Introduction

General introduction.
The project is titled to selection of a process technology for production
of cast or pig iron from iron ore. Since CASTAN Company is currently
facing the stated problems the project should come up with possible
data in the specified parameters in relation to the selected factors that
seem to Iron ores consists mostly of oxygen and iron atoms bonded
together into molecules. To convert these oxides or iron to metallic
iron, they must be smelted or sent through a direct reduction process
to remove the oxygen. Oxygen-iron bonds are strong, and to remove
the iron from the oxygen, a stronger elemental bond must be
presented to attach to the oxygen. Carbon is used because the
strength of a carbon-oxygen bond is greater than that of the iron-
oxygen bond, and the process is done at high temperatures. The iron
ore must be powdered and mixed with coke, which is essentially
carbon, and the whole must be burnt in the smelting process.
It is reduced with carbon by smelting. It is placed in a furnace with
carbon coke and lime is added to reduce it the selection of a process
technology.

Mine location.
The CASTAN Company is the mining companies located several
kilometers from MOROGORO Region within the ULUGURU Mountains.
There are road accesses to the mine from the mountain. Which will
make the transportation to be easier? The iron extraction is first done
by explorations.

PART 1 – Principles of metal extraction

a) The occurrence of metals in the Earth's crust
  Metals are found in the Earth's crust. The least reactive metals
are found as elements (i.e. native, e.g. silver, gold), but most
metals are found in compounds, usually oxides or sulphides.
 Rocks that contain a high enough percentage of a metal to be
extracted commercially are known as ores (what percentage is
required depends on the value of the metal).
 Aluminum and iron are the most abundant metals in the Earth's
crust, and they are widely distributed around the world, which
explains why they are so widely used.
 There are some other commonly used metals, such as nickel and
copper that are scarce in the Earth's crust, but occur in high
grade ores in a few locations.

b) Methods of extraction
 Most compounds are found as oxides or sulphides.
 Sulphides are converted to oxides by roasting in air. e.g.
ZnS + 3/2 O2 → ZnO + SO2
 Roasting sulphide ores produces sulphur dioxide which could
lead to acid rain. However, the sulphur dioxide formed can be
collected and used to manufacture some sulphuric acid.SO2 +
H2O + ½ O2 → H2SO4
 The extraction of metals involves reduction. In these reactions,
the metal ions gain electrons (e.g. Fe3+ → Fe, Na+ → Na).
There are a number of different methods of metal extraction,
including:
 by heating with carbon (in the form of coke)
 by heating with a more reactive metal (active metal)
 by electrolysis of melts
 by reduction with hydrogen gas
Which method is used depends on:
1) The energy requirements extraction uses large amounts of energy
(electricity and / or heat)
2) The cost of the reductant carbon (in the form of coke), which is
cheap, is widely used, but sometimes more reactive metals are
required which are very costly
3) The metal purity required the higher the required purity, the greater
the cost in obtaining that purity.

PRINCIPAL ORES OF IRON

Haematite and magnetite are the most prominent of the iron ores
found. Of these,
Haematite is considered to be the most important Iron ore because of
its high grade quality, which is consumed in a number of steel and
sponge iron industries. Deposits of Haematite belong to pre-Cambrian
iron ore series and the ore is within banded iron ore Formations
occurring as massive, laminated, friable and also in powdery form.
Haematite
Haematite is the most abundant iron ore mineral and is the main
constituent of the iron ore industry. It occurs in a variety of geological
conditions throughout the world. It is the red oxide crystallizing in
hexagonal system. The fine-grained haematite is deep red, bluish red,
or brownish red and may be soft and earthy ocherous, compact or
highly porous to friable, or granular, or may form dense hard lumps.
Considerable siliceous or argillaceous impurities are common. Fine-
grained red haematite may occur in smooth reinform masses (Kidney
ores) in botryoidal or stalacitic shapes, or may be columnar, fibrous,
radiating or platy etc. The coarse crystalline haematite is steel grey
with bright metallic to dull grey lustre and occasionally, coarse crystals
have a deep bluish to purplish iridescent surface. The coarse-grained
haematite is known as specularite or specular haematite and may form
blocky or platy crystals with a strong icaceous parting. The cherry red
streak is difficult to observe on this variety.

