Introduction

Yajnavalkya Smriti refers fourteen sources of knowledge. They are – the Vedas (Rigveda,
Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda), Vedangas (Shikaha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta,
Chanda and Jyotisha), Purana, Nyaya, Meemamsa and Dharmashastra.

पुराणन्यायमीमांसा धर्मशास्त्रांग मिश्रिता:।  वे दा: स्थानानि विद्यानां धर्मस्य च चतु र्दश ॥

                                                                                                                    – याज्ञवल्क्य स्मृ ति

A very interesting passage in Mundaka Upanishad broadly divides Vidya into two types –
Para and Apara.

द्वे विद्ये वे दितव्ये इति ह स्म यद्बरह्मविदो

् वदन्ति परा चै वापरा च ॥ 4॥
तत्रापरा, ऋग्वे दो यजु र्वे दः सामवे दोऽथर्ववे दः
शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति ।
अथ परा यया तदक्षरमधिगम्यते ॥ 5॥

                                                                                                 – मु ण्डकोपनिषद्

Knowledge is dealt within Apara Vidya. The Veda-s are scriptures and Vedanga-s are the
Vedic Auxiliary Science that deal with phonetics. Every Vedic Scripture has 4 types of texts-
Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad. There are special Vedic grammar rules for
each Shakha known as Pratisakhya and phonetic rules known as Shiksha. Mimansa Sutras
describe rules for interpretation of Vedic text, Nyaya & Vaisesika sutra-s (deal with logical
aspects, ontological classification, process of human understanding), Purana-s are narrations
of messages and teachings of Veda-s, Dharma Sastra-s describe code of conduct for universal
harmony.

The Vedas are the source of integral wisdom, science, tradition and culture of a remarkable
civilization. They are oral compilations of distilled wisdom of cosmic knowledge survived
from the time immemorial. They are not only identified as scriptures, but also as the fountain
head of Indian culture and human civilization.

1. Meaning of the word ‘Veda’

The word ‘Veda’ means ‘knowledge’ and is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘vid’, means ‘to
know’. It does not refer to one single literary work, but indicates a huge corpus of literature,
which arose in the course of many centuries and has been handed down from one generation
to another generation by verbal transmission. ‘Veda’ is also called ‘Shruti’ meaning what is
heard, as opposed to the ‘Smriti’ composed by sages at a later stage recounting the content of
the Vedic texts. This referes the purely oral-aural method which was (and is) used for it.

According to Indian traditional thoughts ‘Veda’ is regarded as revealed scripture, self-

evident, and self authoritative. It is not composed by any human authors. The Vedic hymns
(Suktas) or verses (Mantras) are seen and only spoken by the seers (Rishis). These seers are
neither author of the Mantras nor are they responsible for the contents of the Mantras. Yaska,
the oldest expositor of Veda, has distinctly said that these seers received the sacred
knowledge or knowledge was revealed to them. They then handed it down to descendants by
oral instruction. The great Vedic commentator Sayana has given a definition of the Veda-
 ‘Ishtaprapti-anishtapariharyor-alaukikam-upayam yo grantho vedayati  sa vedah’

It  means,  “The  scripture,  which  describes  the  divine  method  for obtaining what is
desirable and for giving up what is undesirable, is called Veda.” This definition presents the
purpose of the Veda. According to another definition, as per the sage Apastamba  ‘the Veda
is the name given to the Mantras and the Brahmanas’.

‘Mantra-brahmanyor-vedanamadheyam.’

This definition describes the form of the ‘Veda’ because it could be divided mainly into these
two great divisions–the Mantras and the Brahmanas. Accordingly, Mantra part is the main
part of the Veda and whatever is not Mantra is Brahmana. Here it is interesting to know that
many  ancient  definitions  of  Veda,  showing  its  significance,  form  or contents are given
in ancient Indian texts. Generally speaking the word ‘Veda’ signifies highest, sacred, eternal 
and  divine  knowledge  as  well  as  the  texts embodying  that knowledge.

2. Importance of the Veda

The significance of the Veda is manifold.

1. It has been universally acknowledged that the Veda is the earliest available literature
of humanity.
2. The Veda in the form of prose and poetry in Sanskrit language, has been regarded as
authoritative knowledge. Its authority seems to have remained unquestioned for
several millennia, and it has been considered the last tribunal in matters of dispute
whether in religion or philosophy or social customs. The term ‘Astika’ is used for
those systems of Indian philosophy, which have faith on the authority of the Veda and
the term ‘Nastika’ is used for those systems of Indian philosophy which do not have
faith on the authority of the Veda.
3. The religion and culture of the Hindus are rooted in the Veda. Till date,   their  
worship,   sacrifice,   rites   and   attitudes   are influenced by the Veda.
4. The Veda contains the highest spiritual knowledge (Para vidya) as well as the
knowledge of the world (Apara vidya).  Thus, apart from philosophy, we find here
descriptions of various aspects of the different subjects such as sciences, medicine,
political science, psychology, agriculture, poetry, art, music etc.
5. The Veda is unique in its purity and sanctity. The text of the Veda is preserved in its
pure and original form without any alteration  or  interpolation  even  after  thousands 
of  years.  The Veda is the only unadulterated treasure house of true knowledge. So
much so that even UNESCO declared it as part of the Intangible cultural heritage of
humanity. (http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/tradition-of-vedic-chanting-
00062)
6. The   Vedic   language   is   marked   by   extreme   economy   of expression. Many
times it seems to carry some deep hidden meanings indicating mystical truths. Often it
makes symbolic impression. The wise souls, from the immediate successors of the
Vedic seers right down to our times, have searched for and discovered the revelation
of the deepest truth in the Vedic texts differently. That is the reason many
commentaries and reference- books are written by the ancient and modern scholars for
understanding the Veda and the Vedic concepts. This vast reference material further
establishes the importance of the Vedic texts.
3. Preservation of the Veda (Veda Patha)

Despite being oldest, the Vedas have been preserved in their true form up till now. Even Max
Muller, a renowned European scholar, has admitted that, the text of the Vedas has been
handed down to us with such accuracy and care that there is hardly any change in the words,
or there is any uncertain aspect in the whole of Vedas.

The credit for this goes to Vedic seers (Rishis) who devised means of protecting and
preserving the text of Vedas letter by letter, with all their accessories. Vedic mantras have
accents (Swara) which preserve its original form of word- construction.

There are three Prakriti Pathas for memorizing Mantras most commonly known as:

1. Samhita-Patha –   in which Mantra remains in its true form.

2. Pada-Patha-   in which each word of a Mantra is separately spoken.
3. Krama-Patha-  in which two words of a Mantra are spoken jointly as  Ka-kha, kha-ga.

There were eight ways i.e., Vikritis of memorizing Vedas. These are

1. Jatapatha
2. Malapatha
3. Shikhapatha
4. Rekhapatha
5. Dhvajapatha
6. Dandapatha
7. Rathapatha
8. Ghanapatha

Among them Ghana  Patha  is most difficult and the longest.

Another step was to prepare treatises known as Anukramanis in which the names of Rishi,
Devata, Chandas  are mentioned in reference to each hymn of the Vedas. Chandas means
meter which also helps in avoiding loss of content by enforcing number of syllables.  A.A.
Macdonell  has rightly observed in his ‘History  of Sanskrit  Literature’ – ’since that remote
time, the text of the Vedas has suffered no change whatsoever with such a care that history
has nothing to compare with’.

