1

Aquaculture

Global harvest of aquatic organisms in million tonnes, 1950–2010, as reported by the FAO [1]

Aquaculture (less commonly spelled aquiculture[2]), also known as aquafarming, is the farming

of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivating
freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial
fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish.[3] Mariculturerefers to aquaculture practiced in marine
environments and in underwater habitats.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture "is understood to mean the
farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies
some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding,
protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being
cultivated."[4] The reported output from global aquaculture operations in 2014 supplied over one half of the
fish and shellfish that is directly consumed by humans; [5][6] however, there are issues about the reliability of
the reported figures.[7] Further, in current aquaculture practice, products from several pounds of wild fish
are used to produce one pound of a piscivorous fish like salmon.[8]
Particular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster
farming, mariculture, algaculture (such as seaweed farming), and the cultivation of ornamental fish.
Particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, both of which integrate
fish farming and aquatic plant farming.

Contents

 1. History
 2. 21st-century practice
 3. Species groups
o 3.1Aquatic plants
o 3.2Fish
o 3.3Crustaceans
o 3.4Molluscs
o 3.5Other groups
 4. Around the world
o 4.1National laws, regulations, and management
 5. Aquacultural methods
o 5.1Mariculture
o 5.2Integrated
 6. Issues
o 6.1Fish oils
o 6.2Impacts on wild fish
o 6.3Coastal ecosystems
o 6.4Genetic modification
 9. Ecological benefits
 10. Animal welfare
o 10.1Common welfare concerns
o 10.2Improving welfare
 11Prospects
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 12See also
 13Notes
 14References
 15Further reading
 16External links

History

The indigenous Gunditjmara people in Victoria, Australia, may have raised eels as early as

6000 BC. Evidence indicates they developed about 100 km2 (39 sq mi) of volcanic floodplains in the vicinity
of Lake Condah into a complex of channels and dams, and used woven trapsto capture eels, and preserve
them to eat all year round.[9][10]
Aquaculture was operating in China circa 2000 BC.[11] When the waters subsided after river floods,
some fish, mainly carp, were trapped in lakes. Early aquaculturists fed their brood
using nymphs and silkworm feces, and ate them. A fortunate genetic mutation of carp led to the
emergence of goldfish during the Tang dynasty.
Japanese cultivated seaweed by providing bamboo poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve
as anchoring surfaces for spores.
Romans bred fish in ponds and farmed oysters in coastal lagoons before 100 CE. [12]
In central Europe, early Christian monasteries adopted Roman aquacultural practices.
 Aquaculture spread in Europe during the Middle Ages since away from the seacoasts and the big rivers,
[13]

fish had to be salted so they did not rot.[14] Improvements in transportation during the 19th century made
fresh fish easily available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, making aquaculture less popular. The
15th-century fishponds of the Trebon Basin in the Czech Republic are maintained as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.[15]
Hawaiians constructed oceanic fish ponds. A remarkable example is the "Menehune"
fishpond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. Legend says that it was constructed by the
mythical Menehune dwarf people.[16]
In the first half of the 18th century, German Stephan Ludwig Jacobi experimented with external
fertilization of brown trouts and salmon. He wrote an article "Von der künstlichenErzeugung der Forellen
und Lachse". By the latter decades of the 18th century, oyster farming had begun in estuaries along the
Atlantic Coast of North America.[17]
The word aquaculture appeared in an 1855 newspaper article in reference to the harvesting of ice.
 It also appeared in descriptions of the terrestrial agricultural practise of subirrigation in the late 19th
[18]

century[19] before becoming associated primarily with the cultivation of aquatic plant and animal species.
In 1859, Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, New York, began experiments with brook trout. By
1864, Seth Green had established a commercial fish-hatching operation at Caledonia Springs,
near Rochester, New York. By 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord,
Massachusetts, artificial fish hatcheries were under way in both Canada and the United States. [20] When
the Dildo Island fish hatchery opened in Newfoundland in 1889, it was the largest and most advanced in
the world. The word aquaculture was used in descriptions of the hatcheries experiments with cod and
lobster in 1890.[21]
By the 1920s, the American Fish Culture Company of Carolina, Rhode Island, founded in the
1870s was one of the leading producers of trout. During the 1940s, they had perfected the method of
manipulating the day and night cycle of fish so that they could be artificially spawned year around. [22]
Californians harvested wild kelp and attempted to manage supply around 1900, later labeling it a wartime
resource.[23]

