bank are transferred to Realisation Account only when they are taken
over by the new firm.
Step 3 : All undistributed reserves or profits or losses (appearing in the balance sheet) are to be transferred to
Partners’ Capital Accounts.
Step 4 : Calculate Purchase Consideration on the basis of terms and conditions agreed upon by the parties.
Generally, purchase consideration is calculated on the basis of agreed value of assets and liabilities taken over by
the new firm. The purchase consideration is calculated as under:
Agreed values of assets taken over xxxx
Less: Agreed values of liabilities assumed (xxx)
Purchase consideration xxxx
Step 5 : Credit Realisation Account by the amount of Purchase Consideration.
Step 6 : If there are any unrecorded assets or liabilities, they are to be recorded.
Step 7 : The Profit or loss on relisation (balancing figure of Realisation Account) to be transferred to the Capital
Account of the proprietor.
Step 8 : To ensure that all the accounts of the Sole Proprietor’s business are closed.
Accounting Entries in the Books of Amalgamating Sole Proprietors :
1. For transferring sundry assets to Realisation Account
Realisation A/c Dr.
To Sundry Assets A/c [Individually]
(Assets transferred to Realisation Account at their book values
except Cash and Bank i.e. if not taken over by the new firm)
2. For transferring sundry liabilities to Realisation Account
Liabilities A/c Dr.
To Realisation A/c [Individually]
(Liabilities transferred to Realisation Account at their book values)
Illustration 39.
A and B carry on independent business and their position on 31.03.2013 are reflected in the Balance Sheet given
below :
Liabilities A B Assets A B
` ` ` `
Sundry creditors for purchases 1,10,000 47,000 Stock-in-trade 1,70,000 98,000
Sundry creditors for expenses 750 2,000 Sundry Debtors 89,000 37,000
Bills payable 12,500 - Cash at bank 13,000 7,500
Capital A/c 1,53,000 95,500 Cash in hand 987 234
Furniture and Fixtures 2,750 1,766
Investments 513 —
2,76,250 1,44,500 2,76,250 1,44,500
Both of them want to form a partnership firm from 1.4.2013 in the style of AB & Co. on the following terms:
(a) The capital of the partnership firm would be ` 3,00,000 and to be contributed by them in the ratio of 2:1.
(b) The assets of the individual businesses would be evaluated by C at which values, the firm will take them over
and the value would be adjusted against the contribution due by A and B.
(c) C gave his valuation report as follows :
Assets of A : Stock-in trade to be written-down by 15% and a portion of the sundry debtors amounting to ` 9,000
estimated unrealisable; furniture and fixtures to be valued at ` 2,000 and investments to be taken at market value
of ` 1,000.
Assets of B : Stocks to be written-up by 10% and sundry debtors to be admitted at 85% of their value; rest of the
assets to be assumed at their book values.
(d) The firm is not to consider any creditors other than the dues on account of purchases made.
You are required to pass necessary Journal entries in the books of A and B. Also prepare the opening Balance
Sheet of the firm as on 1.4.2013.
Solution :
In the books of A
Journal
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Amount
` `
2013 Realisation A/c Dr. 2,76,250
Apr.1 To Stock-in-trade A/c 1,70,000
To Sundry Debtors A/c 89,000
To Cash at bank A/c 13,000
To Cash in hand A/c 987
To Furniture & Fixture A/c 2,750
To Investments A/c 513
(Transfer of different Assers to Realisation A/c)
Creditors for Goods A/c Dr. 1,10,000
Creditors for Expenses A/c Dr. 750
Bills Payable A/c Dr. 12,500
To Realisation A/c 1,23,250
(Transfer of different liabilities to Realisation A/c)
AB & Co. A/c (Note 1) Dr. 1,18,987
To Realisation A/c 1,18,987
(Purchase consideration due)
Working :
(1) Calculation of purchase consideration :
Particulars A (`) B (`)
Furniture 2,000 1,776
Investments 1,000 -
Stock-in-trade 1,44,500 1,07,800
Sundry Debtors 80,000 31,450
Cash at bank 13,000 7,500
Cash in hand 987 234
2,41,487 1,48,750
Less : Sundry creditors for purchases 1,10,000 47,000
Bills payable (Assumed arising out of credit purchases) 12,500 -
Net assets taken over by the AB & Co. 1,18,987 1,01,750
Capital as per agreement 2,00,000 1,00,000
Less: Net assets taken over 1,18,987 (+) 1,01,750 (-)
Cash to be introduced (+) / withdrawn (-) 81,013 1,750
Illustration 40.
Following are the Balance Sheets of partners X and Y (sharing profits and losses in the ratio of their capital) and
the sole proprietor Z as on 31.03.2013 :
The partners decided to admit Z as a partner and Z agreed to amalgamate his business with that of the partnership
on the following terms :
1. The new profit-sharing ratio among X, Y, and Z will be in the ratio of their capitals.
2. The building is to be appreciated by ` 15,000 and provision @ 5 % is to be created on debtors.
3. The goodwill of the partnership is valued at ` 10,000 and of the sole proprietor at ` 1,500; both are to be
recorded in the books.
4. Stock is to be taken at ` 9,200 and ` 16,800, respectively of the firm and the sole proprietor.
Prepare ledger accounts to close the books of Z, to make necessary Journal entries in the books of the firm and
prepare the Balance Sheet of the re-constituted partnership.
Solution :
Working Note : Calculation of purchase consideration
In the books of Z
Dr. Realisation Account Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
To Goodwill A/c 2,000 By Creditors A/c 13,000
To Stock A/c 15,000 By Loan A/c 5,000
To Bills receivable A/c 5,000 By Partners X & Y A/c 11,000
To Debtors A/c 6,000
To Capital A/c - Profit 1,000
29,000 29,000
Capital Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
To Partners X & Y A/c 11,000 By Balance b/d 10,000
By Realisation A/c 1,000
11,000 11,000
11,000 11,000
99,000 99,000
Illustration 41.
Following is the Balance sheet of AB & Co. and CD & Co. as on 31.03.2013.
Liabilities AB CD Assets AB CD
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Bank Loan 10,000 - Stock-in-trade 32,000 24,000
Bills Payable 30,000 40,000 Sundry Debtors 18,000 30,000
Capital A 60,000 - Machinery 60,000 20,000
Capital B 30,000 - Cash in hand 12,000 2,000
Capital C 36,000 Furniture 8,000 6,000
Capital D 24,000 Investments - 18,000
130,000 100,000 130,000 100,000
AB & Co. absorbed CD & Co. on 01.04.2013 on the following terms:
(a) that the value of the goodwill of CD & Co. would be ` 12,000;
(b) that the investments of CD & Co. to be sold out for ` 24,000 and the realised cash will be introduced
in the acquiring business;
(c) that the stock of CD & Co. to be reduced to ` 22,000;
(d) that the machinery of CD & Co. will be increased by 40%;
(e) that the Furniture of CD & Co. will be reduced by 10%.
It was further agreed that for AB & Co., following are the adjustments to be made :
(i) Assets are to be revalued as follows :
Goodwill- ` 16,000; Stock - ` 40,000; Machinery - ` 84,000; Furniture - ` 7,200;
(ii) Bank loan to be repaid
Show necessary Ledger Accounts to close the books of CD & Co. and to prepare necessary Journal entry and
Balance Sheet of AB & Co. after absorption.
Solution :
Workings :
Calculation of purchase consideration
Journal
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars L.F Amount Amount
` `
1.4.13 Bank Loan A/c Dr. 10,000
To Cash A/c 10,000
(Being the bank loan repaid)
Goodwill A/c Dr. 16,000
To A’s Capital A/c 8,000
To B’s Capital A/c 8,000
(Being the goodwill raised )
Stock A/c Dr. 8,000
Machinery A/c Dr. 24,000
To Revaluation A/c 32,000
(Being increase in the value of assets)
Revaluation A/c Dr. 800
To Furniture A/c 800
(Being the decrease in the value of furniture)
Revaluation A/c Dr. 31,200
To A’s Capital A/c 15,600
To B’s Capital A/c 15,600
(Being the profit on revaluation transferred to Partners’ Capital A/cs
in the profit-sharing ratio)
Goodwill A/c Dr. 12,000
Machinery A/c Dr. 28,000
Furniture A/c Dr. 5,400
Stock A/c Dr. 22,000
Debtors A/c Dr. 30,000
Cash A/c Dr. 26,000
To Bills Payable A/c
To C ‘s Capital A/c 40,000
To D’s Capital A/c 47,700
(Being the introduction of capital by C & D) 35,700
(D) When two or more partnership firms form a new partnership firm
When two or more partnership firms amalgamate to form a new partnership firm, the books of account of the old
firm is to be closed. In the books of each old firm, a Realisation Account to be opened. The accounting entries of
the amalgamating firm is same as before as they were absorbed.
Illustration 42.
Two partnership firms, carrying on business under the style of R & Co. (Partners A & B) and W & Co. (Partners C & D)
respectively, decided to amalgamate into RW & Co. with effect from 1st April 2013. The respective Balance Sheets
of both the firms as on 31st March, 2013 are in below :
Profit sharing ratios are : A & B = 1:2; C & D = 1:1. Agreed terms are :
1. All fixed assets are to be devalued by 20%.
2. All stock in trade is to be appreciated by 50%.
3. R & Co. owes ` 5,000 to W & Co. as on 31st March 2013. This is settled at ` 2,000. Goodwill is to be ignored for
the purpose of amalgamation.
4. The fixed capital accounts in the new firm (RW & Co.) are to be : Mr A ` 2,000; Mr. B ` 3,000; Mr C ` 1,000 and
D ` 4,000.
5. Mr. B takes over bank overdraft of R & Co. and contributed to Mr. A the amount of money to be brought in by
Mr. A to make up his capital contribution.
6. Mr C is paid off in cash from W & Co. and Mr. D brings in sufficient cash to make up his required capital
contribution.
Pass necessary Journal entries to close the books of both the firms as on 31st March 2013.
Solution :
Calculation of Purchase Consideration
Note : It should be noted that the credit balance in B’s capital account is ` 39,000. His agreed capital in RW & Co
is ` 3,000 only. Since there is no liquid assets in R & Co. from which B can be repaid, the excess amount of ` 36,000
should be taken over by RW & Co. as loan from B.
Realization Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars R & Co. W & Co. Particulars R & Co. W & Co.
` ` ` `
To Goodwill - 5,000 By Creditors 10,000 9,500
“ Machinery 10,000 - By RW & Co. 41,000 5,000
“ Stock-in-trade 20,000 5,000 By C’s Capital 2,750
“ Sundry Debtors 10,000 10,000 By D’s Capital 2,750
“ Cash in hand -
“ A’s Capital 3,667
“ B’s Capital 7,333
51,000 20,000 51,000 20,000
2013 To Realisation A/c (Loss) 2,750 2,750 2013 By Balance b/d 10,000 2,000
Mar 31 `` Cash A/c 6,250 — Mar 31 `` Cash A/c — 4,750
`` R W & Co. A/c 1,000 4,000
10,000 6,750 10,000 6,750
For various reasons, an existing partnership may sell its entire business to an existing Joint Stock Company.
It can also convert itself into a Joint Stock Company. The former case is the absorption of a partnership firm by
a Joint Stock Company but the latter case is the flotation of a new company to take over the business of the
partnership.
In either of the above cases, the existing partnership firm is dissolved and all the books of account are closed.
Broadly, the procedure of liquidation of the partnership business is same as what has already been explained in
“Amalgamation of Partnership”
(Note: If unrecorded liabilities are taken over by the Company, it is also transferred to Realisation Account along
with other liabilities.)
11. For liabilities taken over by the proprietor
Realisation A/c Dr
To Capital A/c
(Being liabilities assumed by the proprietor)
17. For transferring partners’ current accounts (Credit balances) to capital accounts
Partners’ Current A/cs Dr.
To Partners’ Capital A/cs
If there is a debit balance in current account, the reverse entry shall be recorded.
(When net assets taken over is less than the Purchase consideration)
Assets A/c Dr. (Agreed Value)
Goodwill A/c Dr. (Balancing figure)
To Liabilities A/c (Agreed Value)
To Firm A/c (Purchase Consideration)
(Being different assets and liabilities taken over)
(When net assets taken over is more than the Purchase consideration)
Assets A/c Dr. (Agreed Value)
To Liabilities A/c (Agreed Value)
To Firm A/c (Purchase Consideration)
To Capital Reserve A/c (Balancing Figure)
(Being different assets and liabilities taken over)
Illustration 43.
X and Y were in partnership in XY & Co. sharing profits in the proportions 3:2. On 31st March 2013, they accepted
an offer from P. Ltd. to acquire at that date their fixed assets and stock at an agreed price of ` 7,20,000. Debtors,
creditors and bank overdraft would be collected and discharged by the partnership firm.
The purchase consideration of ` 7,20,000 consisted of cash ` 3,60,000, debentures in P Ltd. (at par) ` 1,80,000
and 12,000 Equity Shares of ` 10 each in P. Ltd. X will be employed in P. Ltd. but, since Y was retiring X agreed to
allow him ` 30,000 in compensation, to be adjusted through their Capital Accounts. Y was to receive 1,800
shares in P. Ltd. and the balance due to him in cash. The Balance Sheet of the firm as on 31.03.2013 is in below :
The sale of the assets to P. Ltd. took place as agreed; the debtors realised ` 60,000 and creditors were settled
for ` 1,71,000. The firm then ceased business. You are required to pass necessary Journal entries and show: (a)
Realisation Account (b) Bank Account (c) Partners’ Capital Accounts.
Bank Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
` `
To Realisation A/c 60,000 By Balance b/d 1,50,000
(Debtors realised) By Realisation A/c 1,71,000
To S Ltd. A/c 3,60,000 (Crs payment)
(Purchase Consideration) By Capital A/c - X 80,400
By Capital A/c - Y 18,600
4,20,000 4,20,000
Note :
Value of equity shares `
Total Purchase consideration 7,20,000
Discharged:
In Cash 3,60,000
By Debentures 1,80,000 5,40,000
Balance by 12,000 Equity shares of ` 10 per each 1,80,000
So the cost of each equity share be ` 1,80,000/12,000 = ` 15 per share.
Thus in the books of P Ltd. Security premium will be ` 12,000 × 5 = ` 60,000
4. A and B are partners in a firm sharing profits in the ratio of 4:3. They agreed to admit C in the firm for l/6th
share in profit. The new profit sharing ratio of A, B and C will be
(A) 4:3:1
(B) 3:2:1
(C) 8 : 2 : 3
(D) 20: 15 : 7
5. Generally gain ratio is concerned with the situation of
(A) Admission of a new partner
(B) Retirement of a partner
(C) Dissolution of firm
(D) Piece mean distribution
6. In partnership when a new Partner brings his share of Goodwill in cash, then the amount of such Goodwill will
be credited to Partners’ capitals as per the following ratio :
(A) Old Profit sharing ratio
(B) Sacrifice ratio
(C) Gain ratio
(D) None of the above
Answer:
QUESTIONS:
1. A and B were partners sharing profit or loss in the ratio of 5 : 4. C entered as partner for 1/4th shares in profits
and he brought ` 2,50,000 for goodwill. C acquired 1/6th share from B and remaining from A. You are required
to:
(i) Calculate sacrifice ratio and new profit sharing ratio.
(ii) Pass journal entries in the books of the firm for the distribution of goodwill.
Answer:
(i) B’s Sacrifice = 1/6 and A’s sacrifice = 1/4 - 1/6 = (3 - 2)/12 = 1/12
Hence, Sacrifice ratio of A & B = 1/12 : 1/6 or 1 : 2
New Profit Sharing Ratio:
New share of A = 5/9 - 1/12 = (20 - 3)/36 = 17/36
New shares of B = 4/9 - 1/6 = (8-3)/18 = 5/18 = 10/36
Share of C = 1/4 or 9/36
Share of C = 1/4 or 9/36
Hence, New Ratio of A. B & C = 17 : 10 : 9.
(ii)
Journal Entries
Particulars Dr. (`) Cr. (`)
Bank A/c Dr. 2,50,000
To Goodwill A/c 2,50,000
(Amount of goodwill brought by C)
Goodwill A/c Dr. 2,50,000
To A’s Capital A/c 83,333
To B’s Capital A/c 1,66,667
(Amount of goodwill shared by A&B in sacrifice ratio 1 : 2)
EXERCISE:
1. X, Y and Z are partners in a firm. The firm has agreed to give to partners interest @ 15% per annum on their
capital contributions. The amount of interest on Y’s capital is more than the Interest on Z’s capital by `10,500
2
and X’s capital is 1 3 times of Z’s capital. If the firm’s total capital is `11,70,000, then calculate the amount of
capital and interest thereon of each partner.
Answer:
[Capital X — 5,00,000 Interest X — 75,000
Y — 3,70,000 Interest X — 55,500
Z — 3,00,000 Interest X — 45,000
2. A, B and C started a partnership firm on 01.01.2012. A introduced ` 10,000 on 01.01.2012 and further introduced
` 4,000 on 1.7.2012. B introduced ` 25,000 at first on 1.1.2012 but withdraw ` 5,000 from the business on 31.09.2012.
C introduced ` 15,000 at the beginning on 1.1.2012, increased it by ` 5,000 on 1.4.2012 and reduced it to
`10,000 on 1.11.2012.
During the year 2012 they made a net profit of ` 75,500. The partners decided to provide interest on their
capitals at 10% p.a. and to divide the balance of profit in their effective capital contribution ratio.
Prepare the Profit and Loss Appropriation Account for the year ended 31.12.2012.
Answer:
[Share of Profit —
A — `15,948
B — `31,565
C — `22,704
Total of Profit and Loss Appropriation Account for the year ended 31.12.2012 — `75,000]
3. Ashok & BaJa who where in partnership sharing 7/12 and 5/12 respectively admitted Chand as a partner
giving him 1/5th share from 01.04.2011. The new profit sharing ratio is 7 : 5: 3. Chand brought ` 96,000 towards
goodwill to be shared by Ashok & BaJa in their sacrificing ratio. The amount so brought was however credited
to Chand’s capital account by mistake.
The Trial Balance of the firm as on 31st March, 2012 is given below:
Dr. (`) Cr. (`)
Ashok’s capital 3,36,000
Bala’s capital 2,40,000
Chand’s capital 2,24,000
Sundry Creditors 48,000
Current year profit 2,20,000
Other Assets 7,70,000
Ashok’s drawing 1,45,600
Bala’s drawing 1,04,000
Chand’s drawing 20,400
Cash in hand 28,000
Total: 10,68,000 10,68,000
Interest on drawings is to be ignored but interest on capital is to be charged at 5% per annum which was not
made so far. Prepare new Balance Sheet as at 31.03.2012 giving effect to above adjustments/omissions.
Answer:
[Balance Sheet total as on 31.03.2012 — `7,98,000]
4. Sachin & Ganguly are partners of a firm SG & Co. From the following Information calculate the value of
goodwill by super profit method and capitalization method:
(i) Average capital employed in the business ` 5,00,000.
(ii) Net trading profit of the firm for the last three years ` 1,50,000; ` 1,70,000 and ` 1,90,000.
(iii) Rate of return expected from capital having regard to risk involved @ 15% per annum.
(iv) Goodwill to be valued at 2 years’ purchase.
Answer:
5. A, B and C were carrying on business as equal partners. On 01.04.2012, A retires from partnership and his
capital account showed a credit balance of ` 2,25,000 after all the adjustments. Show the relevant Ledger
accounts in the books of the firm after A’s retirement, if:
(ii) The payment is made to A in two equal yearly installments plus interest @ 15% per annum.
(iii) The life annuity of ` 50,000 per annum with 12% interest per annum is payable assuming that the
annuitant passes away immediately after payment of the second annuity.
Answer:
2012-13 — `2,58,750];
2013-14 — `1,29,375]
6. X, Y and Z are in partnership sharing Profits and Losses in the ratio 2:2:1. Partnership deed provides that all the
partners are entitled to interest @ 9% per annum on fixed capital of ` 10,00,000 contributed in profit sharing
ratio. Z is entitled for 10% commission of net profit after such commission, for special performance. On 1/9/2014,
it was decided to retire X on health grounds and admit A, the son of X as partner with 1/5th share in Profit and
Loss. Other decisions taken on this date were as follows:
(i) Firm’s fixed capital to be raised to ` 15,00,000 and partners to maintain fixed capital in profit sharing ratio
and, interest on capital shall be paid @ 10% per annum from 1/9/2014.
(v) Balance claim payable to X was to be credited to A’s fixed capital account and current account.
(vi) Profit for the accounting year 2014-15 before interest on capital, Z’s commission was ` 9,00,000.
(i) Profit and Loss Appropriation Account of the firm for the year ended 31st March, 2015.
Answer:
7. Ram, Rahim and Robert are partners in a firm sharing profit and losses in the proportion of 3:3:2. Their Balance
Sheet as on 31.03.2013 was as follows:
Liabilities ` Assets `
Partners Capital Accounts: Bank 55,000
Ram 75,000 Stock 69,000
Rahim 75,000 Investments 6,000
Robert 1,00,000 2,50,000 Debtors 70,000
Partners Current Account: Land and Building 1,25,000
Ram 15,000 Goodwill 25,000
Rahim 25,000
Robert 12,500 52,500
Sundry Creditors 47,500
3,50,000 3,50,000
They decided to dissolve the firm on 01.04.2013. They report the result of realization as follows:
The realization expenses amounted to ` 2,000. Close the accounts of the firm.
Answer:
Ram — ` 18,000;
Rahim — ` 18,000;
Robert — ` 12,000.]
Under Self Balancing Ledger system each ledger is prepared under double entry system and a complete trial
balance can also be prepared by taking up the balances of ledger accounts. Within the ledger itself principles of
double entry is completed. Under this method three ledger accounts are prepared, viz, General Ledger Adjustment
Account which is maintained under Debtors Ledger and Creditors Ledger and Debtors or Sales Ledger Adjustment
Account and Creditors or Purchase Ledger Adjustments Accounts which are maintained under General Ledger.
The use of these ledgers are:
Debtors Ledger: It is also known as Sold Ledger or Sales Ledger which is maintained for recording personal accounts
of trade debtors. If this ledger is maintained customers account (i.e., to whom we sell goods on credit) are taken
out from the general ledger and the same is maintained in this ledger. In short, this ledger deals with account
relating to trade debtors.
Creditors Ledger: It is also known as Bought Ledger or Purchase Ledger which is prepared for recording personal
accounts of trade creditors. By preparing this ledger creditors account (i.e., from whom we purchase goods on
credit) are taken out from the general ledger and the same is maintained in this ledger. In short, this ledger deals
with accounts relating to trade creditors.
General or Nominal Ledger: Needless to say that in this ledger all real accounts, nominal accounts and remaining
personal accounts are opened for example:
Personal Account: Drawings, Capital, Bank, Outstanding Salary etc.
Real Account: Plant & Machinery, Land & Building, B/R, Stock, etc.
Nominal Account: Salaries, Rent, Insurance, Carriage etc.
Preparation of Trial Balance
By taking up the balances from all the three ledgers a trial balance can be prepared. We cannot prepare a trial
balance from any single ledger. e.g., a trial balance cannot be prepared by taking up only the balances from
debtor’s ledger as it has no credit balance and so also in case of creditor’s ledger as it has no debit balance.
Moreover, In case of errors it becomes very difficult to locate and detect such error or errors if the trial balance
is prepare by taking up either from debtors ledger only or from creditors ledger only and at the same time trial
balance will not agree. Thus, the system under which each ledger is made to balance is called self-balancing
system. It must be remembered that the ledger which does not balance scrutiny of the same is practically very
limited.
Advantages of Self-Balancing System.
The advantages of Self-Balancing system are:
(a) If ledgers are maintained under self-balancing system it becomes very easy to locate errors.
(b) This system helps to prepare interim account and draft final accounts as a complete trial balance can be
prepared before the abstruction of individual personal ledger balances.
(c) Various works can be done quickly as this system provides sub-division of work among the different
employees.
(d) This system is particularly useful (i) where there are a large number of customers or suppliers and (ii) where it
is desired to prepare periodical accounts.
(e) Committing fraud is minimized as different ledgers are prepared by different clerks.
(f) Internal check system can be strengthened as it becomes possible to check the accuracy of each ledger
independently.
Entries in Sales or Debtors Ledger
Two types of entries are recorded, one the usual double entry and the other is self-balancing entry. Naturally,
when a transaction occurs, the normal entry is to be recorded under double entry principle i.e., one account that
is related to debtors/customers and the other is related to general ledger. But under self-balancing system, the
entries are recorded for the adjustment account and that is why, the entries are recorded with the periodical total
of Sales Day Book, Return Inward Book etc.
So, accounts which are recorded to debtors will be passed through Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account and the
others are passed through General Ledger Adjustment Account.
Proforma
In the General Ledger
Dr. Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account Cr.
Note : Self –balancing entries will only be made for those transactions which affect two ledgers. Naturally, if a
transaction occurs which affects the same ledger (in both sides), say, general ledger, no entry is to be required.
For example, Cash Sales, which actually affect two sides of general ledger, is not to be recorded. For the same
reason, Provision/Reserve for bad debts, Recovery of bad debts, Trade Discount, Bills Receivable discounted or
matured etc. will not appear at all.
In the General Ledger
Debtors’ Ledger Adjustment Account
Dr. Cr.
All transactions for which creditors balance All transactions for which creditors balance
decrease. increase.
Example: Example:
Discount Received
Illustration 1.
From the following information prepare (1) Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account in the General Ledger, and (2)
General Ledger Adjustment Account in the Debtors Ledger:
Particulars Amount
`
Opening balance of Sundry Debtors 40,000
2,000
Cash and cheques receipts 1,60,000
Credit Sales as per Sales Day Book 2,00,000
Discount Allowed 6,000
Returns Inward 4,000
Bad Debts 3,000
Bills Receivable Received 20,000
Bills Receivable Discounted 2,000
Provision for Bad Debts 2,000
Closing Credit Balance of Sundry Debtors 6,000
Transfer from Debtors Ledger to Creditors Ledger 1,000
Transfer from Creditors Ledgers to Debtors Ledger 1,200
Solution :
In the books of …………….
In the General Ledger
Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
? To Balance b/d 40,000 ? By Balance b/d 2,000
,, General Ledger ,, General Ledger
Adjustment A/c — Adjustment A/c —
Credit Sales 2,00,000 Cash and Cheques 1,60,000
,, Balance c/d 6,000 Returns Inward 4,000
Discount Allowed 6,000
Bad Debts 3,000
Bills Receivable 20,000
Transfer to Cr. Ledger 1,000
,, Transfer from Creditors to
Debtors Ledger 1,200
,, Balance c/d 48,800
2,46,000 2,46,000
? To Balance b/d 48,800 ? By Balance b/d 6,000
Illustration 2.
Samaresh keeps his ledger on self-balancing system. From the following particulars, you are required to write-up
the individual Debtors’ Account and the General Ledger Adjustment Account (in Sales ledger) during the month
of January 2013:
19. Received from A, a bill of exchange for ` 1,200 accepted by X payable on 25th January;
28. D became insolvent and 30 paise in the rupee was received from his estate in full and final settlement;
Solution :
In the books of Samaresh
In Sales Ledger
Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
2013 To Sales Ledger Adj. A/c 2013 By Balance b/d 6,210
Jan. 31 Cash 4,851 Jan. 1 ,, Sales Ledger Adj. A/c-
Dis. Allowed 120 Sales 3,330
Returns Inward 180 Jan. 31 B/R Dishonoured 1,200
B/R 1,200
Bad Debts 819
,, Balance c/d 3,570
10,740 10,740
Feb. 1 By Balance b/d
3,370
A Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
2013 2013
Jan. 1 To Balance b/d 1,530 Jan. 11 By Cash 1,500
,, 2 ,, Sales 1,710 ,, ,, ,, Dis. Allowed 30
,, 25 ,, B/R Dishonoured 1,200 ,, 19 ,, B/R 1,200
,, 31 ,, Balance c/d 1,710
4,440 4,440
B Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
2013 2013
Jan. 1 To Balance b/d 1,620 Jan. 9 By Balance b/d 300
,, 12 ,, Sales 600 ,, 14 ,, Returns Inward 180
,, 22 ,, Cash 900
,, 31 ,, Balance c/d 840
2,220 2,220
C Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
2013 2013
Jan. 1 To Balance b/d 1,890 Jan. 18 By Cash 1,800
,, 31 ,, Sales 1,020 ,, ,, ,, Dis. Allowed 90
,, 31 ,, Balance c/d 1,020
2,910 2,910
D Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
2013 2013
Jan. 1 To Balance b/d 1,170 Jan. 28 By Cash 351
,, Bad Debts 819
1,170 1,170
Workings:
(a) Total Debtors’ balance as on 1.1.2013 = A+B+C+D = ` 1,530+` 1,620+` 1,890+ ` 1,170
= ` 6,210
(b) Total Sales = A+B+C = ` 1,710+` 600+` 1,020
= ` 3,330
(c) Total Cash Received = A+B+C+D = ` 300+` 1,500+` 1,800+ ` 900+ ` 351
= ` 4,851
(d) Total Discount Allowed = A+C = ` 30+` 90 = ` 120
(e) Returns Inward =B = ` 180
(f) Bad Debts =D = ` 819
(g) B/R Dishonoured =A = ` 1,200
(h) Total Debtors’ balance as on 31 January, 2013. = A+B+C
st
= ` 1,710+` 840+` 1,020 = ` 3,570
Illustration 3.
The summarized analysis of the accounts of the outstanding debtors of a firm at the date of the annual closing of
amount as under:
Debtors Goods Sold Goods returned Cash & cheque Discount allowed Bill of exchange
during the year during the year received during during the year received during the
` the year ` year
` ` `
P 3,000 --- 2,000 500 ---
Q 2,000 500 1,000 --- ---
R 5,000 --- 3,000 --- ---
S 10,000 1,000 6,000 500 1,000
T 12,000 1,500 8,000 1,000 1,000
Debtors’ balance at the beginning of the year was ` 4,500. Out of the above receipts of a bill for ` 700 given by
S was dishonoured, noting charges amounting to ` 20. Prepare Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account in General
Ledger and General Ledger Adjustment Account in Debtors Ledger.
Solution :
37,220 37,220
,, Balance b/d
10,220
In Debtors Ledger
General Ledger Adjustment Account
Dr. Cr.
Workings:
Sales = ` 3,000 + ` 2,000 + ` 5,000 + ` 10,000 + ` 12,000 = ` 32,000
Returns Inward = ` 500 + ` 1,000 + ` 1,500 = ` 3,000
Discount Allowed = ` 500 + ` 500 + ` 1,000 = ` 2,000
B/R = ` 1,000 + ` 1,000 = ` 2,000
Cash & Cheque Received = ` 2,000 + ` 1,000 + ` 3,000 + ` 6,000 + ` 8,000
= ` 20,000
In General Ledger
Dr. Creditors Ledger Adjustment Account Cr.