Magnetite
It is the most common species in the magnetite series of spinel mineral
group and is the second most important iron bearing mineral of economic
importance. It is black magnetic oxide of iron crystallizing in the isometric
system and has hardness of 5.5 to 6.5. Its specific gravity is 5.17 and
magnetic attractability 40.18 compared to 100 for pure iron. It occurs as
fine or coarsegrained masses or in octahedral or less commonly
decahedral crystals. It occurs as veins and stringers in igneous rocks and
as lenses in crystalline schists. Large deposits are considered to be the
results of magnetic segregation and its low grade deposits occur
as disseminations in metamorphic and igneous rocks. It also occurs as a
replacement product in sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. It is found as
placer deposits as “black sand” in beach
deposits and as banded layers in metamorphic and igneous rocks.

Goethite and Limonite

These minerals are hydrated oxide of iron, forming a part of the complex
group in which
Proportion of the various radicals can undergo considerable variations.
Their colour is brown to ocherous yellow but may be black or dark brown
to reddish brown and they are often called“brown iron ores”. Their specific
gravity varies from 3.3 to 4.3 and hardness is 5.5.
They may contain 10 to 14.5 percent combined water and are converted
into haematite or magnetite on calcinations. These are secondary
minerals, being the product of alteration. They occur as thick cappings
formed by weathering and hydration of the underlying ore body. When
silica is leached out, iron content improves by 10 to 15 percent. These
minerals form flakes and needles generally of small dimensions occurring
as inter growths with the original constituents.
Siderites
Siderite, also called “spathic ore”, is a carbonate of iron. Its colour is ash
grey to brown with yellow and red stains resulting from oxidation and
hydration. Its specific gravity is 3.8 and hardness varies from 3.5 to 4. It
crystallizes under rhombohedra division of the hexagonal system. It
occurs as sedimentary or replacement deposits.

CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES

A. Extraction of Iron using blast furnace:

Common iron ores are hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4).

Since, iron is below carbon in the reactivity series, iron in the ore is
reduced to iron metal by heating with carbon (coke). It is actually
carbon monoxide which does the reducing in the blast furnace.

Iron ore is reduced to iron by heating them with coke (a form of

carbon) in blast furnace. The iron ore contains impurities, mainly silica
(silicon dioxide). Limestone (calcium carbonate) is added to the iron
ore which reacts with the silica to form molten calcium silicate in the
blast furnace. The calcium silicate (called slag) floats on the liquid iron.

The air blown into the bottom of the blast furnace is heated using the
hot waste gases from the top. Heat energy is valuable, and it is
important to conserve heat energy. The coke (produced by heating
coal in the absence of air) burns in the blast of hot air to form carbon
dioxide; exothermic reaction releases heat. This reaction is the main
source of heat in the furnace.

C + O2 = CO2

At the high temperature at the bottom of the furnace, carbon dioxide

reacts with carbon to produce carbon monoxide.

C + CO2 = 2CO

It is this carbon monoxide which is the main reducing agent in the

furnace to produce iron.

Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2

In the hotter parts of the furnace, the carbon itself also acts as a
reducing agent. Notice that at these temperatures, the other product
of the reaction is carbon monoxide, not carbon dioxide.

Fe2O3 + 3C = 2Fe + 3CO

The temperature of the furnace is hot enough to melt the iron which
trickles down to the bottom as ‘pig iron’, where it can be tapped off.

The limestone is added to convert siliceous impurities into ‘slag’ ( as

calcium silicate, CaSiO3), which melts and runs to the bottom. The
calcium silicate melts and runs down through the furnace to form a
layer on top of the molten iron.