Species groups
Global aquaculture production in million tonnes, 1950–2010, as reported by the FAO [1]
 3

Main species groups

Minor species groups

Aquatic plants

Microalgae, also referred to as phytoplankton, microphytes, or planktonic algae, constitute the

majority of cultivated algae. Macroalgae commonly known as seaweed also have many commercial and
industrial uses, but due to their size and specific requirements, they are not easily cultivated on a large
scale and are most often taken in the wild.
Fish
The farming of fish is the most common form of aquaculture. It involves raising fish commercially in
tanks, fish ponds, or ocean enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for
recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery.
Worldwide, the most important fish species used in fish farming are, in order, carp, salmon, tilapia,
and catfish.[1]
In the Mediterranean, young bluefin tuna are netted at sea and towed slowly towards the shore.
They are then interned in offshore pens where they are further grown for the market.[35] In 2009,
researchers in Australia managed for the first time to coax southern bluefin tuna to breed in landlocked
tanks. Southern bluefin tuna are also caught in the wild and fattened in grow-out sea cages in
southern Spencer Gulf, South Australia.
A similar process is used in the salmon-farming section of this industry; juveniles are taken from
hatcheries and a variety of methods are used to aid them in their maturation. For example, as stated
above, some of the most important fish species in the industry, salmon, can be grown using a cage
system. This is done by having netted cages, preferably in open water that has a strong flow, and feeding
the salmon a special food mixture that aids their growth. This process allows for year-round growth of the
fish, thus a higher harvest during the correct seasons. [36][37] An additional method, known sometimes as sea
ranching, has also been used within the industry. Sea ranching involves raising fish in a hatchery for a brief
time and then releasing them into marine waters for further development, whereupon the fish are
recaptured when they have matured. [38]
In the Philippines: Milkfish, tilapia, carp, grouper, catfish, rabbit fish,
Crustaceans
Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply thereafter. Global
production reached more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003, worth about US$9 billion. About 75% of farmed
shrimp is produced in Asia, in particular in China and Thailand. The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin
America, where Brazil is the largest producer. Thailand is the largest exporter.
 4

Shrimp farming has changed from its traditional, small-scale form in Southeast Asia into a global
industry. Technological advances have led to ever higher densities per unit area, and broodstock is
shipped worldwide. Virtually all farmed shrimp are penaeids (i.e., shrimp of the family Penaeidae), and just
two species of shrimp, the Pacific white shrimp and the giant tiger prawn, account for about 80% of all
farmed shrimp. These industrial monocultures are very susceptible to disease, which has decimated
shrimp populations across entire regions. Increasing ecological problems, repeated disease outbreaks,
and pressure and criticism from both nongovernmental organizations and consumer countries led to
changes in the industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulations. In 1999, governments,
industry representatives, and environmental organizations initiated a program aimed at developing and
promoting more sustainable farming practices through the Seafood Watch program.[39]
Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, including many problems with, marine
shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced by the developmental lifecycle of the main species,
the giant river prawn.[40]
The global annual production of freshwater prawns (excluding crayfish and crabs) in 2003 was
about 280,000 tonnes, of which China produced 180,000 tonnes followed by India and Thailand with
35,000 tonnes each. Additionally, China produced about 370,000 tonnes of Chinese river crab.[41]
Molluscs