** **
Illustration 4.
Prepare the Creditors Ledger Adjustment Account as it would appear in General Ledger and General Ledger
Adjustment Account as it would appear in Creditors Ledger for the year ended 31st March 2013 from the following
particulars.
Particulars ` Particulars `
Sundry Creditors (on 1.4.2012) (Cr.) 10,000 Bills Payable issues during the year 4,000
(Dr.) 1,000 Bills Payable dishonoured 2,000
Purchases (including Cash 50,000 Bills Payable renewed 1,000
Purchase of ` 10,000)
Returns Outward 2,000 Interest on Bills Payable renewed 100
Cash paid to Creditors 20,000 Sundry Charges paid for dishonor of Bills 100
Payable
Discount allowed by Creditors 3,000 Total of set-off in Debtors Ledger 3,000
Trade Discount 1,000 Sundry Creditors (on 31.3.2013) (Dr.) 4,000
Bills Receivable endorsed to Creditors 2,000
Solution:
In the General Ledger
Creditors Ledger Adjustment Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
(`) (`)
2012 2012
April 1 To Balance b/d 1,000 April 1 By Balance b/d 10,000
2013 “ General Ledger 2013 General Ledger
March. 31 Adjustment A/c : March. 31 Adjustment A/c :
Returns Outward 2,000 Purchase 40,000
Cash and cheques 20,000 Bills Payable dishonoured 2,000
Discount Received 3,000 Interest
Bills receivable 2,000 Sundry Charges 100
Bills Payable 4,000 “ Balance c/d 100
Bills Payable ( renewed ) 1,000 4,000
Transfer 3,000
“ Balance c/d 20,200
56,200 56,200
TRANSFER ENTRIES
Sometimes a person may be treated both as a debtor as well as a creditor to the firm. In other words the firm
purchase goods from him and also it sells goods to him. Under the circumstances, the lower of the amount payable
to and receivable from such person is to be set-off. The so called set-off amount is to be deducted both from the
debtors as well as from the creditors. This is known as transfer entry.
The entry for this purpose will be Creditors Account debited and Debtors Account credit. As a result of this transfer
both debtors ledger and creditors ledger together with general ledger are affected. For example, debtors include
` 10,000 due from Mr. A whereas Creditor include ` 8,000 due to Mr. A.
Usual entry is ` `
(a) A (in Creditors Ledger) A/c Dr. 8,000
To A (in Debtors ledger) A/c 8,000
Illustration 5.
X Ltd. furnished the following particulars:
Debtors ledger include ` 5,000 due from Sen & Co. whereas creditors ledger include ` 3,000 due to Sen & Co.
Solution:
In the books of X Ltd.
Journal (without narration)
General Illustrations
Illustration 6.
From the following particulars, which have been extracted from the book of G & Co., for the year ended 31.12.2013,
prepare General Ledger Adjustment Account in the Creditors ledger and Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account in
the General Ledger:
Particulars Amount
`
Debtors balance (1.1.2013) Dr. 20,000
Cr. 300
Cr. 15,000
Solution :
In the books of G & Co.
In the Creditors Ledger
General Ledger Adjustment Account
Dr. Cr.
Illustration 7.
The following information is avail from the books of the trader for the period 1st Jan. to 31st March 2013:
(1) Total Sales amounted to ` 70,000 including the sale of old furniture for ` 10,000(book value is ` 12,300). The total
cash sales were 80% less than total credit sales.
(2) Cash collection from Debtors amounted to 60% of the aggregated of the opening Debtors and Credit sales
for the period. Discount allowed to them amounted to ` 2,600
(3) Bills receivable drawn during the period totaled ` 7,000 of which bills amounting to ` 3,000 were endorsed in
favour of suppliers.Out of these endorsed bills, a Bill receivable for ` 1,600 was dishonoured for non-payament,
as the party became insolvent and his estate realized nothing.
(4) Cheques received from customer of ` 5,000 were dishonoured; a sum of ` 500 is irrecoverable.
(5) Bad Debts written-off in the earlier year realized ` 2,500.
(6) Sundry debtors on 1st January stood at ` 40,000.
You are required to show the Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account in the General Ledger.
Solution.
In the General Ledger
Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount (`) Date Particulars Amount
(`)
2013 2013
Jan 1 To Balance b/d 40,000 Jan 1 By General Ledger
March 31 “ General Ledger March 31 Adjustment A/c :
Adjustment A/c : Cash 54,000
- Sales 50,000 Discount Allowed 2,600
-Bills Receivable 1,600 Bills Receivable 7,000
Dishonoured Bad Debts 2,100
-Cheque Dishonoured 5,000 “ Balance c/d 30,900
96,600 96,600
Workings:
1. Computation of Credit Sales
Cash Sales were 80% less than Credit Sales. So, if credit sales are ` 100 Cash Sales will be ` 20; Total Sales
(Cash+Credit) will be `120. Total Sales (` 70,000 - ` 10,000) = ` 60,000
2. Cash received
Cash received is 60% of opening Debtors plus Credit sales i.e. ` 40,000 + ` 50,000 = ` 90,000
60
Cash Received ` 90,000 × = ` 54,000
100
EXERCISE:
Date Particulars
March, 2015
3 Paid ` 3,000 after adjusting the initial advance in full to Mr. Akash.
10 Paid ` 2,500 to Mr. Dev towards the purchases made in February in full.
26 Goods purchased from Mr. Giridhar against the advance paid already.
Goods return to Mr. Prem ` 1,200. The goods were originally purchased for cash in the month of February, 2015.
You are required to prepare the Creditors Ledger Adjustment Account as would appear in General Ledger
for the month of March, 2015.
2. Following information is available from the books of a trader from January 1 to March 31, 2011.
(i) Total Sales amounted to ` 60,000 including the sale of old furniture for ` 1,200 (Book Value ` 3,500). The
total Cash Sales were 80% less than the total Credit Sales.
(ii) Cash collection from debtors amounted to 60% of the aggregate of the opening debtors and the Credit
Sales for the period. Debtors were allowed Cash discounts for ` 2,600.
(iii) Bills Receivable drawn during the three months totalled `6,000 of which bills amounting to ` 3,000 were
endorsed in favour of suppliers. Out of these endorsed B/R, a B/R for ` 600 was dishonoured for non-
payment as the party became insolvent, his estate realizing nothing.
(iv) Cheques received from Sundry Customers for ` 6,000 were dishonoured; a sum of ` 500 is irrecoverable,
Bad Debts written off in the earlier years realized `2,500.
You are required to show the Debtors Ledger Adjustments Accounts in the General Ledger.
3. Prepare Total Creditors Account for the year ended on 31.03.2013 from the data given below:
8.1 Royalties
8.1. ROYALTIES
Introduction
The owner of an asset (e.g. mines, quarries, patent, copyright, etc), as a business arrangement, may allow other
party (lessee, licencee, publisher, etc) the right to use that asset against some consideration. Such consideration
is calculated with reference to the quantity produced or sold. This payment to the owner by the user of the asset
is termed as Royalty.
We can therefore say that the royalty is the amount of consideration paid by a party to the owner of the asset in
return for the right to use that asset.
For example, when a publisher publishes a book, he makes a payment to the author which is based on the number
of copies sold known as royalty.
The following are some of cases where one party paid to another in the form of Royalty:
1. where the owner of a mine allows another the right to extract minerals from land;
2. where right such as patents or copyrights are licensed in favour of another;
3. where an author, artist or designer gives exclusive rights to another to copy the work.
Common terms Used in Connection with Accounting for Royalty :
1. Minimum Rent / Dead Rent
A contract is entered into between the landlord and the lessee for payment of royalty, usually calculated upon
the quantum of production or sale at a certain stipulated rate.
So, if there is little or no production or sale, the landlord would receive little or no royalty at all, thus affects the
monetary interest of the landlord as well as the lessee. It is normally not acceptable to the owner, since sale or
production mostly depends on the capacity of the person to whom the rights have been given. To avoid such a
situation, the landlord and the lessee agreed upon a minimum periodical amount that the landlord will receive
from the lessee, even if the actual royalty as calculated on the basis of actual production or sale is less than such
minimum amount.
This assured and mutually agreed periodical minimum amount is known as “Minimum Rent”.
Example: Suppose royalty per ton of production is ` 10 and the minimum (annual) rent is ` 4,00,000. Now, the actual
production is 35,000 tons, then actual royalty would become ` 3,50,000. In this case the minimum rent of `
4,00,000 will have to be paid by the lessee. On the other hand, if the actual production is 46,000 tons, then
the actual royalty would become ` 4,60,000. In this case ` 4,60,000 will have to be paid by the lessee.
Thus, as there is a stipulation for minimum rent, then either the minimum rent or the actual royalty whichever is more
shall have to be paid by the lessee.
The minimum rent is also called dead rent, certain rent, fixed rent, etc.
In the above example, the short workings is ` 50,000 (` 4,00,000 – ` 3,50,000). Where there is short workings in any
period the lessee is liable to pay the minimum rent and, in effect, short workings becomes the part of the
minimum rent and not represented by the use of rights.
The question of short workings will arise only when there is a stipulation for minimum rent in the agreement.
3. Excess working
It refers to the amount by which the actual royalty exceeds the minimum rent. In the above example, the excess
workings is ` 60,000 (` 4,60,000 – ` 4,00,000) if the production is 46,000 tons.
(i) Royalties (payable) Account Dr. [Actual royalties for the period]
If the user is a manufacturer and royalties are calculated on the basis of production, the actual royalties are
debited to Manufacturing Account. Where royalties are calculated on the basis of sales, they are debited to
Profit and Loss Account.
In case of a limited company, which does not prepare Manufacturing Account separately, the actual royalties
are debited to Profit and Loss Account and they are shown in production or manufacturing section of the Profit
and Loss Account.
(b) Where the actual royalty is more than the minimum rent :
(i) Royalties (payable) Account Dr.
To Landlord Account
[Actual royalties for the period]
Illustration 1.
The Bihar Coal Co. Ltd. holds a lease of coal mines for a period of twelve years, commencing from 1st April 2006.
According to the lease, the company is to pay ` 7.50 as royalty per ton with a minimum rent of ` 150,000 per year.
Short workings can, however, be recovered out of the royalty in excess of the minimum rent of the next two years
only. For the year of a strike the minimum rent is to be reduced to 60%. The output in tons for the 6 years ending
31st March, 2012 is as under :
2006-07 :10,000; 2007-08 :12,000; 2008-09:25,000; 2009-10: 20,000; 2010-11: 50,000; and 2011-12: 15,000 (strike).
Write up the necessary Ledger Accounts in the books of Bihar Coal Co. Ltd.
Solution :
In the books of Bihar Coal Co. Ltd.
Statement showing Royalty Payable
Fig in (`)
Year Output Actual Min. Excess Shortworkings Amount
(Tons) Royalties Rent Short Occurred Recouped Written off C/F Payable
Workings or lapsed
2006-07 10,000 75,000 150,000 0 75,000 0 0 75,000 150,000
31.03.07 To Landlord A/c 75,000 31.03.07 By Profit & Loss A/c 75,000
31.03.08 To Landlord A/c 90,000 31.03.08 By Profit & Loss A/c 90,000
31.03.09 To Landlord A/c 187,500 31.03.09 By Profit & Loss A/c 187,500
31.03.10 To Landlord A/c 150,000 31.03.10 By Profit & Loss A/c 150,000
31.03.11 To Landlord A/c 375,000 31.03.11 By Profit & Loss A/c 375,000
31.03.12 To Landlord A/c 112,500 31.03.12 By Profit & Loss A/c 112,500
150,000 150,000
31.03.08 To Bank A/c 31.03.08 By Royalties A/c
150,000 By Short workings A/c 90,000
60,000
150,000 150,000
31.03.09 To Bank A/c 31.03.09 By Royalties A/c
To Short workings A/c 150,000 187,500
37,500
187,500 187,500
31.03.10 To Bank A/c 150,000 31.03.10 By Royalties A/c 150,000
150,000 150,000
31.03.11 To Bank A/c 375,000 31.03.11 By Royalties A/c 375,000
375,000 375,000
31.03.12 To Bank A/c 112,500 31.03.12 By Royalties A/c 112,500
112,500 112,500
75,000 75,000
1.4.07 To Balance b/d 75,000 31.03.08 By Balance c/d 135,000
31.03.08 To Landlord A/c 60,000
135,000 135,000
135,000 135,000
1.4.09 To Balance b/d 60,000 31.03.10 By Profit & Loss A/c 60,000
60,000 60,000
Illustration 2.
A. Ltd. obtain from B.S. Ltd. a lease of some coal-bearing land, the terms being a royalty of ` 15 per ton of coal
raised subject to a minimum rent of ` 75,000 p.a. with a right of recoupment of short-working over the first four
years of the lease. From the following details, show (i) Short-working Account, (ii) Royalty Account and (iii) B.S. Ltd.
Account in the books of A. Ltd.
Solution:
Workings:
Year Quantity Rate Royalty Minimum Short Recoupment Short working Short working Payment
Rent working carried Transferred to
` ` ` ` ` forward to P&L A/c or Landlord
` lapsed `
`
2009 2,300 15 34,500 75,000 40,500 --- 40,500 --- 75,000
75,000 75,000
2012 To Bank A/c 75,000 2012 By Royalty A/c 82,500
1,24,500 1,24,500
40,500 40,500
2010 To Balance b/d 40,500 2010 By Balance c/d 61,500
61,500 61,500
2012 To Balance b/d 61,500 2012 By B. S Ltd. (Landlord) A/c 7,500
2011 To B. S. Ltd. A/c 75,000 2011 By Profit & Loss A/c 75,000
2012 To B. S. Ltd. A/c 82,500 2012 By Profit & Loss A/c 82,500
2013 To B. S. Ltd. A/c 1,24,500 2013 By Profit & Loss A/c 1,24,500
(b) Where the actual royalty is more than the minimum rent :
(ii) Royalty Suspense Account/ Dr.
Or Short workings Allowable A/c
To Lessee Account [Recoupment of Short workings, if any]
To Lessee Account
Illustration 3.
For the same figures as given in illustration 1, prepare necessary accounts in the books of Landlord.
Solution :
In the books of Landlord
Dr. Royalty Receivable Account Cr.
31.03.07 To Profit & Loss A/c 75,000 31.03.07 By Bihar Coal Co.Ltd 75,000
31.03.08 To Profit & Loss A/c 90,000 31.03.08 By Bihar Coal Co. Ltd 90,000
31.03.09 To Profit & Loss A/c 1,87,500 31.03.09 By Bihar Coal Co. Ltd 1,87,500
31.03.10 To Profit & Loss A/c 31.03.10 By Bihar Coal Co. Ltd
1,50,000 1,50,000
31.03.11 To Profit & Loss A/c 31.03.11 By Bihar Coal Co. Ltd
3,75,000 3,75,000
31.03.12 To Profit & Loss A/c 31.03.12 By Bihar Coal Co. Ltd
1,12,500 1,12,500
1,87,500 1,87,500
31.03.09 To Bihar Coal Co. Ltd 37,000 1.4.08 By Balance b/d 135,000
To Profit & Loss A/c 37,500
To Balance c/d 60,000
1,35,500 1,35,500
31.03.10 To Profit & Loss A/c 60,000 1.04.09 By Balance b/d 60,000
60,000 60,000
Illustration 4.
The following information has been obtained from the books of a lesee relating to the years 2008-09 to 2011-12 :
Payments to Landlord (after tax deducted @ 20% at Source) :
2008-09 ` 12,000
2009-10 ` 12,000
2010-11 ` 12,000
2011-12 ` 19,200
2010-11 ` 1,000
Balance of Short-working Account forward on April 1, 2008 ` 800 (which are in 2008-09). According to the terms
of agreement short-working is recoverable within the next two years following the year in which short-working arises.
You are required to show the necessary accounts in the books of the lessee for the four years ended 31st March 2012.
Solution :
Before preparing the ledger accounts we are to find out some missing information :
1. The recoupment which was made in 2009-10 for ` 2,500 is inclusive of ` 800 of 2007-08 and the balance ` 1,700
for 2008-09.
Again, the short-working which was recovered and written-off ` 1,000 and ` 500 (i.e., ` 1,500), respectively, in
2010-11 are also for the year 2008-09. So, the total short-working for 2008-09 amounted to ` 3,200 (i.e.,
` 1,700 + ` 1,500).
2. Rate of taxes @ 20% on gross i.e., 25% (i.e., 20 = 1 ) on net amount paid.
80 4
3. Actual Payment = Annual Royalty + Short-working – Recoupment.
March, 31 March, 31
2010 To Landlord A/c 17,500 2010 By P/L A/c 17,500
March, 31 March, 31
2011 To Landlord A/c 16,000 2011 By P/L A/c 16,000
March, 31 March, 31
2012 To Landlord A/c 24,000 2012 By P/L A/c 24,000
March, 31 March, 31
Illustration 5.
A fire occurred in the office premises of lessee in the evening of 31.3.2012 destroying most of the books and
records. From the documents saved, the following information is gathered:
Short-working recovered :
2011-12 ` 2,000
Short-working lapsed :
2008-09 ` 3,000
2009-10 ` 3,600
2011-12 ` 2,000
A sum of ` 50,000 was paid to the landlord in 2008-09. The agreement of Royalty contains a clause of Minimum
Rent payable for fixed amount and recoupment of short-workings within 3 years following the year in which Short-
workings arise.
Information as regards payments to landlord subsequent to the year 2008-09 is not readily available.
Show the Short – working Account and the Royalty Account in the books of lessee.
Solution:
Working Notes:
Analysis of payments
` `
Royalty in 2008-09 Minimum Rent – Shortworking 50,000 - 11,000 39,000
Royalty in 2009-10 Minimum Rent + Recoupment 50,000 + 4,000 54,000
Royalty in 2010-11 Minimum Rent + Recoupment 50,000 + 8,000 58,000
Royalty in 2011-12 Minimum Rent + Recoupment 50,000 + 2,000 52,000
(i) 2008-09 `50,000 was paid but there was no recoupment. \ `50,000 was the payment for Minimum Rent. This
has been posted in the minimum rent column, every year.
(ii) In 2011-12 Shortworking recouped + Shortworking lapsed = `2,000 + `2,000 = `4,000. This has been posted as
the amount carried forward in 2010-11. (A)
(iii) In 2010-11 `8,000 has been recouped. So, the closing balance of its preceding year 2009-10 was =
`(4,000+8,000) = `12,000. (B)
(iv) In 2009-10 Shortworkings adjusted = amount recouped + amount lapsed = `(4,000+3,600) = `7,600. In its
preceding year 2008-09, the closing balance was `(12,000+7,600) = `19,600. (C)
(v) No Shortworking occurred in 2009-10, 2010-11,2011-12. \All Shortworkings occurred in 2008-09 or before.
(vii) Opening Balance of Short working in 2007-08 = Closing balance + Amount recouped + Amount Lapsed –
Amount of Shortworking occurred i.e.`(19,600+3,000-11,000) = `11,600
In the books of ….
Dr. Royalty Account Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
2008-09 To, Landlord A/c 39,000 2008-09 By, Profit and Loss A/c 39,000
39,000 39,000
2009-10 To, Landlord A/c 54,000 2009-10 By, Profit and Loss A/c 54,000
54,000 54,000
2010-11 To, Landlord A/c 58,000 2010-11 By, Profit and Loss A/c 58,000
58,000 58,000
2011-12 To, Landlord A/c 52,000 2011-12 BY, Profit and Loss A/ 52,000
52,000 52,000
Answer:
EXERCISE:
1. On 1st April, 2010 Rukmani Limited leased a coal mine at a minimum rent of `36,000 for the first year, ` 60,000
for second year and there after ` 1,20,000 per annum merging into a royalty of ` 3 per tonne with right to
recoup short workings over two years after occurring short workings. The output for first year years is as follows:
Year 1 2 3 4
Coal output (in tones) 6,000 17,200 44,000 1,00,000
You are required to prepare Royalty Account, Short workings Account and Landlord’s Account in the books
of Rukmani Ltd.
Answer:
[Short working 2010-11 — `18,000
2011-12 — `8,400
Short working recouped 2012-13 — `12,000
2013-14 — `8,400
Transferred to P&L A/c 2012-13 — `6,000.]
2. On 1st April, 2009 Mahi Limited obtained a mine on lease from Kachari Limited. The terms were as follows:
(i) Royalty at `25 per tonne raised.
(ii) Minimum Rent `1,50,000 per annum.
(iii) Short workings can be recouped in the next two years only but subject to a maximum of ` 37,500 per
year. In the event of strike, the minimum rent would be taken pro-rata on the basis of actual working days
but in the event of lockout, the lease would enjoy concession in respect of minimum rent for 50% of the
period of lockout. In addition to the above, Mahi Ltd. has been granted a right to receive cash subsidy
equal to 50% of the Unrecoupable shortworkings by the State Government up to the first 5 years of the
lease.
Default in making Seller can repossess the goods. In that case Seller does not have any
payment the installment so far paid is treated to be other right except the right
Hiring charges. of suing the buyer for the
non-payment of price.
Right of sale or No right to sale or otherwise transfer the Right to sale or otherwise
other wise goods since the legal position of the hirer transfer the goods.
is bailee.
Loss or damages Any loss occurring to goods has to be borne Any loss occurring to goods
to the goods. by the seller if the buyer takes reasonable has to be borne by the
care. buyer.
SITUATION – I : WHEN RATE OF INTEREST, TOTAL CASH PRICE AND IN STALLMENTS ARE GIVEN
Illustration 1.
X purchases a car on hire-purchase system on 1.1.11. The total cash price of the car is ` 4,50,000 payable ` 90,000
down and three installments of ` 1,70,000, ` 1,50,000 and ` 1,08,460 payable at the end of first, second and third
year respectively. Interest is charged at 10% p.a.
You are required to calculate interest paid by the buyer to the seller each year.
Solution: Following table is useful for calculating interest paid with each installment :
Analysis of Instalments
Year Opening Balance of Installments Payment towards Payment towards Closing Balance
Cash Price Principal/Cash Price Interest of Cash Price
` ` ` ` `
01.01.11 4,50,000 90,000 90,000 - 3,60,000
31.12.11 3,60,000 1,70,000 1,34,000 36,000 2,26,000
31.12.12 2,26,000 1,50,000 1,27,400 22,600 98,600
31.12.13 98,600 1,08,460 98,600 9,860 -
SITUATION – II : WHEN RATE OF INTEREST AND INSTALLMENTS ARE GIVEN BUT TOTAL CASH PRICE IS NOT GIVEN.
Illustration 2.
X purchased a T.V on hire-purchase system. As per terms he is required to pay ` 3000 down, ` 4000 at the end of
first year, ` 3000 at the end of second year, and ` 5000 at end of third year. Interest is charged at 12% p.a.
You are required to calculate total cash price of T.V and interest paid with each installment.
Solution :
Analysis of Instalments
Calculation of Cash Price Installment Interest Cash Price
` ` `
3rd Instalment
(-) Interest (12/112 × 5,000) 5,000
536
Balance of Cash Price 4,464 536 4,464
(+) 2nd Instalment 3,000
7,464
(-) Interest (12/112 × 7,464) 800 800 2,200
Balance of Cash Price 6,664
(+) 1st Instalment 4,000
10,664
(-) Interest (12/112 × 10,664) 1,143 1,143 2,857
Balance of Cash Price 9,521
(+) Down Payment Total Cash Price 3,000 - 3,000
12,521 2,479 12,521
SITUATION – III : WHEN ONLY INSTALLMENTS ARE GIVEN, BUT CASH PRICE AND RATE OF INTEREST ARE NOT GIVEN.
Illustration 3.
X & Co. purchased a Motor car on April 1, 2009 on hire-purchase paying ` 60,000 cash down and balance
in four annual installments of ` 55,000, ` 50,000, ` 45000 and ` 40,000 each Installment comprising equal
amount of cash price at the end of each accounting period. You are required to calculate total cash
price and amount of interest in each Installment.
As each installment comprises equal amount of cash price the differences in installment amounts are due to
interest amount only. Assuming X is the amount of Cash Price in each installment and I is the amount of interest.
Thus for the installments, starting from last installment, we have the following equations:
(i) X+I = 40,000
(ii) X + 2I = 45,000
(iii) X + 3I = 50,000
(iv) X + 4I = 55,000
Subtracting any preceding equation from the following equation we get I = ` 5,000 and by substituting the value
of I in any equation we get X = ` 35,000.
The hire-purchase price is divided into cash price and interest parts as under :
SITUATION – I V : WHEN REFERENCE TO ANNUITY TABLE RATE OF INTEREST AND INSTALLMENTS ARE GIVEN BUT
TOTAL CASH PRICE IS NOT GIVEN.
In such questions the reference to annuity table gives the present value of the annuity for a number of years at
a certain rate of interest. This present worth is equal to total cash price. Therefore, with the help of annuity tables
the total cash price of the total installments given can be calculated and then question can be solved by the first
method.
Illustration 4.
On 1.1.2010 X purchase a plant from Y on hire purchase system. The hire purchase rate was settled at ` 60,000,
payable as to ` 15,000 on 1.1.2010 and ` 15,000 at the end of three successive year. Interest was charged @5% p.a.
The asset was to be depreciated in the books of the purchaser at 10% p.a. on Reducing Balance Method. Given
the present value of an annuity of Re. 1 p.a. @5% interest is ` 2.7232.
Ascertain the cash price.
Solution :
Amount of Interest Present value
` 1 ` 2.7232
` 15,000 × 2.7232
` 15,000 = ` 40,848
1
∴ Cash Price = ` 40,848 + ` 15,000 (down) = ` 55,848.
ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
Accounting treatment in the books of buyer is presented in below :
Illustration 5.
On 1.1.2009 Mr. X took delivery from Mr. Y of 5 machines on a hire purchase system. ` 4,000 being paid on delivery
and the balance in five installments of ` 6,000 each, payable annually on 31st December. The vendor company
charges 5% interest p.a. on yearly balances. The cash price of 5 machines was ` 30,000. Show the entries (without
narration) Assets Account, Mr. Y Account for 5 years assuming that the purchaser charges depreciation @20% on
straight line method.
Solution:
Computation of Interest
Hire-purchase price ` `
Down payment 4,000
Interest ` 6,000 x 5 = 30,000 34,000
Less: Cash Price 30,000
∴ Interest 4,000
Journal Entries
The various accounting entries in the books of the hire purchaser and hire vendor are shown below:
Illustration 6.
On 01.01.2011 A purchased five Machines each costing ` 1,58,500 each from B Payment was to be made 20%
down and the remainder in four equal annual instalments commencing from 31.12.2011 with interest at 10% p.a.
A writes off depreciation @20% on the diminishing balance.
Give the necessary journal entries and ledger accounts in the books of A and B under Sales Method. Also show
how the relevant of items will appear in the Balance Sheet.
Solution:
Journal
31.12.2012
(a) Interest A/c Dr. (b) A A/c Dr. 47,550
To B A/c To Interest A/c 47,550
(b) B A/c Dr. (b) Bank A/c Dr. 2,06,050
To Bank A/c To A A/c 2,06,050
(c) Depreciation A/c Dr. (c) No Entry 1,26,800
To Machines A/c 1,26,800
(d) Profit & Loss A/c Dr. (d) No Entry 1,26,800
To Depreciation A/c 1,26,800
(e) Profit & Loss A/c Dr. (e) Interest A/c Dr. 47,550
To Interest A/c To Profit & Loss A/c 47,550
31.12.2013
(a) Interest A/c Dr. (c) A A/c Dr. 31,700
To B A/c To Interest A/c 31,700
(b) B A/c Dr. (b) Bank A/c Dr. 1,90,200
To Bank A/c To A A/c 1,90,200
(c) Depreciation A/c Dr. (c) No Entry 1,01,440
To Machines A/c 1,01,440
(d) Profit & Loss A/c Dr. (d) No Entry 1,01,440
To Depreciation A/c 1,01,440
(e) Profit & Loss A/c Dr. (e) Interest A/c Dr. 31,700
To Interest A/c To Profit & Loss A/c 31,700
31.12.2014
(a) Interest A/c Dr. (d) A A/c Dr. 15,850
To B A/c To Interest A/c 15,850
(b) B A/c Dr. (b) Bank A/c Dr. 1,74,350
To Bank A/c To A A/c 1,74,350
(c) Depreciation A/c Dr. (c) No Entry 81,152
To Machines A/c 81,152
(d) Profit & Loss A/c Dr. (d) No Entry 81,152
To Depreciation A/c 81,152
(e) Profit & Loss A/c Dr. (e) Interest A/c Dr. 15,850
To Interest A/c To Profit & Loss A/c 15,850
Liabilities 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Assets 1st yr 2nd yr 3rd yr 4th yr
yr yr yr yr (`) (`) (`) (`)
Fixed Assets:
Machines 7,92,500 7,92,500 7,92,500 7,92,500
Less: Depreciation till 1,58,500 2,85,300 3,86,740 4,67,892
date
Less: Balance due To B 4,75,500 3,17,000 1,58,500 -
1,58,500 1,90,200 2,47,260 3,24,608
Liabilities 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Assets 1st yr 2nd yr 3rd yr 4th yr
yr yr yr yr (`) (`) (`) (`)
Current Assets:
Hire Purchase 4,75,500 3,17,000 1,58,500 -
Debtors – A
Default and Repossession
If a hire purchaser fails to pay any instalment on the stipulated date, the hire purchaser is said to be at default. In
case of default by the hire purchaser, the hire vendor may repossess the goods. Repossession means taking back
the possession of goods by the hire vendor. Subject to agreement, the repossession may be either complete or
partial.
Meaning of Complete or Full Repossession
In case of complete or full repossession the hire vendor takes back the possession of all the goods.
Journal Entries under Complete or Full Repossession
All Entries till the date of default are passed in the usual manner. The additional Entries are as follows:
Illustration 7.
On 1.1.2011, A purchased 5 Machines from B. Payment was to be made — 20% down and the balance in four
annual instalments of `2,80,000, ` 2,60,000, ` 2,40,000 and ` 2,20,000 commencing from 31.12.2011. The vendor
charged interest @ 10% p.a. A, writes off depreciation @ 20% p.a. on the original cost.
On A’s failure to pay the instalment due on 31.12.2012, B repossessed all the machines on 01.01.2013 and valued
them on the basis of 40% p.a. depreciation on W.D.V. basis. B after incurring `6,000 on repairs sold the machines
for `2,66,000 on 30th June 2013. Prepare the relevant accounts in the books of A and B.