4. Eternity (Apaurusheyata) of the Veda

As has been told earlier according to Hindu conception the Veda is not the creation of any
human being. It is divine and only visualized by the ancient seers, and that is why it is
called Apaurusheya . All other works or words of great luminaries fall under the category
of Paurusheya  and that is why they are known by their respective names. The Rigveda
describes the Veda as eternal and Apaurusheya–

‘Vachaa virupa nityataa’ – Rigveda 8.76.6

Likewise the Upanishad says that the Vedas are just like expiration (Nihshvaasa) of that great
‘Brahman’. They are ‘breathed out’ by the Brahman. So the Veda is eternal just as Brahman.
  वे दों की अपौरुषेयता एवं वाक् के विभिन्न स्तर_प्रो॰ हृदयरंजन शर्मा (MP3)
 वै दिक भाषा का काल_प्रो॰ गयाचरण त्रिपाठी (MP3)

5. Age of the Veda

No one now doubts that the Rigveda is the most ancient document of the human beings, but
fixing the age of the Rigveda or the Veda is most difficult task. This issue has many
problems, such as-

1. There is no outside evidence available as inscription, seals etc.

2.  Dates are not mentioned in the Vedic texts.
3. The doctrine of ‘Apaurusheyata‘ proves the Veda as eternal.
4. Vedic astronomical accounts found in Vedas are not very clear.
5. View of the Indian and Western scholars differ on this subject.

On the question of the age of the Veda, the only source that remains is the literary evidence
on which are based the so-called literary or linguistic theories. Other theories are based upon
some assumptions which have yet to be proved conclusively. Max Muller has rightly
exclaimed in his book ‘Physical  Religion‘ (P.18), “Whether the Vedic hymns were
composed in 1000 or 1500 or 2000 or 3000 year B.C., no power on each could ever
fix.”Certainly Vedic knowledge is beyond age and time as it is eternal and universal. When
we talk of the age of the Vedas, we mean to determine the period of arrangement and
composition of the main Vedic texts. Boghazkoi inscription (1400 B.C.) found in Asia Minor
refers to four Vedic deities, so we may consider the latest limit of the Vedic age before 1400
B.C. But the final word has yet to be said on the age of the Vedas.

Here some of the important views held on the subject are presented briefly in a chart to show
the complexity of the problem:

Name of the scholar Source Age of the Vedas

1.Swami Dayananda Sarswati Veda-mantras Beginning of the Creation
2. Dinanath Shastri Astronomy 3 lakhs years back
3.AvinashChandraDas Geology 25000 B.C.
4. Balgangadhar Tilak Astronomy 6000 B.C.
5. R.G. Bhandarkar Vedic- mantras 6000 B .C.
6. Shankar Balkrishna Dikshit Astronomy 3500 B.C.
7. H. Jacobi . Astronomy 4500 B.C
8. M. Winternitz Boghazkoi 2500 B.C.
9. F.Maxmuller Buddhist Literature 1200 B.C.

6. Division of the Vedic Literature

Broadly speaking the whole of the Vedic literature (Apara vidya) can be put into two
categories:

1. The Vedas
2. The Vedangas
‘Veda’ is a collective term indicating the four Vedas –

1. Rigveda,
2. Yajurveda,
3. Samaveda and
4. Atharvaveda.

On account of these four different Vedas, one often speaks of ‘the Vedas’ in the plural.The
four Vedas consist of four different classes of literary works. To each of these classes belongs
a greater or a smaller number of separate works, of which some have been preserved in their
true form but also many lost in time. These four classes are:

1. Samhitas
2. Brahmanas
3. Aranyakas
4. Upanishads

Sometimes, the Aranyakas and Upanishads are treated as part of  Samhitas/Brahmanas and
not separately.The Vendangas consists of the six knowledge streams required for
understanding of the Vedas. They are:

1. Shiksha
2. Kalpa
3. Vyakarana
4. Nirukta
5. Chanda, and
6. Jyotisha

In addition, each of the veda consists of a secondary knowledge source (called upveda). They
are:

1. For Rigveda – Ayurveda

2. For Yajurveda – Dhanurveda
3. For Samaveda – Gandharvaveda and
4. For Atharvaveda – Arthashastra

The Vedas are mainly for performing the Yajna (rituals). As quoted

वे दा हि यज्ञार्थमभिप्रवृ त्ता कालानु पर्व्या

ू भिहिताश्च यज्ञाः I
तस्मादिदं कालविधानशास्त्रं यो ज्योतिषं वे द स वे द यज्ञम् II

                                                                          -वे दांग ज्योतिष

Yajnas are divided into two major class

1. Havir Yajna, and

2. Soma Yajna

An attempt has been made under the project for understanding of the Vedic wisdom through
the lenses of the modern scientific knowledge specially in the field of Sciences, Mathematics,
Medicine, Astronomy, Architecture, Legal Systems, Metallurgy, Philology, Environmental
Studies, Aeronautics, Astrology, Rituals etc. Recordings of some of the experts with their
publications has been integrated under this project to attract the younger generation.

Samhitas

Rigveda Samhita

A. Nature and Importance:

The Rigveda is the oldest compilation of human wisdom. This Samhita (Collection) is unique
in its nature. In fact, it is not a book, but a compilation composed of several books which can
be individually distinguished from each other. The present from of this Samhita clearly
indicates that the collection is not a single work, but consists of older and later elements.
Various indications of language, style and ideas prove this point. Different hymns of this
Samhita were composed long before they were systematically arranged. Being a compilation
of different stages, there is something which stamps the Rigveda with an individuality of its
own. It is much more natural in character and form than other Samhitas.

The Rigveda represents the earliest sacred book of India. It is oldest and biggest amongst all
the four Vedas. All the features of Classical Sanskrit poetry can be traced to the Rigveda. In it
we find the seeds of India’s religious and philosophical development. Thus, both for its
poetry and its religious and philosophical importance, the Rigveda should be studied by one
who wants to understand Indian literature and spiritual culture. The value of the Rigveda
today is not confined to India, for its well-preserved language and mythology have helped a
better understanding of languages, literatures and cultures of a whole world.

B. Form and Division:

The whole of the Rigveda-Samhita is in form of verses, known as Rik, from the root rc “to
praise”.  ‘Rik‘ is the name given to those Mantras which are meant for the praise of the
deities. Thus the collection (Samhita) of Riks is known as Rigveda-Samhita. Only one
recession or school (Shakha) of the Rigveda is commonly available today and it is the
Shaakala. The Rigveda Samhita contains about 10552Mantras, classified into ten books
called Mandalas. Each Mandala is divided into several sections called Anuvakas. Each
Anuvaka consists of a number of hymns called Suktas and each Sukta is made up of a number
of verses called riks. This division of the Rigveda is most popular and systematic, is also the
Astaka system, dividing the contents of the Rigveda, but today that is uncommon among the
students of the Veda.

