Public Policy and Progam Administration

PUBLIC POLICY AND PROGRAM ADMINISTRATION
1. THINK OF POLICY IN YOUR ORGANIZATION

 Organizational policies are guidelines that outline and guide actions within an
business or agency. The exact types of policies will vary depending on the nature
of the organization. and can include policies such as directions, laws, principles,
rules or regulations. According to the New South Wales Department of Education
and Training, the two main sources of organizational policies are external laws or
guidelines that are issued by administrative authorities, and those issued by the
organization itself. Policies originating within an organization are often influenced
by the external guidelines such as Acts of Parliament.
 Each organization should design specific policies that address specific needs. Lack
of good policies can cause operational, legal and ethical problems within an
organization. For example, the absence of a good staff recruitment policy that
addresses equal opportunity employment could lead to legal issues with the
regulatory authorities for a firm.
1. CONCEPT OF PUBLIC POLICY

Declared State objectives relating to the health, morals, and well being of the citizenry.
In the interest of public policy, legislatures and courts seek to nullify any action,
contract, or trust that goes counter to these objectives even if there is no statute that
expressly declares it void.
Public policy is the principled guide to action taken by the administrative executive

branches of the state with regard to a class of issues, in a manner consistent
with law and institutional customs. The foundation of public policy is composed of
national constitutional laws and regulations. Further substrates include
both judicial interpretations and regulations which are generally authorized by
legislation. Public policy is considered strong when it solves problems efficiently and
effectively, serves justice, supports governmental institutions and policies, and
encourages active citizenship.[1]
Other scholars define public policy as a system of "courses of
action, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities concerning a given topic
promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives."Public policy is commonly
embodied in "constitutions, legislative acts, and judicial decisions."
In the United States, this concept refers not only to the result of policies, but more
broadly to the decision-making and analysis of governmental decisions. As an academic
discipline, public policy is studied by professors and students at public policy schools of
major universities throughout the country. The U.S. professional association of public
policy practitioners, researchers, scholars, and students is the Association for Public
Policy Analysis and Management.
Government actions and process of public policy making

Public policy making can be characterized as a dynamic, complex, and interactive
system through which public problems are identified and countered by creating new
public policy or by reforming existing public policy. [4] Public problems can originate in
endless ways and require different policy responses (such
as regulations, subsidies, quotas, and laws) on the local, national, or international level.
Public policy making is a continuous process that has many feedback loops. Verification
and evaluation are essential to the functioning of this system.The public problems that
influence public policy making can be of economic, social, or political nature. Each
system is influenced by different public problems and thus requires different public
policy.
In public policy making, numerous individuals and interest groups compete and
collaborate to influence policymakers to act in a particular way.The large set of actors in
the public policy process, such as politicians, civil servants, lobbyists, domain experts,
and industry representatives, use a variety of tactics and tools to advance their aims,
including advocating their positions publicly, attempting to educate supporters and
opponents, and mobilizing allies on a particular issue. Many actors can be important in
the public policy process, but government officials ultimately choose public policy in
response to the public issue or problem at hand. In doing so, government officials are
expected to meet public sector ethics and take the needs of all stakeholders into
account.
Since societies have changed in the past decades the public policy making system
changed too. Today, public policy making is increasingly goal-oriented, aiming for
measurable results and goals, and decision-centric, focusing on decisions that must be
taken immediately.Furthermore, mass communications and technological changes have
caused the public policy system to become more complex and interconnected. The
changes pose new challenges to the current public policy systems and pressure them to
evolve in order to remain effective and efficient.
Academic discipline
Main article: Public policy school
As an academic discipline, public policy brings in elements of many social science fields
and concepts, including economics, sociology, political economy, program
evaluation, policy analysis, and public management, all as applied to problems of
governmental administration, management, and operations.At the same time, the study
of public policy is distinct from political science or economics, in its focus on the
application of theory to practice. While the majority of public policy
degrees are master's and doctoral degrees, there are several universities also offer
undergraduate education in public policy.
Traditionally, the academic field of public policy focused on domestic policy. However,
the wave of economic globalization which occurred in the late 20th and early 21st
centuries created a need for a subset of public policy that focuses on global governance,
especially as it relates to issues that transcend national borders such as climate
change, terrorism, nuclear proliferation, and economic development. Consequently,
many traditional public policy schools had to tweak their curricula to adjust to this new
policy landscape, as well as developed whole new ones.
2. POLICY MAKERS
Who are the policy makers?
Organisational policy makers i.e. Board of Directors, Management Committee,
Executives, must go about the process of policy formation in a careful way. Policy
makers must engage, and be seen to engage, in the process of consultation. A charge of
'failing to consult' is a charge of considerable magnitude. Whilst much information can
be gleaned by listening to people, there is also often a need to conduct research i.e.
statistical surveys, monitor events, etc.
The role of the policy maker is act as a funnel to gather information through consultation
and research and to reduce and extract from the information, a policy or a set of policies
which serve to promote what is the preferred course of action.
Some of the skills that policy makers need to ensure the development of effective
policies are:
Collecting statistical information
Convening and chairing discussion forums
Be able to write policy documents in appropriate language and without ambiguity.
Seeking information from experts from outside the organisation (this may include
government personnel, other sport and recreation managers and academics in sport and
recreation management)
Your success in policy development will depend to some extent on your ability to
research examples of policy and to discuss policy issues with numerous other people.
Good policies stem from wide consultation and in depth discussion.
3. POLICY FORMATION
Policy formulation is the development of effective and acceptable courses