Aquacultured shellfish include various oyster, mussel, and clam species. These bivalves are filter
and/or deposit feeders, which rely on ambient primary production rather than inputs of fish or other feed.
As such, shellfish aquaculture is generally perceived as benign or even beneficial. [42]
Depending on the species and local conditions, bivalve molluscs are either grown on the beach, on
longlines, or suspended from rafts and harvested by hand or by dredging. In May 2017 a Belgian
consortium installed the first of two trial mussel farms on a wind farm in the North Sea.[43]
Abalone farming began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China. [44] Since the mid-
1990s, this industry has become increasingly successful. [45] Overfishing and poaching have reduced wild
populations to the extent that farmed abalone now supplies most abalone meat. Sustainably farmed
molluscs can be certified by Seafood Watch and other organizations, including the World Wildlife
Fund (WWF). WWF initiated the "Aquaculture Dialogues" in 2004 to develop measurable and
performance-based standards for responsibly farmed seafood. In 2009, WWF co-founded the Aquaculture
Stewardship Council with the Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative to manage the global standards and
certification programs.[46]
After trials in 2012,[47] a commercial "sea ranch" was set up in Flinders Bay, Western Australia, to
raise abalone. The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5000 (As of April 2016) separate
concrete units called abitats (abalone habitats). The 900 kg abitats can host 400 abalone each. The reef is
seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery. The abalone feed on seaweed that has grown
naturally on the abitats, with the ecosystem enrichment of the bay also resulting in growing numbers of
dhufish, pink snapper, wrasse, and Samson fish, among other species.
Brad Adams, from the company, has emphasised the similarity to wild abalone and the difference
from shore-based aquaculture. "We're not aquaculture, we're ranching, because once they're in the water
they look after themselves."[48][49]
Other groups
Other groups include aquatic reptiles, amphibians, and miscellaneous invertebrates, such
as echinoderms and jellyfish. They are separately graphed at the top right of this section, since they do not
contribute enough volume to show clearly on the main graph.
Commercially harvested echinoderms include sea cucumbers and sea urchins. In China, sea cucumbers
are farmed in artificial ponds as large as 1,000 acres (400 ha).[50]

Around the world[edit]

Global aquaculture production in million tonnes, 1950–2010, as reported by the FAO [1]
 5

Main aquaculture countries, 1950–2010

Main aquaculture countries in 2010

In 2012, the total world production of fisheries was 158 million tonnes, of which aquaculture
contributed 66.6 million tonnes, about 42%. [51] The growth rate of worldwide aquaculture has been
sustained and rapid, averaging about 8% per year for over 30 years, while the take from wild fisheries] has
been essentially flat for the last decade. The aquaculture market reached $86 billion [52] in 2009. [53]
Aquaculture is an especially important economic activity in China. Between 1980 and 1997, the
Chinese Bureau of Fisheries reports, aquaculture harvests grew at an annual rate of 16.7%, jumping from
1.9 million tonnes to nearly 23 million tonnes. In 2005, China accounted for 70% of world production. [54]
[55]
 Aquaculture is also currently one of the fastest-growing areas of food production in the U.S. [56]
About 90% of all U.S. shrimp consumption is farmed and imported. [57] In recent years, salmon
aquaculture has become a major export in southern Chile, especially in Puerto Montt, Chile's fastest-
growing city.
A United Nations report titled The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture released in May
2014 maintained fisheries and aquaculture support the livelihoods of some 60 million people in Asia and
Africa.[58]