A Sukta is a group of Mantras. The number of Mantras in a Sukta is not fixed. Some Suktas
have a small number of Mantras while others have a large number of Mantras. It is important
to note that every Rc has a seer i.e. Rishi, a deity i.e. Devata and a metre i.e. Chandas . Often
this is common to an entire Sukta. The Samhita of the Rigveda comprises 10 Mandalas, 85
Anuvakas, 1028 Suktas and 10552 Mantras. Usually Anuvaka is not mentioned for the
reference of a Mantra of the Rigveda. For example RV 3.16.7 simply means the seventh
Mantra of the  sixteenth Sukta of the third Mandala of the Rigveda.

Through this chart we can know the division of Mandalas, number of Suktas in each
Mandala and name of Rishis of some Mandalas.
Name of Rishis

01 191 2006 Maducchanda,Medhatithi,Gotama and many others

02 43 429 Gritasamada and his family

03 62 617 Vishvamitra and his family

04 58 589 Vamadeva and his family

05 87 727 Atri and his family

06 75 765 Bhardvaja and his family

07 104 841 Vashistha and his family

08 103 1716 Kanva, Angira and their family

09 114 1108 Soma Devata but different Rishis

10 191 1754 Vimada, Indra, Shachi and manyother

C. Some Important Hymns:

Among 1028 Suktas of the Rigveda Samhita some suktas are very popular and frequently
referred by the readers of Vedas. Some of them are:
1. Purusha Sukta
2. Hiranya-garbha Sukta
3. Dhana-anna-dana Sukta
4. Aksha Sukta
5. Nasadiya Sukta
6. Duhsvapna-nashna Sukta
7. Yama-yami-samvada Sukta

Besides this, there are Suktas offered to different deities, such as, Indra, Marut, Varuna,
Ushas, Surya, Bhumi, Soma, Agni etc.

Thus we can briefly say about the contents of Rigveda that it has various subjects, which are
narrated by Vedic seers poetically, philosophically or religiously.

Yajurveda – Samhita

A. Nature and Importance:

In its character Yajurveda is quite different from the Rigveda & Samaveda Samhitas. It is
principally in prose form. The word ‘Yajush‘ in the Yajurveda is explained variously. But one
of its definitions says –

‘Gadyatmako yajuh‘.

A ‘Yajuh’ is that which is in prose form’. Another definition – ‘Yajur Yajateh’ talks about its
relation with the sacrifice (Yajna) because both the terms are derived from the root. ‘Yaj ‘.
The Yajurveda is more pronouncedly a ritual Veda for it is essentially a guide-book for the
Adhvaryu priest who had to do practically all ritualistic works in a sacrifice. His works vary
from the selection of a plot of land for the sacrificial altar down to offering oblations to the
sacred fires. Just as the Samaveda-Samhita is the song-book of the Udgata priest, so the
Yajurveda-Samhitas are the prayer-books for the Adhvaryu priest. It is solely meant for the
purposes of sacrificial rituals.

The Yajurveda is also important for its presentation of philosophical doctrines. It preaches the
concept of Prana and Manas also. Many times, it is quoted for depicting religious and social
life of the Vedic people. It is also known for giving certain geographical data.

B. Division and Samhitas:

The Yajurveda is two-fold-

1. The Shukla Yajurveda
2. The Krishna  Yajurveda

The Krishna Yajurveda is characterised by mixture of mantra and brahmana whereas the
Shukla Yajurveda maintains the clear separation of the two.

The Shukla Yajurveda is related with the Aditya-school and the Krishna Yajurveda is related
with the Brahma-school. In the beginning of his commentary on the Shukla-Yajurveda
Samhita, a story is given by Mahidhara, about the two-fold division of the Yajurveda. Rishi
Vaishampayana taught the Yajurveda to Rishi Yajnavalkya and other pupils. Once
Vaishampayana got angry with Yajyavalkya and asked him to give up what he had learnt.
Then Yajyavalkya prayed to the Sun, who came to him in the form of a horse i.e. Vaji) and
preached him the Veda. Hence this Yajurveda was named Vajasaneyi.

Sukla Yajurveda has two Samhita available today:

1. Madhyandina Samhita
2. Kanva Samhtia

Krishna Yajurveda has four Sanhitas available today:

1.Taittiriya Samhita
2. Kathaka Samhita
3. Kapishthala Samhita
4. Maitrayani Samhita

C. Contents :

We find detailed description of sacrifices in the Samhita of Yajurveda. The Vajasaneyi-

Samhita gives a vivid description of many important sacrifices such as – Darsha-purnamasa,
Agnihotra, Somayaga, Chaturmasya, Agnihotra, Vajapeya, Ashvamedha, Sarva-medha,
Brahma-yajya, Pitrimedha, Sautramani, and so on. For a general idea the contents can be
divided into three sections. The first section comprises the Darshapurnamasa, the second
section deals with the Somayaga and the third section comprises the Agnicayanas. The last
section of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita contains the popular Ishavasya-Upanishad. It is important
to know that the first eighteen Adhyayas of the Vajasaneyi- Samhita are completely given,
word for word, and explained in the Shatapatha Brahmana of the white Yajurveda. On the
basis of this point few scholars think that the last sections of this Samhita are of a later date.

Samaveda – Samhita

A. Nature and Importance:

The Samaveda is shortest of all the four Vedas. It is closely connected with the Rigveda. It is
important to note that the Samhita of the Samaveda is an independent collection (Samhita),
yet it has taken many verses, a large number indeed, from the Samhita of Rigveda. These
verses are chiefly derived from the eighth and the ninth Mandalas of the Rigveda. The
Samaveda is compiled exclusively for ritual application, for its verses are all meant to be
chanted at the ceremonies of the Soma-sacrifice and procedures derived from it. The
Samaveda is, therefore, specially intended for the Udagatr priest. Its stanzas assume their
proper character of musical samans or chants only in the various song-books called Ganas.
According to the Jaiminiya Sutra – ‘Melody is called Saman.’

Traditional the Vedas are spoken as‘Trayi‘, because thay are composed of three kinds in
mantras- Rcs or verses, Yajus or prose, Saman or chants.

Among the four Vedas, the Samaveda is regarded as the foremost. In the Bhagavadgata,
where Lord Krishna has declared “Among the Vedas I am Samaveda”-Vedanama
Samavedosmi (Gita, 10.22). Here Indra, Agni and Soma deities are mainly invoked and
praised but most of the time these prayers seem to be the invocations for the Supreme Being.
In the spiritual sense Soma represents All-pervading, Glorious Lord and Brahman, who is
attainable only through devotion and musical chanting. Thus major theme of the Samaveda
can be regarded as worship and devotion (Upasana).

B. Form and Division:

The term Saman means a ‘chant’ or ‘melody’ and it signifies the entire Samaveda-Samhita,
because it is metrical composition set to music. According to the Jaiminiya Sutra – ‘Melody
is called Saman.’

–Gitishu saamakhya.