CaCO3 + O2 = CaO + CO2. CaO + SiO2 = CaSiO3

B.Direct Biohydrometallurgical Extraction of Iron from

Ore
A completely novel approach to iron extraction was investigated,
based on reductive leaching of iron by anaerobic bacteria.
Microorganisms were collected from an anaerobic bog where natural
seepage of dissolved iron was observed. This mixed culture was used
to reduce insoluble iron in a magnetite ore to the soluble ferrous
(Fe+2) state. A factorial study of the effects of trace nutrients and
different forms of organic matter indicated that the best dissolution
rates and highest dissolved iron concentrations were achieved using
soluble carbohydrate (sucrose) as the bacterial food source, and that
nutrients other than nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and
acetate were not necessary. A key factor in reaching high levels of
dissolved iron was maintaining a high level of carbon dioxide in
solution, since the solubility of iron carbonates increases markedly as
the quantity of dissolved carbon dioxide increases. Once the iron is
dissolved, it has been demonstrated that the ferrous iron can then be
electroplated from solution, provided that the concentration of iron is
sufficiently high and the hydrogen ion concentration is sufficiently low.
However, if the leaching solution is electrolyzed directly, organic
matter precipitates at the cathode along with the metallic iron. To
prevent this problem, the ferrous iron should be separated from the
bulk solution in a more concentrated, purified form. One route to
accomplishing this is to take advantage of the change in solubility of
ferrous iron as a function of carbon dioxide concentration. By cycling
the concentration of carbon dioxide in solution, it is possible to produce
an iron-rich concentrate that should be suitiable for electrolysis. This
represents the first viable hydrometallurgical method for leaching iron
directly from ore and producing metallic iron.

C.ELECTRIC SMELTING OF TITANIFEROUS IRON ORES

Electric-smelting studies were made on titaniferous materials obtained
from deposits with the objective of determining the feasibility of
producing pig iron and an enriched titania slag in one test series and
pig iron alone in another test series the quality of steel that could be
produced from the titaniferous pig iron. The continuous smelting tests
were made in a three-phase, submerged-arc, electric furnace, and the
laboratory steelmaking tests were made in a single-phase electric-arc
furnace. A continuous, belt-type, wet-magnetic separator was used in
conjunction with a ball mill and a spiral classifier in recovering
titaniferous magnetite from the crude Choteau ore. Pig irons containing
less than 0.05 percent phosphorus or sulfur were readily produced
from the titaniferous materials.

Iron ore blends containing more than 2 percent Titania are not
normally used

in the blast furnaces because

 Slags produced may have pasty characteristics which will cause

irregular furnace operation;
 Character of the hot metal may be adversely affected, resulting
in excessive skulling of hot-metal ladles; and
 Titanium exhibits a slight tendency to combine with carbon and
nitrogen to form an infusible titanium cyano-nitride which
accumulates on furnace hearth and side wall.

Main objectives

 To develop environmental standards for iron ore mines operating

at CASTAN Mine Company.
  With a view to meeting techno-economic feasibility as well as to
preserve the environmental quality and protect the human
health.
 To develop clean technology with a view to achieve the proposed
environmental standards.
 To provide guidelines of practices for pollution prevention for iron
ore mines.

Specific objectives

 To reduce noise during crushing process

 To remove carbon contents from the molten iron to obtain
high purity iron
 To remove of impurities from the blast furnace

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Currently CASTAN Mine Company have faced problems on the

selection of the process technology for the production of cast iron or
pig iron from the iron ore by using blast furnace that lead to the
environmental pollution, poor pig iron production and high cost.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Since wastes and other materials at active mines are managed on

land, there is a potential for environmental contamination from various
parts of the mining operation. Mine pits and underground workings,
overburden and waste rock piles, ore piles, and tailings impoundments
in the iron ore mining industry are of particular note, since these are
the areas in which toxic contaminants are most commonly found. A
discussion of the potential environmental effects associated with iron
ore mining is presented in the following sections.