Aquacultural methods
Mariculture

Mariculture refers to the cultivation of marine organisms in seawater, usually in sheltered coastal or

offshore waters. The farming of marine fish is an example of mariculture, and so also is the farming of
marine crustaceans (such as shrimp), molluscs (such as oysters), and seaweed. Atlantic salmon and
mollusk farms is for example prominent in the U.S.[71]
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may consist of raising the organisms on or in artificial enclosures such as in floating netted
enclosures for salmon and on racks for oysters. In the case of enclosed salmon, they are fed by the
operators; oysters on racks filter feed on naturally available food. Abalone have been farmed on an
artificial reef consuming seaweed which grows naturally on the reef units. [49]
Integrated
Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice in which the byproducts (wastes) from one
species are recycled to become inputs (fertilizers, food) for another. Fed aquaculture (for
example, fish, shrimp) is combined with inorganic extractive and organic extractive (for example, shellfish)
aquaculture to create balanced systems for environmental sustainability (biomitigation), economic stability
(product diversification and risk reduction) and social acceptability (better management practices). [72]
"Multi-trophic" refers to the incorporation of species from different trophic or nutritional levels in the
same system.[73] This is one potential distinction from the age-old practice of aquatic polyculture, which
could simply be the co-culture of different fish species from the same trophic level. In this case, these
organisms may all share the same biological and chemical processes, with few synergistic benefits, which
could potentially lead to significant shifts in the ecosystem. Some traditional polyculture systems may, in
fact, incorporate a greater diversity of species, occupying several niches, as extensive cultures (low
intensity, low management) within the same pond. The term "integrated" refers to the more intensive
cultivation of the different species in proximity of each other, connected by nutrient and energy transfer
through water.
Ideally, the biological and chemical processes in an IMTA system should balance. This is achieved
through the appropriate selection and proportions of different species providing different ecosystem
functions. The co-cultured species are typically more than just biofilters; they are harvestable crops of
commercial value.[73] A working IMTA system can result in greater total production based on mutual benefits
to the co-cultured species and improved ecosystem health, even if the production of individual species is
lower than in a monoculture over a short term period. [74]
Sometimes the term "integrated aquaculture" is used to describe the integration of monocultures
through water transfer.[74] For all intents and purposes, however, the terms "IMTA" and "integrated
aquaculture" differ only in their degree of descriptiveness. Aquaponics, fractionated aquaculture, integrated
agriculture-aquaculture systems, integrated peri-urban-aquaculture systems, and integrated fisheries-
aquaculture systems are other variations of the IMTA concept.

Aquaculture methods
Mariculture
1. Criteria in the selection of species for culture (Biological)
a) Rate of Growth – under culture condition
b) Size and Age at First maturity
c) Breed Easily under captive condition
d) High Fecundity and Frequency of Spawning
e) Larvae Accept Artificial Food
f) Species Low in the Food Chain
g) Species that are Hardy and Tolerate Unfavorable Condition
2. Selection of sites of Aquaculture
a) Agro-climatic Condition
b) Access to Market
c) Suitable Communication
d) Availability of Skilled and Unskilled Technicians
e) Protection from Natural Disaster
3. Assessment of the Productivity of Certain Aquaculture system
a) Physical Aspect – design and lay-out, soil texture, monsoon, turbidity, area of watershed,
(cages – water circulation, DO, Temperature
b) Chemical Aspect - soil pH, Soil OM, total nitrogen, Phosphorous
- Water pH, Salinity, Nitrite, phosphate, D.O.
c) Biological Aspect
1) Primary productivity
2) Mangrove
3) Snail - competitor
d) Level of Management
1) Feeding
2) Production and survival
3) Methods
4) Marketing
 7

5) Sources of Fry.
4) Integrated Farming
a. Land Based Aquaculture
a) Extensive method – traditional method: natural food and artificial diet (feeds) and has a
stocking rate of 1-3 ind/m2.
b) Intensive method – technology base method: artificial diet and has a stocking rate of 7-
10 ind/m2.
b. Open Water Farm (pen, cages and hatcheries)
5) Pond Activities
a. Drying – consider pond designed and lay-out
Reasons: 1) elimination/ eradication of predators
2) provide stable substrate for bethic (“lab-lab”) to grow
3) hasten growth and protection from diseases
b. Liming – change/ correct the pH of soil (<6)
- suitable ph and availability of nutrients for benthic to grow
c. Fertilization - addition of fertilizer
6. Principle of Feeding
a. Feeding management
1. Feeding rate – amount of feeds given to particular time
2. Feeding Frequency – number times when feed is served in a day
3. Particle size of feeds – starter, crumbles and grower
4. Feed type – sinker or floater
5. Time of feeding - 6am, 2pm and 10pm
b. Fee requirements/ Composition
1. Protein – for growth (25, 30, 40, 50, 60%)
2. Carbohydrates - energy
3. Fats – energy and metabolism (8, 10, 12, 16%)
4. Minerals – 1%
5. Vitamins - 2%