The Samaveda is the Veda of songs and chanting based on Riks. Element of melody is an
essential feature of the Samaveda. Yaska has given the etymology of the word ‘Saman‘ as
Sam + Ma, meaning’measuring harmoniously with a Rik‘.According to the ancient tradition,
told by Patanjali, the Samaveda had 1000 recessions (Shakhas). But at present there are only
three recessions. These are – (1) Kauthuma, (2) Jaiminiya, (3) Ranayaniya. But today,
Kauthuma Shakha is known more prominently. The Samaveda- Samhita of Kauthumas,
consists of two parts – the Purvarcika, and the Uttararcika. First part contains four parts:1.
Agneya – 114 verses for Agni2. Aindra – 352 verses for Indra3. Pavamana – 119 verses for
Soma Pavamana4. Aranya – 55 verses for Indra, Agni, Soma etc. (And Mahanamni Mantras
-10)This part consists of 650 verses.The Uttararcika, the second part of the Samaveda-
Samhita, consists total number of 1225 verses. So the total number of verses in the
Samaveda-Samhit is 1875. Amongst these 1771 Verses are from the Rigveda Only 99 verses
of this Samhita are not found in the Rigveda- Samhita and thus are generally regarded to be
of Samveda itself.
Atharvaveda – Samhita

A. Nature and Importance:

The Veda of the Atharvanis the Atharvaveda. Atharvan denotes directions and mantras
especially in connection to ward off evil and hardship and also contains philosophical
thoughts. ‘Atharvan‘ originally means ‘priest’ and the Mantras in the Atharvaveda-Samhita
were brought to light by Rishi Atharva.

According to the etymology of the Nirukta, Atharvan is the name given to a stable-minded
person who is immovably firm i.e., Yogi. The oldest name, however, by which this Veda is
known in Indian literature is ‘Atharvangirasa-Veda’, that is the ‘Veda of the Atharvans and
the Angiras’. Angiras too were a group of schools and priests.

According to Patanjali, Atharvaveda had nine Shakhas, but the Samhita of the Atharvaveda is
today available only in two rescensions – the Shaunaka and the Paippalada. It is the
Shaunaka-Samhita that is frequently meant when the Atharvaveda is mentioned in ancient
and modern literature. It is a collection of 730 hymns containing 5987 Mantras, divided into
20 books (Kandas). Some 1200 verses are derived from the Rigveda. About one sixth of the
text of the Atharvaveda including two entire books (15 and 16) is written in prose, similar in
style and language to the Brahmanas, the rest of the text is in poetic verses.

Some traditions prescribe that this Veda should be known as Brahma Ritvik who used to
supervise the process of Yaga or sacrifice. In sacrificial ceremonies he was supposed to know
all the three Vedas, but usually he used to represent the Atharvaveda. Due to his association,
the Atharvaveda is also named ‘Brahmaveda‘, the Veda of Brahma priest.

The Atharvaveda is the oldest literary monument of Indian medicine. It is believed to be the
origin of Ayurveda, the Indian science of medicine. There are a series of Mantras related to
cure various physical and mental diseases. Another class of hymns includes prayers for
protection from the bite of snakes or injurious insects. We find mention and application of
medicines and medicinal herbs. This feature distinguishes the Atharvaveda from the rest of
the Vedas.

Philosophical portions of this Samhita present a fairly high development of metaphysical

thought. The chief ideas of the Upanishads, the conception of a highest god as creator and
preserver of the world (Prajapati), and even the ideas of an impersonal creative principle,
besides a number of philosophical terms such as Brahman, Tapas, Asat, Prana, Manas must
have been the common property of large circles – at the time when these hymns originated.
Therefore, the study of the philosophical ideas, revealed in the Atharvaveda, is important to
understand the development of Indian Philosophical thought.

Atharvaveda is the only Veda which is related to both worldly happiness and spiritual
knowledge. Vedic commentator Sayana has praised this for fulfilling both ends – this world
and the other world. Thus, it appears to be an interesting text for a general reader of the Vedic
literature.

B. Contents:
The Atharvaveda is looked upon as the Veda of varied knowledge. It contains numerous
Mantras, which according to their subject-matter, can be broadly divided into three
categories: 1. Related to the cure of diseases and destruction of adverse forces. 2. Related to
establish peace, protection, health, wealth, friendship and long life. 3. Related to the nature of
Supreme Reality, time, death and immortality.

Bloomfield has divided the subject of Atharvaveda into many categories, such as Bhashijya,
Paushtika, Prayashctta, Rajakarma, Strikarma,Darshana, Kuntapa etc. Here some Important
and famous Suktas of Atharvaveda are listed to have a general view its subject:

1. Bhumi-Sukta (12.1)
2. Brahmacarya-Sukta (11.5)
3. Kala-Suktas (11.53, 54)
4. Vivaha-Sukta (14th Kanda)
5. Madhuvidya-Sukta (9.1)
6. Samanasya-Sukta (3.30)
7. Rohita-Sukta (13.1-9)
8. Skambha-Sukla (10.7)

So, the Atharvaveda is an encyclopedia of many subjects. It reflects the life of the Vedic
people. Their thoughts related to philosophical, social, educational, political, agricultural,
scientific and medical matters are found in this Samhita.

Finally, we can say that the Samhita literature of Veda is considered important for its nature,
form and contents. This is the main part of Vedic literature consisting five famous Samhitas.

Brahmanas

(The Brahmanas are the prose texts which explain the hymns in the Vedas, give
explanation and applications and related stories of their origin. They also have
some stories related to the certain persons related to the Vedic Text.)

The name ‘Veda’ is given to the vast body of literature made up of Mantra and Brahmana. So
far we have been referring mostly to Mantras which constitute the Samhita portion of the
Veda, now we go to the Brahmanas. Brahmanas are most important among several other
texts, which were composed in ancient times to explain the difficult meaning and secret
knowledge of the Vedic Samhitas.

1. Meaning of the Term ‘Brahmana’

The word Brahmana in neuter gender means Brahmana texts. Why these literary
compositions are given this name? Authors of Brahmanas and their commentators have not
offered any definition of this word. Sayana has only said in the introduction of his
commentary on the Rigveda: “Which in tradition is not a hymn or a Mantra is a Brahmana
and which is not Brahmana is a Mantra”. The term ‘Brahmana’ has been variously interpreted
by the scholars. It comes from the word Brahman which means both the Veda and the Mantra
– “Brahma Vai Mantrah.” Thus the word Brahmana means ‘that which relates to Brahman or
the Veda’. It is derived from the root brih ‘to grow’, ‘to expand’.
In other words, the name ‘Brahmana’ means the explanation of a ritual by a learned priest.
Later this word came to mean a collection of such explanations by the priest on the science of
sacrifice. The Brahmanas are thus the ritual text-books on the details of sacrifice or Yajna.

2. Contents of the Brahmanas

Apastamba defines Brahmanas as ‘Karmacodana Brahmanani’ meaning Brahmanas are

injunctions for the performance of sacrificial rites. According to him, these texts deal with the
following six topics:Vidhi Arthavada , Ninda, Prashansha , Purakalpa and Parakriti.

1. Vidhi means injunctions for the performance of particular rites.

2. Arthavada comprises the numerous explanatory remarks on the meaning of Mantras
and particular rites.
3. Ninda or censure consists in criticism and, refutation of the opponents’ views.
4. Prashansha means eulogy, recommendation.
5. Purakalpa refers to the performance of sacrificial rites in former times.
6. Parakriti means the achievements of others.

The main subject of the Brahmanas is injunction (Vidhi), all other topics being subservient to
it. They may be classified differently. Shabara, in his commentary, has summed up their
subjects into ten following heads:

1. Hetu – reasons
2. Nirvacana – etymology
3. Ninda – censure ,condemn
4. Prashansha – eulogy, praise
5. Sanshaya – doubt,uncertainty
6. Vidhi – injunction,sanction
7. Parakriya – feats/deeds of others
8. Purakalpa – legendary background
9. Vyavadharana– Kalpana – managerial application
10. Upamana – illustration.