of action for addressing what has been placed on the policy agenda.
Notice that there are two parts to this definition of policy formulation:
1. Effective formulation means that the policy proposed is regarded as a valid,

efficient, and implementable solution to the issue at hand. If the policy is seen as
ineffective or unworkable in practice, there is no legitimate reason to propose it.
Policy analysts try to identify effective alternatives. This is the analytical phase of
policy formulation.
2. Acceptable formulation means that the proposed course of action is likely to
be authorized by the legitimate decision makers, usually through majority-
building in a bargaining process. That is, it must be politically feasible. If the policy
is likely to be rejected by the decision making body, it may be impractical to
suggest it. This is the political phase of policy formulation.
There are, then, two aspects to policy formulation: the analytical and the political.

First, effective policy alternatives, presumably based on sound analysis, must be
conceived and clearly articulated. Second, a political choice among these alternatives
must be made: The policy must be authorized through a political process, such as
legislation or regulation. Both phases --- analysis and authorization --comprise policy
formulation. ^
Analysis + Authorization = Formulation
The definition of policy formulation can be represented by this formula:
Analysis + Authorization = Formulation
The tidy division of labor incorporates two distinct roles professional policy analysts,
working both inside and outside government, use their formidable kit of analytical tools
to study an issue and to devise policy alternatives which appear to address the issue at
hand. This presumably brings theory and knowledge into policy formulation.
Elected or appointed officials, however, have the final choice among

alternatives presented. We like to think that they bring judgment, wisdom, and
accountability to policy formulation. Both analysis and selection involve values, but this
is often hidden in the case of the former, but certainly not the latter. ^
Two Complementary Roles: Analyst and Decision Maker
Both roles should complement each other. The policy planners are expected to
contribute sound technical analysis regarding means, behavior, cost, implementation
strategy, and consequences, good or bad. Technical analysts, however, are not held
accountable to the public. The elected or politically appointed officials do not necessarily
have the analytical ability to address the problem. The judgment as to goals, trade-offs,
value priorities, and weighing the overall effects are left to the decision makers who are,
in theory, accountable under our representative form of government.
The arrangement works to the extent that the analysts are keen and informed and that
the decision makers exercise sound judgment and are responsive. If the policy goes
awry, we might ask if the technical analysis was faulty or if the political actors either
exercised bad judgment, excluded effective alternatives, mis-defined the problem, or
"played politics" with public policy. Either way, we assume the politicians are ultimately
charged with policy making and that they will properly be held accountable by the
public.
But let's make this point again, since it is so important: Elected or appointed