Solution:
Computation of Cash Price and Periodic Interest
10,00,000 10,00,000
01.01.12 To Balance b/d 8,00,000 31.12.12 By Depreciation A/c 2,00,000
By Balance c/d 6,00,000
8,00,000 8,00,000
01.01.13 To Balance b/d 6,00,000 01.01.13 By B’s A/c 6,60,000
To P&L A/c (Profit) 60,000
6,60,000 6,60,000
Partial Repossession
In case of partial repossession, the hire vendor takes back the possession of a part of the goods.
Practical Steps under Partial Repossession
Step1: Calculate Book value of Goods Repossessed
A. Cost
B. Less: Depreciation upto date of repossession
C. Book value of Goods Repossessed
Step 2: Calculate Agreed Value of Goods Repossessed
Step 3: Loss on default = Book Value – Agreed Value
Illustration 8.
On 1.1.2011, A purchased 5 Machines from B. Payment was to be made—20% down and the balance in four
annual instalments of `2,80,000, ` 2,60,000, ` 2,40,000 and ` 2,20,000 commencing from 31.12.2011. The vendor
charged interest @ 10% p.a. A, writes off depreciation @ 20% p.a. on the original cost.
On A’s failure to pay the instalment due on 31.12.2012, after negotiations on 01.01.2013 B agreed to leave two
machines with A adjusting the value of the other three machines against the amount due.The machines being
valued at cost less 40% p.a. depreciation on W.D.V basis, B after spending `6000 on repairs of each of such
machines sold @ `70,000 on 30th June 2013. Prepare the relevant accounts in the books of A and B.
Solution:
Working Notes
1. Calculation of Book value of Goods Repossessed
Illustration 9.
A Transport purchased from Kolkata Motors 3 Tempos costing `50,000 each on the hire purchase system on 1.1.2011.
Payment was to be made `30,000 down and the remainder in 3 equal annual instalments payable on 31.12.2011,
31.12.2012 and 31.12.2013 together with interest @ 9%. p.a. A Transport writes off depreciation at the rate of 20%
p.a. on the diminishing balance. It paid the instalment due at the end of the first year i.e. 31.12.2011 but could not
pay the next on 31.12.2012. Kolkata Motors agreed to leave one Tempo with the purchaser on 31.12.2012 adjusting
the value of the other 2 Tempos against the amount due on 31.12.2012. The Tempos were valued on the basis of
30% depreciation annually on W.D.V. basis.
Required: Show the necessary accounts in the books of A Transport for the year 2011, 2012,2013.
Solution:
Dr. Tempos Account Cr.
Working Notes:
1. Value of a tempo left with the buyer = `50,000 × 80/100 × 80/100 = `32,000
2. Value of Tempos taken away by the seller = `50,000 × 2 × 70/100 × 70/100 = `49,000
3. Loss on Tempos taken away = Book Value – Agreed Value
= [2 × `50,000 × 80/100 × 80/100] - `49,000 = `15,000.
Illustration 10.
On 1 January 2012, A purchased from B a plant valued at `7,45,000; payment to be made by four semi-annual
instalments of `2,10,000 each; interest being charged at 5% per half year. A paid the first instalment on 1st July 2012
but failed to pay the next. B repossessed the plant on 4 January 2013.On 5 January 2013, after negotitation, A
was allowed to retain the plant of which the original cash price was `3,90,000 and he was to bear the loss on the
remainder which was taken over by B on that date for `3,75,000. B waived the interest after 31st December 2012.
Another agreement was signed for payment of the balance amount.
Show by ledger accounts the necessary records in the books of A charging depreciation at 10% per annum half
yearly on the written down value.
Solution:
Dr. Machinery Account Cr.
Working Note:
Calculation of Book Value of Plant Repossessed and Retained
Illustration 11.
Z sold 3 Machinery for a total cash sale price of `6,00,000 on hire purchase basis to X on 01.01.2011. The terms of
agreement provided for 30% as cash down and the balance of the cash price in three equal instalments together
with interest at 10% per annum compounded annually. The instalments were payable as per the following schedule:
1st instalment on 31.12.2012; 2nd instalment on 31.12.2013 and 3rd instalment on 31.12.2014.X paid the 1st instalment
on time but failed to pay thereafter. On his failure to pay the second instalment, Z repossessed two machineries
and valued them at 50% of the cash price. X charges 10% p.a. depreciation on straight line method.
Prepare necessary ledger accounts in the books of X for 2011-2013.
Solution:
Dr. Machinery Account Cr.
6,42,000 6,42,000
5,08,200 5,08,200
3,08,000 3,08,000
Working Notes:
1. Book value of machine left and repossessed
1 left 2 repossessed
A. Costs 2,00,000 4,00,000
B. Less: Depreciation for 3 years @10% (60,000) (1,20,000)
1,40,000 2,80,000
2. Agreed Value of 2 Machinery Repossessed = Cash Price – 50% of cash price
= `(4,00,000 – 2,00,000) = `2,00,000
3. Loss on Default = Agreed Value – Book Value
= `(2,00,000 - 2,80,000) = `80,000
Illustration 12.
X purchased a truck for ` 2,80,000, payment to be made ` 91,000 down and 3 installments of ` 76,000 each at the
end of each year. Rate of interest is charged at 10% p.a. Buyer depreciates assets at 15% p.a. on written down
value method.
Because of financial difficulties, X, after having paid down payment and first installment to the end of 1st year
could not pay second installment and seller took possession of the truck. Seller, after spending ` 9,200 on repairs
of the asset sold for ` 150,000. Show the relevant accounts in the books of the purchaser & the vendor.
Solution:
In the Books of X
Dr. Car Account Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
1st Year To Vendor A/c 2,80,000 By Depreciation A/c 42,000
By Bal c/d 2,38,000
2,80,000
2,80,000 35,700
2nd Year To Bal b/d 2,38,000 By Depreciation A/c 1,45,090
By Vendors A/c 57,210
2,38,000 By P/L A/c 2,38,000
(Bal. figure)
1st Year To Bank (Down Payment) 91,000 By Car (Cash Price) A/c 2,80,000
To Bank (Installment) 76,000 By Interest A/c 18,900
To Bal c/d 1,31,900
2,98,900
2,98,900
Illustration 13.
Z Associates purchased seven trucks on hire purchase on 1st July, 2012. The cash purchase price of each truck
was ` 1,00,000. The company has to pay 20% of the cash purchase price at the time of delivery and the balance
in five half yearly instalment starting from 31st December, 2012 with interest at 5% per annum at half yearly rates.
On the Company’s failure to pay the instalment due on 30th June 2013, it was agreed that the Company would
return 3 trucks to the vender and the remaining four would be retained. The vendor agreed to allow him a credit
for the amount paid against these 3 trucks less 25%. Show the relevant Accounts in the books of the purchaser
and vendor assuming the books are closed in June every year and depreciation @ 20% p.a. is charged on Trucks.
Vendor after spending ` 2,000 on repairs sold away all the three trucks for ` 80,000.
Solution :
In Books of Hire-Purchaser
Dr. Trucks Account Cr.
Working Notes :
(i) Credit allowed by Vendor against 3 trucks `
Total amount of principal paid against 7 trucks
(` 1,40,000 + ` 1,12,000) 2,52,000
Total amount of principal paid against 3 trucks (` 2,52,000 × 3/7) Credit 1,08,000
allowed by Vendor (` 1,08,000 – 25% of ` 1,08,000) 81,000
Illustration 14.
On 1.1.2010, B & Brothers bought 5 computers from Chirag Computers on hire-purchase. The cash price of each
computer was ` 20,000. It was agreed ` 30,000 each at the end of each year. The Vendor charges interest @ 10%
p.a. The buyer depreciates computers at 20% p.a. on the diminishing balance method.
B & Brothers paid cash down of ` 5,000 each and two instalments but failed to pay the last instalment.
Consequently, the Computer Traders repossessed three sets, leaving two sets with the buyer and adjusting the
value of 3 sets against the amount due. The sets repossessed were valued on the basis of 30% depreciation p.a.
on the written down value. The sets repossessed were sold by the Chirag Computers for ` 30,000 after necessary
rapairs amounting to ` 5,000 on 30th June 2013.
Required : Open the necessary ledger account in the books of both the parties.
Solution :
In the Books of B & Brothers
Dr. Computers Account Cr.
30,000 52,500
31.12.11 To Cash 27,750 01.01.11 By Balance b/d 5,250
To Balance c/d 31.12.11 By Interest A/c
20,580 27,750
2,250
31.12.12 To Computers A/c 01.01.12 By Balance b/d
9,420
(surrendered) 31.12.12 By Interest A/c
To Balance c/d 30,000 30,000
Working Notes :
(i) Total Interest = Hire Purchase Price – Cash Price
= [` 25,000 + (` 30,000 × 3)] – (` 20,000 × 5)
= ` 1,15,000 – ` 1,00,000 = ` 15,000
(ii) Interest for 3rd year = ` 15,000 – ` 7,500 – ` 5,250 = ` 2,250
(iii) Agreed Value of 3 Computers Repossessed on the basis of depreciation @ 30% p.a.
`
Cost (Cash Price) of 3 Computers 60,000
Less : Depreciation @ 30% p.a. for 3 years [` 18,000 + ` 12,600 + ` 8,820] 39,420
20,580
QUESTIONS:
1. On 01.01.2010 Dola Ltd. purchased a Taxi from Sayan Ltd., on hire purchase system. A Down payment of
`15,000 and 3 equal instalments together with interest @ 5% per annum on the outstanding balance of capital
sum are to be made. The amount of last installment payment was `15,750. Depreciation has to be provided
@ 10% under reducing balance method.
At the end of 3rd year the taxi was sold for `25,000 in cash.
Prepare Taxi Account and Vendor Account in the books of Dola Ltd.
Answer: [Depreciation on 31.12.2010 — 31.12.2010 `6,000
31.12.2011 `5,400
31.12.2012 `4,860
Interest for 2010 —`2,250
2011 —`1,500
2012 — `750]
2. On 1st April, 2012 Gauru & Co. purchased a machinery on hire purchases system from Machinery Mart for
a cash price of ` 7,50,000 to be paid as ` 1,18,050 cash down and the balance by three equal annual
installments of ` 3,00,000 each. Interest is charged @ 20% per annum. Gauru & Co. has decided to write
off depreciation on machinery @ 15% per annum on diminishing balance method. Gauru & Co. paid the
installment due at the end of the first year but could not pay the next installments. On 31st March, 2014 the
Machinery Mart took the possession of the machinery. On 15th April, 2014 the Machinery Mart spent `30,000
on the repairs of the machinery and sold it for `1,80,000 on 20th April, 2014. Installment due on 31.03.2014 was
paid by Gauru & Co. on 10th April. You are required to prepare:
(i) Gauru & Co.’s Account and Returned Stock Account in the books of Machinery Mart.
(ii) Machinery Account and Machinery Mart’s Account in the books of Gauru & Co.
Answer:
Calculation of Interest included in each instalment.
Installment Amount of Installment Interest Payment of Cash
(`) (`) Price (`)
1 3 4 (3 - 4)= 5
Cash down on 1-04-2012 1,18,050 — 1,18,050
(i) 31-03-13 3,00,000 6,31,950 × (20/100) = 1,26,390 1,73,610
(ii) 31-3-14 3,00,000 4,58,340 × (20/100) 2,08,332
(iii) 31-03-15 3,00,000 49,992 2,50,008
3. On 1st April, 2010 Guru purchased a machinery for cash price of `5,06,872 on hire purchase system from
Machinery Mart. Payment to be made `1,50,000 down and the balance by four equal annual installments.
Interest is charged @ 15% per annum. Guru depreciates machinery at 20% per annum on written down value
method. Guru paid down payment and first two installments but could not pay the remaining installments.
On 31st March, 2013 the Machinery Mart took possession of machinery.
You are required to prepare Machinery Account and Machinery Mart Account in the books of Guru.
Since the problem is silent regarding the amount of equal instalment, it is assumed that the balance of cash
price will be paid equally along with the interest on the amount outstanding.
Answer:
Calculation of Interest
4. Exe Ltd. purchased a vehicle for `2,80,000, down payment to be made `91,000 and 3 installments of `76,000
each at the end of each year. Rate of interest is charged at 10% p.a.
Buyer depreciates assets at 15% on written down value method.
Because of financial difficulties, Exe Ltd. after having paid the down payment and first installment at the end
of 1st year, could not pay the second installment. Hence, the seller took possession of the vehicle. The Seller
after spending ` 9.200 on repairs of the asset, sold it for `1,50,000. Show the relevant accounts in the books
of the purchaser and the vendor.
Answer:
Calculation on Interest
Particulars Total Cash Price Installment Paid Interest Paid Paid towards Cash
@10% Int. Price(installment -Int.)
2,80,000
Down Payment 91,000 91,000 NIL 91,000
1,89,000
End of 1st year 57,100 76,000 18,900 57,100
1,31,900
End of 2nd year 62,810 76,000 13,190 62,810
69,090
End of 3rd year 69,090 76,000 6,910 69,090
TOTAL Nil 3,19,000 39,000 2,80,000
Dependent Branches
Branch Accounts can be maintained at the Head Office, particularly when the business policies and
administration of the Branch are wholly controlled by the Head office.
The Branch prepares the periodic returns based on which the accounting records are maintained at the Head
Office.
Methods of Accounting :
(i) Final Accounts Method;
(ii) Debtors Method and
(iii) Stock and Debtors Method.
Illustration 1.
From the following particulars prepare Branch Trading and Profit and Loss Account in the books of Head Office:
The Delhi stores invoiced goods to its Patna Branch at cost which sells both for cash and credit. Cash received by
the branch is remitted to H.O. Branch expense are paid direct from the H.O. except petty expense which are met
by the branch.
Solution:
In the books of H.O.
Branch Trading and Profit and Loss Account
for the year ended……………
Dr. Cr.
Illustration 2.
X Ltd. has its H.O. in Delhi and a branch in Mumbai. H.O. supplied goods to its branch at cost plus 3313 %. From the
particulars given below prepare a Branch Trading Account in the books of H.O.
It is estimated that 2% of the goods received are lost through natural wastage.
Solution:
In the books of H.O.
Trading Account
for the year ended……………
Dr. Cr.
Note:
1. Discount allowed to customer will appear in Branch Profit & Loss Account.
2. Loss through natural wastage is a normal loss and as such, the same should be charged against branch gross
profit. So, no adjustment is required.
Illustration 3.
Y Ltd. with its H.O. in Delhi invoiced goods to its branch at Patna at 20% less than the catalogue price which is cost
plus 50%, with instruction that cash sales were to be made at invoice price and credit sales at catalogue price less
discount at 15% on prompt payment.
From the following particulars, prepare the Branch Trading and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31st
March 2013 in H.O. books so as to show the actual profit and loss for the branch for the year.
Solution:
In the books of H.O.
Branch Trading & Profit and Loss Account
for the year ended 31st March, 2013
Dr. Cr.
Working:
1. Cost price Catalogue Price Invoice Price (Cat. Price – 20%)
`100 = `100 + 50% = `150 – `30
=
`150 = `120
2. Stock Destroyed by fire
Profit & Loss A/c ……………… Dr. (Wholesale price - Cost price.)
To Stock Reserve A/c
Illustration 4.
X Ltd. has a retail branch at Puri. Goods are sold at 60% profit on cost. The wholesale price is cost plus 40%. Goods
are invoiced from Delhi H.O. to branch at Puri at Wholesale price. From the following particulars ascertain the profit
made at H.O. and branch for the year ended 31st March 2013.
Sales at H.O. are made only on wholesale basis and that at branch only to customers. Stock at H.O. is valued at
invoice price.
Solution:
In the books of H.O.
Puri Branch Trading Account
for the year ended 31st March, 2013
Dr. Cr.
21,44,000
,, General P&L A/c
1,40,000
(Net profit Transferred) 27,76,000 1,80,000 27,76,000 1,80,000
Working:
Let Cost price `100; Wholesale Price = `100 + `40 = `140; Invoice price `140; Selling Price at H.O. `140.
Selling price at Branch `100 + `60 = `160.
As goods are sent to branch at wholesale price i.e., `140, branch stock should be valued at the same price.
Wholesale profit on opening stock of H.O. = `7,00,000 x 40 = `2,00,000
140
on Closing stock of H.O. = `16,80,000 x 40 = `4,80,000
140
on Closing stock of Branch = `2,52,000 x 40 = `72,000.
140
Illustration 5.
White ltd. With their head office at Kolkata, invoiced goods to their Ranchi branch at 20% less than list price, which
is cost plus 100%, with instruction that cash sales are made at invoice price and credit sales at list price. From the
following particulars, prepare branch stock account and branch stock adjustment account for the year ended
31.12.2018.
Credit: ` 20,000
Solution:
IN THE BOOKS OF WHITE Ltd.
Ranchi Branch Stock Account
Dr. Cr.
32,920 32,920
Dr. Cr.
2018 To Stock Reserve A/c(note 1,320 2018 By Ranchi Branch Stock 4,000
Dec.31 6) Dec.31 A/c(note 1)
By Surplus in Stock 45
A/c(note 3)
14,770 14,770
Working Notes:
1. Let, cost price be ` 100. The list price is 100% of cost price.
The invoice price is 20% less than list price, i.e: `200 - 20% of `200 = `200-`40=`160.
Cash sales are made at invoice price, i.e: ` 160 whereas, credit sales are made at list price, i.e: ` 200. Amount
charged on credit sales is more than invoice price=`200-`160=`40. i.e: 40/200×100=20% of list price. Goods
sold on credit = `20,000-amount charged in excess of invoice price=20% of ` 20,000 = ` 4.000
2. If cost is ` 100 then invoice price is ` 160. Therefore loading on invoice price = 60/160×100
= 37.5%
Loading on surplus: 37.5% of 120= ` 45. This ` 45 represents loading. Therefore it is to be credited to branch
stock adjustment account. The balance ` 75(120-45) is to be credited to branch PL account.
DEBTORS METHOD :
This method is usually adopted when the branch is of small size. Under this method, the head office maintains
separate Branch Account for each branch. Its purpose is to ascertain profit or loss made by each branch.
Journal Entries under Debtors Method:
Situation Journal
1. To record Opening Balances of Branch Assets Branch A/c Dr.
To Branch Assets (Individually)
2. To record Opening Balances of Branch Liabilities Branch Liabilities (Individually) Dr.
To Branch A/c
3. When goods are supplied by the Head Office/another Branch A/c Dr.
Branch to Branch
To Goods sent to Branch A/c
4. When goods are returned by the Branch / Branch Goods Sent to Branch A/c Dr.
Customers directly to the Head Office
To Branch A/c
5. When goods are supplied by the Branch to another Goods Sent to Branch A/c Dr.
Branch as per instructions of Head office
To Branch A/c
6. When goods are supplied by the Head office but not Goods-in Transit A/c Dr.
received by the Branch head
To Branch A/c
7. When the Head Office meets the branch expenses or Branch A/c Dr.
sends cash to the Branch for meeting expenses
To Cash/Bank A/c
8. When remittances are received by the Head Office Cash/Bank A/c Dr.
from the Branch/ Branch Customers
To Branch A/c
9. When remittances are sent by the Branch but not Cash in-transit A/c Dr.
received by the Head office
To Branch A/c
10. When the balance in Goods sent to Branch Account is Goods sent to Branch A/c Dr.
transferred
To Purchases A/c
(in case of Trading concerns) or,
To Trading A/c
(in case of manufacturing concerns)
11. To record the closing balances of Branch Assets Branch Assets A/c (Individually) Dr.
To Branch A/c
12. To record the closing balances of Branch Liabilities Branch A/c Dr.
To Branch Liabilities (Individually)
13. To record Profit or Loss Branch A/c Dr.
(i) If credit side exceeds the debit side To General Profit & Loss A/c
(ii) If debit side exceeds the credit side General Profit & Loss A/c Dr.
To Branch A/c
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance b/d: By Balance b/d:
Stock XXX Creditors XXX
Debtors XXX Outstanding Expenses XXX
Petty Cash XXX By Bank (remittances to H.O.):
Fixed Assets XXX by Branch XXX
Prepaid Expenses XXX by Branch Debtors directly to H.O. XXX
To Goods sent to Branch A/c: By Goods Sent to Branch A/c:
Goods sent by H.O. XXX Returned by Branch XXX
Goods sent by other Branches XXX Returned by Branch debtors directly to H.O. XXX
To Bank (Remittances by H.O.) XXX Sent to other Branches XXX
To Balance c/d: By Balance c/d:
Creditors XXX Stock-in-hand XXX
Outstanding Expenses XXX Stock-in-transit XXX
*To Net Profit t/f to General P&LA/c XXX Cash in-transit XXX
Debtors XXX
Petty Cash XXX
Fixed Assets XXX
Prepaid Expenses XXX
*By Net Loss t/f to General P&LA/c XXX
XXX XXX
*Only one figure shall appear.
• When the branch is not authorised to keep any sum out of collections, expenses incurred by Branch out of
petty cash maintained may be dealt with as under:
(a) In case the petty cash is maintained on Imprest System, the expenses met by the branch are to be shown
in the same manner as the branch expenses met by the Head Office. In such a case, petty cash balance
at the end appears at the same amount at which it appears in the beginning.
(b) In case the petty cash is not maintained on Imprest System, the expenses met by branch are automatically
charged to the Branch Account since the petty cash at the end appears at the adjusted figure.
• When goods are returned either by Branch Debtors to the H.O. directly or are sent by one branch to another
branch, the entry will be same as in the case of goods returned by the Branch to the H.O.
• In case any insurance claim is admitted and paid to the Branch, either the Bank balance at the end will
increase or the remittances to H.O., will increase. In case, the insurance claim is admitted but not paid, the
insurance company will appear as a debtor at the end.
• To ascertain any missing figure, relating to Stock and /or Debtors, Memorandum Branch Stock Account &
Memorandum Branch Debtors Account has to be prepared.
Illustration 6.
From the following information, prepare Delhi Branch Account in the books of head office for the year ending on
31st March 2013:
Particulars ` Particulars `
Opening Stock (at cost) 17,80,000 Discount allowed to Customers 5,000
Opening Debtors 1,40,000 Bad Debts written off 10,000
Opening Petty Cash 2,500 Credit sales 72,94,000
Furniture (in the beginning) 60,000 Cash Sales 3,20,000
Opening Creditors 60,000 Petty Expenses paid by Branch 80,000
Goods sent to Branch (at Cost) 52,20,000 Cheques sent to Branch for
Goods returned by Branch to H.O (at cost) 78,000 expenses:
Goods returned by Customers to Branch 57,000 Salaries 3,00,000
Cash received by Branch from its Customers Rent and Insurance 1,20,000
61,10,000 Petty Cash 78,700
Goods are sold to customers at cost plus 50%. Depreciate the furniture @ 10% p.a.
Solution:
Delhi Branch Account in the books of H.O.
Dr. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
Working Notes:
(i) Dr. Memorandum Branch Debtors Account Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance b/d 1,40,000 By Returns to Branch 57,000
To Credit Sales 72,94,000 By Discount allowed 5,000
By Bad Debts 10,000
By Cash received by Branch 61,10,000
12,52,000
By Balance c/d
74,34,000 74,34,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance b/d 2,500 By Petty Expenses A/c 80,000
To Remittance from H.O. 78,700 By Balance c/d 1,200
81,200 81,200
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Cash Sales 3,20,000 By Salaries 3,00,000
To Remittance by H.O. 4,98,700 By Rent & Insurance 1,20,000
To Debtors (Collection) 61,10,000 By Petty Cash 78,700
By Remittance to H.O. 64,30,000
69,28,700 69,28,700
Accounting Treatment of Goods Returned and Cash Remitted by Branch Customers directly to Head Office
2. Cash remitted by Treat like cash remitted by branch to H.O. Show on the credit side of Branch
Branch customers and thus, show on the credit side of Branch Debtors Account.
directly to H.O. Account.
Illustration 7.
Taking the same information as given in previous Illustration 3 along with the following information, prepare the
Delhi Branch Account:
(i) Goods returned by Branch Customers directly to H.O. ` 12,000
(ii) Cash remitted by Branch Customers directly to H.O. ` 2,80,000
Solution:
Delhi Branch Account
Dr. In the Books of H.O. Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance b/d: By Balance b/d: (creditors) 60,000
Stock 17,80,000 By Bank A/c (Remittance from Branch)
Debtors 1,40,000 Remittance by Branch 64,30,000
Petty cash 2,500 Direct Remittance by Branch
Furniture 60,000 customers 2,80,000
To Goods sent to Branch A/c 52,20,000 By Goods sent to Branch A/c:
To Bank A/c (Remittance by H.O.) 4,98,700 Return by Branch 78,000
To Balance c/d: (creditors) 60,000 Direct Return by Branch
To Net Profit t/f to General P&LA/c 19,94,000 customers [12,000 x 100/150] 8,000
By Balance c/d:
Stock 18,84,000
Debtors 9,60,000
Petty Cash 1,200
By Furniture (` 60,000 – ` 6,000) 54,000
97,55,200 97,55,200
Working Notes:
(i) Dr. Memorandum Branch Debtors Account Cr.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance c/d 1,40,000 By Returns to Branch 57,000
72,94,000
To Credit Sales By Returns to H.O. 12,000
By Discount allowed 5,000
By Bad Debts 10,000
By Cash remitted to H.O. 2,80,000
By Cash remitted to Branch 61,10,000
By Balance c/d 96,0000
74,34,000 74,34,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance b/d 17,80,000 By Goods sent to Branch A/c:
To Goods Sent to Branch A/c 52,20,000 — Return by Branch 78,000
— Direct Return by Branch 8,000
Customers [` 12,000 x 100/150]
By Cost of Net Goods Sold [(3,20,000+72,94,000- 50,30,000
57,000-12,000)x100/150]
By Balance c/d
18,84,000
70,00,000 70,00,000
(iii) & (iv) Memorandum Branch Petty Cash Account and Memorandum Branch Cash Account - Refer to Working
Note [(iii) & (iv) of Illustration 5].
Accounting Treatment of Goods Sent to Another Branch and Goods received from Another Branch
Accounting Treatment of Normal Loss, Abnormal Loss, Insurance Claim and Agreed Allowance/Trade Discount
Illustration 8.
Prepare a Branch account in the books of Head Office from the following particulars for the year ended 31st March,
2013 assuming that H.O. sold goods at cost price 25%.
2. Journal Entries :
No Transaction Journal Entry
(a) Goods sent to Branch by HO Branch Stock Account (total Value of goods) Dr.
To Goods sent to Branch (at Cost)
To Branch Adjustment A/c (loading, if any)
(b) Goods returned by Branch to Goods sent to Branch Account (at Cost) Dr.
HO Branch Adjustment A/c (loading, if any) Dr.
To Branch Stock A/c (total value of goods)
(c) Assets provided by HO to Branch Branch Assets Account Dr.
either by way of fresh purchase or To (Main) Cash Account/Vendor Account [or]
by way of transfer from HO To (HO) Assets Account
(in case of transfer)
(d) Cash sent to Branch for expenses Branch Cash Accout Dr.
To (Main) Cash Account
(e) Cash Sales at the Branch Branch Cash Account Dr.
To Branch Stock Account
(f) Credit Sales at the Branch Branch Debtors Account Dr.
To Branch Stock Account
(g) Collection from Branch Debtors Branch Cash Account Dr.
To Branch Debtors Account
(h) Sales Returns at the Branch Branch Stock Account Dr.
To Branch Debtors Account
(i) Discounts / Bad Debts etc. Branch Expenses Account Dr.
To Branch Debtors Account
(j) Various expenses incurred at Branch Expenses Account Dr.
Branch To Branch Cash Account
(k) Branch Expenses directly met by Branch Expenses Account Dr.
HO To (Main) Cash Account
(l) Remittances made by Branch to Head (Main) Cash Account Dr.
Office To Branch Cash Account
(m) Goods Lost in Transit/Stolen etc. Goods Lost in Transit A/c (at cost) Dr.
Branch Adjustment (loading if any) Dr.
To Branch Stock Account (total value of goods)
At the End of the Year : Closing Entries
(n) Recording Closing Stock at Closing Stock at Branch Account (incl. Loading) Dr.
Branch To Branch Stock Account
Excess of Sale Price over Invoice Branch Stock Account Dr.
(o) Price To Branch Adjustment Account
(p) Recording Unrealised Profit on Branch Adjustment Account Dr.
Closing Stock i.e. Stock Reserve (after To Stock Reserve (closing)
this entry, the Branch Adjustment Note : Stock Reserve on Opening Stock is credited to
Account will show Gross Profit) Branch Adjustment A/c.
(q) Recording Gross Profit at Branch Branch Adjustment Account Dr.
To Branch P & L Account
(r) Depreciation on Branch Assets, (if Branch Expenses Account Dr.
any) To Branch Assets Account
(s) Transfer of Branch Expenses Branch P & L Account Dr.
To Branch Expenses Account
(t) Recording Net Profit at Branch Branch P & L Account Dr.
To General P & L Account
Illustration 9.
Multichained Stores Ltd. Delhi, has its branches at Lucknow and Chennai. It charges goods to its Branches at cost
plus 25%. Following information is available of the transactions of the Lucknow Branch for the year ended on 31st
March 2013:
Particulars Amount
`
Balances on 01.04.2012
Stock (at invoice price) 30,000
Debtors 10,000
Petty Cash 50
Transactions during 2012-13 (Lucknow Branch):
Goods send to Lucknow Branch (at invoice price) 3,25,000
Goods returned to Head Office (at invoice price) 10,000
Cash Sales 1,00,000
Credit Sales 1,75,000
Goods pilfered (at invoice price) 2,000
Goods lost by fire (at invoice price) 5,000
Insurance Co. paid to H.O. for loss by fire at Lucknow 3,000
Cash sent for petty expenses 34,000
Bad debts at Branch 500
Goods transferred to Chennai Branch under H.O. advice 15,000
Insurance charges paid by H.O. 500
Goods returned by Debtors 500
Balance on 31.03.2013
Petty Cash 230
Debtors 14,000
Goods worth `15,000 (including above) sent by Lucknow Branch to Chennai Branch was in-transit on 31.03.2013.
Show the following accounts in the books of Multichained Stores Ltd.: (a) Lucknow Branch Stock Account; (b)
Lucknow Branch Debtors Account; (c) Lucknow Branch Adjustment Account; (d) Lucknow Branch Profit & Loss
Account, and (e) Stock Reserve Account.
Solution:
In the books of H.O.
Lucknow Branch Stock Account
Dr. Cr.
,, Lost by fire
1,000
(Loading) (` 5,000 x 1 )
5
,, Chennai Branch A/c
3,000
(Loading) (` 15,000 x 1 )
5
,, Branch Profit and Loss A/c
Gross Profit transferred
54,900
(bal. fig.)