Yajna is not only sacrifice. In Brahmanas we find it as symbolic also. Here it often represents
the knowledge of creation and thus describes the secrets of creation.

3. Classification of the Brahmanas

Originally, there were numerous Brahmanas, of which only a few have survived to us. There
are a number of lost Brahmanas which are quoted in the available Sanskrit Literature.For
each Samhita, there are corresponding Brahmanas. Names of the principal Brahmanas of all
the Vedas are listed here: (A) Rigveda :

1. Aitareya Brahmana,
2. Kaushitaki / Sankhayana Brahmana

(B) Shukla-yajurveda :

1. Shatapatha Brahmana
(C) Krishna-Yajurveda :

1. Taittiriya Brahmana

(D) Samaveda:

1. Tandya Brahmana,
2. Shadvinsha Brahmana,
3. Samavidhana Brahmana,
4. Arsheya Brahmana,
5. Daivata/ Devatadhyaya Brahmana,
6. Upanishad Brahmana,
7. Samhitopanishad Brahmana,
8. Vamsha Brahmana,
9. Jaiminiya Brahmana,
10. JaiminiyaAsheyaBrahmana,
11. Jaiminiyopanishad Brahmana

(E) Atharvaveda :

1. Gopatha Bramana

Aranyakas

(The Aranyakas were written in Forests and are concluding parts of the Brahmans.
Aranyakas don’t lay much emphasis on rites, ritual and sacrifices but have philosophy and
mysticism. So they have moral science and philosophy. It also provides the details of the
rishis who lived in jungles. Aranyakas were written mainly for the hermits and students living
in the jungles. Please note that Aranyakas are the concluding portion of the Brahmanas or
their appendices. They lay emphasis not on sacrifices but on meditation. They are in fact,
opposed to sacrifices and many of the early rituals. Their stress is on moral values. They form
a bridge between way of work (karma marga) which was the sole concern of the Brahmanas
and the way of knowledge (gyan marga) which the Upanishads advocated.)

Aranyakas are generally the concluding portions of the several Brahmanas, but on account of
their distinct character, contents and language deserve to be reckoned as a distinct category of
literature. They are partly included in the Brahmanas themselves, but partly they are
recognized as independent works. Aranyaka literature is rather small as compared to the
Brahmanas. Whereas the Brahmanas deal with the huge bulk of sacrificial paraphernalia
which represents Karma-Kanda, the Aranyakas and Upanishads, on the other hand, chiefly
deal with the philosophical and theosophical speculations which represent Jnana-Kanda.

1. Meaning of the Term ‘Aranyaka’

The term Aranyaka is derived from the word ‘Aranya‘ meaning ‘forest’. The Aranyaka texts
are so-called because ‘they were works to be read in the forest’ in contradistinction to the
regular Brahmanas, which were to be read in the village. Sayana in the Taittiriya Aranyaka
explains-

Aranyadhyayanad-etad –aranyakam-itiryate.
Yajna and other rituals are prescribed only for those who live in homes and lead the life of
house-holders. But it has to be understood that Vedic rituals are intended to confer not only
material benefits but also mental purity by constant discipline. Having obtained purity, one
must seek the solitude of forests for further concentration and meditation. The Brahmanas
advocating the actual observances of the sacrifices are meant for Grihastha and the
Aranyakas containing explanations of the rituals and allegorical speculations thereon are
meant for Vanprasthas, who renounce family life residing in the forests for tapas and other
religious activities. Winternitz calls them as ‘’forest texts’’ to be studied by forest-hermits.

Or the reason might be that these texts were propounded by the Rishis who resided in the
forests and thought upon the secrets of the Yajnas. Aranyakas describe the actions of life and
also acquisition of knowledge. These works form the basis of the Rahasya or secrets
discussed in the Upanishads, therefore, another name of the Aranyakas was ‘Rahasya‘ as
well. This name is mentioned in the Gopatha Brahmana and Manusmriti.

2. Contents of the Aranyakas

The major contents of the Aranyakas are theosophy (Brahmavidya), meditation (Upasana)
and knowledge of breath (Pranavidya). They describe the secret meaning of the sacrifice and
the concept of Brahma as well. The creation of the universe, the power of the Almighty, Om,
the soul and the cycle of birth and death are explained in Brihadaranyaka in a simple manner.
No nation, no country, no culture in this age of science has been able to produce such great
truths related to the knowledge of the Self and the Almighty as are mentioned in this
Aranyaka. In this reference dialogue between Maitreyi and Yajnavalkya is often quoted.
Aranyakas are generally regarded as a link between the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The
oldest Upanishads are in part included in these texts Taittiriya Aranyaka is only a
continuation of the Taittiriya Brahmana. Brihadaranyaka found in the Shatapatha Brahmana,
is the greatest of all Upanishads; it is regarded the Brihadaranyaka-Upanishad also.

Aranyakas play the role of the middle path and help to bridge the gulf between the Karma-
kanda and Jnana-kanda. In the Aranyakas we find certain important geographical, historical,
social and cultural points also. All this makes their study more significant.

3. Classification of the Aranyakas

Today only seven Aranyakas are available. There is no Aranyaka which belongs to the
Atharvaveda.

(A) Aranyakas of the Rigveda:

1. Aitareya Aranyaka
2. Kaushitaki/ Shankhayana Aranyaka

(B) Aranyakas of the Samaveda:

1. Talavakara or Jaiminiya-Upanshad Aranyaka

2. Chandogya- Aranyaka

(C) Aranyaka of Shukla Yajurveda:

 1. Brihadaranyaka

(D) Aranyakas of Krishna Yajurveda:

1. Taittiriya Aranyaka
2. Maitrayaniya Aranyaka

Among them Aitareya Aranyaka, Shatapatha Aranyaka and Taittiriya Aranyaka are most
important for study.

Upanishads
Now, we discuss to the concluding part of the Veda namely ‘the Upanishads. The Upanishads
come towards the end of the Aranyakas. If the Samhita is likened to a tree, the Brahmanas are
its flowers and the Aranyakas are its fruit yet not ripened, the Upanishads are the ripe fruits.

1. Nature of Upanishads

The Vedas are generally considered to have two portions viz., Karma-Kanda (portion dealing
with action or rituals) and Jnana-Kanda (portion dealing with knowledge). The Samhita and
the Brahmanas represent mainly theKarma-Kanda or the ritual portion, while the Upanishads
chiefly represent the Jnana-Kanda or the knowledge portion. The Upanishads, however, are
included in the Shruti. They are at present, the most popular and extensively read Vedic texts.

The Upanishads are often called ‘Vedanta‘. Literally, Vedanta means the end of Veda,
Vedasya antah, the conclusion (Anta) as well as the goal (Anta) of the Vedas.
Chronologically they came at the end of the Vedic period. As Upanishads contain difficult
discussions of ultimate philosophical problems, they were taught to the pupils at about the
end of their course. The chief reason why the Upanishads are called the ‘end of the Veda’ is
that they represent the central aim of the Veda and contain the highest and ultimate goal of
the Veda as they deal with Moksha or Supreme Bliss.