officials, however, have the final choice among alternatives presented.
The Policymaking Process
Public policy refers to the actions taken by government — its decisions that are intended
to solve problems and improve the quality of life for its citizens. At the federal level,
public policies are enacted to regulate industry and business, to protect citizens at home
and abroad, to aid state and city governments and people such as the poor through
funding programs, and to encourage social goals.
A policy established and carried out by the government goes through several stages
from inception to conclusion. These are agenda building, formulation, adoption,
implementation, evaluation, and termination.
Agenda building
Before a policy can be created, a problem must exist that is called to the attention of the
government. Illegal immigration, for example, has been going on for many years, but it
was not until the 1990s that enough people considered it such a serious problem that it
required increased government action. Another example is crime. American society
tolerates a certain level of crime; however, when crime rises dramatically or is perceived
to be rising dramatically, it becomes an issue for policymakers to address. Specific
events can place a problem on the agenda. The flooding of a town near a river raises the
question of whether homes should be allowed to be built in a floodplain. New legislation
on combating terrorism (the USA Patriot Act, for example) was a response to the attacks
of September 11, 2001.
Formulation and adoption
Policy formulation means coming up with an approach to solving a problem. Congress,

the executive branch, the courts, and interest groups may be involved. Contradictory
proposals are often made. The president may have one approach to immigration reform,
and the opposition-party members of Congress may have another. Policy formulation
has a tangible outcome: A bill goes before Congress or a regulatory agency drafts
proposed rules. The process continues with adoption. A policy is adopted when Congress
passes legislation, the regulations become final, or the Supreme Court renders a
decision in a case.
Implementation
The implementation or carrying out of policy is most often accomplished by institutions

other than those that formulated and adopted it. A statute usually provides just a broad
outline of a policy. For example, Congress may mandate improved water quality
standards, but the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provides the details on those
standards and the procedures for measuring compliance through regulations. As noted
earlier, the Supreme Court has no mechanism to enforce its decisions; other branches of
government must implement its determinations. Successful implementation depends on
the complexity of the policy, coordination between those putting the policy into effect,
and compliance. The Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education is a good
example. The justices realized that desegregation was a complex issue; however, they
did not provide any guidance on how to implement it "with all deliberate speed." Here,
implementation depended upon the close scrutiny of circuit and appeals court judges, as
well as local and state school board members who were often reluctant to push social
change.
Evaluation and termination
Evaluation means determining how well a policy is working, and it is not an easy task.
People inside and outside of government typically use cost-benefit analysis to try to
find the answer. In other words, if the government is spending x billions of dollars on
this policy, are the benefits derived from it worth the expenditure? Cost-benefit analysis
is based on hard-to-come-by data that are subject to different, and sometimes
contradictory, interpretations.
History has shown that once implemented, policies are difficult to terminate. When they
are terminated, it is usually because the policy became obsolete, clearly did not work, or
lost its support among the interest groups and elected officials that placed it on the
agenda in the first place. In 1974, for example, Congress enacted a national speed limit
of 55 miles per hour. It was effective in reducing highway fatalities and gasoline
consumption. On the other hand, the law increased costs for the trucking industry and
was widely viewed as an unwarranted federal intrusion into an area that belonged to the
states to regulate. The law was repealed in 1987.
4. OBSOLETE POLICY THAT CAN BE REFINED

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PUBLIC POLICY AND PROGRAM ADMINISTRATION

1. THINK OF POLICY IN YOUR ORGANIZATION

1. CONCEPT OF PUBLIC POLICY

Public policy is the principled guide to action taken by the administrative executive

Government actions and process of public policy making

Policy formulation is the development of effective and acceptable courses

1. Effective formulation means that the policy proposed is regarded as a valid,

There are, then, two aspects to policy formulation: the analytical and the political.

Analysis + Authorization = Formulation

The definition of policy formulation can be represented by this formula:

Analysis + Authorization = Formulation

Elected or appointed officials, however, have the final choice among

Two Complementary Roles: Analyst and Decision Maker

But let's make this point again, since it is so important: Elected or appointed

The Policymaking Process

Formulation and adoption

Policy formulation means coming up with an approach to solving a problem. Congress,

The implementation or carrying out of policy is most often accomplished by institutions

Evaluation and termination

4. OBSOLETE POLICY THAT CAN BE REFINED

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