,, Balance c/d
Load on Closing Stock
9,700
(` 48,500 x 1 )
5
71,000 71,000
34,050 34,050
INDEPENDENT BRANCH
When there are voluminous transactions in a Branch, they prepare the accounts independently. They purchase and
sell goods independently and also sell the goods which are sent by H.O.. As the branches are owned by H.O., the
profit or loss so made by the branch is enjoyed by H.O. These branches prepare a Trial Balance, Trading and Profit
and Loss Account and a Balance Sheet at the end of the year. As such, they maintain a Head Office Account and
on contrary H.O. maintains a Branch Account. All sorts of transactions, e.g., remittance of cash, transfer of goods
etc. are to be passed through these accounts.
Needless to say that where H.O. receives the accounts from the branches, it incorporates profit of the branches as –
Branch A/c……………………….. Dr.
To Profit & Loss A/c
Sometimes, the balance of branch account in H.O. books and H.O. accounts in branch books do not agree. If
that be so, the same must be adjusted accordingly i.e., Goods-in-Transit or Cash-in-Transit etc. At last the Branch
Balance Sheet is amalgamated with H.O. Balance Sheet by eliminating inter-branch/H.O. transaction as per the
respective heads of assets and liabilities.
INDEPENDENT BRANCHES
Accounting Steps :
Illurstration 10.
Journalise the following transactions in the books of Head Office. Delhi Branch and Agra Branch :
(a) Goods worth ` 50,000 are supplied by Delhi Branch to Agra Branch under the instructions of Head Office.
(b) Delhi Branch draws a bill receivable for ` 40,000 on Agra Branch which sends its acceptance.
(c) Delhi Branch received ` 10,000 from Agra Branch.
(d) Goods worth ` 20,000 were returned by a customer of Agra Branch to Delhi Branch.
(e) Agra Branch collected ` 20,000 from a customer of Delhi Branch.
Solution :
Journal of Head Office
Dr. Cr.
Particulars L.F. Amount Amount
` `
(a) Agra Branch A/c Dr. 50,000
To Delhi Branch A/c 50,000
(Being the goods supplied by Delhi Branch to Agra Branch)
(b) Delhi Branch A/c Dr. 40,000
To Agra Branch A/c 40,000
(Being a B/R drawn by Delhi upon Agra Branch)
(c) Delhi Branch A/c Dr. 10,000
To Agra Branch A/c 10,000
(Being Cash sent by Agra Branch to Delhi Branch)
(d) Delhi Branch A/c Dr. 20,000
To Agra Branch A/c 20,000
(Being the goods returned by customer of Agra Branch
to Delhi Branch)
(e) Agra Branch A/c Dr. 20,000
To Delhi Branch A/c 20,000
(Being the Cash collected by Agra Branch from a
customer of Delhi Branch
llustration 11.
A Delhi head office passes one entry at the end of each month to adjust the position arising out of inter- branch
transactions during the month. From the following inter-branch transactions in March 2013, make the entries in the
books of Delhi Head office.
(a) Kolkata Branch :
(i) Received goods from Patna branch ` 9,000 and Ahmedabad branch ` 6,000.
(ii) Sent goods to Ahmedabad branch ` 15,000 and Patna branch ` 12,000.
(iii) Sent acceptances to Patna branch ` 6,000 and Ahmedabad branch ` 3,000.
(b) Kanpur branch [apart from (a) above] :
(i) Sent goods to Ahmedabad branch ` 9,000.
(ii) Recived B/R from Ahmedabad branch ` 9,000.
(iii) Recived cash from Ahmedabad branch ` 5,000.
Solution :
Journal of Head Office
Dr. Cr.
Particulars L.F. Amount Amount
` `
Kanpur Branch A/c Dr. 5,000
Patna Branch A/c Dr. 9,000
Ahmedabad Branch A/c Dr. 7,000
To Kolkata Branch A/c 21,000
Illustration 12.
Journalise the following transactions in the books of the Head Office.
(a) Goods returned by Thane Branch on 28th March, worth ` 10,000 to its Head Office not received by the head
office upto 31st March.
(b) Goods worth ` 20,000 sent by the Head Office to its Coimbatore Branch on 29th March, were received
on 3rd April following.
(c) ` 50,000 remitted by Coimbatore Branch to Head Office on 28th March was received on 4th April.
Solution :
Journal of Head Office
Dr. Cr.
Incorporation Entries
(a) For all revenue expenses related to Trading A/c i.e. Opening stock, Purchase, Return
Branch Trading A/c Dr. Inwards, Wages and other items
appearing in the debit side.
To Branch A/c
(b) For all revenue incomes related to Trading A/c i.e. Sales, Closin g Stock and Return
Branch A/c Outwards and other items that
Dr.
appear in the credit side.
To Branch Trading A/c
(c) For gross profit of the Branch
Branch Trading A/c Dr.
To Branch P&L A/c
(d) For all revenue expenses related to P&L A/c i.e. items that appear in the debit side
Branch P & L A/c Dr. of the P & L Account.
To Branch (All Revenue Expenses) A/c
(e) For all revenue incomes related to P & L A/c i.e. items that appear in the credit
Branch (All Revenue Incomes) A/c side of the P & L Account.
Dr.
To Branch P&L A/c
Illustration 13.
Salt Lake Corporation presented the following trial balance on 31.03.2013 to the H.O. at New Delhi.
Branch Account
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
` `
01.04.12 To Balance b/d 920 31.03.13 By Branch Trading A/c 65,600
,, Branch P&L A/c 5,860
31.03.13 ,, Branch Trading A/c 93,400 ,, Goods-in-Transit A/c 5,000
,, Branch Liabilities A/c ,, Remittance-in-Transit A/c 2,400
Creditors 3,700 ,, Branch Assets A/c
Furniture 2,800
Stock 5,400
Debtors 7,400
Cash 3,560 19,160
98,020 98,020
* Note: This is the difference between Branch Assets and Branch Liabilities
(`19,160 – `3,700) = `15,460.
Solution:
(i) As per Method 1
In the books of Branch
Journal Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars L/F Amount Amount
` `
31.12.13 Depreciation A/c Dr. 2,650
To Head Office A/c 2,650
(Depreciation on fixed assets maintained in head office
books @ 10% on Machinery and 15% on Furniture)
Rent A/c Dr. 150
To Outstanding Rent A/c 150
(Rent Outstanding)
Cash-in-Transit A/c Dr. 4,000
To Head Office A/c 4,000
(Cash remitted to H.O. but not received within
31st December)
Head Office A/c Dr. 50,150
To Opening Stock 8,200
,, Purchases 12,800
,, Wages 6,550
,, Manufacturing Expenses 3,400
,, Rent (1,700 + 150) 1,850
,, Salaries 5,500
,, General Expenses 2,000
,, Goods received from H.O. 7,200
,, Depreciation 2,650
(Above items transferred to H.O. A/c)
Illustration 15.
A merchant of Kolkata opens a new branch in Mathura, which trades independently of the Head Office. The
transactions of the Branch for the year ended 31.3.2013 are as under :
Prepare the Trading and Profit and Loss Account, Balance Sheet, Head Office Account in the books of Branch :
1. The account of the Branch Fixed Assets are maintained in the Head Office books.
2. Write off depreciation on furniture at 5 percent per annum for full year.
3. A remmittance of ` 2,00,000 from the Branch to the Head Office is in transit.
4. The Branch value its closing stock at ` 12,00,000.
Solution :
IN BRANCH BOOKS
1. Trading and Profit and Loss Account for year ended 31.3.2013
Particulars Amount Amount Particulars Amount Amount
` ` ` `
To Goods Supplied by HO 20,00,000 By Sales :
To Purchase — Credit 25,05,000
— Credit 15,55,000 4,60,000 29,65,000
— Cash
— Cash 3,00,000
18,55,000
To Gross Profit c/d
3,10,000 By Closing Stock 12,00,000
41,65,000 41,65,000
To Expenses 8,95,000 By Gross Profit b/d 3,10,000
To Depreciation on 17,500 By HO — Transfer of 6,02,500
Furniture net loss
9,12,500 9,12,500
2.
Dr. Branch Cash Account Cr.
39,05,000 39,05,000
3.
Dr. Head Office Account Cr.
26,17,500 26,17,500
15,85,000 15,85,000
Illustration 16.
The Head Office of Z Ltd. and its Branch keep their own books prepare own Profit and Loss Account. The following
are the balances appearing in the two sets of the books as on 31.3.2013 after ascertainment of profits and after
making all adjustments except those referred to below :
Prepare the Balance Sheet of the business as on 31.3.2013 and the journal entries necessary (in both sets of books)
to record the adjustments dealing with the following :
1. On 31.3.2013, the branch had sent a cheque for ` 1,000 to the head office, not received by them nor credited
to the branch till next month.
2. Goods valued at ` 440 had been forwarded by the head office to the branch and invoiced on 30.3.2013, but
were not received by the branch nor dealt with in their books till next month.
3. It was agreed that the branch should be charged with ` 300 for Administration Services, rendered by the Head
Office during the year.
4. Stock stolen in transit from the Head Office to the Branch and charged to the Branch by the Head Office but
not credited to the Head Office in the Branch Books as the Manager declined to admit any liability, ` 400 (not
covered by insurance).
5. Depreciation of Branch Assets, of which accounts are maintained by the Head Office, not provided for ` 250.
6. The balance of Profits shown by the Branch is to be transferred to HO Books.
Solution :
1. Balance Sheet of Z Ltd. as at 31.03.2013
Creditors :
Stock :
—Head Office 3,960 —Head Office 34,200
—Branch 1,920 5,880 —Branch 10,740
—Goods in Transit 440 45,380
Debtors :
—Head Office
7,820
—Branch 12,660
4,840
Creditors:
—Head Office
—Branch 10,740
—In Transit 1,420 13,160
1,000
1,22,950 1,22,950
3.
Dr. Head Office Profit and Loss Account Cr.
5.
Dr. Branch Profit and Loss Account Cr.
3,060 3,060
Illustration 17.
Puskar Enterprise has its H.O. in Ranchi and a branch in Imphal. The following Trial Balance has been extracted from
the books of accounts as at 31st March, 2013:
Prepare in Columnar from, the branch and H.O. Trading and Profit and Loss Accounts for the year ended 31st
March, 2013 and a combined Balance Sheet of Puskar Enterprises as on that date.
Solution:
In the books of H.O.
Columnar Trading and Profit and Loss Account
Dr. Cr.
Particulars H.O. Branch Particulars H.O. Branch
` ` ` `
To Opening Stock 24,000 60,000 By Sales 25,50,000 13,11,000
,, Purchases 27,42,000 --- ,, Goods Sent to Branch 11,40,000 ---
,, Goods from H.O. --- 11,25,000 ,, Closing Stock 36,000 45,000
,, Gross Profit c/d 9,60,000 1,71,000
37,26,000 13,56,000 37,26,000 13,56,000
To Adm. & Selling Exp. 8,41,500 74,500
,, Depreciation 1,05,000 20,000 By Gross Profit b/d 9,60,000 1,71,000
,, Stock Adjustment 12,000 --- ,, Stock Adjustment 12,000 ---
(for closing) (for opening)
20% of (45,000+15,000) ,, Provision for Bad 27,000 7,500
,, Provision for Bad Debts 15,000 Debts (old)
(new) 9,000
Introduction
Departmental Accounts helps in identifying the performance of each department. Each department is considered
to be an Activity Centre. It is a tool which helps management in decision-making.
Departmentation offers the following advantages —
a. Proper Allocation : Expenses that relate to a particular department are estimated on an exact basis. Hence,
cost and profits of each department is estimated more accurately.
b. Control : Availability of separate cost and profit figures for each department facilitates control. Proper
control and fixation of responsibility is easier.
c. Proper absorption : The processing times of different products in different departments may vary. Specific
cost analysis on a department-wise basis facilitates scientific cost absorption and cost assignment. This
provides the right platform for product-pricing decisions also.
Difference between Branch Account and Departmental Account
The main differences between a Branch Account and a Department Accounts are:
Illustration 18.
From the following Trial Balance, prepare Departmental Trading and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended
31.12.2013 and a Balance Sheet as at the date in the books of Sri S. Maity:
,, Dep. On (2:1)
Plant & Machinery 280 140 420
Furniture & Fixture 40 20 60
,, Net Profit --- 1,463 1,124
2,415 2,867 4,943 2,415 2,867 4,943
Workings:
Allocation of Expenses and Incomes
Illustration 19.
The Trading and Profit & Loss Account of Bindas Ltd. for the year ended 31st March is as under :
Solution :
Departmental P&L Accounts for the year ended 31st March (Amount in `)
Dr. Cr.
Particulars A B C Particulars A B C
` ` ` ` ` `
To Purchases 1,60,000 1,25,000 — By Sales 1,75,000 1,40,000 —
To Spares — — 80,000 By Services — — 35,000
To Salary & Wages 12,000 24,000 12,000 By Closing Stock 60,100 20,300 44,600
To Rent 2,400 2,400 6,000 By Net Loss — — 19,500
To Sundry Expenses* 5,500 4,400 1,100
To Net Profit 55,200 4,500
Note : Sundry Expenses are apportioned in the ratio of Turnover (5 : 4 : 1) i.e. 1,75,000 : 1,40,000 : 35,000.
At Cost Price
When transfers are made, Recipient Department should be debited at cost price and Transferring Department
should be credited at Cost Price.
Illustration 20.
Make an appropriate entry for inter transfer of goods from one department to another.
Department A transferred goods for `30,000 to Department B.
Solution:
In the Books of...
Journal
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars L/F Amount Amount
` `
? Department Trading (B) A/c Dr. 30,000
To Department Trading (A) A/c 30,000
(Goods are transferred to Department B from Department A.)
Illustration 21.
Department A sells goods to Department B at a profit of 25% on cost and to department C at 10% profit on cost.
Department B sells goods to Department A and Department C at a profit of 15% and 20% on sales respectively.
Dept. C charges 20% and 25% profit on cost and department A and department b respectively.
Department managers are entitled to 10% commission on net profit after eliminating unrealised profit on department
sales being eliminated. Departmental profit after charging managers commission but before adjustment of unrealized
profits are: Dept. A ` 72,000; Dept. B ` 54,000; and Dept. C ` 36,000. Stock lying at different departments at the
end of the year are:
Workings:
Computation of unrealized Profit on Stock
Illustrations 22.
Snow White Ltd has two departments — Cloth and Readymade Clothes. Ready Made Clothes are made by the
Firm itself out of cloth supplied by the Cloth Department at its usual selling price. From the following figures, prepare
Departmental Trading and Profit and Loss Accounts for the year ended 31st March 2013.
The Stock in the Readymade Clothes Department may be considered as consisting of 75% Cloth and 25% other
expenses. The Cloth Department earned Gross Profit at the rate of 15% during the year 2011-12.
General Expenses of the business as a whole came to ` 1,10,000.
Solution :
Departmental Trading and Profit and Loss A/c for the year ended 31st March 2013
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Cloth (`) RM (`) Total (`) Particulars Cloth (`) RM (`) Total (`)
To Opg. Stock 3,00,000 50,000 3,50,000 By Sales 22,00,000 4,50,000 26,50,000
To Purchases 20,00,000 15,000 20,15,000 By Tfr. to RM 3,00,000 — 3,00,000
Illustration 23.
A & co. has two departments P & Q. department P sells goods to department Q at normal selling prices. From
the following particulars, prepare departmental Trading & PL account for the year ended 31.03.2018 and also
ascertain the net profit to be transferred to Balance Sheet:
Particulars Department P Department Q
(`) (`)
Opening stock 5,00,000 NIL
Purchases 28,00,000 3,00,000
Goods from P NIL 8,00,000
Wages 3,50,000 2,00,000
Travelling expenses 20,000 1,60,000
Closing stock at cost to the department 8,00,000 2,09,000
Sales 30,00,000 2,00,0000
Printing & Stationery 30,000 25,000
The following expenses incurred for both the departments were not apportioned between the departments:
Salaries ` 33,000, advertisement expenses `1,20,000,General expenses ` 5,00,000,Depreciation is to be charged
@30% on the machinery worth ` 96,000.
The advertisement expenses of the departments are to be apportioned in the turnover ratio. Salaries and
depreciation are to be apportioned in the ratio 2:1 and 1:3 respectively. General expenses are to be apportioned
in the ratio 3:1.
Solution:
A & CO.
Departmental Trading and P/L Account for the year ended 31.03.2018
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Deptt. Deptt. Q Total Particulars Deptt. Deptt. Total
P (`) (`) (`) P (`) Q (`) (`)
To Opening Stock 5,00,000 Nil 5,00,000 By Sales 30,00,000 20,00,000 50,00,000
To Purchases 28,00,000 3,00,000 31,00,000 By Goods 8,00,000
transferred to Q
To Goods from P 8,00,000 By Closing Stock 8,00,000 2,09,000 10,09,000
To Wages 3,50,000 2,00,000 5,50,000
To Gross Profit c/d 9,50,000 9,09,000 18,59,000
46,00,000 22,09,000 60,09,000 46,00,000 22,09,000 60,09,000
To Travelling Expenses 20,000 1,60,000 1,80,000 By Gross Profit b/d 9,50,000 9,09,000 18,59,000
To Printing & Stationery 30,000 25,000 55,000
To Salaries (2:1) 2,20,000 1,10,000 3,30,000
To Advertisement 72,000 48,000 1,20,000
Expenses (3:2)
To General 3,75,000 1,25,000 5,00,000
Expenses (3:1)
To Depreciation (1:3) 7,200 21,600 28,800
To Net Profit c/d 2,25,800 4,19,400 6,45,200
9,50,000 9,09,000 18,59,000 9,50,000 9,09,000 18,59,000
By Net Profit b/d 6,45,200
To Provision for 38,000
unrealised profit on
closing stock (note 2)
To Capital A/c (net 6,07,200
profit transferred)
Working notes:
1. Gross profit ratio of department P = 9,50,000/(30,00,000 + 8,00,000)×100 = 25%
2. Proportionate P department’s stock in department Q
(Purchase from department P/total purchases of department Q)*total stock of department Q
=
`(8,00,000/11,00,000) × `2,09,000 = `1,52,000
Unrealised profit = 25% of `1,52,000 = ` 38,000
Illustration 24.
Samudra & Co, a Partnership Firm has three departments viz. K, L, M which are under the charge of the Partners B,
C and D respectively. The following Consolidated P&L Account is given below :
Dr. Profit and Loss Account Cr.
4,89,800 4,89,800
From the above Account and the following additional information, prepare the Departmental P&L Accounts
for the year ended 31st March, 2013.
1. Break up of Opening Stock Department wise is: K - ` 37,890; L - ` 24,000 and M - ` 20,000.
2. Total Purchases were as under: K - ` 1,40,700; L - ` 80,600; M - ` 44,400.
3. Salaries and Wages include ` 12,000 wages of Department M. The balance Salaries should be apportioned
to the three departments as 4:4:1.
4. Rent is to be apportioned in the ratio of floor space which is as 2:2:5.
5. Selling Expenses and Discount Allowed are to be apportioned in the ratio of Turnover.
6. Depreciation on assets should be equally charged to the three departments.
7. Sales made by the three departments were: K - ` 1,80,000; L - ` 1,30,000 and M - ` 90,000.
8. Break up of Closing Stock Department wise is: K - ` 45,100; L - ` 22,300 and M - ` 21,600. The Closing Stock
of Department M includes ` 5,700 goods transferred from Department K. However, Opening Stock does not
include any goods transferred from other departments.
9. Departments K and L sold goods worth ` 10,700 and ` 600 respectively to Department M.
10. Discounts received are traceable to Departments K, L and M as ` 400; ` 250 and ` 150 respectively.
11. Partners are to share the profits as under: (a) 75% of the Profits of Departments K, L and M to the respective
Partner in Charge, (b) Balance Profits to be credited as 2:1:1.
Solution :
1. Departmental P&L Accounts for the year ended 31st March, 2013
Dr. Cr.
Illustration 25.
Pooma Ltd. has 2 departments M & S. From the following particulars, prepare Departmental Trading Account &
Consolidated Trading Account for the year ended 31st March, 2013.
Solution :
1. Departmental Trading, Profit & Loss Account for the year ended 31st March, 2013
Dr. Cr.
Particulars M (`) S (`) Particulars M (`) S (`)
To Opening Stock 20,000 12,000 By Sales 140,000 112,000
To Purchases 92,000 68,000 By Transfer:
Purchased Goods 8,000 10,000
Finished Goods 35,000 40,000
By Closing Stock Purchased
To Transfer : Goods 4,500 6,000
Purchased Goods 10,000 8,000 Finished Goods out of t/f 4,800 2,800
Finished Goods 40,000 35,000 Balance 19,200 11,200
To Wages 12,000 8,000 By Return of Finished Goods 10,000 7,000
To Carriage Inwards 2,000 2,000
To Return of Finished Goods 7,000 10,000
To Gross Profit 38,500 46,000
2,21,500 1,89,000 2,21,500 1,89,000
3. Consolidated Trading Account for the year ended 31st March, 2013
Dr. Cr.
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
(`) (`)
To Opening Stock (20,000+12,000) 32,000 By Sales (1,40,000 + 1,12,000) 2,52,000
To Purchases (92,000 + 68,000) 160,000 By Closing Stock
To Wages (12,000 + 8,000) 20,000 By Purchase Goods 10,500
To Carriage Inwards 4,000 (4,500+6,000)
(2,000+2,000) By Finished Goods 38,000 48,500
To Stock Reserve: (24,000+14,000)
[24,000 × 20%] × 32.4% 1,555
[14,000 × 20%] × 22.9% 641
To Net Profit 82,304
3,00,500 3,00,500
Illustration 26.
Department X sells goods to Department Y at a profit of 25% on cost & to Department Z at a profit of 10% on
cost. Department Y sells goods to X & Z at a profit of 15% & 20% on sales, respectively.
Department Z charges 20% & 25% profit on cost to Department X & Y, respectively.
Department Managers are entitled to 10% Commission on Net Profit subject to Unrealised profits on
Departmental sales being eliminated.
Departmental profits after charging manager’s commission, bur before adjustment of unrealised profits are : X =
` 36,000; Y = ` 27,000; Z = ` 18,000
Stocks lying at different departments at the year end are as under :
Find out the correct Departmental Profits after charging Managers’ Commission.
Solution :
1. Computation of Unrealised Profits
Illustration 27.
The following details are available in respect of a business for a year.
Solution :
1. Computation of Closing Stock Quantity (in units)
Particulars X Y Z
Opening Stock 120 80 152
Particulars X (`) Y (`) Z (`) Total (`) Particulars X (`) Y (`) Z (`) Total (`)
To Op. stock 1,920 1,440 3,040 6,400 By Sales 20,400 43,200 62,400 126,000
To Purchase 16,000 36,000 48,000 100,000 By Cl. stock 1,600 2,880 1,120 5,600
To Gross Profit 4,080 8,640 12,480 25,200
22,000 46,080 63,520 131,600 22,000 46,080 63,520 131,600
Opening and Closing Stocks are valued at Cost as indicated in WN 3 above. Sale Amount in the Trading Account
is computed for the Sale Quantity only. Gross Profit is calculated at 20% of Sale Value.
(3) Goods are transferred from Department X to Department Y at a price so as to include a profit of 33.33% on
cost. If the value of closing stock of Department Y is `18,000, then the amount of stock reserve on closing
stock will be
(A) `6,000
(B) `4,500
(C) `9,000
(D) None of the above
Answer:
1. (A) 2. (B) 3. (B)
QUESTIONS:
1. Priya Sales Corporation of Jaipur has a Branch at Kota to which goods are sent @ 331/3% above cost. The
Branch makes sales both for cash and on credit. Branch expenses are paid direct from Head Office and the
Branch has to remit all cash received into the Head Office Bank Account at Kota.
Following further details are given for the year ended 31st March, 2012:
Particulars (`)
Goods sent to Branch (at invoice price) 18,00,000
Goods returned by Branch (at invoice price) 20,000
Stock at Branch on 1.4.2011 (at invoice price) 2,40,000
Branch Debtors on 1.4.2011 2,15,000
Sales during the year:
- Cash 5,80,000
-Credit 11,40,000
Cash received from Branch debtors 10,45,000
Discount allowed to by Branch to debtors 14,800
Bad debts 9,200
Sales return at Kota Branch 25,000
Salaries and wages at Branch 1,80,000
Rent, Rates and Taxes at Branch 42,000
Sundry expenses at Branch 15,000
Stock at Branch on 31.3.2012 (at invoice price) 3,60,000
You are required to show Branch Stock Account, Branch Adjustment Account, Branch Expenses Account,
Branch Debtors Account, Branch Goods sent to Branch Account and Branch Profit & Loss Account in the
books of the Head Office.
Answer:
2. Pass the Journal entries in the books of Head Office to record the following transactions for the year ending
31st March, 2013:
(i) Head Office collected ` 24,500 from a customer of Delhi Branch.
(ii) Jaipur Branch paid ` 80,000 for purchase of Office Computer by Head Office for Delhi Branch.
(iii) Goods sent by Head Office to Jaipur Branch valued ` 45,000 wrongly Debited to Delhi Branch in the
Books of Head Office.
(iv) Goods returned by Delhi Branch valued ` 4,800 on 26th March, 2013, was received by Head Office on
3rd April, 2013.
Answer:
Journal Entries in the books of Head Office
3. A head office in Calcutta supplies goods to its branch at Madras at cost. The branch sells the goods for cash
and on credit and remits the proceeds to the head office promptly, the branch expenses being met by the
head office by cheque. The following are the transactions relating to the branch for the year ended 31st
December, 2015 :
` `
Salaries 5,000
Rent 2,500
Petty expenses 500
8,000
Stock at Branch on 31-12-15 9,000
Prepare Branch Account and Goods sent to Branch Account in the H. O. books.
Solution:
In the Books of H. O.
Madras Branch Account
Dr. Cr.
` ` ` `
01.01.15 31.12.15
To Balance b/f By bank – remittances received:
Stock 6,000 Cash Sales 22,000
Debtors 8,000 14,000 Collection from Debtors 42,000 64,000
31-12-15
To Goods Sent to branch A/c 45,000 By Goods Sent to Branch A/c
,, Bank A/c – expenses: - Returns 2,000
Salaries 5,000 By Balance c/f
Rent 2,500 By Stock 9,000
Petty expenses 500 8,000 By Debtors (WN 1) 13,000 22,000
To Profit & Loss A/c
- Branch Profit transferred 21,000
88,000 88,000
` `
31-12-15 31-12-15
To Madras Branch A/c 2,000 By Madras Branch A(c 45,000
„ Trading (or Purchases) A/c
—transfer 43,000
45,000 45,000
Working Note:
1. The figure for closing debtors has not been supplied in the problem. It can be ascertained by preparing
a Memorandum Branch Debtors A/c as under:
4. A head office in Calcutta has a branch in Ahmedabad to which goods are invoiced at cost price. The
following are the transactions between the head office and the branch for the year ending December 31st,
2015:
` `
Stock at Branch on 01-01-2015 12,500
Debtors at Branch on 01-01-2015 12,000
Petty Cash at Branch on 01-01-2015 300
Goods sent to Branch 45,000
Remittances from Branch :
Cash Sales 16,000
Money received from Debtors 29,500 45,500
Goods returned to H. O. 3,000
Bad Debts at Branch 500
Discount allowed to Branch Debtors 1,300
Goods returned by customers to Branch 2,000
Cheques sent to Branch—
for Salaries and Wages 9,000
for Insurance 3,000
for Petty Cash 510 12,510
Stock at Branch on 31-12-2015 15,000
Debtors at Branch on 31-12-2015 22,500
Petty Cash at Branch on 31-12-2015 200
Write up the ledger accounts in the books of H. O. to record the above transactions.
Solution:
Books of H. O.
Dr. Branch Stock Account Cr.
01-01-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Balance b/f 12,500 By Bank—cash sales A/c 16 000
31-12-2015 ,, Branch Debtors—credit sale- 43,800
To Goods Sent to Branch A/c 45,000 ,, Goods Sent to Branch A/c
„ Branch Debtors—returns from customers 2,000 —returns from Branch 3,000
„ Branch P/L A/c—gross profit transferred 18.300 ,, Balance c/f 15,000
77,800 77,800
1-1-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Balance b/f 12,000 By Bank—collection 29,500
„ Branch Stock A/c—returns 2,000
31-12-2015 „ Branch P/L A/c :
To Branch Stock A/c 43,800 Bad Debts 500
—credit sales (balancing figure) Discount Allowed 1,300 1,800
3l-12-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Branch Stock A/c 3,000 By Branch Stock A/c 45,000
—returns from Branch
„ Trading A/c 42,000
—transfer
45,000 45,000
1-1-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Balance b/f 300 By Branch Expenses A/c
31-12-2015 —petty expenses 610
To Bank 510 (balancing figure)
„ Balance e/f 200
810 810
31-12-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Bank- By Branch P/L A/c 12,610
Salaries & Wages 9,000 —transfer
Insurance 3,000
„ Branch Petty Cash A/c
—petty expenses 610
12,610 12,610
31-12-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Branch Expenses 12,610 By Branch Stock A/c 18,300
„ Branch Debtors A/c : — gross profit
— Bad Debts 500
— Discount allowed 1,300 1,800
„ General Profit & Loss A/c
— Branch net profit transferred 3,890
18300 18300
1
5. A H. O. invoiced to their Delhi Branch during the year ended 31-12-2015 goods at selling price (being 33 %
8
added to cost) amounting to ` 74,000. The credit sales of the Branch were ` 31,000 and cash sales ` 17,000.
The Branch returned ` 2,000 stock at invoice price and had returns from customers ` 1,000. The discounts
allowed to customers by the Branch amounted to ` 1,200. The Branch remitted to H.O. ` 38,600 being the
amount of cash sales and recipts from customers. The opening and closing stocks of the Branch were ` 15,000
and ` 39,000 respectively at selling price. The Branch had Debtors of ` 12,000 at the beginning. Loss through
pilferage was ascertained to be ` 1,000 at selling price.
Write up the necessary accounts to record the above in the books of H. O. under synthetic method.
Solution:
In the Books of H. O.
Delhi Branch Account
Dr. Cr.
1-1-2015 ` 1-1-2015 `
To Balance b/f : By Stock Reserve—load on
1
Stock 15,000 opening stock ×15,000)
4
Debtors 12,000 27,000 31-12-15 3,750
Working Notes :
1. In examination problems while calculating ‘load’ care should be taken to ascertain whether the percentage
1 1 1
is stated on cost or selling price. 33 % of of cost means of selling price.
3 3 4
2. It must be noted that goods pilfered (normal or abnormal) should not be shown in the Branch A/c under the
synthetic method.