2. Meaning of the word ‘Upanishad’

The word ‘Upanishad’ has been derived from the root Sad (to sit), to which are added two
prefixes: Upa and Ni. The prefix Upa denotes nearness and Ni totality. Thus, this word means
‘sitting near by devotedly’. This no doubt refers to the pupil’s sitting down near his teacher at
the time of instruction. The word in course of time gathered round it the sense of secret
teaching or secret doctrine (Rahasya) which was imparted at such sittings. Upanishads are
frequently spoken of as Rahasya (secret) or Guhya (mystery) also. We find in Upanishads,
that due to secrecy and mystery of the teachings, a teacher refuses to impart instruction to a
pupil who has not proved his worthiness to receive the instruction. Through another
definition, the word primarily signifies knowledge, yet by implication it also refers to the
book that contains that knowledge.

3. Number of the Upanishads

There is a good deal of speculation concerning the number of Upanishads. Traditionally, the
old Upanishads had their place in the Brahmanas and Aranyakas. There is only one instance
of a Samhita containing Upanishad – the Vajasaneyi Samhita comprises the Ishavasya
Upanishad forming the 40th Book.

In later times, the Upanishads obtained a more independent position but still they professed to
belong more particularly to one or the other of the four Vedas.

It is difficult to ascertain the exact number that should be regarded as authentic Upanishads.
A religious system is considered valid in India only when it is supported by Shruti, hence the
founders of religious sects have sometimes written books and called them Upanishads in
order to give their views scriptural authority. The AllahUpanishad, for instance was
composed in the sixteenth century, at the time of emperor Akbar.

Different estimates of their number have been given by scholars and they have been put by
some scholars at as many as 200.

One hundred and eight Upanishads are enumerated in the Muktikopanishad and a popular
edition contains them. However, among these Upanishads, ten Upanishads, the names of
which have been mentioned in the Muktikopanishad, are considered the most important
Upanishads from the point of view of Vedantic Philosophy.

Ten Principal Upanishads known as ‘Dashopanishad’ are :Isha, Kena, Katha , Prashna ,
Munda , Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka.

Besides, Shvetashvatara, Kaushitaki and Maitrayaniya Upanishads are often listed in old
Upanishads.

4. Division of the Upanishads

According to the Muktikopanishad 108 Upanishads are divided according to four Vedas are
as follows:

1. 10 Upanishads from the Rigveda

2. 19 Upanishads from the Shukla-Yajurveda
3. 32 Upanishads from the Krishna-Yajurveda
4. 16 Upanishads from the Samaveda and
5. 31 Upanishads from the Atharvaveda.

The Principal thirteen Upanishads, related to the Vedas are:

(A) Upanishads of the Rigveda :

1. (1) Aitareya Upanishad,

2. (2) Kaushitaki Upanishad

(B) Upanishads of the Shukla-Yajurveda:

1. (3) Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,

2. (4) Isha Upanishad

(C) Upanishads of the Krishna-Yajurveda:

1. (5) Taittiriya Upanishad,

 2. (6) Katha Upanishad,
3. (7) Shvetashvatara Upanishad,
4. (8) Maitrayaniya Upanishad

(D) Upanishads of the Samaveda:

1. (9) Chandogya Upanishad,

2. (10) Kena Upanishad

(E) Upanishads of the Atharvaveda:

1. (11) MundakaUpanishad,
2. (12) MandukyaUpanishad,
3. (13) Prashna Upanishad.

5. Major Theme of the Upanishads

The Upanishads are religious and philosophical treatises. They constitute the last phase of the
Vedic revelation. They represent the knowledge of Brahman (Brahma-Vidya). What is this
world? Who am I? What becomes of me after death? – Such questions are asked and
answered in these Upanishads. The essential theme of the Upanshads is the nature of the
world and God. Already in the hymns of the Rigveda, we notice here and there a shift of
emphasis from the innumerable gods to the one Infinite as in the famous passage. ‘Ekam sad
vipra bahudha vadanti ‘. This becomes more pronounced in the Upanishads and is very well
illustrated here. The doctrine of true knowledge and salvation are major subjects of the
Upanishadic philosophy. These treatises mark the culmination of the earlier line of
investigation into the nature of ultimate reality.

In the Upanishads, we get an intelligible body of verified and verifiable spiritual insights
mixed with a mass of myths and legends and cosmological speculations relating to the nature
and origin of universe. Besides, Brahman and His creation, are also discussed in these texts..
The principal contents of the Upanishads are philosophical speculations. The spirit of their
contents is anti-ritualistic. Although the subject-matter of most of the Upanishads is almost
the same, yet each Upanishad has its own unique idea or ideas and its own method of
enquiry.

6. Importance of the Upanishads

(1) The Upanishads occupy a unique place in the development of Indian philosophical
thought. They contain the highest authority on which the various systems of philosophy in
India rest. So Vedanta Philosophy is directly related to the Upanishads. Not only the Vedanta
philosopher professes his faith in the ends and objects of the Veda, but the Sankhya, the
Vaisheshika, the Nyaya and Yoga philosophers, all pretend to find in the Upanishads some
warranty for their tenets.

(2) The Upanishads are associated with the Vedas and make the entire range of Vedic
knowledge as complete. ‘The Upanishads generally mention the Vedas and their study with
respect. Certain verses from the Vedas, such as the Gayatri, form the subject of meditation
here.
(3) Brahmavidya or the knowledge of Brahman, the Supreme Reality is the great kingdom of
the principal Upanishads. They give importance to ‘Knowledge’ alone. Any one having
knowledge may be Guru or Acarya. Even kings approached to them for the attainment of
knowledge. The story of Satyakama Jabala, who though unable to give his father’s name, was
yet initiated into spiritual life, shows this fact. In the Chandogya Upanishad (4.1-3) Raikva a
Brahmana not by caste but by his knowledge, instructed king Janashruti. In the same
Upanishad (5.3), the king Pravahana instructed the Brahmana Gautama in the new doctrine of
transmigration. This story together with the one in which king Ashvapati kaikeya instructed
five Brahmanas in the doctrine of Atman (Chan. Up. 5.11) shows that for Upanishads
knowledgeable person is the most important and not the Brahmana, Kshatriya or anyone else.

(4) Each of the Vedas has many Mahavakyas or great sayings. But four Mahavakyas found in
the Upanishads related to four Vedas are very important, thought-provoking and powerful.
These spell out the non-duality of the Jiva and the Brahman-Prajnanam Brahma- –
RigvedaAham Brahmasm – YajurvedaTattvamasi –- SamvedaAyamatma Brahma –
Aharvaveda

(5) Without understanding the Upanishads, it is impossible to get an insight into Indian
history and culture. Every subsequent development of philosophy and religion in India has
drawn heavily on the Upanishads.

Upanishad

The word Upanishad means to sit down near someone and denotes a student sitting near his
guru to learn. Eventually the word began to be used for the secret knowledge imparted by the
guru to his selected pupils. A number of treatises were prepared, first orally and then in
writing, and were called by the same name of Upanishad. Today Upanishads specify
philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning.

The main motto of the Upanishads is “Knowledge Awards Salvation”

Upanishads are called Vedanta (the end of the Veda) firstly, because they denote the last
phase of the Vedic period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of the Veda.