Issues
If performed without consideration for potential local environmental impacts, aquaculture in inland
waters can result in more environmental damaging than wild fisheries, though with less waste produced on
a per kg on a global scale.[80] Local concerns with aquaculture in inland waters may include waste handling,
side-effects of antibiotics, competition between farmed and wild animals, and the potential introduction
of invasive plant and animal species, or foreign pathogens, particularly if unprocessed fish are used to feed
more marketable carnivorous fish. If non-local live feeds are used, aquaculture may introduce plant of
animal. Improvements in methods resulting from advances in research and the availability of commercial
feeds has reduced some of these concerns since their greater prevalence in the 1990s and 2000s . [81][82]
Fish waste is organic and composed of nutrients necessary in all components of aquatic food webs. In-
ocean aquaculture often produces much higher than normal fish waste concentrations. The waste collects
on the ocean bottom, damaging or eliminating bottom-dwelling life. [83] Waste can also decrease dissolved
oxygen levels in the water column, putting further pressure on wild animals.[84] An alternative model to food
being added to the ecosystem, is the installation of artificial reef structures to increase the habitat niches
available, without the need to add any more than ambient feed and nutrient. This has been used in the
"ranching" of abalone in Western Australia.[49]
Fish oils
Further information: Tilapia §  Nutrition Tilapia from aquaculture has been shown to contain more fat and a
much higher ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 oils.
Impacts on wild fish
Some carnivorous and omnivorous farmed fish species are fed wild forage fish. Although
carnivorous farmed fish represented only 13 percent of aquaculture production by weight in 2000, they
represented 34 percent of aquaculture production by value. [85]
Farming of carnivorous species like salmon and shrimp leads to a high demand for forage fish to
match the nutrition they get in the wild. Fish do not actually produce omega-3 fatty acids, but instead
accumulate them from either consuming microalgae that produce these fatty acids, as is the case with
forage fish like herring and sardines, or, as is the case with fatty predatory fish, like salmon, by eating prey
fish that have accumulated omega-3 fatty acids from microalgae. To satisfy this requirement, more than 50
percent of the world fish oil production is fed to farmed salmon. [86]
 8