3. Closing balance of Branch Debtors has been ascertained by preparing a Memorandum Branch Debtors A/c
as under:
Memorandum Branch Debtors Account
` `
To Balance b/f 12,000 By Bank—collection (38,600 -17,000) 21,600
„ Credit Sales 31,000 „ Returns Inward 1,000
,, Discount Allowed 1,200
„ Balance c/f (balancing figure) 19,200
43.000 43,000
6. During the year ended 31st December, 2015, X & Co. of Madras sent to their Branch at Bombay goods costing
1
` 1,00,000. They used to invoice to the Branch at a price designed to show a gross profit of 33 per cent on
3
invoice price. Collections at the Branch from debtors amounting to ` 26,390 were all sent to Head Office.
Branch transactions daring the year were:
Cash Sales— ` 1,21,050
Credit Sales— ` 27,600
Goods returned by customers— ` 300
Goods returned to Head Office— ` 780 (invoice price)
on 31-12-14 on 31-12-15
` `
Stock (at invoice price) 2,250 2,700
Sundry Debtors 1,320 2,230
Goods at the Branch of ` 1,260 (invoice price) were lost. Insurance Company paid ` 730 on the claim. Branch
expenses, paid by Head Office, amount to ` 36,780.
Show the necessary Ledger Accounts as would appear in the Head Office books recording the above
transactions relating to the Branch including Branch Profit & Loss Account.
Solution:
Branch Stock Adjustment A/c Method
Books of Head Office
Dr. Branch Stock Account Cr.
1-1-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Balance b/f 2,250 By Bank—cash sales 1,21,050
31-12-2015 „ Branch Debtors—credit sales 27,600
To Goods Sent to Branch A/c : „ Goods Sent to Branch A/c
(1/4 ×1,00,000) —returns from branch 780
1,50,000 „ Goods Lost at Branch A/c 1.260
„ Branch Debtors—returns 300 „ Balance c/f 2,700
from customers
„ Branch Adjustment A/c
—apparent gross profit
transferred 840
1,53,390 1.53,390
Note: ‘ The difference in Branch Stock A/c is due to difference in invoice price and selling price and hence this has
been transferred to Branch Adjustment A/c as apparent gross profit.
31-12-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Branch Stock Adjustment A/c By Branch Stock a/ c 1,50,000
— load on goods sent: ,, Branch Stock Adjustment A/c
1 — load on returns from
×1,50,000 50,000
4
„ Branch Stock A/c
—returns from branch 780 1
„ Trading A/c —transfer 99,480 branch: × 780 260
3
1,50,260 1,50,260
31-12-2015 ` 1-1-2015 `
To Goods Sent to Branch By Balance b/f— load on opening
—load on returns from branch 260 stock: 1/3 × 2,250 750
“ Goods Lost at Branch A/c —load 420 31-12-84
on goods lost By Goods Sent to Branch —load on
“ Branch Profit & Loss A/c goods sent 50,000
—gross profit transferred 50,010 “ Branch Stock A/c 840
Balance c/f—load on closing
stock: 1/3 × 2,700 900
51,390 51,590
1-1-15 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Balance b/f 1,320 By Bank—collections 26,390
31-12-15 „ Branch Stock A/c 300
To Branch Stock A/c —returns from customers1 2,230
—credit sales 27,600 Balance c/f
28,920 28,920
Note: ‘Returns from customers do not require any adjustment for load, because the question of load element
arises only for transactions between the H.O. and Branch.
31-12-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
By Branch Stock Adjustment A/c
To Branch Expenses 36,780 – gross profit 50,010
To Goods Lost at branch A/c 110
To General P/L A/c 13,120
– branch net profit transferred 50,010 50,010
31-12-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Branch Stock A/c 520 To Branch Stock A/c 1,00,000
-returns from branch
,, Trading A/c – transfer 99,480
1,00,000 1,00,000
Dr. Cr.
31-12-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Branch Stock A/c 840 By Bank—amount recovered from
insurance co. 730
„ Branch P/L A/c—transfer 110
840 840
31-12-2015 ` 31-12-2015 `
To Branch Expenses 36,780 By Branch Stock A/c
Note : Under Double Column Method Branch Debtors A/c will be as in the first method and there will be
no Branch Adjustment A/c.
7. Bombay Traders Ltd. sends goods to its Madras Branch at cost plus 25 per cent. From the following particulars
you are required to show the necessary ledger accounts in the Head Office books :
`
Opening stock at Branch at cost to Branch 20,000
Goods sent to Branch at invoice price 80,000
Loss-in-transit at invoice price 10,000
Pilferage at invoice price 4,000
Normal loss through wastage at invoice price 2,000
Sales 1,22,000
Expenses 32,000
Closing stock at Branch at cost to Branch 24,000
Recovered from Insurance Company against
loss-in-transit 6,000
Solution:
Dr. Books of Mumbai Traders Ltd. Cr.
Branch Stock Account
` `
To Branch b/f 20,000 By Sales A/c 1,22,000
„ Goods Sent to Branch A/c 80,000 „ Loss-in-Transit A/c 10.000
„ Branch Adjustment A/c „ Pilferage A/c 4,000
—apparent gross profit „ Branch Adjustment A/c
transferred 62,000 —normal loss 2.000
„ Balance c/f 24,000
1,62,000 1,62,000
` `
To Branch Adjustment A/c By Branch Stock A/c 80,000
— load on goods sent: 1/3 × 80,000
By Trading A/c – transfer 16,000
64,000
80,000 80,000
` `
To Branch Stock A/c 10,000 By Branch Adjustment A/c 2,000
— load on loss-in-transit : 1/5 × 10,000 6000
„ Bank—Insurance claim 2,000
„ Branch Profit & Loss A/c
10,000 10,000
` `
To Branch Stock A/c 4, 000 By Branch Adjustment A/c 800
—load on pilferage : 1/5 × 4,000 3,200
„ Branch Profit & Loss A/c
4,000 4,000
` `
To Expenses A/c 32,000 By Branch Adjustment A/c 72,400
„ Loss-in-Transit A/c 2,000 — gross profit
„ Pilferage Ale 3,200
„ General Profit A Loss A/c 35,200
— branch net profit transferred
72,400 72.400
Note : 1. At cost to Branch means at invoice price from H.O.
EXERCISE:
1. From the following information, prepare Branch Account showing the profit or loss of the branch.
`
Opening Stock 30,000
Goods sent to branch 90,000
Sales 1,20,000
Expenses: Salaries 10,000
Other Expenses 4,000
The closing stock could not be ascertained, but it is known that the branch usually sells at cost plus 20%.
The branch manager is entitled to a commission of 5% on the profit of the branch before charging such
commission.
Answer:
Branch Profit (transferred to P&L A/c) — `5,700
2. A company with its Heads Office at Kolkata has a Branch at Chennai. The Branch receives all goods from
Head Office who remits cash for all expenses. Total sales by Branch for year ended 31.03.2012 amounted to `
6,50,000 out of which 75% on Credit. Other details for Chennai Branch were as under:
Answer:
Branch Profit (transferred to General P&L A/c — `82,500]
3. Jaggu & Co., (Delhi) operates a branch at Jaipur to which goods are invoiced at wholesale price which is cost
plus 25%. The branch sells the goods at the retail price which is wholesale price plus 20%.
The following information provided for the year ended 31.03.2014:
`
Stock at the branch on 01.04.2013 1,65,000
Goods invoiced to the branch during the year 17,82,000
Expenses of the branch for the year 1,10,000
Gross profit made by the branch 3,30,000
Stock at the branch on 31.03.2014 1,98,000
Answer:
Branch Stock A/c – Gross Profit c/d — `3,30,000
Branch P&L A/c – Profit transferred — `1,21,000
Branch Stock A/c – Closing `39,600
4. Pass the journal entries to rectify or adjust the following in the books of Kolkata Branch for the year ending 31st
March, 2014:
(i) Kolkata Branch paid ` 25,000 as salary to a visiting Head Office Official. The branch has debited the
amount to salaries account.
(ii) Goods costing ` 15,000 purchased by Kolkata Branch, but payment made by Head Office. The Head
Office has wrongly debited this amount to its own purchase account.
(iii) Depreciation on branch assets, of which accounts are maintained by the Head Office, not provided for
` 5,500.
(iv) Goods worth ` 30,000 were returned by a customer of Kolkata Branch to Head Office.
(v) ` 40,000 remitted by Kolkata Branch to Head Office on 29th March, 2014 was received on 3rd April, 2014.
Answer:
Total of Journal Entries — `75,500.
5. The proprietors of Dhoora Departmental store wish to ascertain approximately separate net profits of their two
particular departments A and B for the year ended 31st March, 2015. It is not possible to take stock on that
date. However, normal rates of Gross Profit (before charging direct expenses) for the department concerned
were 40% and 30% on sales respectively. There are six departments in the stores. The following figures were
extracted from the books for the year ending 31st March, 2015:
The total indirect expenses of all the six departments for the period were ` 3,60,000. These expenses (except
one-third which is to be divided equally) are to be charged in proportion to departmental sales. The total sales
of the other departments were `14,00,000. The Manager of each department is also entitled to a commission
of 2 per cent on the turnover of his department. Prepare Departmental Trading and Profit & Loss account in
columnar form for the year ending 31st March. 2015 making a stock reserve of 5% for each department on the
estimated value of stock on 31st March, 2015.
Answer:
Gross Profit – Dept. A- `377;Deptt. B – `76.
Net Profit – Dept. A - `227;
Net Loss – Dept. B - `48]
Stock as on 01.04.2012
The rate of gross profit is uniform for all the departments. Assume the unit price of opening stock and purchase unit
cost are uniform.
Prepare Departmental Trading Account.
Answer:
Departmental Gross Profit Dept. A – `8,160, Dept. B -`17,280, Dept. C - `24,960]
7. M/s Chandu stores has three departments viz. A, B and C. At the end of the year 31st March 2013 goods were
included in departmental stocks out of inter-departmental transfers loading their own cost as follows:
From A to B ` 25,000 and to C ` 18,000 respectively at a profit of 25% on cost.
From B to A and C ` 9,000 and ` 6,000 respectively at a profit of 331/3% on cost.
From C to A and B ` 25,000 and ` 27,000 respectively at a profit of 20% on transfer price.
Departmental Managers are entitled to 10% commission on net profit subject to unrealized profit on
departmental transfers being eliminated. Departmental profits after charging Manager’s commission but
before adjustment of unrealised profits are:
A— ` 1,57,500; B— ` 1,62,000; C— ` 2,16,000.
You are required to calculate the amount of unrealised profits, correct amount of Manager’s commission and
departmental profits after charging Manages commission.
Answer:
Correct amount of Managers Commission — Dept. A - `16,640,Dept. B - `17,625 and Dept. C - `22,960
Correct amount of Departmental Profit — Dept. A - `1,49,760, Dept. B - `1,58,625, Dept. C – 2,06,640.]
8. A firm has two departments, Cloth and Readymade Garments. The Readymade Garments were generally
made by the firm itself out of cloth supplied by the cloth department at its usual selling price. The stock in the
Readymade Garments Department may be considered as consisting of 65% cloth and 35% of other expenses.
The opening rate of gross profit of the Cloth Department is 25% and the closing Rate of gross profit is 30%. The
opening stock was ` 2,40,000 and the closing stock was ` 2,85,000 in the Readymade Garments Department.
You are required to ascertain the amount of provision to be made for unrealized profit.
Answer:
Amount of provision for unrealized profit already made on opening stock of Readymade Garments = ` 2,40,000 ×
65% × 25% = ` 39,000.
Amount of provision required for closing stock of Readymade Garments = ` 2,85,000 × 65% × 30% = ` 55,575.
Additional provision for unrealized profit to be made at the end of the year = ` 55,575 -39,000 = 7,16,575.
The main unit of classification in accounts should be the major head which should be divided into minor heads,
each of which should have a number of subordinate heads, generally shown as sub-heads. The sub-heads are
further divided into detailed heads. Sometimes major heads may be divided into ‘sub-major heads’ before their
further division into minor heads.
The Major heads, Minor heads, Sub-heads and Detailed heads together may constitute a four tier arrangement of
the classification structure of Accounts.
1. Easy to Install The CD containing set up file is to be inserted and run to complete the installation
according to instructions as per user’s manuals.
2. Relatively Inexpensive These packages are available at very cheap prices.
3. Easy to Use These packages are mostly menu driven with the help options. Further the user
manual provides most of the solutions to problems that the user may face while
using the software.
4. Simple Backup Procedure Housekeeping section provides a menu for backup. The backup can be taken
on CD or hard disk.
5. Certain Flexibility of Report This allows the user to make the invoice, challan, GRNs look the way they want.
Formats Provided by some
of the Softwares
6. Very Effective for Small and Most of their functional areas are covered by these standardised packages.
Medium size Businesses
1. Does not cover Peculiarities A standard package may not be able to take care of the complexities of a
of Specific Business specific business.
2. Does not cover all These packages may not cover all functional areas such as production
Functional Areas process.
3. Customisation may not be These packages may not be customised as per needs of customers.
Possible: is not Sufficient or
Serve the Purpose:
4. Reports Generated All reports required for exercising management control may not be available
in a standard package.
5. Lack of Security Security is generally missing in a pre-packaged accounting package since
any person can view data of all companies with common access password.
6. Bugs in the software Certain bugs may remain in the software which takes long to be rectified by
the vendor and is common in the initial years of the software.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTION OF PRE-PACKAGED ACCOUNTING SOFTWARE
The following factors should be considered while selecting pre-packaged accounting software:
1. Fulfillment of Business The purchaser should ensure whether the available software meets all the
Requirements business requirements.
2. Completeness of Reports: The purchaser should ensure whether the available software can provide all
the reports required by business.
3. Ease of Use The purchaser should ensure whether the available software is easy to
operate.
4. Cost The software should not involve very high installation and running cost.
5. Reputation of the vendor It should be ensured whether the vendor has good reputation and good
track records or not.
6. Regular updates It should be ensured whether the vendor is prepared to give updates.
4. Frequent changes made to the system with inadequate change management procedure may result in in
system compromise.
5. Vendor may not be unwilling to give support of the software due to other commitments.
6. Vendor may not be willing to part with the source code or enter into an escrow agreement.
7. Control measures may be inadequate.
8. There may be delay in completion of the software due to problems with the vendor or inadequate project
management.
The choice of customised accounting packages is made on the basis of evaluation of vendor proposals. The
proposals are evaluated as to the suitability, completeness, cost and vendor proposals. Generally preference is
given to a vendor won has a very good track record of deliverables.
ACCOUNTING STANDARD
Accounting standard is a method or an approach established and issued by recognized expert accountancy
body. It is used in preparing financial statement viz., Profit & Loss Account and Balance Sheet of various concerns
operating different fields.
The main purpose of formulating accounting standard is to standardize the diverse accounting policies with views
eliminating to the extent possible the incomparability of information provided in financial statements within or across
the organization. So that the users of aforesaid statements don’t get confused while evaluating the results to take
various decisions viz., to subscribe in equality shares, or subscribe in debenture of that concern.
To discuss on whether such standards are necessary in present days it will be beneficial to go through the advantages
and disadvantages which they are said to provide.
This standard deals with disclosure of significant accounting policies followed in the preparation and presentation
of the financial statements and is mandatory in nature.
The accounting policies refer to the specific accounting principles adopted by the enterprise.
Proper disclosure would ensure meaningful comparison both inter/intra enterprise and also enable the users to
properly appreciate the financial statements.
Financial statements are intended to present a fair reflection of the financial position financial performance and
cash flows of an enterprise.
Areas involving different accounting policies by different enterprises are:
• Methods of depreciation, depletion and amortization
• Treatment of expenditure during construction
• Treatment of foreign currency conversion/translation.
• Valuation of inventories
• Treatment of intangible assets
• Valuation of investments
• Treatment of retirement benefits
• Recognition of profit on long-term contracts
• Valuation of fixed assets
• Treatment of contingent liabilities
Prudence : Generally maker of financial statement has to face uncertainties at the time of preparation of financial
statement. These uncertainties may be regarding collectability of receivables, number of warranty claims that
may occur. Prudence means making of estimates, which is required under conditions of uncertainty.
Substance over form : It means that transaction should be accounted for in accordance with actual happening
and economic relity of the transactions not by its legal form. Like in hire purchaser if the assets are purchased on
hire purchase by the hire purchaser the assets are shown in the books of hire purchaser in spite of the fact that
the hire purchaser is not the legal owner of the assets purchased. Under the purchase the purchaser, becomes
the owner only on the payment of last instalment. Therefore the legal form of the transaction is ignored and the
transaction is accounted as per as substance.
Materiality : Financial Statement should disclose all the items and facts which are sufficient enough to influence
the decisions of reader or /user of financial statement.
(a) As to the disclosure of all material items, individually or in aggregate in the context of fair presentation of
financial statements as a whole if its omission or misstatement could influence the economic or financial
decision of the user relying upon the financial statements.
(b) Depends on the size of the items or errors judged in the particular circumstances of its omissions or
misstatements.
(c) Is a cutoff point rather than being a primary qualitative characteristic which information must have.
(d) This is a matter of judgment, varies from one entity to another and over one period to another.
AS-1 requires that all “significant” (i.e. only accounting policy that is useful for an understanding by the user of the
financial statements) accounting policies adopted in the preparation and presentation of financial statements,
should be disclosed by way of ‘Note in one place as the note No I (this is the basis of the preparation of financial
statements.)
Illustration 1.
Jivandeep Ltd. had made a right issue in 2010. In the offer document to its members, it had projected a surplus of
` 40 crores during the accounting year to be ended on 31st March 2012. The draft results for the year prepared on
the hitherto followed accounting policies and presented for perusal of the Board of Directors showed a deficit of
` 10 crores. The Board, in consultation with the Managing Director, decided on the following:
(i) Value year-end inventory at works cost (` 50 crores) instead of the hitherto method of valuation of inventory
at Prime Cost (` 30 crores).
(ii) Provide depreciation for the year on straight line basis or account of substantial additions in gross block
during the year, instead of on the Reducing Balance Method, which had been hitherto adopted. As a
consequence, the charge for depreciation at ` 27 crores is lower than the amount of ` 45 crones -which
would have been provided had the old method been followed-by ` 18 crores.
(iii) Not to provide for “after-sales expenses” during the warranty period. Till the last year, provision at 2% on sales
used to be made under the concept of “matching of cost against revenue” and actual expenses used to
be charged against the provision. The Board now decided to account for expenses as and when actually
incurred. Sales during the year total to ` 600 crores.
(iv) Provide for permanent fall in the value of investment-which fall had taken place over the past 5 years-the
provision being ` 10 crores.
As chief accountant of the company, you are asked by the Managing Director to draft the Notes on Accounts for
inclusion in the annual report for 2011-2012.
Solution:
According to AS 1: “in the case of a change in accounting policies which has a material effect in the current
period should be disclosd, the amount by which any item in the financial statements is affected by such change
should also be disclosed to the extent ascertainable. Where such amount is not ascertainable wholly or in part, the
fact should be indicated.” Naturally, the Notes on Accounts must disclose the change.
Notes on Accounts
(i) Till last year, it was the practice of valuing inventory at prime cost but during the year the same was valued
at works cost. Due to this change the closing inventory was valued at ` 50 crores and, accordingly, profit was
increased by ` 20 crores (i.e. ` 50 crores - ` 30 crores) due to the change of the method of valuation.
(ii) During the year the company decided to change the method of providing for depreciation from reducing
balance method to straight line method. Due to this change, the amount of depreciation was undercharged
i.e., instead of charging ` 45 crores it was charged by ` 27 crores and, as a consequence, the profit was
increased by ` 18 crores (i.e., ` 45 crores minus ` 27 crores).
(iii) It was the practice of the company to make provision of @ 2% on sales for ‘After-Sales expenses’ during the
warranty period. It may be assumed that as a result of improved techniques and methods in production the
possibility of defects became very rare. Consequently, the company took decision not to make any provision
for after -sales expense’ during warranty period. As a result of this change, the profit would be increased by
` 12 crores.
(iv) As a result of permanent fall in the value of investments which took place over the last 5 years the company
decided to make provision to the extent of ` 10 crores. Due to this effect the profit would be reduced by ` 10
crores.
Illustration 2.
Which one is the correct one? Fundamental accounting assumptions as per AS 1 are:
(a) Going Concern, Matching and Consistency;
(b) Money Measurement, Going Concern and Prudence;
(c) Accounting Period, Going Concern and Entity Concept; and
(d) Going Concern, Consistency and Accruals.
Solution:
As per As 1, the fundamental accounting assumptions are: Going Concern, Consistency and Accruals.
Illustration 3.
Explain, in short, the relevant Disclosures of Accounting Policies as per AS 1.
Solution:
As per AS 1, the Disclosures of Accounting Policies are: All significant accounting policies adopted in the preparation
and presentation of financial statements should be disclosed.
The disclosure of the significant accounting policies as such should form part of the financial statements and the
significant accounting policies should normally be disclosed in one place.
Any change in the accounting policies which has a material effect in the current period or which is reasonably
expected to have a material effect in later periods should be disclosed. In the case of a change in accounting
policies which has a material effect in the current period, the amount by which any item in the financial statements
is affected by such change should also be disclosed to the extent ascertainable. Where such amount is not
ascertainable, wholly or in part, the fact should be indicated.
If the fundamental accounting assumptions, viz, Going Concern, Consistency and Accruals, are followed in
financial statements, specific disclosure is not required. If a fundamental accounting assumption is not followed,
the fact should be disclosed.
Illustration 4.
Explain the methods/criteria for the selection and application of Accounting Policies.
Solution:
The major considerations governing the selection and application of accounting policies are:
Prudence – Generally maker of financial statement has to face uncertainties at the time of preparation of financial
statement. These uncertainties may be regarding collectability of recoverable, number of warranty claims that
may occur. Prudence means making of estimates that are required under conditions of uncertainty.
Substance over form – It means that transaction should be accounted for in accordance with actual happening
and economic reality of the transactions not by its legal form.
Materiality – Financial Statement should disclose all the items and facts which are sufficient enough to influence
the decisions of reader or/ user of financial statement.
Objective:
The objective of this standard is to formulate the method of compu¬tation of cost of inventories/stock, to determine
the value of closing stock/ inventory at which, the inventory is to be shown in balance sheet till its’ sale and
recognition as revenue.
Inventories include:
• Held for sale in the ordinary course of business (finished goods)
• In the process of production of such sale (raw material and work-in-progress)
• In the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in production process or in the rendering of services (stores,
spares, raw material, consumables).
• Inventories do not include machinery.
Cost formula
Specific identification method means directly linking the cost to the specific item of inventories.
If in any case, specific identification method is not applicable the cost of inventories is valued by the following
methods:
• FIFO (First In First Out)
• Weighted Average cost.
When it is not practical to calculate the cost, the following methods may be followed to ascertain cost:
♦ Standard Cost
♦ Retail Method
Illustration 5.
Flow do you deal with the following?
On 31.3.2012, the closing stock of Gourav Ltd. includes 10,000 units costing @ ` 10 i.e., ` 1,00,000. But the current
market price as on that date was @ ` 9 i.e., ` 90,000.
Solution:
According to AS 2, Valuation of Inventories will be lower of cost and Net Realisable Value. In the present case the
cost is `(10×10,000) i.e. `1,00,000 and the Net Realisable Value is ` 90,000. Therefore the inventories will be valued
at `90,000 i.e. at Net Realisable Value.
Illustration 6.
From the following information presented by P Ltd. ascertain the value of stock to be included in Balance Sheet:
Cost Price of certain stock amounted to ` 60,000; being obsolete, it can be used for production purposes after
incurring ` 10,000 for modification. The same could be used as a by-product for an existing product, the purchase
price for the same amounts to ` 40,000.
Solution:
Cost price of the product (given) ` 60,000.
Net Realisable Value of the product ` 40,000 – ` 10,000 = ` 30,000. Inventories are valued at lower of Cost and Net
Realisable value. Hence, ` 30,000 should be treated as the Value of Stock to be included in Balance Sheet.
Illustration 7.
How will you deal with the following situation?
“A company deals in purchase and sale of timber and has included notional interest charges calculated (on the
paid-up share capital and free reserves) in the value of stock of timber as at the Balance Sheet date as part of
cost of holding the timber”.
Solution:
According to para 12 of AS 2, Valuation of Inventories, interest and other borrowing costs are usually considered
as not relating to bringing the inventories to their present location and condition and are, therefore, usually not
included in the cost of inventories. Hence, the valuation of closing stock of timber cannot be considered as it is
not in conformity with AS 2.
Illustration 8.
The company deals in three products A, B and C which are neither similar nor interchangeable. At the time of
closing of its account for the year 2012-13, the historical cost and net realisable value of the items of closing stock
are determined as:
Solution:
According to AS 2, Valuation of Inventories, para 5, inventories should be valued as per the cost or net realisable
value, whichever is lower. Thus, inventories should be valued as per itemwise as:
Illustration 9.
Z Co. Ltd. purchased goods at the cost of ` 40 lakhs in Oct. 2012, Till March 2013, 75% of the stocks were sold. The
company wants to disclose closing stock at ` 10 lakhs. The expected sales value is ` 11 lakhs and a commission at
10% on sale is payable to the agent.
Advise: What is the correct closing stock to be disclosed as at 31.3.2013?
Solution:
The stand of the company to disclose the closing stock at ` 10 lakhs is not in line with AS-2. As per AS 2-Valuation
of Inventories, para 5, inventory should be valued as per cost price or net realisable value, whichever is lower. In
the problem, cost price is ` 10 lakhs, but the net realisable value is ` 11,00,000 x 90% = ` 9,90,000. So, the value of
closing stock should be taken as ` 9,90,000 being the lower.
Illustration 10.
How would you deal with the following in the annual accounts of a company for the year ended 31.3.2013?
“The company has to pay delayed cotton clearing charges over and above the negotiated price for asking
delayed delivery of cotton from the supplier’s godown. Up to 2011-12, the company has regularly included such
charges in the valuation of closing stock. This being in the nature of interest the company has decided to exclude
it from closing stock valuation for the year 2012-13. This would result into decrease in profit by ` 7.60 lakhs.”
Solution:
As per para 12, AS 2, Valuation of Inventories, interest and other borrowing costs are usually considered as not
relating to bringing the inventories to their present location and condition and are, therefore, usually not included
in the cost of inventories. Thus, it becomes quite clear that delayed cotton clearing charges which were treated
in the nature of interest must not be included while valuing closing stock as per the provision of AS 2 and it is not in
compliance with AS 2 which was done up to 2010-11.
But from year 2011-12, the company decided to change the earlier view i.e. they decided to exclude the same
from the valuation of closing stock which is, no doubt, in compliance with AS 2.
As a result of change in accounting policy regarding valuation of stock the profit was reduced by is. 7.60 lakhs
which must be disclosed in the financial statement or per AS 1 as Notes to Account.
Illustration 11.
Sonar Bhandar deals in old colour TVs. It has 4 TVs the particulars of which are given below :
You are asked to compute the value of stock to be included, in Balance Sheet for the year ended 31st March
2013:
Solution:
As per para 5, AS 2 Valuation of Inventories, inventories should be valued at the lower of cost or net realisable
value on an item-by-item basis, which are:
Illustration 12.
The following particulars are presented by M Ltd. (deals in clothing) as on 31.3.2013:
Compute the value of stock as per AS 2.
Solution:
Valuation of Stock as per AS 2
As per AS 2, para 21, inventories are usually valued at lower of cost and net realisable value on an item-by-item
basis:
Illustration 13.
The total stock of A Ltd. as on 31.3.2013 was ` 5,00,000 of which stock amounting to ` 31,000 were not ascertained
as per AS 2.
Compute the value of the said stocks as per AS 2 for inclusion in financial statements as on that date.
Solution:
As per para 21, AS 2, inventories are usually written-down to net realisable value on item-by-item basis. Thus, value
of stock will be computed as:
Type of Cost Price (including Net Realisable Value (excluding Value of Stock to be taken
Product Production Exp.) Selling & Distribution Expenses (lower of Cost Price & Net
from Selling Price) Realisable Value)
` ` `
31,000
So, Value of Stock will be ` 31,000 for inclusion in financial statements as per AS 2.
Illustration 14.
X Ltd. presented the following particular as on 31.3.2013: Compute the value of stock as on 31.3.2013.
The total cost of product:
On 31.3.2013, selling price has gone down suddenly from ` 100 to ` 70. Price of raw material has also gone down to
` 8 each. X Ltd. had in its stock 6,000, units of materials which was bought as per the above rate on the same date.
Solution:
according to para 24, AS 2, when there has been a decline in the price of materials and it is estimated that the
cost of the finished products will exceed net realisable value, the materials are written-down to net realisable
value. In such circumstances, the replacement cost of the materials may be the best available measure of their
net realisable value. In this case, the total cost of ` 80 exceeds the net realisable value, i.e., selling price, of ` 70 (as
the price of raw materials had gone down from ` 12 to ` 8). So, inventories should be valued @ ` 70 each and, as
such, the total value of stock would be ` 4,20,000 (i.e., ` 6,000 units x ` 70).
Illustration 15.
State with reference to accounting standards how you will value the inventories in the following cases:
(i) Raw materials were purchased at ` 100 per kilo. Prices of raw materials are on the decline. The finished goods
in which the raw materials is incorporated is expected to be sold at below cost. 10,000 Kgs. of raw materials
is on stock at the year end. Replacement cost is ` 80 per kg.
(ii) In a production process, normal waste is 5% of input. 5,000 MT of input were put in process resulting in a
wastage of 300 MT. Cost per MT of input is ` 1,000. The entire quantity of waste is on stock at the year-end.
`
Material Cost 100
Direct Labour 20
Direct Variable Production Overhead 10
Fixed production charges for the year on normal capacity of one lakh kg is ` 10 lakhs. 2,000 kg of finished goods
are on stock at the year end.
Solution:
(i) As per para 24, AS 2, materials and other supplies held for use in the production of inventories are not written-
down below cost if the finished products in which they will be incorporated are expected to be sold at or
above cost. However, when there has been a decline in the price of materials and it is estimated that the
cost of the finished products will exceed net realisable value, the materials are written down to net realisable
value.
In this case, cost of raw material was ` 100 per kg. But the finished goods (which are produced from the said
raw materials) are expected to realise at below the Cost Price. So, the value of 10,000 kg of raw materials will
be @ ` 80 per kg (i.e. on the basis of replacement cost) ` 8,00,000.
(ii) As per para 13, AS 2, in determining the cost of inventories it is appropriate to exclude abnormal amount of
wasted materials, labour or other production expenses in the period in which they are incurred.
Information
Input 5,000 MT; Normal loss 5% of 5,000 MT = 250 MT.
Wastage 300 MT; Abnormal loss = 300 MT – 250 MT = 50 MT
Cost of one MT of input = ` 1,000. So cost of 250 MT should be included in the cost of finished goods. But the cost
of entire abnormal wastage (i.e. 1,000 x ` 50) ` 50,000 should be charged against Profit and Loss Account of the
company.