The Oldest Upanishads are Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads which date as back as
the first millennium BC. Latest were composed in the medieval and early modern period. The
latest Upnishad is Muktikā Upnishad and was recorded by Dara Shikoh.It dates to 1656. Dara
Shikoh was son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and is known to have translated fifty
Upanishads into Persian. There are 108 Upanishads and they are also called Vedanga. “Upa”
means nearby and “sada” means sit. So Upanishads contain the knowledge imparted by the
gurus to their disciples.

There are 108 Upanishad. 11 are predominant and they are called “Mukhya Upanishads“.
They are as follows:

MukhyaUpnishad Veda
Aitareya Rig-Veda
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Shukla Yajurveda
Taittirīya Krishna Yajurveda
MukhyaUpnishad Veda
Chāndogya Sam Veda
Kena Sam Veda
Īṣa Shukla Yajurveda
Śvetāśvatara Krishna Yajurveda
Kaṭha Krishna Yajurveda
Muṇḍaka Atharva Veda
Māṇḍūkya Atharva Veda
Praśna Atharva Veda

Contents [hide]

 Aitareya Upanishad

 Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad

 Taittirīya Upanaishad

 Chāndogya Upanishad

 Kena Upanisahda

 Īsa Upanishad

 Śvetāśvatara Upanishad

 Kathopnishad

 Muktika Upnishad

 Māandūkya

 Praśna

Aitareya Upanishad
Aitareya Upanishad should be noted for one of the 4 Mahavakyas viz. “Prajanam Brahama”
or “Consciousness is Brahman”. The Four Mahavakyas of Vedas are as follows:

 Prajnanam Brahma – “Consciousness is Brahman” (Aitareya Upanishad of the Rig

Veda)

 Ayam Atma Brahma – “This Self (Atman) is Brahman” (Mandukya Upanishad of the
Atharva Veda)

 Tat Tvam Asi – “Thou art That” (Chandogya Upanishad of the Sama Veda)

 Aham Brahmasmi – “I am Brahman” (Brhadaranyaka Upanishad of the Yajurveda)

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad

It is contained in the Shatpath Brahman. It contains the following Famous Shloka:

असतो मा सद्गमय
तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय
मृ त्योर् मा अमृ तं गमय
ॐ शां ति शां ति शां ति

बृ हदारण्यक उपनिषद् 1.3.28.

The meaning of the above Shloka is : Lead Us From the Unreal To the Real, Lead Us From
Darkness To Light, Lead Us From Death To Immortality, OM , Let There Be Peace Peace
Peace

Taittirīya Upanaishad
This Upanishada is associated with the Taittiriya school of the Yajurveda. The Taittiriya
Upanishad describes the various degrees of happiness enjoyed by the different beings in
creation

Chāndogya Upanishad
This Upanishad is associated with the Kauthuma Shakha of the Samaveda. Along with
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, the Chandogyopanishad is an ancient source of principal
fundamentals of Vedanta philosophy.

Kena Upanisahda
“Ken” literally means ‘by whom’. It belongs to the Talavakara Brahmana of Sama Veda and
is therefore also referred to as Talavakara Upanishad.

Īsa Upanishad
It is one of the latest Mukhya Upanishads, dating approximately to Mauryan times.

Śvetāśvatara Upanishad
Upanishads are sources of serious philosophical thought; however, this Upanishad differs
from other Upanishads by explaining the same principles in a very simple, easy-going and
poetic way.

Kathopnishad
It was translated by Max Müller in 1879. It was rendered in verse by Edwin Arnold as “The
Secret of Death”. The central story is immortality and covers the story of encounter of
Nachiketa, son of sage Vajasravasa, with Yama, God of death.

Muktika Upanishad
This Upanishad deals with the Para Vidya and Apara Vidya. The Para Vidya is knowledge
that leads to Self Realization , Apara Vidya deals with everything else or the material
knowledge. Mundaka Upanishad is notable as the source of the phrase Satyameva jayate
(3.1.6)
Māandūkya
Mandukya is the Shortest Upnishad. It contains twelve verses expounding the mystic syllable
Aum, the three psychological states of waking, dreaming and sleeping, and the transcendent
fourth state of illumination.

Praśna
Six pupils interested in knowing divinity or Brahman come to sage Pippalada and requests
him to clarify their spiritual doubts. Therefore, this Upnishad is in Question Answer format.

Vedangas

(Introduction
Vedangas literally mean the limbs of the Vedas. They are six in number. Just like the limbs of
the body, they perform various supportive and augmenting functions in the study,
preservation and protection of the Vedas and the vedic traditions. The six Vedangas are
Siksha, Chhanda, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Jyotisha and Kalpa. These subjects were an integral
and essential part of ancient vedic education system, aimed to promote an all round
development of the students with a better understanding of the Vedas and vedic practices.
Of these six subjects, Siksha deals with the study of sounds and pronunciation associated
with each syllable; Chhanda with the mastery of rhyme and meter; Vyakarna with the study
of word and sentence structure; Nirukta with the meaning of complex words and phrases;
Jyotisha with the study of heavenly bodies to find an auspicious time for the performance of
the rituals; and Kalpa with the ethical , moral and procedural percepts associated with the
performance of rituals as a way of life. In the following paragraphs we will discuss each of
these subjects in detail.
The importance of the Vedangas.
The Vedangas played an important role in maintaining the purity and integrity of the Vedic
tradition. Although they have lost of much of their ancient significance, they continue to
occupy an important place in the academic study of the Vedas. For centuries they taught and
continue to teach vedic students how to recite the vedic hymns, understand their meaning and
perform the various rituals and ceremonies strictly according to the established procedures.
Their study inculcates among its students a sense of discipline and respect for tradition and
helps them conduct themselves in society as upholders of the vedic dharma and traditional
family values.
To a certain extent the Vedangas were responsible for the popularity of Sanskrit as the main
language of communication in ancient India and for its emergence as the language of the elite
through such works as those of Kalidasa and Kalhana. They also played an influential role in
the development of native languages, education system and vernacular literature of the Indian
subcontinent by providing the basic framework on which they could grow.
Many principles and practices of the Vedangas were taken up by other religious traditions
such as Buddhism and Jainism which relied upon Sanskrit as their medium of communication
and included in their education systems and religious practices. Through them they also
extended their sway to other parts of the world such as China, Japan, Vietnam, Cambodia,
Thailand, Malaysia, Tibet and Ceylon where they were used in the study of Buddhism and
Buddhist literature and preservation of its traditions.
While the combined knowledge of the Vedas and the Vedangas is still a desirable prospect,
with the decline of Sanskrit as the language of the elite and the emergence of new methods of
devotional worship and agamic temple traditions which took precedence over the vedic
traditions in many parts of India, the Vedangas have lost of much of their priestly relevance.
However they continue to attract the attention of Indological scholars and serious students of
the Vedas, because of their literary and historical value in our understanding of the
development of human languages and linguistic and literary sophistication among the diverse
socio religious and linguistic groups of the Indian subcontinent.)