Ground Water/Surface Water

The primary concerns for ground water and surface water at mine sites
are chemical and physical contamination associated with mine
operation. Exposed ore, overburden piles, waste rock and ore piles,
tailings impoundments, and other disturbed areas can contribute
sediment and increase the total solids load to surface water bodies.
Other potential sources of surface and ground water contamination
include fuel spills, flotation reagents, cleaning solutions, and other
chemicals used or stored at the site. For iron recovered from sulfide-
bearing ores, acid generation due to the oxidation of sulfides (e.g.
pyrite and pyrrhotite) in the ore body, host rock, and waste material
may be of concern. Trace elements and minerals often associated with
iron deposits includes aluminum, antimony, arsenic, beryllium,
cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, manganese, nickel, selenium,
silver, sulfur, titanium, and zinc

Underground mines.

Surface and underground mines may need to be dewatered to allow

extraction of ore. This can be accomplished in one of two ways:
pumping from ground water wells to lower the water table, or pumping
directly from the mine workings. After a mine is abandoned, pumping
is usually stopped, allowing the pit or underground workings to fill with
water. Over time, this may lead to uncontrolled releases of mine water.
Mine water from iron mines generally has a pH of seven or higher and
present.

Soil

Environmental impacts to soils as a result of mining activities are most

commonly associated with erosion and contamination. Erosion may be
caused by land disturbances and removal of vegetation related to
mining activities. Under these conditions, precipitation events, such as
snowmelt, may lead to erosion of soils. Contamination of soils may
result from water discharge, runoff, seepage from tailings
impoundments, pits and mine workings, as well as from the
overburden, waste rock, and ore piles directly to soils. In addition,
deposition of windblown particulates from piles and dry tailings
impoundments may also be a source of soil contamination. Other
sources of soils contamination include spills of fuels, flotation reagents,
cleaning solutions, as well as other chemicals used or stored at the
site.

Air

The primary sources of air contamination at mine sites are fugitive

dust from dry surfaces of dry tailings impoundments, as well as
overburden, waste rock, and ore piles. Blasting generally produces
relatively large particles that settle rapidly and have little effect on
ambient air quality.

TRACE ELEMENTS: EFFECTS AND REMEDIES

The inclusion of even small amounts of some elements can have
profound effects on the behavioral characteristics of a batch of iron or
the operation of a smelter. These effects can be both good and bad.
Some catastrophically bad. Some chemicals were deliberately added.
The addition of a flux made a blast furnace more efficient. Others were
added because they made the iron more fluid, harder, or some other
desirable quality. The choice of ore, fuel, and flux determined how the
slag behaved and the operational characteristics of the iron produced.
Ideally iron ore contains only iron and oxygen. In nature this is rarely
the case. Typically, iron ore contains a host of elements which are
often unwanted in modern steel.

SILICON

Silica (SiO2) is almost always present in iron ore. Most of it is slagged

off during the smelting process. But, at temperatures above 1300 °C
some will be reduced and form an alloy with the iron. The hotter the
furnace, the more silicon will be present in the iron. It is not uncommon
to find up to 1.5% Si in European cast iron from the 16th to 18th
centuries. The major effect of silicon is to promote the formation of
gray iron. Gray iron is less brittle and easier to finish than white iron. It
was preferred for casting purposes for this reason. Silicon also reduced
shrinkage and the formation of blowholes, lowering the number of bad
castings.

PHOSPHORUS

Phosphorus (P) has four major effects on iron: increased hardness and
strength, lower solidus temperature, increased fluidity, and cold
shortness. Depending on the use intended for the iron, these effects
are either good or bad.The strength and hardness of iron increases
with the concentration of phosphorus. 0.05% phosphorus in wrought
iron makes it as hard as medium carbon steel. High phosphorus iron
can also be hardened by cold hammering. The hardening effect is true
for any concentration of phosphorus. The more phosphorus, the harder
the iron becomes and the more it can be hardened by hammering. It
also increases the depth of hardening due to quenching, but at the
same time also decreases the solubility of carbon in iron at high
temperatures. This would decrease its usefulness in making blister
steel (cementation), where the speed and amount of carbon absorption
is the overriding consideration.

THE COMPANY EMPLOYEES COST ON OPERATION.

The company is currently faced/employed with costs due to daily

activities done by the company whereby there is a lot of energies are
being consumed, cost due to pollution of environment around the
factory, cost due to poor technological applied to recover the iron.