Farmed salmon consume more wild fish than they generate as a final product, although the
efficiency of production is improving. To produce one pound of farmed salmon, products from several
pounds of wild fish are fed to them - this can be described as the "fish-in-fish-out" (FIFO) ratio. In 1995,
salmon had a FIFO ratio of 7.5 (meaning 7.5 pounds of wild fish feed were required to produce 1 pound of
salmon); by 2006 the ratio had fallen to 4.9.[87] Additionally, a growing share of fish oil and fishmeal come
from residues (by products of fish processing), rather than dedicated whole fish. In 2012, 34 percent of fish
oil and 28 percent of fishmeal came from residues.[88] However, fishmeal and oil from residues instead of
whole fish have a different composition with more ash and less protein, which may limit its potential use for
aquaculture.
As the salmon farming industry expands, it requires more wild forage fish for feed, at a time when
seventy five percent of the worlds monitored fisheries are already near to or have exceeded their maximum
sustainable yield.[8] The industrial scale extraction of wild forage fish for salmon farming then impacts the
survivability of the wild predator fish who rely on them for food. An important step in reducing the impact of
aquaculture on wild fish is shifting carnivorous species to plant-based feeds. Salmon feeds, for example,
have gone from containing only fishmeal and oil to containing 40 percent plant protein. [89] The USDA has
also experimented with using grain-based feeds for farmed trout.[90] When properly formulated (and often
mixed with fishmeal or oil), plant-based feeds can provide proper nutrition and similar growth rates in
carnivorous farmed fish.[91]
Another impact aquaculture production can have on wild fish is the risk of fish escaping from coastal pens,
where they can interbreed with their wild counterparts, diluting wild genetic stocks. [92] Escaped fish can
become invasive, out-competing native species.[93][94][95]
Coastal ecosystems
Aquaculture is becoming a significant threat to coastal ecosystems. About 20 percent of mangrove
forests have been destroyed since 1980, partly due to shrimp farming.[96] An extended cost–benefit analysis
of the total economic value of shrimp aquaculture built on mangrove ecosystems found that
the external costs were much higher than the external benefits. [97] Over four decades, 269,000 hectares
(660,000 acres) of Indonesian mangroves have been converted to shrimp farms. Most of these farms are
abandoned within a decade because of the toxin build-up and nutrient loss.[98][99]
Pollution from sea cage aquaculture
Salmon farms are typically sited in pristine coastal ecosystems which they then pollute. A farm with
200,000 salmon discharges more fecal waste than a city of 60,000 people. This waste is discharged
directly into the surrounding aquatic environment, untreated, often containing antibiotics
and pesticides."[8] There is also an accumulation of heavy metals on the benthos (seafloor) near the salmon
farms, particularly copper and zinc.[100]
In 2016, mass fish kill events impacted salmon farmers along Chile's coast and the wider ecology.
[101]
 Increases in aquaculture production and its associated effluent were considered to be possible
contributing factors to fish and molluscan mortality. [102]
Sea cage aquaculture is responsible for nutrient enrichment of the waters in which they are established.
This results from fish wastes and uneaten feed inputs. Elements of most concern are nitrogen and
phosphorus which can promote algal growth, including harmful algal blooms which can be toxic to fish.
Flushing times, current speeds, distance from the shore and water depth are important considerations
when locating sea cages in order to minimize the impacts of nutrient enrichment on coastal ecosystems.
The extent of the effects of pollution from sea-cage aquaculture varies depending on where the cages are
located, which species are kept, how densely cages are stocked and what the fish are fed. Important
species-specific variables include the species' food conversion ratio (FCR) and nitrogen retention. Studies
prior to 2001 determined that the amount of nitrogen introduced as feed which is lost to the water column
and seafloor as waste varies from 52 to 95%. [citation needed]
Genetic modification
A type of salmon called the AquAdvantage salmon has been genetically modified for faster growth,
although it has not been approved for commercial use, due to controversy. [103]The altered salmon
incorporates a growth hormone from a Chinook salmon that allows it to reach full size in 16–28 months,
instead of the normal 36 months for Atlantic salmon, and while consuming 25 percent less feed. [104] The
U.S. Food and Drug Administration reviewed the AquAdvantage salmon in a draft environmental
assessment and determined that it "would not have a significant impact (FONSI) on the U.S.
environment."[105]