The Vedangas are the last treatises of the Vedic Literature. Paniniya Shiksha (41-42) narrates
two verses on the importance of the Vedangas which describe Veda as a Purusha having six
limbs as six Vedangas: Chandas are His two feet, Kalpa are His two arms, Jyotisha are His
eyes, Nirukta is His ears, Shiksha is His nose and Vyakarana is His mouth.The oldest record
of their names occurs in the Mundaka Upanishad (1.1.5) where they are named as:

1. Shiksha or phonetics or pronunciation

2. Kalpa or ritual
3. Vyakarana or grammar
4. Nirukta or etymology
5. Chandas or meter
6. Jyotisha or astronomy

Now we shall briefly study about them in the order, given in the Mundaka Upanishad.

1. Shiksha

Shiksha really means instruction: then in particular ‘instruction in reciting’ i.e., in correct
pronunciation, accentuation etc. of the Samhita texts. Later, it was a name given to works
containing rules regarding the proper pronunciation of Vedic texts. Thus, the Shiksha-Sutras
are treatises on phonetics. They are related to the Samhita and, therefore, are almost as old as
the Kalpa-Sutras.
Shiksha lays down the rules of phonetics – sounds of syllables, of pronunciation. The
function of the Shiksha is thus to fix the parameters of Vedic words. Phonetics is most
important in the case of the Vedic language, because we see that change in sound leads to
change in results and effect. Hence, Shiksha which is Vedic Phonetics has been regarded as
the most important of the six Angas (organs) of the Veda Purusha.Some important
Pratishakhyas are:
(1) Rigveda-Pratishakhya of Rigved
(2)Taittiriya-Pratishakhya of Krishna Yajurveda
(3) Vajasaneyi Pratishakhya of Shukla Yajurveda
(4) Atharvaveda-Pratishakhya of Atharvaveda

2. Kalpa

The second Vedanga is Kalpa (ritual) which is called the arms of the Veda Purusha. It is
especially intended for the proper application of the Vedic texts. The oldest Kalpasutras are
those which in their contents are directly connected with the Brahmanas and Aranyakas. It
was the ritual (Kalpa), the chief contents of the Brahmanas, which first received systematic
treatment in the manuals called the Kalpasutras. They contain the rules in the Sutra style,
referring to sacrifices, with the omission of all things which are not immediately connected
with the ceremonial. They are more practical than the Brahmanas which for the most part are
taken up with mystical, historical, mythological, etymological and theological discussions.
They are also considered significant for the study of Vedic culture and society.

There are four types of the Kalpasutras:

(1) Shrauta-sutras,dealing with Shrauta sacrifices
(2) Grihya-sutras, dealing with the domestic ceremonies
(3) Dharma-sutras, dealing with the religious and social laws
(4) Shulba-sutras, dealing with the rules of measurement of the fire-altars etc.

3. Vyakarana

The third Vedanga is Vyakarana or grammar, which is necessary for the understanding of the
Veda. It is called the mouth of the Veda Purusha. The old Vedanga-texts on Vyakarana are
entirely lost today. In the Aranyakas, we find some technical terms of grammar. The only
representative of this Vedanga is the Ashtadhyayi of Panini, which belongs to a later period.
It is indeed the most celebrated text-book of grammar. It is not associated with any Vedic
school. Due to its great merits, this may be assumed that Panini superseded all his
predecessors, whose works have consequently perished.

Formation of the word is the main subject of grammar. It discusses root (Prakriti) and suffix
(Pratyaya) of a word to study its meaning. Panini’s Vyakarana is in the form of sutras or
aphorisms. The fourteen Sutras are referred to here, as Maheswara Sutras. They were
originated from Nataraja’s damuru sound. They are considered the foundation of grammar.
Vararuci has written an elaborate commentary or Vartika. Sage Patanjali wrote commentary
or Bhashya on it.

4. Nirukta

Nirukta Vedanga is called the ears of the Veda Purusha. ‘Nirukta’ means ‘etymology’ and it
explains the reason why a particular word has been used i.e., the meaning of usage. The only
work which has survived as a specimen of this Vedanga ‘etymology’ is the Nirukta of Yaska.
It is a commentary on Nighantu which is ‘list of words’ found in the Vedas. Tradition
ascribes the Nighantu also to Yaska. The Nighantus are five lists of words, which are again
divided into three sections. The first section consists of three lists, in which Vedic words are
collected under certain main ideas. The second section contains a list of ambiguous and
particularly difficult words of the Veda, while the third section gives a classification of the
deities according to the three regions, earth, sky and heaven. Yaska explained these lists in
the twelve books followed. The most interesting portion of the Nirukta is the discussion
which covers the whole of the first book and a part of the second, as well as the seventh book,
which was as an admirable introduction to the study of the Veda.

Yaska has mentioned a considerable number of important grammarians as his predecessors in

the Nirukta such as Galava, Shakapuni, Katthakya.

Niruka is very important for several reasons. Firstly, it represents the type of the earliest
classical style and in this respect stands by itself. Secondly, it is the oldest known attempt in
the field of Vedic etymology. As regards the importance of the etymology Yaska himself
says that without it the precise meanings of the Vedic stanzas cannot be understood
5. Chandas

Chandas Vedanga is regarded as the feet of the Veda Purusha. The body of the Vedas rests on
the Chandas which are in the nature of feet. Each Mantra of the Veda has a special Chandas,
just as it has a presiding Devata.

According to Nirukta the term Chandas is derived from the root Chad (to cover). Meter is
called Chandas because it covers the sense of the Mantra. The Chandas is designed for the
purpose of securing the proper reading and reciting of Vedic texts. The literature comprising
this Vedanga on metrics is equally small.

The texts, dealing with Vedic meters, are as follows:

1. Rikpratishakhya 2. Shankhayana Shrauta-sutra 3. Nidana-sutra of Samaveda
4. Chandas-sutras of Pingala

Each of them contains a section varying slightly from each other on Vedic meters.

6. Jyotisha

The last Vedanga Jyotisha is called eye – the organ of sight, of the Veda Purusha. The object
of Jyotisha Vedanga is not to teach astronomy, but to convey such knowledge of the heavenly
bodies as is necessary for fixing the days and hours of the Vedic sacrifices. It gives some
rules for calculating and fixing time for sacrifices. In the Brahmanas and Aranyakas, we find
frequent allusions to astronomical subjects, and even in the hymns we find traces which
indicate a certain advance in the observation of the moon.

It is unfortunate that there is no work available at present dealing with ancient Vedic
astronomy (Jyotisha) in the Sutra style. Only we have a small text-book called Jyotisha of
Vedic astronomy in verses in two recessions. Generally, Maharshi Lagadha is regarded
author of this Vedanga Jyotisha. This is a very difficult text and, therefore, is not clear on
several points to scholars even today. Later, we find many Sanskrit treatises on astronomy
and mathematical calculations. Bhaskaracharya, Varahamihira and Aryabhatta are known
ancient scholars conversant with these scientific subjects. The principles established by them
are in use in the modern world.

Upaveda

The term upaveda (“applied knowledge”) is used in traditional literature to designate the
subjects of certain technical works. Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ
among sources. As per the Caraṇavyuha, they are:-

1. Ayurveda (Medicine), associated with the Ṛgveda

2. Dhanurveda (Archery), associated with the Yajurveda
3. Gāndharvaveda (Music and sacred dance), associated with the Samaveda, and
4. Arthaśāstra (Economics), associated with the Atharvaveda