(iii) As per para 9, AS 2, the allocation of fixed production overheads for the purpose of their inclusion in the costs
of conversion is based on the normal capacity of the production facilities.
` 10,00,000
*Fixed Production overhead per kg = = ` 10 per kg.
1,00,000
Therefore, value of closing stock of finished goods will be ` 2,80,000 (i.e. 2,000 kg x ` 140)
Introduction:
Construction Contracts: As per AS-7 – Construction Contract is a contract specifically negotiated for the
construction of an Asset or combination of Assets closely interrelated or interdependent, for example, contract for
construction of building, dam, bridge, road etc. This Accounting Standard (AS) further mentions that the following
are also included in construction contracts.
• Contracts for rendering of services which are directly related to the construction of Assets, for example, service
of architect, and
• Contract for destruction or restoration of Asset and the restoration of the environment following the demolition
of Asset.
• For example, if the existing structure/building in a plot of land has to be demolished before new building as
per new design is constructed, the destruction of building is construction contract.
Types of Construction Contracts: Construction contracts are of two types:—
Fixed Price Contracts: In these contracts, contractor agrees for fixed price of the contract or fixed rate per unit.
Cost plus Contracts: In these contracts, contractor is reimbursed the cost is defined plus fixed percentage of fee/
profit.
Some construction contracts may be a mix of the both.
Objective: Accounting for long-term construction contracts involves question as to when revenue should be
recognized and how to measure the revenue in the books of contractor. There may be following two ways to
determine profit or loss:
• On year to year basis based on percentage of completion or
• On completion of the contract.
However, the revised standard has eliminated the existing option, by adopting only percentage of completion
method for recognizing the revenue. This method justifies the accrual system of accounting which is fundamental
accounting assumption. The primary objective of this AS is the allocation of ‘contract revenue’ and ‘contract cost’
to the accounting period in which construction work is performed.
Applicability: This Standard is applicable in accounting for construction contracts in contractor’s financial statements.
In other words the AS does not apply to customer (Contractee). This would not be applicable for the construction
projects undertaken by the enterprise on its own account as a commercial venture in the nature of production
activities.
Calculation of profit or loss of a construction contract: Profit or loss of construction contract is equal to (Contract
Revenue – Contract Cost).
Measurement of Contract Revenue: As per Para 31 of AS, the contract revenue and contract cost associated
with the construction contract should recognize revenue and expenses respectively with reference to stage of
completion of the contract activity at the reporting date.
Recognisition of revenue and expenses by reference to the stage of completion of a contract is generally referred
as the Percentage of Completion Method; under this method revenue is recognized as revenue in the statement
of profit/loss in the accounting period in which work is performed.
Determination of stage of completion: Stage of completion may be determined in a variety of ways like:
• Cost to cost method: the percentage of completion would be estimated by comparing total cost incurred
to date with total cost expected for the entire contract:—
Percentage of Completion = (Cost to Date × 100) / (Cumulative Cost Incurred + Estimated Cost to Complete)
Current revenue from contract = Contract price × Percentage of completion – Revenue previously recognized
• By survey of work performed
• Completion of physical proportion of the contract work
While calculating the contract cost to date as mentioned above in formula following contract cost should be
excluded.
• Contract cost that relates to future activity on the contract such as cost of material that have been delivered
to a contract site or set aside for use of a contract but not used and applied.
• Payment made to sub-contractors in advance of work performed under the sub-contract.
Cost excluded
Following costs are excluded from contract cost unless specifically chargeable under terms of contract:
• General administration cost
• Selling cost
• Research and development
• Depreciation cost of idle plant and equipment
• Cost incurred in securing the contract. Pre-contract cost - if it is not probable that contract will be obtained.
However, costs that relate directly to a contract and which are incurred in securing the contract if they can be
separately identified and it is probable that contract will be obtained, such costs are also included in contract
cost.
Contract revenue consists of the following :-
• Revenue/price agreed as per Contract.
• Revenue arising due to escalation clause.
• Claims - Claims is the amount that contractors seek to collect from the customer as reimbursement of cost not
included in contract price.
• Increase in revenue due to increase in units of output.
• Increase or decrease in revenue due to change or variation in scope of work to be performed.
• Incentive payments to the contractors.
• Decrease in contract revenue due to penalties.
Provision for expected losses: When it is probable that total contract cost will exceed total contract revenue, the
expected losses should be recognized as an expense irrespective of —
• Whether or not work has been commenced
• Stage of completion of contract
• The amount of profit on other contracts which are not treated as a single contract.
Effect of change in estimate in construction contract: As the recognition of revenue and expenses in construction
contract is based on reliable estimate, nevertheless the estimate is bound to vary from one accounting period to
another accounting period of the construction contract; the effect of change in estimate of contract revenue or
contract cost is accounted as change in accounting estimate as per AS-5.
As per Para 21 of AS-5 the change in accounting estimates does not bring the adjustment within the definition of
an extraordinary item or prior period items. Therefore, changed estimates are used to determine the amount of
contract revenue and contract expenses recognized in the statement of profit and loss in the period in which the
changes is made and in subsequent periods.
Significant differences among AS-7, IFRS/IAS-11 and US GAAP: After the issue of AS-7 (revised) in 2002 the only
method prescribed is percentage completion method to recognize the contract revenue, which is the same as
AS-11. However, US GAAP in certain circumstances allows another method i.e. completed contract method for
recognition of contract revenue.
US GAAP provides detailed guidance on the use of estimate in accounting for construction contract, however, no
such guidance is provided under AS-7 and IAS-11.
Illustration 16.
A firm of contractors obtained a contract for completion of bridges across river Revathi. The following details are
available in the records kept the year ended 31st March, 2012:
Particulars ` in Lakhs
Total Contract Price 1,000
Works Certified 500
Works not Certified 105
Estimated further cost 495
Progress payment received 400
Progress payment to be received 140
The firm seeks your advice and assistance in presentation of accounts keeping in view the requirements of AS-7 “
Accounting for Construction Contract”.
Solution:
As per AS 7, ‘Construction Contract’, when it is probable that total contract costs will exceed total revenue,
the expected loss should be immediately recognized as an expense. The amount of such a loss is determined
irrespective of (a) Whether or not work has commenced on the contract,(b) the stage of completion of contract
activity as per AS 7.
We are to compute the anticipated loss and current loss which are computed as:
Anticipated or Foreseeable Loss
Particulars ` in lakhs
Cost of Total Contract:
Work Certified 500
Add: Work not certified 105
Add: Estimated further cost to completion 495
1,100
Less: Contract Price 1,000
Anticipated / Foreseeable loss 100
Particulars ` In lakhs
Contract revenue 550
Contract expenses 605
Expected Losses 45
Recognized profits less recognized losses (100)
Progress billings (400 + 140) 540
Retentions (billed but not received from contractee) 140
Gross amount due to customers 35
Illustration 17.
On 31.12.2012, Viswakarma Construction Company Ltd. undertook a contract to construct a building for ` 85 lakhs.
On 31.03.2013, the company found that it had already spent ` 64,99,000 on the construction. Prudent estimate of
the additional cost for completion was ` 32,01,000.
What is the additional provision for foreseeable loss which must be made in the final accounts for the year ended
31.03.12 As per provisions AS 7 on “ Accounting for construction contract?”
Solution:
As per AS 7, ‘Construction Contract’, when it is probable that total contract costs will exceed total revenue,
the expected loss should be immediately recognized as an expense. The amount of such a loss is determined
irrespective of (a) Whether or not work has commenced on the contract,(b) the stage of completion of contract
activity as per AS 7, (c) the amount of profit expected to arise on other contracts which are not treated as a single
contract.
In this case the anticipated losses are calculated as follows:
Anticipated or Foreseeable Loss
Particulars ` in lakhs
Cost incurred 64.99
Add: Additional cost for computation 32.01
97.00
Less: Contract Price 85.00
Anticipated / Foreseeable loss 12.00
Thus, as per AS 7, the whole amount of anticipated loss should be recognized and to be adjusted accordingly
against the profit of the current year.
Illustration 18.
Calculate the contract revenue from the following details
(` In Crores)
Years
Particulars I II III
1. Initial contract revenue 2000 2000 2000
2. Revenue increase due to escalation in IInd year — 400 —
3. Claim 200
4. Incentive Payment 300
5. Penalties 100
Solution:
Calculation of contract revenue
Particulars I II III
Initial contract value 2000 2000 2000
Increase in revenue due to escalation — 400 400
Claims — — 200
Incentive — — 300
Penalties — (100) (100)
Contract revenue 2000 2300 2800
Illustration 19.
Assume a ` 10,00,000 contract that requires 3 years to complete and incurs a total cost of ` 8,10,000. The following
data pertain to the construction period:
Objective: The standard explains when the revenue should be recognized in profit and loss account also mentions
the circumstances in which revenue recognition can be postponed. Revenue means gross inflow of cash,
receivable or other consideration arising in the course of ordinary activities of an enterprise such as:
• Sale of goods
• Rendering the services
• Use of enterprises resources by others yielding interest, dividend and royalties
In other words, revenue is charge made to customers/clients for goods supplied and services rendered.
This Standard does not deal with the following aspects of revenue recognition to which special considerations
apply:
(i) Revenue arising from construction contracts; [ AS 7 on ‘Construction Contracts’]
(ii) Revenue arising from hire-purchase, lease agreements;
(iii) Revenue arising from government grants and other similar subsidies;
(iv) Revenue of insurance companies arising from insurance contracts.
Examples of items not included within the definition of “revenue” for the purpose of this Standard are:
(i) Realised gains resulting from the disposal of, and unrealised gains resulting from the holding of, non-current
assets e.g. appreciation in the value of fixed assets;
(ii) Unrealised holding gains resulting from the change in value of current assets, and the natural increases in
herds and agricultural and forest products;
(iii) Realised or unrealised gains resulting from changes in foreign exchange rates and adjustments arising on the
translation of foreign currency financial statements;
(iv) Realised gains resulting from the discharge of an obligation at less than its carrying amount;
(v) Unrealised gains resulting from the restatement of the carrying amount of an obligation.
Timing of Revenue Recognition: Revenue from sale or rendering of services should be recognized at the time of sale
or rendering of services. However if at the time of sale or rendering of services there is a significant uncertainty in
ultimate collection of the revenue, then the revenue recognition is postponed and in such cases revenue should
be recognized only when it becomes reasonably certain that ultimate collection will be made. It also applies to
the revenue arising out of escalation of price; export incentive, interest etc.
Revenue from Sale of Goods: Revenue is recognized when all the following conditions are fulfilled:
• Seller has transferred the ownership of goods to buyer for a price.
Or
• All significant risks and rewards of ownership have been transferred to buyer
• Seller does not retain any effective control of ownership on the transferred goods
• There is no significant uncertainty in collection of the amount of consideration (i.e. cash, receivables etc.)
If delivery is delayed at buyer’s request and buyer takes title and accept billing, then the revenue should be
recognized immediately but goods must be in hand of seller, identified and ready for delivery at the time of
recognition of revenue.
Revenue Recognition when delivery of goods sold subject to certain conditions:
• Installation and Inspection: Revenue should be recognized when goods are installed at the buyer’s place to
his satisfaction and inspected and accepted by the buyer.
• Sale on Approval: Revenue should be recognized when buyer confirms his desire to buy such goods through
communication.
• Guaranteed Sales: Revenue should be recognized as per the substance of the agreement of sale or after the
reasonable period has expired.
• Warranty Sales: Revenue should be recognized immediately but the provision should be made to cover
unexpired warranty.
• Consignment Sales: Revenue should be recognized only when the goods are sold to third party.
• Special Order and Shipments: Revenue from such sales should be recognized when the goods are identified
and ready for delivery.
• Subscription for Publication: When items delivered vary in value from period to period, the revenue should be
recognized on the basis of sales value of those items delivered. When items delivered do not vary in value
from period to period, the revenue should be recognized on straight-line basis over time.
• Installment Sales: Revenue of sales price excluding interest should be recognized on the date of sale. Interest
should be recognized proportionately to the unpaid balance.
Revenue from Rendering of Services: Revenue from rendering of service is generally recognized as the service is
performed. The performance of service is measured by following two methods:
(i) Completed Service Contract Method: Revenue is recognized when service is about to be completed and no
significant uncertainties exist about collection of the amount of service charges.
(ii) Proportionate Completion Method: The revenue recognized under this method would be determined on the
basis of contract value, associated costs, number of acts or other suitable basis.
The norms for revenue recognition for rendering of services under special condition are as follows:
• Advertising and Insurance Agency Commission: Advertising commission is recognized when advertisement
appears before public and for insurance agency commission on the effective commencement or renewal
date of the policies respectively.
• Financial Service Commission: Generally, commission charged for arranging or granting loan and other
facilities should be recognized when a loan is sanctioned and accepted by borrower.
• Admission Fee: Revenue from artistic performance, banquets and other special events should be recognized
when event takes place.
• Tuition Fee: Revenue should be recognized over the period of instruction.
• Entrance and Membership Fee: Entrance fees are generally capitalized and membership fees should be
recognized on systematic and rational basis having regard to timing and nature of service provided.
Some Special Treatment of Revenue Recognition
Revenue from interest: Revenue from interest should be recognized on time proportion basis.
Revenue from royalties: It is recognized on accrual basis as per terms of agreement.
Revenue from dividend: It is recognized when declaring company declares dividend.
When uncertainty of collection of revenue arises subsequently after the revenue recognition, it is better to make
provision for the uncertainty in collection rather than adjustment in already recognised revenue.
Disclosure: When revenue recognition is postponed, the disclosure of the circumstances necessitating the
postponement should be made.
Treatment of Inter-Divisional Transfers: ICAI has announced that inter-divisional transfers/sales are not the revenue
as per AS-9 “Revenue Recognition”. Since in case of inter-divisional transfers, risks and rewards remain within the
enterprise and also there is no consideration from the point of view of the enterprise as a whole, the recognition
criteria for revenue recognition are also not fulfilled in respect of inter-divisional transfers.
Significant difference among AS-9, IFRS/IAS-18 & US GAAP:
• The definition of “Revenue” is almost same in AS-9 and in IFRS/IAS-18; however there is no specific standard
for recognizing the revenue under US GAAP. There are several pronouncements in US having varying degree
of authority on an ad hoc basis.
• Under IFRS/IAS-18, the revenue recognition from rendering of services is done on the basis of percentage of
completion method whereas in AS-9 revenue from rendering of services can be recognized on proportionate
completion method or completed service method.
• Under IAS-18/US GAAP revenue from interest is recognized using the effective interest method.
• IFRS/IAS-18 contains the provisions for revenue swaps; however no such corresponding provisions are in AS-9.
Illustration 20.
When can revenue be recognized in the case of transaction of sale of goods?
Solution:
According to AS-9, Revenue Recognition, revenue from the sales transaction should be recognized only when the
following provision are made/satisfied:
The seller has transferred the property in the goods to the buyer for consideration. The transfer of property in goods
results in or coincides with the transfer of significant risks and rewards of ownership to the buyer. If such risks are not
involved/ associated with sale, revenue in such a situation is recognized at the time of transfer of risks and rewards
of ownership to the buyer.
Moreover, no uncertainty should exist regarding the amount of consideration which will be derived from such sale
of goods.
Illustration 21.
X Ltd. has recognized ` 10 lakhs on accrual basis from dividends on units of mutual fund of the face value of ` 50
lakhs held by it as at the end of the financial year 31st March, 2013. The dividends on mutual funds were declared
@ 20% on 15th July 2013. The dividends were proposed on 10th April, 2013 by the declaring company. Whether the
treatment is as per the relevant Accounting Standard?
Solution:
As per AS 9 , dividends from investment in shares are not recognized in the statement of Profit and Loss until a right
to receive payment is established.
In the present case the dividend was proposed on 10th April, 2013, but the scheme was declared on 15th July, 2013.
Thus, it is quite clear that right to receive payment is established on 15th July, 2013. So, income from dividend on
units of mutual fund must be recognized by X Ltd. for the year ended 31st March, 2014.
It may be mentioned here that the recognition of ` 10 lakhs under accrual basis in the year 2012-13 is not as per AS -9.
Illustration 22.
Arjun Ltd. sold farm equipment through its dealer. One of the conditions at the time of sale is payment of consideration
in 14 days and, in the event of delay, interest is chargeable @ 15% p.a. The company has not realized interest from
the dealers in the past. However, for the year ended 31.03.2013, it wants to recognized interest due on the balances
due from dealers. The account is ascertained at ` 9 lakhs.
Decide whether the income by way of interest from dealers is eligible for recognition as per AS 9.
Solution:
As per AS 9, effect of uncertainties on Revenue Recognition, where the liability to assess the ultimate collection with
reasonable certainty is lacking at the time of raising any claim, revenue recognition is postponed to the extent of
uncertainty involved. It may be appropriate to recognize the revenue only when it is reasonably certain that the
ultimate collection will be made.
However, in the present case, it has been found that the company did not realized the amount of interest in the
past for delayed payment made by dealers. Thus, interest can be recognized only when the ultimate collection is
made or taken. Hence, in the present case, interest income is not to be considered as recognized revenue.
Illustration 23.
Y co. Ltd. used certain resources of X Ltd. In return X Ltd. received ` 10 lakhs and ` 15 lakhs as interest and royalties,
respectively from Y Ltd. during the year 2012-13.
Solution:
As per AS 9, revenue arising from the use by others of enterprise resources yielding interest, royalties and dividends
should only be recognized when no significant uncertainty as to measurability or collectability exists. These revenues
are recognized on the following bases:
(i) Interest on time proportion basis taking into account outstanding and the rate applicable.
(ii) Royalties on an accrual basis in accordance with the terms of the relevant agreement.
Illustration 24.
Advise B Ltd. about the treatment of the following in the final statement of accounts for the year ended 31st March,
2013.
“As a result of a recently announced price revision granted by the Govt. of India w.e.f 01.07.2012 the company
stands to receive ` 5,20,000 form its customers in respect of sales made in 2012-13.”
Solution:
It becomes quite clear from the above question that, as a result of price revision granted by the Govt. additional
sales are to be made for ` 5,20,000 in 2012-13, although the accounts are prepared for the year ended 31.03.13.
According to AS 9, if the ability to assess the ultimate collection with reasonable certainty is lacking at the time of
raising any claim ; e.g. for escalation of price etc. Revenue recognition is postponed to the extent of uncertainty
involved. In such cases, it may be appropriate to recognize revenue only when it is reasonably certain that the
ultimate collection, will be made revenue is recognized at the time of sale or rendering services.
Thus, if there is no uncertainty as to the ultimate collection of ` 5,20,000, it should be recognized as revenue and
may be treated accordingly in the financial statement for the period ended 31.03.2013.
Illustration 25.
Advise P Ltd. about the treatment of the following in final statement of accounts for the year ended 31.03.13:
A claim lodged with the Railways in March 2010, for loss of goods of ` 2,00,000 had been passed for payment in
March 2013 for ` 1,50,000. No entry was passed in the books of the company when claim was lodged.
Solution:
It becomes clear from the above statement that accounts were prepared for the year ended 31.03.13. The problem
states that there was a loss amounting for ` 2,00,000 in 2009-10, which was lodged in March 2010 with the Railways.
The problem further states that, when the claim was lodged, no entry was passed in the books of account. This
corroborate AS 9 and it says,” Revenue recognition is postponed if there is any uncertainty regarding its ultimate
collection.”
But, ` 1,50,000 was settled for payment against the claim of ` 2,00,000 in March 2013. Needless to say that the revenue
is recognized in the Financial Statement prepared for the period ended 31.03.2013 as it was passed for payment.
Illustration 26.
How would you deal with the following in the annual accounts of a company for the year ended 31.03.2013:
The Board of Directors decided on 31.03.2013 to increase the sale price of certain items retrospectively from
01.01.2013.
In view of this price revision w.e.f 01.01.2013, the company has to receive ` 15 lakh from its customers in respect of
sales made from 01.01.13 to 31.03.13 and the accountant cannot make up his mind whether to include ` 15 lakhs
in the sales for 2012-13.
Solution:
As per AS 9, revenue should be recognized only when there is no uncertainty about its ultimate collection. If any
uncertainty regarding ultimate collection exists, revenue recognition is postponed. As such, whether the said ` 15
lakhs will be treated as recognized depends on its nature of certainty. If no uncertainty exists, the same should be
treated as recognized revenue and, in the opposite case, it should be postponed.
Illustration 27.
TVSM Ltd. has taken a transit insurance policy. Suddenly, in the year 2012-13, the percentage of accident has
gone up to 7% and the company wants to recognize insurance claim as revenue in 2012-13. In accordance with
relevant accounting standard.
Do you agree?
Solution:
As per AS 9, where the ability to assess the ultimate collection with reasonable certainty is lacking at the time of
raising any claim, revenue recognition is postponed to the extent of uncertainty involved. In such cases, it may be
appropriate to recognize revenue only when it is reasonably certain that the ultimate collection will be made. Where
there is no uncertainty as to ultimate collections, revenue is recognized at the time of sale or rendering services.
Moreover, consideration receivable should reasonably be determinable. Revenue recognition is postponed if not
determinable within a reasonable limit.
Thus, in this case, since there are uncertainties, recognition of revenue should be postponed by the company.
Illustration 28.
Bottom Ltd. entered into a sale deed for its immovable property before the end of the year. But registration was
done with Registrar subsequent to Balance Sheet date.
But before finalization, is it possible to recognize the sale and the gain at the Balance Sheet date? Give your views
with reasons.
Solution:
As per AS 9, Revenue Recognition: A key criterion for determining when to recognize revenue from a transaction
involving the sale of goods is that the seller has transferred the property in the goods to the buyer for a consideration.
The transfer of property in goods, in most cases, results in or coincides with the transfer of significant risks and reward
of ownership to the buyer. However, there may be situations where transfer of property in goods does not coincide
with the transfer of significant risks and rewards of ownership. Revenue in such situations is recognized at the time
of transfer of significant risks and rewards of ownership to the buyer. Such cases may arise where delivery has been
delayed through the fault of either the buyer or the seller and the goods are at the risk of the party at fault as
regards any loss which might not have occurred but for such fault. Further, sometimes the parties may agree that
the risk will pass at a time different from the time of ownership passes.
In the present case, sale of immovable property with a gain on such sale should be recognized at the Balance
Sheet date although registration for such sale had been done subsequent to the Balance Sheet date. It may be
mentioned here that registration cannot bring any uncertainty as it was nothing but a technical matter.
Illustration 29.
SCL Ltd. sells agricultural products to dealers, One of the conditions of sale is that interest is payable at the rate of
2% p.m. for delayed payments. Percentage of interest recovery is only 10% on such overdue outstanding due to
various reasons. During the year 2012-13, the company wants to recognize the interest receivable.
Do you agree?
Solution:
As per AS 9, Revenue Recognition requires that revenue is measurable at the time of sale. Interest, royalties, dividends
should be recognized as revenue only where there will not be any uncertainty regarding the ultimate collection.
It may be appropriate to recognize revenue only when it is reasonably certain that the ultimate collection will be
made. When there is no uncertainty as to ultimate collection, revenue is recognized at the time of sale even though
payments are made by installment.
In the present case, however, SCL Ltd. cannot recognize the entire amount of interest as revenue. Recovery of
interest @ 10% on outstanding balance is merely estimated which is uncertain to ultimate collection.
(a) biological assets related to agricultural activity other than bearer plants. This Standard applies to bearer
plants but it does not apply to the produce on bearer plants; and
(b) wasting assets including mineral rights, expenditure on the exploration for and extraction of minerals, oil,
natural gas and similar non-regenerative resources.
However, this Standard applies to property, plant and equipment used to develop or maintain the assets described
in (a) and (b) above.
Other Accounting Standards may require recognition of an item of property, plant and equipment based on an
approach different from that in this Standard. For example, AS 19, Leases, requires an enterprise to evaluate its
recognition of an item of leased property, plant and equipment on the basis of the transfer of risks and rewards.
However, in such cases other aspects of the accounting treatment for these assets, including depreciation, are
prescribed by this Standard.
Investment property, as defined in AS 13, Accounting for Investments, should be accounted for only in accordance
with the cost model prescribed in this standard.
Definitions
The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified:
Biological Asset is a living animal or plant.
Agricultural Activity is the management by an enterprise of the biological transformation and harvest of biological
assets for sale or for conversion into agricultural produce or into additional biological assets.
Agricultural Produce is the harvested product of biological assets of the enterprise.
Bearer plant is a plant that
(a) is used in the production or supply of agricultural produce;
(b) is expected to bear produce for more than a period of twelve months; and
(c) has a remote likelihood of being sold as agricultural produce, except for incidental scrap sales.
The following are not bearer plants:
(i) plants cultivated to be harvested as agricultural produce ;
(ii) plants cultivated to produce agricultural produce when there is more than a remote likelihood that the entity
will also harvest and sell the plant as agricultural produce, other than as incidental scrap sales;
(iii) annual crops.
When bearer plants are no longer used to bear produce they might be cut down and sold as scrap.
Once an item of property, plant and equipment qualifies for recognition as an asset, it will be initially measured
at cost.
Carrying amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised after deducting any accumulated depreciation
and accumulated impairment losses.
Cost is the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value of the other consideration given to acquire an
asset at the time of its acquisition or construction or, where applicable, the amount attributed to that asset when
initially recognised in accordance with the specific requirements of other Accounting Standards.
Depreciable amount is the cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost, less its residual value.
Depreciation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over its useful life.
Enterprise - specific value is the present value of the cash flows an enterprise expects to arise from the continuing
use of an asset and from its disposal at the end of its useful life or expects to incur when settling a liability.
Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged between knowledgeable, willing parties in an
arm’s length transaction.
Gross carrying amount of an asset is its cost or other amount substituted for the cost in the books of account,
without making any deduction for accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses.
An impairment loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its recoverable amount.
Property, plant and equipment are tangible items that:
(a) are held for use in the production or supply of goods or services, for rental to others, or for administrative
purposes; and
(b) are expected to be used during more than a period of twelve months.
Recoverable amount is the higher of an asset’s net selling price and its value in use.
The residual value of an asset is the estimated amount that an enterprise would currently obtain from disposal of
the asset, after deducting the estimated costs of disposal, if the asset were already of the age and in the condition
expected at the end of its useful life.
Useful life is:
(a) the period over which an asset is expected to be available for use by an enterprise ; or
(b) the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the asset by an enterprise.
Recognition Criteria
The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment should be recognised as an asset if, and only if:
• it is probable that future economic benefits associated with the item will flow to the enterprise; and
• the cost of the item can be measured reliably.
Items such as spare parts are usually treated as inventory and to be recognized in the Profit and Loss Account as
and when consumed.
Standby equipments and major spare parts are treated as property, plant and equipment when they are expected
to be used over more than one period. They are included in non-current assets from the date the cost is incurred.
Items which can be used exclusively with an item of Property, Plant and Equipment are accounted for as Property,
Plant and Equipment.
This Standard does not prescribe the unit of measure for recognition, i.e., what constitutes an item of property,
plant and equipment. Thus, judgment is required in applying the recognition criteria to specific circumstances of
an enterprise. Any type of expenditure that meets these recognition criteria must be accounted for as an asset.
As per this standard individually insignificant items can be aggregated. An enterprise may decide to expense an
item which could otherwise have been included as property, plant and equipment, because the amount of the
expenditure is not material.
An Accounting Standard on Agriculture is under formulation, which will, inter alia, cover accounting for livestock.
Till the time, the Accounting Standard on Agriculture is issued, accounting for livestock meeting the definition of
Property, Plant and Equipment, will be covered as per AS 10 (Revised), Property, Plant and Equipment.
An enterprise evaluates under this recognition principle all its costs on property, plant and equipment at the time
they are incurred. These costs include costs incurred:
(a) initially to acquire or construct an item of property, plant and equipment; and
(b) subsequently to add to, replace part of, or service it.
Initial Costs
• The definition of ‘property, plant and equipment’ covers tangible items which are held for use or for
administrative purposes.
The term ‘administrative purposes’ has been used in wider sense to include all business purposes other than
production or supply of goods or services or for rental for others.
• Items of property, plant and equipment may also be acquired for safety or environmental reasons. Such
items of property, plant and equipment qualify for recognition as assets because they enable an enterprise
to derive future economic benefits from related assets in excess of what could be derived had those items
not been acquired.
• The resulting carrying amount of such an asset and related assets is reviewed for impairment in accordance
with AS 28, Impairment of Assets.
Subsequent Costs
• Enterprise does not recognise in the carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment the costs
of the day-to-day servicing of the item. Rather, these costs are recognised in the statement of profit and loss
as incurred.
• The purpose of such expenditures is often described as for the ‘repairs and maintenance’ of the item of
property, plant and equipment.
• Parts of some items of property, plant and equipment may require replacement at regular intervals. For
example, a furnace may require relining after a specified number of hours of use, or aircraft interiors such as
seats and galleys may require replacement several times during the life of the airframe. Similarly, major parts
of conveyor system, such as, conveyor belts, wire ropes, etc., may require replacement several times during
the life of the conveyor system.
• Items of property, plant and equipment may also be acquired to make a less frequently recurring replacement,
such as replacing the interior walls of a building, or to make a non-recurring replacement. Under the
recognition principle of this standard an enterprise recognises in the carrying amount of an item of property,
plant and equipment the cost of replacing part of such an item when that cost is incurred if the recognition
criteria are met. The carrying amount of those parts that are replaced is derecognised in accordance with
the derecognition provisions.
• A condition of continuing to operate an item of property, plant and equipment (for example, an aircraft) may
be performing regular major inspections for faults regardless of whether parts of the item are replaced. When
each major inspection is performed, its cost is recognised in the carrying amount of the item of property, plant
and equipment as a replacement if the recognition criteria are satisfied. Any remaining carrying amount of
the cost of the previous inspection (as distinct from physical parts) is derecognised.
• The derecognition of the carrying amount occurs regardless of whether the cost of the previous part / inspection
was identified in the transaction in which the item was acquired or constructed. If it is not practicable for an
enterprise to determine the carrying amount of the replaced part/ inspection, it may use the cost of the
replacement or the estimated cost of a future similar inspection as an indication of what the cost of the
replaced part/ existing inspection component was when the item was acquired or constructed.
Measurement at Recognition
An item of property, plant and equipment that qualifies for recognition as an asset should be measured at its cost.
Elements of Cost
The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment comprises:
(a) its purchase price, including import duties and non –refundable purchase taxes,, after deducting trade
discounts and rebates.
(b) any costs directly attributable to bringing the asset to the location and condition necessary for it to be
capable of operating in the manner intended by management.