Ecological benefits
 9

While some forms of aquaculture can be devastating to ecosystems, such as shrimp farming in
mangroves, other forms can be very beneficial. Shellfish aquaculture adds substantial filter feeding
capacity to an environment which can significantly improve water quality. A single oyster can filter 15
gallons of water a day, removing microscopic algal cells. By removing these cells, shellfish are removing
nitrogen and other nutrients from the system and either retaining it or releasing it as waste which sinks to
the bottom. By harvesting these shellfish the nitrogen they retained is completely removed from the
system.[106] Raising and harvesting kelp and other macroalgae directly remove nutrients such as nitrogen
and phosphorus. Repackaging these nutrients can relieve eutrophic, or nutrient-rich, conditions known for
their low dissolved oxygen which can decimate species diversity and abundance of marine life. Removing
algal cells from the water also increase light penetration, allowing plants such as eelgrass to reestablish
themselves and further increase oxygen levels.
Aquaculture in an area can provide for crucial ecological functions for the inhabitants. Shellfish
beds or cages can provide habitat structure. This structure can be used as shelter by invertebrates, small
fish or crustaceans to potentially increase their abundance and maintain biodiversity. Increased shelter
raises stocks of prey fish and small crustaceans by increasing recruitment opportunities in turn providing
more prey for higher trophic levels. One study estimated that 10 square meters of oyster reef could
enhance an ecosystem's biomass by 2.57 kg[107] The shellfish acting as herbivores will also be preyed on.
This moves energy directly from primary producers to higher trophic levels potentially skipping out on
multiple energetically-costly trophic jumps which would increase biomass in the ecosystem.

Prospects
Global wild fisheries are in decline, with valuable habitat such as estuaries in critical condition.
 The aquaculture or farming of piscivorous fish, like salmon, does not help the problem because they
[121]

need to eat products from other fish, such as fish meal and fish oil. Studies have shown that salmon
farming has major negative impacts on wild salmon, as well as the forage fish that need to be caught to
feed them.[122][123] Fish that are higher on the food chain are less efficient sources of food energy.
Apart from fish and shrimp, some aquaculture undertakings, such as seaweed and filter-feeding
bivalve mollusks like oysters, clams, mussels and scallops, are relatively benign and even environmentally
restorative.[25] Filter-feeders filter pollutants as well as nutrients from the water, improving water quality.
[124]
 Seaweeds extract nutrients such as inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus directly from the water,[72] and
filter-feeding mollusks can extract nutrients as they feed on particulates, such
as phytoplankton and detritus.[125]
Some profitable aquaculture cooperatives promote sustainable practices. [126] New methods lessen
the risk of biological and chemical pollution through minimizing fish stress, fallowing netpens, and
applying Integrated Pest Management. Vaccines are being used more and more to reduce antibiotic use
for disease control.[127]
Onshore recirculating aquaculture systems, facilities using polyculture techniques, and properly
sited facilities (for example, offshore areas with strong currents) are examples of ways to manage negative
environmental effects.
Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) recycle water by circulating it through filters to remove
fish waste and food and then recirculating it back into the tanks. This saves water and the waste gathered
can be used in compost or, in some cases, could even be treated and used on land. While RAS was
developed with freshwater fish in mind, scientist associated with the Agricultural Research Service have
found a way to rear saltwater fish using RAS in low-salinity waters. [128] Although saltwater fish are raised in
off-shore cages or caught with nets in water that typically has a salinity of 35 parts per thousand (ppt),
scientists were able to produce healthy pompano, a saltwater fish, in tanks with a salinity of only 5 ppt.
Commercializing low-salinity RAS are predicted to have positive environmental and economical effects.
Unwanted nutrients from the fish food would not be added to the ocean and the risk of transmitting
diseases between wild and farm-raised fish would greatly be reduced. The price of expensive saltwater
fish, such as the pompano and combia used in the experiments, would be reduced. However, before any
of this can be done researchers must study every aspect of the fish's lifecycle, including the amount of
ammonia and nitrate the fish will tolerate in the water, what to feed the fish during each stage of its
lifecycle, the stocking rate that will produce the healthiest fish, etc.[128]
Some 16 countries now use geothermal energy for aquaculture, including China, Israel, and the
United States.[129] In California, for example, 15 fish farms produce tilapia, bass, and catfish with warm
water from underground. This warmer water enables fish to grow all year round and mature more quickly.
Collectively these California farms produce 4.5 million kilograms of fish each year. [129]
Quiz #1:
1. Compare Extensive Aquafarming from Intensive Aquafarming in their stocking density and
feeding.
 10

2. Compare fecundity from frequency in spawning

3. Define “Fish Oil”

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