(c) the initial estimate of the costs of dismantling, removing the item and restoring the site on which it is located,
referred to as ‘decommissioning, restoration and similar liabilities’, the obligation for which an enterprise incurs
either when the item is acquired or as a consequence of having used the item during a particular period for
purposes other than to produce inventories during that period.
AS-10 specifies that — any exchange of items of property, plant and equipment are measured at fair value, unless:
(a) the exchange transaction lacks commercial substance or
(b) the fair value of neither of the assets exchanges can be measured reliably.
If the acquired item is not measured at fair value, its cost is measured at the carrying amount of the asset given up.
Whether an exchange transaction has commercial substance depends on the extent to which the reporting
entity’s future cash flows are expected to change as a result of the transaction. If the expected cash flows after
the exchange differ from what would have been expected without this occurring, the exchange has commercial
substance and is to be accounted for at fair value. If the transaction does not have commercial substance, or the
fair value of neither the asset received nor the asset given up can be measured reliably, then the asset acquired
is valued at the carrying amount of the asset given up less settle-up paid or received in cash or a cash equivalent,
this is often referred to as boot.
Cost Model
After recognition as an asset, an item of property, plant and equipment should be carried at its cost less any
accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment losses.
Revaluation Model
Should be carried at a revalued amount, being its fair value at the date of the revaluation less any subsequent
accumulated depreciation and subsequent accumulated impairment losses.
Revaluations should be made with sufficient regularity to ensure that the carrying amount does not differ materially
from that which would be determined using fair value at the balance sheet date.
Revaluations
Fair value
Land and Buildings - Market value is determined by appraisal normally done by professionally qualified valuers.
Plant and Equipment
• If there is no market based evidence of fair value, fair value is estimated using
- An income approach
Frequency of Revaluation
• It must be made sufficiently regularly to ensure no material difference between carrying amount and fair
value at the end of the reporting period.
• Frequency of revaluation depends on movements in fair values. When the fair value differs materially from
carrying amount, a further revaluation will be necessary.
• Items within a class may be revalued on a rolling basis within a short period of time, if revaluations are kept up
to date.
• Elimination against gross carrying amount and the net amount restated to the revalued amount, the latter
method is simpler and most commonly used for buildings.
Depreciation
• Each part of an item of property, plant and equipment with a cost that is significant in relation to the total cost
of the item should be depreciated separately.
• An enterprise allocates the amount initially recognised in respect of an item of property, plant and equipment
to its significant parts and depreciates each such part separately. For example, it may be appropriate to
depreciate separately the airframe and engines of an aircraft, whether owned or subject to a finance lease.
• A significant part of an item of property, plant and equipment may have a useful life and a depreciation
method that are the same as the useful life and the depreciation method of another significant part of that
same item. Such parts may be grouped in determining the depreciation charge.
• To the extent that an enterprise depreciates separately some parts of an item of property, plant and equipment,
it also depreciates separately the remainder of the item. The remainder consists of the parts of the item that are
individually not significant. If an enterprise has varying expectations for these parts, approximation techniques
may be necessary to depreciate the remainder in a manner that faithfully represents the consumption pattern
and/or useful life of its parts.
• An enterprise may choose to depreciate separately the parts of an item that do not have a cost that is
significant in relation to the total cost of the item.
• The depreciation charge for each period should be recognised in the statement of profit and loss unless it is
included in the carrying amount of another asset.
• Sometimes, the future economic benefits embodied in an asset are absorbed in producing other assets. In
this case, the depreciation charge constitutes part of the cost of the other asset and is included in its carrying
amount. For example, the depreciation of manufacturing plant and equipment is included in the costs of
conversion of inventories (see AS 2). Similarly, the depreciation of property, plant and equipment used for
development activities may be included in the cost of an intangible asset recognised in accordance with AS
26, Intangible Assets.
The Depreciable amount of an Asset shall be allocated over its useful life on systematic basis.
Factors to be considered —
- Expected usage assessed by reference to expected capacity or physical output;
- Expected physical wear and tear
- Technical obsolescence arising from changes or improvements in production; or changes in market demand
for product or service output
- Legal or similar limits on the use
- Asset management policy may involve disposal of assets after a specified time therefore useful life may be
shorter than economic life.
- Repair and maintenance policies may also affect useful life but do not negate the need for depreciation.
Residual value
— is the estimated value of depreciable assets at the end of its useful life.
— Depreciable amount is the amount net of residual value. Residual value is often insignificant and immaterial
to the calculation of the depreciable amount.
— Depreciation is always recognized, even if fair value exceeds carrying amount, except when residual value is
greater than carrying amount
Period of Depreciation
• It commences when an asset is available for use.
• It ceases at the earlier of the date the asset is:
- retired from active use and
- held for disposal
• Depreciation does not cease when an asset is idle or retired from active use
• Depreciation may be zero under the “units of production method”.
Land and buildings are separable assets and are separately accounted for, even when they are acquired
together:
- Land has an unlimited useful life and is not depreciated.
- Buildings have a limited useful life and are depreciable asset.
• Where land has a limited useful life ,it is depreciated.
Methods of Depreciation
• Straight line
• Diminishing balance
• Sum of the units
• Review periodically and, if significant, change method to reflect a change in pattern of consumption of
future benefits. Account for as a change in accounting estimate and adjust depreciation charge for current
and future period.
The depreciation method should also be reviewed at least of each financial year end and, if there has been a
significant change in the expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits, the method should
be changed to suit this changed pattern.
When such a change in depreciation takes place the change should be known and accounted for as a change
in accounting estimate and the depreciation charge for the current and future periods should be adjusted.
Impairment is necessary
• To determine whether an item of Property, Plant and Equipment is impaired an entity applies AS-28, Impairment
of Assets and the Impairment losses are accounted for accordance with AS-28.
Disclosure
The financial statements should disclose, for each class of property, plant and equipment:
(a) the measurement bases (i.e., cost model or revaluation model) used for determining the gross carrying
amount;
12.6 IND AS
Material items
The nature and amount of items of income and expense are disclosed separately where they are material.
Disclosure may be in the statement or in the notes. Such income and expenses might include restructuring costs;
write-downs of inventories or property, plant and equipment; litigation settlements; and gains or losses on disposals
of property, plant and equipment.
Presentation of true and fair view
Financial statements shall present a true and fair view of the financial position, financial performance and cash
flows of an entity. The application of Ind AS, with additional disclosures when necessary, is presumed to result in
financial statements that present a true and fair view.
Going concern and accrual basis of accounting
An entity shall prepare financial statements on a going concern basis unless management intends to either
liquidate the entity or cease trading, or has no realistic alternative but to do so.
An entity shall prepare its financial statements, except for cash flow information, using the accrual basis of
accounting.
Offsetting
An entity shall not offset assets and liabilities or income and expenses, unless required or permitted by Ind AS.
Balance sheet
The balance sheet presents an entity’s financial position at a specific point in time. Subject to meeting certain
minimum presentation and disclosure requirements, management may use its judgement regarding the form
of presentation, such as which sub-classifications to present and what information to disclose on the face of the
statement or in the notes.
Ind AS 1 specifies that the following items, as a minimum, are presented on the face of the balance sheet:
Assets: Property, plant and equipment; investment property; intangible assets; financial assets; investments
accounted for using the equity method; biological assets; deferred tax assets; current tax assets; inventories; trade
and other receivables; and cash and cash equivalents;
Equity: Issued capital and reserves attributable to the parent’s owners; and non-controlling interest;
Liabilities: Deferred tax liabilities; current tax liabilities; financial liabilities; provisions; and trade and other payables.
Assets and liabilities held for sale: The total of assets classified as held for sale and assets included in disposal
groups classified as held for sale; and liabilities included in disposal groups classified as held for sale in accordance
with Ind AS 105, ‘non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations’.
Current and non-current assets and liabilities are presented as separate classifications in the statement, unless the
presentation based on liquidity provides reliable and more relevant information.
Statement of profit and loss
The statement of profit and loss presents an entity’s performance over a specific period. The statement of profit
and loss includes all items of income and expense and includes each component of other comprehensive income
classified by nature.
Items to be presented in statement of profit and loss
Ind AS 1 specifies certain items presented in the statement of profit and loss.
Additional line items or sub-headings are presented in this statement when relevant to an understanding of the
entity’s financial performance.
Any item of income or expense is not presented as extraordinary item in the statement of profit and loss or in the
notes.
The expenses are classified in the statement of profit and loss based on the nature of expense.
Other comprehensive income
An entity shall present items of other comprehensive income grouped into those that will be reclassified subsequently
to profit or loss and those that will not be reclassified. An entity shall disclose reclassification adjustments relating to
the components of other comprehensive income.
An entity presents each component of other comprehensive income in the statement either as:
(i) net of its related tax effects, or
(ii) before its related tax effects, with the aggregate tax effect of these components shown separately.
An entity needs to also disclose reclassification adjustments relating to components of other comprehensive
income.
Statement of changes in equity
The following items are presented in the statement of changes in equity:
Total comprehensive income for the period, showing separately the total amounts attributable to the parent’s
owners and to non-controlling interest.
For each component of equity, the effects of retrospective application or retrospective restatement recognised
in accordance with Ind AS 8, ‘Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates, and errors’.
For each component of equity, reconciliation between the carrying amount at the beginning and the end of the
period, separately disclosing changes resulting from the following:
(i) Profit or loss
(ii) Other comprehensive income.
Transactions with owners in their capacity as owners, showing separately contributions by and distributions to
owners and changes in ownership interests in subsidiaries that do not result in a loss of control.
Any item recognised directly in equity such as capital reserve on bargain purchase in a business combination
transaction.
The amounts of dividends recognised as distributions to owners during the period, and the related amount of
dividends per share, shall be disclosed.
Statement of cash flows
Cash flow statements are addressed in a separate summary dealing with the requirements of Ind AS 7.
Notes to the financial statements
The notes are an integral part of the financial statements. Notes provide information additional to the amounts
disclosed in the ‘primary’ statements. They also include accounting policies, critical accounting estimates and
judgements, disclosures on capital and puttable financial instruments classified as equity.
Ind AS 1 requires disclosures regarding reconciliation between the carrying amount at the beginning and the end
of the period for each component of equity including disclosure regarding recognition of bargain purchase gain
arising on business combination in line with the treatment prescribed in this regard in Ind AS 103.
Key Differences:
1. Ind AS 1 is significantly different from the corresponding AS 1. While Ind AS sets out overall requirements for the
presentation of financial statements, guidelines for their structure and minimum requirements for their content,
AS 1 does not offer any standard outlining overall requirements for presentation of financial statements. The
format and disclosure requirements are set out under Schedule III to the Companies Act, 2013.
2. Ind AS 1 requires the presentation of a statement of comprehensive income as part of financial statements.
This statement presents all items of income and expense recognized in profit or loss, together with all other
items of income and expense (including reclassification adjustments) that are not recognized in profit or loss
as required or permitted by other Ind ASs. An entity is required to present a single statement of profit or loss
and other comprehensive income presented in two sections. The sections will be presented together, with
the profit or loss section presented first followed directly by the other comprehensive income. The concept of
“other comprehensive income” does not currently exist under Indian GAAP, however, information relating to
movement in reserves, etc., is generally presented in the caption reserves and surplus in the balance sheet.
3. Ind AS 1 requires presentation of all transactions with equity holders in their capacity as equityholders in the
statement of changes in equity (SOCIE). The SOCIE is considered to be an integral part of financial statements.
The concept of a SOCIE is not there under current Indian GAAP; however, information relating to appropriation
of profits, movement in capital and reserves, etc., is presented on the face of the profit and loss account
and in the captions share capital and reserves and surplus in the balance sheet. Under the Companies Act,
SOCIE is required to be prepared only if applicable. Furthermore, under Ind AS 1 minority interest (referred to
as noncontrolling interest) is presented as a component of equity while under the current Indian GAAP it is
presented separately from liabilities and equity.
4. Ind AS 1 requires disclosure of:
(a) Critical judgments made by management in applying accounting policies
(b) Key sources of estimation uncertainty that have a significant risk of causing a material adjustment to the
carrying amounts of assets and liabilities within the next financial year
(c) Information that enables users of its financial statements to evaluate the entity’s objectives, policies and
processes for managing capital, There are no such disclosures required under current Indian GAAP.
5. Ind AS 1 prohibits any item to be presented as an extraordinary item, either on the face of the income statement
or in the notes, while AS 5 Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Prior Period Items and Changes in Accounting
Policies, in Indian GAAP, specifically requires disclosure of certain items as extraordinary items.
6. Ind AS 1 requires a third balance sheet as at the beginning of the earliest comparative period, where an entity
applies an accounting policy retrospectively or makes a retrospective restatement of items in its financial
statements, or when it reclassifies items in its financial statements, to be included in a complete set of financial
statements. AS 5 requires the impact of material changes in accounting policies to be shown in financial
statements. There is no requirement to present an additional balance sheet.
7. Ind AS 1 requires dividends recognized as distributions to owners and related amounts per share to be presented
in the statement of changes in equity or in the notes. The presentation of such disclosures in the statement of
profit and loss is not permitted. Under Indian GAAP, a proposed dividend is shown as appropriation of profit in
the profit and loss account.
8. Under Ind AS 1, an entity whose financial statements comply with Ind ASs is required to make an explicit and
unreserved statement of such compliance in the notes. Such requirement is not there in current Indian GAAP.
Impact on financial reporting
Ind AS 1 essentially sets out overall requirements for presentation of financial statements. While financial statement
presentation under Schedule III of the Companies Act is similar to Ind AS 1, differences still remain. Ind AS 1
significantly impacts the presentation of financial statements. These affects are covered under the following
broad parameters:
• Enhanced transparency and accountability
The disclosure of information required by Ind AS 1, with reference to critical judgments made by management
in applying accounting policies and to key sources of estimation uncertainty that have a significant risk
of causing a material adjustment to the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities within the next financial
year, is not only likely to bring improved transparency in financial statements, but it is also expected to put
additional onus on entities to ensure that estimates and judgments made are justifiable, since, they are publicly
accountable for them.
IND AS 2: INVENTORIES
Ind AS 2 applies to all inventories, except financial instruments (Ind AS 32 and Ind AS 109) and biological assets
related to agricultural activity at the point of harvest.
Inventories are assets:
(a) held for sale in the ordinary course of business;
(b) in the process of production for such sale; or
(c) in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process or in the rendering of services.
Net Realisable Value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business less the estimated cost of
completion and the estimated costs necessary to make the sale.
Fair Value is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction
between market participants at the measurement date.
Valuation: Inventories are valued at the lower of cost or net realisable value.
Cost shall include:
• Costs of purchase, (including import duties, non-refundable taxes, transportation and handling charges net of
trade discount and rebates received)
• Costs of conversion, (include all fixed and variable manufacturing overheads)
• Other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition.
Cost does not include:
• Abnormal loss
• Storage Cost (unless such cost are necessary)
• Administrative Overheads
• Selling Costs
• Interest cost when inventories are purchased with deferred settlement terms.
• Foreign exchange difference arising directly on the recent acquisition of inventories invoiced in a foreign
currency.
• Costs incurred to fulfil a contract with a customer that do not give rise to inventories are accounted for in
accordance with Ind AS 115.
• Borrowing costs are included in cost of inventories to the extent conditions are met as per Ind AS 23.
Cost Formulas
Inventory which are not interchangeable, specific costs are attributed to the specific individual items of inventory.
For the item which are interchangeable, FIFO or weighted average costs formulas are allowed Cost of inventories
may not be recoverable if a) Inventories are damage, b) Selling price have declined, c) Estimated cost of
completion to be incurred have increased.
Expenses Recognition
• Inventories are recognised as an expense in the period in which the related revenue is recognised.
• Any write-down to NRV any inventory losses are also recognised as an expense when they occur.
• Any reversal should be recognised in the income statement in the period in which the reversal occurs.
Disclosure
(a) Accounting policies adopted for measuring inventories;
(b) Total carrying amount of inventories and the amount of classification;
(c) Inventories carried at fair value less costs to sell;
(d) Amount of inventories recognised as an expense;
(e) Write-down of inventories recognised as an expense;
(f) Amount of any reversal of any write-down;
(g) Circumstances or events that led to the reversal of write-down of inventories;
(h) Inventories pledged as security for liabilities.
(iii) Machinery Spares: The existing AS 2 explains that inventories do not include machinery spares which can
be used only in connection with an item of fixed asset and whose use is expected to be irregular; such
machinery spares are accounted for in accordance with AS 10, ‘Accounting for fixed assets’. Ind AS 2 does
not contain specific explanation in respect of such spares as this aspect is covered under Ind AS 16.
(iv) Inventory held by Commodity Broker-traders: Ind AS 2 does not apply to measurement of inventories held by
commodity broker-traders, who measure their inventories at fair value less costs to sell. However, this aspect
is not there in the existing AS 2.
(v) Definition of Fair Value and Distinction between NRV and Fair Value: Ind AS 2 defines fair value and provides
an explanation in respect of distinction between ‘net realizable value’ and ‘fair value’. The existing AS 2 does
not contain the definition of fair value and such explanation.
(vi) Subsequent assessment of NRV: Ind AS 2 provides detailed guidance in case of subsequent assessment of
net realizable value. It also deals with the reversal of the write-down of inventories to net realizable value to
the extent of the amount of original write-down, and the recognition and disclosure thereof in the financial
statements. The existing AS 2 does not deal with such reversal.
(vii) Inventories acquired on Deferred Settlement terms: An entity may purchase inventories on deferred
settlement terms. When the arrangement effectively contains a financing element, for example a difference
between purchase price for normal credit terms and the amount paid, is recognized as interest expense over
the period of financing.
(viii) Exclusion from its Scope but Guidance given: Ind AS 2 excludes from its scope only the measurement of
inventories held by producers of agricultural and forest products, agricultural produce after harvest, and
minerals and mineral products though it provides guidance on the measurement of such inventories,
However, the existing AS 2 excludes from its scope such type of inventories.
(ix) Cost formulae: The existing AS 2 specifically provides that the formula used in determining the cost of an
item of inventory should reflect the fairest possible approximation to the cost incurred in bringing the items of
inventory to their present location and condition whereas Ind AS 2 does not specifically state so and requires
the use of consistent cost formulas for all inventories having a similar nature and use to the entity.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IND AS 18 ON REVENUE AND THE EXISTING AS 9 (ISSUED 1985) ON REVENUE RECOGNITION:
Measurement of revenue is briefly covered in the definition of revenue in the existing AS 9, while Ind AS 18 deals
separately in detail with measurement of revenue. The differences between Ind AS 18 on Revenue and the existing
AS 9 (Issued 1985) on Revenue Recognition are as under:
(i) Definition of ‘revenue’ given in the Ind AS 18 is broad compared to the definition of ‘revenue’ given in existing
AS 9 because it covers all economic benefits that arise in the ordinary course of activities of an entity which
result in increases in equity, other than increases relating to contributions from equity participants. On the
other hand, as per the existing AS 9, revenue is gross inflow of cash, receivables or other consideration arising
in the course of the ordinary activities of an enterprise from the sale of goods, from the rendering of services,
and from the use by others of enterprise resources yielding interest, royalties and dividends.
(ii) Revenue arising from agreements of real estate development are specifically scoped out from Ind AS18.
Existing AS 9 does not exclude the same.
(iii) As per existing AS 9, revenue is recognised at the nominal amount of consideration receivable. Ind AS 18
requires the revenue to be measured at fair value of the consideration received or receivable.
(iv) Ind AS 18 specifically deals with the exchange of goods and services with goods and services of similar and
dissimilar nature. In this regard specific guidance is given regarding barter transactions involving advertising
services. This aspect is not dealt with in the existing AS 9.
(v) Ind AS 18 provides guidance on application of recognition criteria to the separately identifiable components
of a single transaction in order to reflect the substance of the transaction. Existing AS 9 does not specifically
deal with the same.
(vi) For recognition of revenue in case of rendering of services, existing AS 9 permits the use of completed service
contract method. Ind AS 18 requires recognition of revenue using percentage of completion method only.
(vii) Existing AS 9 requires the recognition of revenue from interest on time proportion basis. Ind AS 18 requires
interest to be recognised using effective interest rate method.
(viii) Disclosure requirements given in the Ind AS 18 are more detailed as compared to existing AS 9.
(ix) Ind AS 18 specifically provides guidance regarding revenue recognition in case the entity is under any
obligation to provide free or discounted goods or services or award credits to its customers due to any
customer loyalty programme. Existing AS 9 does not deal with this aspect.
(x) Ind AS 18 deals with accounting of transfer of property, plant and equipment by the customers to the entity,
which are used by the entity to connect the customer to a network or to provide the customer with ongoing
access to a supply of goods or services. Existing AS 9 does not deal with this aspect.
(xi) Existing AS 9 specifically deals with disclosure of excise duty as a deduction from revenue from sales
transactions. Ind AS 18 does not specifically deal with the same.
The objective of this Standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment for property, plant and equipment so that
users of the financial statements can discern information about an entity’s investment in its property, plant and
equipment and the changes in such investment.
(i) Accounting for Real Estate Developers: Existing AS 10 specifically excludes accounting for real estate
developers from its scope, whereas Ind AS 16 does not exclude such developers from its scope.
(ii) Criteria for Initial Recognition: Ind AS 16, apart from defining the term property, plant and equipment, also
lays down the following criteria which should be satisfied for recognition of items of property, plant and
equipment:
(a) It is probable that future economic benefits associated with the item will flow to the entity, and
Existing AS 10 does not lay down any specific recognition criteria for recognition of a fixed asset. As per the
standard, any item which meets the definition of a fixed asset should be recognized as a fixed asset.
(iii) Subsequent Expenditure: As per Ind AS 16, initial costs as well as the subsequent costs are evaluated on the
same recognition principles to determine whether the same should be recognized as an item of property,
plant and equipment. Existing AS 10 on the other hand, prescribes separate recognition principles for
subsequent expenditure. As per existing AS 10, subsequent expenditures related to an item of fixed asset
are capitalized only if they increase the future benefits from the existing asset beyond its previously assessed
standard of performance.
(iv) Major Spare-parts: Ind AS 16 requires that spare parts, stand-by equipment and servicing equipment are
recognized in accordance with this Ind AS when they meet the definition of property, plant and equipment.
Otherwise, such items are classified as inventory. As per existing AS 10, only those spares are required to
be capitalized which can be used only in connection with a fixed asset and whose use is expected to be
irregular.
(v) Component Approach: Ind AS 16 is based on the component approach. Under this approach, each major
part of an item of property, plant and equipment with a cost that is significant in relation to the total cost of
the item id depreciated separately. As a corollary, cost of replacing such parts is capitalized, if recognition
criteria are met with consequent derecognition of the replaced part. The cost of replacing those parts
which have not been depreciated separated is also capitalized with the consequent derecognition of the
replaced parts. If it is not practicable for an entity to determine the carrying amount of the replaced part,
it may use the cost of the replacement as an indication of what the cost of the replaced part was at the
time it was acquired or constructed.
Existing As 10, however, does not mandatorily require full adoption of the component approach. It
recognizes the said approach in only one paragraph by stating that accounting for a tangible fixed asset
may be improved if total cost thereof is allocated to its various parts. Apart from this, neither existing AS 10
nor existing AS 6 deals with the aspects such as separate depreciation of components, capitalizing the cost
of replacement, etc.
(vi) Cost of Major Inspections: Ind AS 16 requires that the cost of major inspections should be capitalized with
consequent derecognition on any remaining carrying amount of the cost of the previous inspection. Existing
AS 10 does not deal with this aspect.
(vii) Cost of Dismantling and Removal of the Item of PPE and Restoring the Site: In line with the requirement of Ind
AS 37, ‘Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets’, for creating a provision towards the costs
of dismantling and removing the item of property, plant and equipment and restoring the site on which it
is located at the time the item is acquired or constructed, Ind AS 16 requires that the initial estimate of the
costs of dismantling and removing the item and restoring the site on which it is locted should be includd in
the cost of the respective item of property plant and equipment. Existing AS 10 does not contain any such
requirement.
(viii) Cost Model or Revaluation Model as its Accounting Policy: Ind AS 16 requires an entity to choose either
the cost model or the revaluation model as its accounting policy and to apply that policy to an entire
class of property plant and equipment. It requires that under revaluation model, revaluation be made with
reference to the fair value of items of property plant and equipment. It also requires that revaluations should
be made with sufficient regularity to ensure that the carrying amount does not differ materially from that
which would be determined using fair value at the balance sheet date.
Existing AS 10 recognises revaluation of fixed assets. However, the revaluation approach adopted therein is
ad hoc in nature, as it does not require the adoption of fair value basis as its accounting policy or revaluation
of assets with regularity. It also provides an option for selection of assets within a class for revaluation on
systematic basis.
(ix) Transfers from Revaluation Surplus: Ind AS 16 provides that the revaluation surplus included in equity in
respect of an item of property plant and equipment may be transferred to the retained earnings when
the asset is derecognized. This may involve transferring the whole of the surplus when the asset is retired
or disposed of. However, some of the surplus may be transferred as the asset is used by an entity. In such
a case, the amount of the surplus transferred would be the difference between the depreciation based
on the revalued carrying amount of the asset and depreciation based on its original cost. Transfers from
revaluation surplus to the retained earnings are not made through profit or loss. As compared to the above,
neither existing AS 10 nor existing AS 6 deals with the transfers from revaluation surplus. To deal with this
aspect, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India issued a Guidance Note on Treatment of Reserve
Created on Revaluation of Fixed Assets. The Guidance Note provides that if a company has transferred the
difference between the revalued figure and the book value of fixed assets to the ‘Revaluation Reserve’ and
has changed the additional depreciation related thereto to its profit and loss account, it is possible to transfer
an amount equivalent to accumulated additional depreciation from the revaluation reserve to the profit
and loss account or to the general reserve as the circumstances may permit, provided suitable disclosure
is made in the accounts. However, the said Guidance Note also recognizes that it would be prudent not to
charge the additional depreciation arising due to revaluation against the revaluation reserve.
(x) Restatement with Reference to Observable Market Data: Ind AS 16 requires that when the carrying amount
of asset is adjusted to the revalued amounts then gross carrying amount may be restated with reference to
observable market data or restated proportionately to the change in the carrying amount. Existing AS 10
does not require any reference to observable market data.
(xi) Self Constructed Assets: With regard to self-constructed assets, Ind AS 16, specifically states that the cost of
abnormal amounts of wasted material, labour or other resources incurred in the construction of an asset is
not included in the cost of the assets. Existing AS 10 while dealing with self-constructed fixed assets does not
mention the same.
(xii) Discounting in Case Payment is Deferred Beyond Normal Credit Terms: Ind AS 16 provides that the cost of a
property plant and equipment is the cash price equivalent at the recognition date. If payment is deferred
beyond normal credit terms, the difference between the cash price equivalent and the total payment is
recognized as interest over the period of credit unless such interest is capitalized in accordance with Ind AS
16. Similarly, the concept of cash price equivalent has been followed in case of disposal of fixed assets also.
Existing AS 10 does not contain this requirement.
(xiii) Fixed assets jointly Owned: Existing AS 10 specifically deals with the fixed assets owned by the entity jointly
with others. Ind AS 16 does not specifically deal with this situation.
(xiv) Several Assets purchased for a Consolidated Consideration: Existing AS 10 specifically deals with the situation
where several assets are purchased for a consolidated price. It provides that the consideration should be
apportioned to the various assets on the basis of their respective fair values. However, Ind AS 16 does not
specifically deal with this situation.
(xv) Review of Residual value and useful Life: Ind AS 16 requires that the residual value and useful life of an
asset be reviewed at least at each financial year-end and, if expectations differ from previous estimates,
the change(s) should be accounted for as a change in an accounting estimate in accordance with AS 5.
Under existing AS 6, such a review is not obligatory as it simply provides that useful life of an asset may be
reviewed periodically.
(xvi) Review of Depriciation Method: Ind AS 16 requires that the depreciation method applied to an asset should
be reviewed at least at each financial year end and , if there has been a significant change in the expected
pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in the asset, the method should be
changed to reflect the changed pattern. In existing AS 6, change in depreciation method can be made
only if the adoption of the new method is required by statute or for compliance with an accounting standard
or if it is considered that the change would result in a more appropriate preparation or presentation of the
financial statements.
(xvii) Change in Depreciation Method: Ind AS 16 requires that change in depreciation method should be
considered as a change in accounting estimate and treated accordingly. In existing AS 6, it is considered
as a change in accounting policy and treated accordingly.
(xviii) Compensation from third Parties for Items of PPE that were Impaired, Lost or Given Up: ind AS 16 requires that
compensation from third parties for items of property plant and equipment that were impaired, lost or given
up should be included in the statement of profit and loss when the compensation becomes receivable.
Existing AS 10 does not specifically deal with this aspect.
(xix) Gains on De-recognition of Items of PPE: Ind AS 16 specifically provides that gains arising on derecognition
of an item of property plant and equipment should not be treated as revenue as defined in AS 9. Existing As
10 is silent on this aspect.
(xx) Subsequent Sale of PPE held for Rental to Others, in ordinary course of Business: Ind AS 16 deals with the
situation where entities hold the items of property, plant and equipment for rental to others and subsequently
sell the same. No such provision is there in exiting AS 10.
(xxi) Accounting for items of Fixed Assets held for Sale: Ind AS 16 does not deal with the assets ‘held for sale’
because the treatment of such assets is covered in Ind AS 105, Non-current assets Held for Sale and
Discontinued Operations. Existing AS 10 deals with accounting for fixed assets retired from active use and
held for sale.
(xxii) PPE acquired in Exchange for a Non-Monetary Asset: Ind AS 16 requires that if property, plant and equipment
is acquired in exchange for a non-monetray asset, it should be recognized at its fair value unless (a) the
exchange transaction lacks commercial substance or (b) the fair value of neither the asset received nor the
asset given up is reliably measurable.
The existing standard requires that when a fixed asset is acquired in exchange for another asset, its cost is
usually determined by reference to the fair market value of the consideration given. It may be appropriate
to consider also the fair market value of the asset acquired if this is more clearly evident. Existing AS 10
also prescribes an alternative accounting treatment that is sometimes used for an exchange of assets,
particularly when the assets exchanged are similar, is to record the asset acquired at the net book value of
the asset given up; in each case an adjustment is made for any balancing receipt or payment of cash or
other consideration.
(xxiii) Accounting for Changes in Measurement of Certain Items: Ind AS 16 includes Appendix A which addresses
how the changes in the measurement of an existing decommissioning, restoration and similar liabilities that
result from changes in the estimated timing or amount of the outflow of resources embodying economic
benefits required to settle the obligation, or a change in the discount rate, shall be accounted for.
(xxiv) Certain Guidance: Ind AS 16 provides guidance on measuring ‘Stripping Costs in the Production Phase of a
Surface Mine’. Existing AS does not contain this guidance.
(xxv) Disclosures: The disclosure requirements of Ind AS 16 are significantly elaborate as compared to AS 10/ AS 6.
2. A Company purchase a machine costing `15 lakh for its production process. It paid freight `25,000, Cartage
`2,000 and installation charges `18,000. The company spent an additional amount of `40,000 for testing and
preparing the Machine for use. As per AS-10, the amount that should be recorded as the cost of machine
would be:
(A) `15,00,000
(B) `15,25,000
(C) `15,85,000
(D) `15,65,000
(B) Goodwill
Answer:
QUESTIONS:
1. From the following data, Compute the Percentage of Completion & P/L Account (Extract) -7 would appear
in the books of a contractor as per AS-7
` Lakhs
Cost incurred to date:
Material 250
Labour 100
Overhead 50
400
Add estimated cost to complete 100
Estimated total cost on completion of contract 500
` lakh ` lakh
MATCHING QUESTIONS
Match the following in Column I with the appropriate item in Column II Column - 1 & Column - II
Column – I Column – II
1. Minimum Rent A. Sinking Fund
2. Work certified B. Secret Reserve
3. Method of Charging Depreciation C. Contract A/c
4. Undervaluation of asset D. Royalty
5. Purchase Day Book E. Credit Balance
6. Both a journal and a ledger F. Cash Book
7. Provision for Bad and Doubtful Debt Account G. AS – 2
8. Rebate on Bill Discounted H. Computerised Accounting System
9. Automatic Balance Sheet I. Subsidiary Book
10. Developed on the basis of specific requirements J. Bill of Exchange
of the organisation
11. Inventories are valued at lower of cost or net K. Customised Accounting Software
realisable value
12. Accounting for Depreciation L. Insurance Claim
13. Indemnity Period M. Hire Purchase
14. Partial Repossession N. AS – 6
15. Prepares the accounts independently O. Independent Branch
EXERCISE:
1. (a) State the criteria which should be fulfilled by a depreciable asset as per AS-6.
(b) Toly Enterprise ordered 10,000 units of material X at ` 135 per unit. The purchase price includes excise
duty @ ` 8 per unit, in respect of which full CENVAT Credit is admissible. Freight incurred amounted to `
88,500. Normal transit loss is 5%. The enterprise actually received 9,400 units and consumed 8,500 units.
You are required to ascertain the value of inventory as per AS-2.
Answer:
[Value of inventory — 900 unites @ `143 = ` 1,28,700]
2. The cost of production of Product X is `450 which includes per unit cost of Material, Labour and overheads
of `250, `110 and `90 respectively. At the end of the accounting year on 31.03.2013 the replacement cost of
Raw Material is `210 per unit.
Calculate as per AS-2 the value of closing stock or Raw Material when:
Answer:
[(i) `1,05,000;
(ii) ` 1,25,000]
INTERMEDIATE EXAMINATION
June 2019 P-5(FAC)
Syllabus 2016
Financial Accounting
Time Allowed: 3 Hours Full Marks: 100
The figures in the margin on the right side indicate full marks.
Both the sections are to be answered subject to instructions given aganist each.
[All workings must form part of your answer.]
SECTION - A
1. Answer the following questions:
(a) Choose the most appropriate one from the given following alternatives: 1×10=10
(i) Which of the following is a resource owned by the business with the purpose of using it for generating
future profits?
(A) Loan from Bank
(B) Owner’s Capital
(C) Trade Mark
(D) All of the above
(ii) Chandu & Co.’s Account is a
(A) Real Account
(B) Nominal Account
(C) Representative Personal Account
(D) Artificial Personal Accounts
(iii) Purchase of a laptop for office use wrongly debited to Purchase Account. It is an error of
(A) Omission
(B) Commission
(C) Principle
(D) Misposting
(iv) Which of the following term is most suitable for writing off Patent?
(A) Depletion
(B) Amortization
(C) Depreciation
(D) All of the above
(v) Memorandum Joint Venture Account is prepared when
(A) the separate set of books is maintained for Joint Venture.
(B) the each Co-venturer keeps records of all transactions.
(C) the each Co-venturer keeps records of their own transactions only.
(D) All of the above cases
(vi) Which of the following commission is allowed by the consignor to the consignee to encourage the
consignee for putting-up hard work in introducing new product in the market?
(vii) If Ram’s acceptance which was endorsed by us in favour of Saleem is dishonoured, then the amount
will be debited in our books to
(A) Saleem
(B) Ram
(A) Surplus
(B) Deficit
(ix) A Charitable Institution has 250 members with a annual subscription of ` 5,000 each. The subscription
received during 2018-19 were ` 11,25,000, which include ` 65,000 and ` 25,000 for the years of 2017-18
and 2019-20 respectively. Amount of outstanding subscription for the 2018-19 will be
(A) ` 90,000
(B) ` 1,25,000
(C) ` 2,15,000
(D) ` 1,90,000
(x) The following are details of closing stock items in Aarvi Limited:
(` in Lakh) (` in Lakh)
A 30 27
B 15 18
C 35 35
D 40 45
(b) Match the following in Column-I with the appropriate in Column-II: 1x5=5
Column-I Column-II
(1) Highest Relative Capital Method (A) Departmental Accounts
(2) Basis of Apportionment of Expenses (B) Insurance Claim
(3) Partial Repossession (C) AS-9
(4) Indemnity Period (D) Piecemeal Distribution
(5) Revenue Recognition (E) Hire Purchase
(c) State whether the following statements are True or False. 1x5=5
(i) All these items of revenue nature which received during the period of accounts, are only shown in the
Income and Expenditure Account.
(ii) When the capitalization of profits method is used then the value of goodwill on the basis of future
maintainable profits is more than that of on the basis of super profits.
(iii) In case of transfer from Creditors Ledger to Debtors Ledger, the Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account
should be debited.
(iv) Unrecoupable short-workings should be charged to Profit and Loss Account.
(v) In the Stock and Debtors Method of accounting, balance of Branch Stock Account shows either Gross
Profit or Gross Loss.
(d)
Fill in the blanks: 1x5=5
(i) Net Worth is excess of ________________ over _______________.
(ii) The Sales ` 180 Lakh, Purchases ` 129 Lakh and Opening Stock ` 33 Lakh. If the rate of Gross Profit is 50%
on cost, then the value of closing stock will be __________________.
(iii) In case of Loss of Profit Policy, Gross Profit is the sum of Net Profit plus _____________Standing Charges.
(iv) Interest to be allowed @ 0.75 per cent per month on Partners Capital of ` 60 Lakh; Manager’s Commission
@ 5 per cent of Net Profit before charging such commission. If the Net Profit before charging interest
on capital and manager’s commission amounted to ` 14.85 Lakh, then manager’s commission will be
_________________.
(v) A machinery was purchased on Hire Purchase System. Its cash price was ` 5,20,000 which was payable
in annual instalments of ` 1,80,000 each including interest @ 15 per cent per annum. The amount of
interest included in 2nd instalment would be _______________.
SECTION – B
Answer any five questions from the remaining seven questions. Each question carries 15 marks. 15×5=75
2.
(a)
Rectify the following errors: 8
(iv) A Credit Sale of goods of ` 3,000 to Krishan entered in the purchases book, as ` 30,000 and posted
therefrom to the credit of Kishan as ` 3,000.
(v) A Cash Sale of goods of ` 3,000 to Krishan posted to the credited of Kishan as ` 30,000.
(vi) A Credit Purchase of old machinery from Sohan for ` 17,000 was entered in the Purchases Book as
purchase from Mohan for ` 71,000. ` 3,000 paid as Repair Charges of this Machinery debited to General
Expenses Account.
(vii) A Bill drawn on Meenu for ` 30,000 was passed through bills payable book with ` 3,000 and posted
therefrom to the credit of Meena as ` 300.
(viii) Sales included a sale of furniture having a book of value of ` 900 for ` 850 on 31st March, 2018.
(b) Mr. Kanan is running a business of readymade garments. He does not maintain his books of accounts
under double entry system. While assessing the income of Mr. Kanan for the financial year 2018-19, Income
Tax Officer feels that he has not disclosed the full income earned by him from his business. He provides you
the following information:
Advertisement 38,000
Interest on Investment 42,000
Drawings 2,10,000
Investment 8,00,000
Furniture and Fixtures 3,50,000
Office Equipments 2,45,000
Land and Building 15,00,000
Sundry Debtors and Creditors 6,90,000 4,55,000
Establishment Expenses 35,000
Capital 31,05,000
Cash at Bank 7,24,000
Cash in Hand 63,000
Total 83,00,000 83,00,000
Additional Information:
(i) Closing Stock of goods amounted to ` 1,85,000 and of stationery amounted to ` 1,500.
(ii) Depreciation to be charged on Land and Building @ 10%; On Office Equipments @ 5%; and On Furniture
and Fixtures @ 10%.
(iii) Insurance Premium paid on 1st July, 2018 for one year.
(iv) Write off further as bad debts ` 5,000 and maintain a provision for bad debts of 5% on debtors.
(v) Provision made for discount on debtors @ 2%.
(vi) Goods costing ` 12,500 used for given free samples to customers.
(vii) Goods costing ` 25,000 were sent on approval basis to a customer for ` 40,000 on 26th March, 2019. This
was recorded as actual sales but approval did not receive till 31st March, 2019.
(viii)Outstanding salaries were for one month.
(ix) Investment made at 7.50% per annum on 1st May, 2018.
You are required to prepare Trading Account and Profit & Loss Account for the year ended 31st March, 2019
and a Balance Sheet as on that date. 15
4. A, B and C were partners in a firm sharing profits & losses in the ratio of 3 : 1 : 1 agreed upon dissolution of there
partnership. They each decide to take over certain assets and liabilities and continue business separately.
Balance Sheet
as on date of dissolution
It is agreed as follows:
(i) Goodwill is to be ignored.
(ii) A is to take over all the Fixtures at ` 800; Debtors amounting to ` 20,000 at ` 17,200. The creditors of ` 6,000
to be assumed by A at that figure.
(iii) B is to take over all the stocks at ` 7,000 and certain of the sundry assets at ` 7,200 (being book value less
10%).
(iv) C takes over the remaining sundry assets at 90% of book values less ` 100 allowances and assumes
responsibility for the discharge of the loan, together with accruing interest of ` 30 which has not been
recorded in the books of the firm.
(v) The expenses of dissolution were ` 270. The remaining debtors were sold to a debt collecting agency for
50% of book values.
Prepare Realisation Account, partners’ Capital Accounts and Bank Account. 15
5. (a) Rukmani Stores, Delhi invoiced goods to its Jaipur Branch @ 20% less than the Catalogue price which is cost
plus 50% with instructions that cash sales were to be made at invoice price and credit sales at catalogue
price and allow discount on prompt payment. The following details related to branch are provided by
Rukmani Stores for the year ended 31st March, 2019:
`
Invoiced Stock: On 01.04.2018 4,50,000
On 31.03.2019 5,10,000
Branch Debtors: On 01.04.2018 3,60,000
Branch Furniture: On 01.04.2018 1,20,000
Cash Sales 13,60,000
Credit Sales 21,50,000
Goods Invoiced to Branch 32,10,000
Goods returned by Branch (Invoice Price) 84,000
Expenses Paid by H.O.: Rent 1,25,000
Salaries 1,80,000
Petty Expenses paid by Branch 11,000
Cash received from Branch Debtors 18,65,000
Remittances by Branch to H.O. 32,00,000
Discount allowed to Branch Debtors 1,85,000
Branch Bad debts 15,800
Goods Returned by Branch Debtors 12,600
It was decided to make provision for discount of ` 42,500 on closing debtors for prompt payment.
Depreciate the furniture @ 10% per annum.
You are required to prepare Jaipur Branch Account and Goods Sent to Branch Account in the books of
Rukmani Stores. 8
(b) The following information related to various debtors for the year ended 31st March, 2019, are supplied by
Nakul Limited:
On 31st March, 2019, A and C also stood in Purchase Ledger having credit balances of ` 3,600 and ` 5,100
respectively.
You are required to prepare Debtors Ledger Adjustment Account in General Ledger. 7
6. (a) On 31st January, 2019 the premises of Toli Textiles Limited were destroyed by fire. The records of the
company revealed the following particulars:
`
Stock on 01.04.2017 11,35,000
Stock on 31.03.2018 12,64,100
Purchase Less returns, during the year ended 31st March, 2018 65,45,000
Sales Less returns, during the year ended 31st March, 2018 91,00,000
Purchase Less return, from 01.04.2018 to 31.01.2019 56,64,000
Sales Less returns, from 01.04.2018 to 31.01.2019 78,24,000
In valuing stock on 31st March, 2018 ` 45,900 had been written off out of certain stock which was of a poor
selling line, having cost ` 1,37,700. A portion of these goods were sold in October, 2018 at a loss ` 11,080 on
the original cost of ` 55,080. The remaining stock of this goods on the date of fire was to be valued at 80%
of its original cost. Subject to the above exception, gross profit had remained at a uniform rate throughout.
The stock salvaged from fire was ` 1,23,800.
You are required to compute the amount of claim to be lodged for loss of stock. The stock was insured for
` 12,50,000. 7
(i) X purchased three cars from Y on hire purchase basis, the cash price of each car being ` 2,00,000.
(ii) The hire purchaser charged depreciation @ 20% on diminishing balance method.
(iii) Two cars were seized by on hire vendor when second instalment was not paid at the end of the
second year. The hire vendor valued the two cars at cash price less 30% depreciation charged under
it diminishing balance method.
(iv) The hire vendor spent ` 10,000 on repairs of the cars and then sold them for a total amount of ` 1,70,000.
7. (a) A infrastructure company has constructed a mall and entered into agreement with tenants towards
license fee (monthly rental) and variable license fee, a percentage on the turnover of the tenant (on
an annual basis). Chief Finance Officer wants to account/recognize license fee as income for 12 months
during current year under audit and variable license fee as income during next year, since invoice is raised
in the subsequent year. Comment whether the treatment desired by the CFO is correct or not. 6
(b) State briefly the factors to be considered while selecting pre-packaged accounting software. 6
(c) From the following particulars ascertain the value of unsold stock on Consignment. 3
INTERMEDIATE EXAMINATION
December 2018 P-5(FAC)
Syllabus 2016
Financial Accounting
Time Allowed: 3 Hours Full Marks: 100
The figures in the margin on the right side indicate full marks.
Both the sections are to be answered subject to instructions given aganist each.
[All workings must form part of your answer.]
SECTION - A
(a) Choose the most appropriate one from the given following alternatives: 1×10=10
(i) Both cash and credit transactions are recorded, on the basis of
(iv) Shiva draws a bill on Sanat on 25th October, 2018 for 90 days, the maturity date of the bill will be
(v) Peeru and Simu are entered in the business of buy and sale of food grain for a period of one year and
sharing the profit in the ratio of 3 : 2, this agreement is a
(A) Partnership
(B) Consignment
(C) Joint-venture
(D) Lease
(vi) At the end of the year 2017-18, Prepaid Insurance Premium ` 7,500 was appeared in the Trial Balance, it
will be shown
(D) not in Both in Profit & Loss Account and in Balance Sheet.
(x) KCS purchased a machine from JPS on hire purchase system, whose cash price was `8,64,000. `2,16,000
being paid on delivery and balance in three annual instalments of `2,88,000 each. The amount of interest
included in first installment would be
(A) ` 72,000
(B) ` 57,600
(C) ` 1,08,000
(D) ` 36,000
Column-I Column-II
(1) Dead Rent (A) Bills Receivable
(2) Marshalling (B) Consignment
(3) Protesting (C) Liquidity Order
(4) Account Sales (D) Accounting Policies
(5) Substance over form (E) Royalty
(i) While posting an opening entry in the ledger, in case of an Account having debit balance, in
‘Particulars’ column the words ___________ are written on debit side.
(iii) Finished goods are normally valued at cost or ___________ whichever is lower.
(d) State with reason whether the following statements are true or false (No marks shall be awarded without
valid reason): 1×5=5
(ii) Deferred revenue expenditure is current year’s revenue expenditure to be paid in the later years.
(iii) Reducing balance method for depreciation is followed to have a uniform charge for depreciation
and repairs and maintenance together.
SECTION – B
Answer any five from the following.
Each Question carries 15 marks. 15 ×5=75
2. (a) A bookkeeper extracted the following Trial Balance as on 31st March, 2018:
(b) Ram Prakash keeps his books on Single Entry System. From the following information provided by him,
prepare Trading and Profit & Loss Account for the year ended 31st March, 2018 and Balance Sheet as at
that date:
Particulars `
Receipts from Debtors 4,20,000
Paid to Creditors 2,00,000
Transportation 40,000
Drawings 1,20,000
Sundry Expenses 1,40,000
Furniture Purchased 20,000
Other Information: There were considerable amount of Cash Sales. Credit Purchases during the year
amounted ` 2,30,000. Provide a provision for Doubtful Debts to the extent of 10% on Debtors. 8
3. The following information provided by the Nav Yuvak Mandal, Delhi for the first year ended 31st March, 2018:
(` in ‘000)
Others: Donation were utilized to the extent of `13 Lakh in construction of building, balance were unutilized.
In order to keep in safe, 8% Government Securities were purchased on 31st December, 2017 for `10.50
Lakh. Remaining amount was put in bank as term deposit on 31st March, 2018. During the year 2017-18,
Subscription received in advance `52,000 for the year 2018-19. Depreciation to be charged on Building
and Furniture @ 10% and on Books @ 15%.
You are required to prepare the Receipts & Payments Account, Income & Expenditure Account and
Balance Sheet as on 31st March, 2018. 15
4. (a) A, B and C are partners in a firm sharing profits and losses as 3 : 2 : 1. Their Balance Sheet as on 31st March,
2018 was as follows:
(` in Lakh)
C 75 Debtors 95
A 30 Cash at Bank 37
B 20
B died on 1st August, 2018. His account is to be settled under the following terms:
(i) Goodwill will be valued at 3 years purchase of last four accounting years average profit. Profits were :
2014-15 ` 135 Lakh, 2015-16 ` 145 Lakh, 2016-17 ` 131 Lakh and 2017-18 ` 165 Lakh.
(ii) Land and Building will be valued at ` 250 Lakh and Plant and Machinery will be valued at ` 240 Lakh.
(iii) For the purpose of calculating B’s share in the profits of 01.04.2018 to 31.07.2018, the profits for the year
2017-18 will be taken as base.
(v) A sum of `50 Lakh to be paid immediately to B’s Executor and the balance to be paid on 1st December,
2018 together with interest @ 10% per annum.
You are required to pass necessary journal entries to record the above transactions and amount payable
to B’ s Executor’s Account. 15
5. (a) The following information provided by the Shobha Departmental Store for the year ended 31st March,
2018:
The total value of purchases is ` 15 Lakh. It is observed that the rate of gross profit is the same in each
department.
You are required to prepare the Departmental Trading Account for the year ended 31 st March, 2018. 9
(b) Following information is available from the books of Simu & Co. for the year ended 31st March, 2018:
(i) Total Sales amounted to ` 560 Lakh including the sale of old Machinery for ` 8 Lakh (Book Value ` 15
Lakh). The total Cash Sales were 80% less than the total Credit Sales.
(ii) Cash collection from debtors amounted to 75% of the aggregate of the opening debtors and the
Credit Sales for the period. Debtors were allowed Cash discounts for ` 15.60 Lakh.
(iii) Bills Receivable drawn during the year totaled `45 Lakh of which bills amounting to ` 28 Lakh were
endorsed in favour of Creditors. Out of these endorsed B/R, some bills for ` 4.60 Lakh were dishonoured
for non-payment as the parties became insolvent, their estate realizing nothing.
(iv) Cheques received from Sundry Customers for `41 Lakh were dishonoured; a sum of ` 5 Lakh is
irrecoverable.
(v) Bad Debts written off in the earlier years was recovered of ` 7.50 Lakh.
You are required to show the General Ledger Adjustments Accounts in the Debtors Ledger. 6
6. (a) CCL wants to take up a loss of profit policy. Turnover during the current year is expected to increase by
20%. The company will avail overdraft facilities from its bank @ 15% interest to boost up the sales. The
average daily overdraft balance will be around ` 3 Lakh. All other fixed expenses will remain same. The
following further details are also available from the previous year’s account:
`
Total variable expenses 24,00,000
Fixed expenses:
Salaries 3,30,000
Rent, Rates and Taxes 30,000
Travelling expenses 50,000
Postage, Telegram, Telephone 60,000
Director’s fees 10,000
Audit fees 20,000
Miscellaneous income 70,000
Net Profit 4,20,000
(b) Mansi Ltd. acquires the lease of a mine from Nanu Ltd. on the following terms:
(i) Minimum Rent of `40 Lakh per annum merging into a royalty of `50 per tonne.
(I) Only half of the excess earnings over minimum rent may be used for this purpose.
(II) No Shortworkings may be carried forward for recoupment if output falls below 40000 Tonnes, in any
year.
Output for the first four years was : 32000 Tonnes; 48000 Tonnes; 64000 Tonnes and 112000 Tonnes
respectively.
Prepare the necessary accounts for above four years in the books of the Lessee. 8
7. (a) In a production process, normal waste is 5% of input. 5000 MT of input were put in process resulting in a
wastage of 300 MT. Cost per MT of input is ` 1,900. The entire quantity of waste is on stock at the year end.
State with reference to Accounting standard, the treatment of normal loss and abnormal loss and also find
out the amount of abnormal loss, if any and the value of closing inventories. 8
(iii) Distinction between Hire Purchase Agreement and Instalment Purchase Agreement
INTERMEDIATE EXAMINATION
June 2018 P-5(FAC)
Syllabus 2016
Financial Accounting
Time Allowed: 3 Hours Full Marks: 100
The figures in the margin on the right side indicate full marks.
Both the sections are to be answered subject
to instructions given aganist each.
All workings must form part of your answer.
SECTION - A
(a) Choose the most appropriate one from the given following alternatives: 1×10=10
(B) Understandability
(C) Relevance
(D) Reliability
(ii) Name the book in which, entries are recorded on the basis of credit notes issued.
(iv) Interest charged by vendor in Hire Purchase System, is calculated on the basis of
(vii) The business is treated as distinct and separate from its owners on the basis of the
(viii) Due to retrospective effect on revision of salary of employees, the arrears of salary relating to past
years, payable in current year is
(C) Rebate
(D) Allowance
(b) Match the following in Column-I with the appropriate Column-II: 1×5=5
Column-I Column-II
(i) Receipt & Payment A/c (a) AS-10
(ii) Revaluation model of Asset (b) Consignment
(iii) Proforma Invoice (c) Not-for-Profit Organization
(iv) Stage of Completion Method (d) Hire Purchase
(v) Partial Repossession (e) AS-7
(f) AS-6
(c) State whether the following statements given below are true or false: 1×5=5
(i) Receipt & Payment Account only records the revenue nature of receipts and expenses.
(iv) In case of trading concern, cost of goods sold and cost of sales are same.
(ii) Assets are classified as non-current asset and current assets as per ______ Principle.
(iii) __________ Amount is the higher of asset’s net selling price and its value in use.
(v) _________________ is the amount by which minimum rent exceeds the actual royalty.
Section - B
Answer any five from the following.
Each question carries 15 marks.
2. (a) The Trial Balance of S Ltd. as on 31/03/2018 showed the credit in excess by ` 415 which was been carried
to Suspense Account. On a closed scrutiny of the books, the following errors were revealed:
(i) A cheque of ` 3,456 received from AB Ltd. after allowing it a discount of ` 46 was endorsed to CD Ltd.
in full settlement for ` 3,500. The cheque was finally dishonoured but no entries are passed in the books
of account.
(ii) Goods of the value of ` 230 returned by PQ Ltd. were entered in Purchase Day book and posted there
from to MN Ltd. as ` 320.
(iii) Bad debts aggregating ` 505 written off during the year in Sales Ledger but were not recorded in
General Ledger.
(iv) Bill for ` 750 received from Z Ltd. for repairs to Machinery was entered in the Inward Invoice Book as
`650.
(v) Goods worth ` 1,234 purchased from Y Ltd. on 28/03/2018 had not been entered in Day book and
credited to Y Ltd. but Goods were not delivered till 5th April, 2018. The title of Goods was however
passed on 28/03/2018 and was taken into stock on 31-03-2018.
(vi) ` 79 paid for Freight on Machinery was debited to Freight account as ` 97.
Pass the necessary Journal Entries to rectify the above mentioned errors. 8
(b) A company maintains its reserve for bad debts @ 5% and a reserve for discount on debtors @ 2%. You are
given the following details:
On 01/01/2016, Reserve for bad debts and Reserve of discount on debtors had balance of ` 4,550 and
`800 respectively.
Show Reserve for Bad Debts and Reserve for Discount on Debtors Account for the year 2016 and 2017. 7
3. Following is the summary of Receipts and Payments of Radix Clinic for the year ended 31st March, 2017:
`
Opening Cash Balance 56,000
Donation Received (including ` 50,000 for Building Fund.) 1,55,000
Payment to creditors for Medicines Supply 2,10,000
Salaries 70,000
Purchase of Medical Equipments 1,05,000
Medical Camp Collections 87,500
Subscription Received 3,50,000
Interest on Investments @ 9% p.a. 63,000
Honorarium to Doctors 1,90,000
Telephone Expenses 6,000
Medical Camp Expenses 10,500
Miscellaneous Expenses 7,000
Additional Information:
You are required to prepare Receipts and Payments Account and Income and Expenditure Account for the
year ended 31st March, 2017 and the Balance Sheet as on 31st March, 2017. 15
4. The following information relates to the business of ABC Enterprises, who requests you to prepare a Trading and
profit & loss A/c for the year ended 31st March, 2017 and a Balance Sheet as on that date:
01.04.2016 31.03.2017
(`) (`)
Furniture 60,000 63,500
Stock 80,000 70,000
Sundry Debtors 1,60,000 ?
Sundry Creditors 1,10,000 1,50,000
Prepaid Expenses 6,000 7,000
Outstanding Expenses 20,000 18,000
Cash in Hand & Bank Balance 12,000 26,250
(i) Collection from Debtors, after allowing discount of `15,000 amounted to `5,85,000.
(ii) Collection on discounting of Bills of Exchange, after deduction of discount of ` 1,250 by bank, totalled
to `61,250.
(iii) Creditors of `4,00,000 were paid `3,92,000 in full settlement of their dues.
(vii) Investment carrying annual interest of 6% were purchased at ` 95 (200 shares, face value ` 100 each)
on 1st October, 2016 and payment made thereof.
(c) Bills of exchange drawn on and accepted by customers during the year amounted to `1,00,000. Of these,
bills of exchange of `20,000 were endorsed in favour of creditors. An endorsed bill of exchange of ` 4,000
was dishonoured.
(e) Goods are invariably sold to show a gross profit of 20% on sales.
(f) Difference in cash book, if any, is to be treated as further drawing or introduction of capital by proprietor
of ABC enterprises.
5. (a) (i) M/s. Zed Laptop Co. has a hire-purchase department and goods are sold on hire-purchase adding 25%
to cost. From the following information (all figures are at hire-purchase price), Prepare Hire-Purchase
Trading Account for the year ending, March 31, 2017:
`
April 01, 2016 goods with customers (Installments not yet due) 80,000
Goods sold on Hire-purchase during the year 4,00,000
Cash received during the year from customers 3,00,000
Installments due but not yet received at the end of the year, customers paying 10,000
5
(ii) M/s. Big Systematic Ltd. maintains self-balancing ledgers preparing control accounts at the end of
each calendar month.
On 3rd January, 2018 the accountant of the company located the following errors in the books of
account:
(A) An amount of ` 8,700 received from customer Mehra was credited to Mehta, another customer.
(B) The sales book for December, 2017 was under cast by ` 1,000.
(C) Goods invoiced at ` 15,600 were returned to supplier, M/s Mega Ltd. but no entry was made in the
books for this return made on 28th December, 2017.
Pass the necessary Journal Entries to rectify the above mentioned errors. 5
(b) On 15th December, 2017, a fire occurred in the premises of M/s. OM Exports. Most of the stocks were
destroyed. Cost of Stock salvaged being ` 1,40,000. From the books of account, the following particulars
were available:
(i) Stock at the close of account on 31st March, 2017 was valued at ` 9,40,000.
(ii) Purchases from 01.04.2017 to 15-12-2017 amounted to ` 13,20,000 and the sales during that period
amounted to ` 20,25,000.
On the basis of his accounts for the past three years, it appears that average gross profit ratio is 20% on
sales.
Compute the amount of the claim, if the stock were insured for ` 4,00,000. 5
6. A and B were partners of a firm sharing profits and losses in the ratio 2:1. The Balance Sheet of the firm as at 31st
March, 2017 was as under:
They agreed to admit P and Q into the partnership on the following terms:
(i) The firm’s goodwill to be valued at 2 years’ purchase of the weighted average of the profits’ of the last 3
years. The relevant figures are:
(ii) The value of the stock and Plant & Machinery were to be reduced by 10%.
(v) A, B, P & Q agreed to share profits and losses in the ratio 3:2:1:1.
(vi) The value of reserve, the values of liabilities and the values of assets other than cash were not to be altered.
(vii) P and Q were to bring capitals equal to their shares of Profit considering B’s capital as base after all
adjustments.
7. (a) (i) (A) X sells goods to Y for ` 2,00,000. Instead of one bill of ` 2,00,000, X draws three bills of exchange on
Y for ` 40,000; ` 60,000 and ` 1,00,000. What is the value involved in drawing three bills instead of
one?
(B) Sunny draws a bill on Vivek for three months. On the due date, Vivek finds himself in financial
difficulties and requests Sunny to renew the bill for a further period of one month. Sunny agrees to
his request. What is the virtue involved in renewing the bill?
(D) What is the reason that a drawer cannot file a suit against drawee in case of dishonour of an
accommodation bill? 1x4=4
(ii) Raj Ltd. entered into an agreement with Heena Ltd. to dispatch goods valuing ` 5,00,000 every month
for next 6 months on receipt of entire payment. Heena Ltd. accordingly made the entire payment of
`30,00,000 and Raj Ltd. started dispatching the goods. In fourth month, due to fire in premises of Heena
Ltd., Heena Ltd. requested to Raj Ltd. not to dispatch goods worth ` 15,00,000 ready for dispatch. Raj
Ltd. accounted ` 15,00,000 as sales and transferred the balance to Advance received against Sales
account.
Comment upon the above treatment by Raj Ltd. with reference to the provision of AS-9. 5
(b) X Ltd. has its H.O. in Delhi and a branch in Mumbai. H.O. supplied goods to its branch at cost plus 331/3%.
From the particulars given below prepare a Branch Trading Account for the year ended 31st March 2018
in the books of H.O.:
It is estimated that 2% of the goods received are lost through natural wastage. 6
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