DISSERTATION

Year: 2020-21
Batch No. 18

THESIS TOPIC: FLOATING RESORT, KERELA

DISSERTATION TOPIC: FLOATING STRUCTURES

Undertaken by:
Radhika Khandelwal
Enrollment No.: 16E1AAARF40P093
V Year B.Arch (B)

Prof. PUSHPAK BHAGWATI Prof. ARCHANA SINGH

GUIDE COORDINATOR

Aayojan School of Architecture

ISI-4, RIICO Institutional Block,
Sitapura, Jaipur-302022
 Floating Structures

APPROVAL

The study titled “Floating Structures” is hereby approved as an original work of

Radhika Khandelwal, enrolment no. 16E1AAARF40P093 on the approved
subject carried out and presented in manner satisfactory to warrant its
acceptance as per the standard laid down by the university. This report has
been submitted in the partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of
Architecture degree from Rajasthan Technical University, Kota.
It is to be understood that the undersigned does not necessarily endorse or
approve any statement made, any opinion expressed or conclusion drawn
therein, but approves the study only for the purpose it has been submitted.

Prof. K.S. MAHAJANI

EXTERNAL EXAMINER 1 PRINCIPAL

Prof. ARCHANA SINGH

EXTERNAL EXAMINER 2 COORDINATOR

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 Floating Structures

DECLARATION

I, Radhika Khandelwal, here by solemnly declare that the research work

undertaken by me, titled ‘Floating Structures’ is my original work and
wherever I have incorporated any information in the form of photographs,
text, data, maps, drawings, etc. from different sources, has been duly
acknowledged in my report.

This dissertation has been completed under the supervision of the guide
allotted to me by the school. Further, whenever and wherever my work shall
be presented or published it will be jointly authored with my guide.

Radhika Khandelwal
V Year B.Arch (B)
Aayojan School of Architecture, Jaipur

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the research titled, Floating Structures is a bonafide work
by Radhika Khandelwal of Aayojan School of Architecture, Jaipur. This
research work has been completed under my guidance and supervision in a
satisfactory manner. This report has been submitted in partial fulfillment of
award of BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE degree from Rajasthan Technical
University, Kota.

This research work fulfills the requirements relating to the nature and standard
laid down by the Rajasthan Technical University.

Prof. Pushpak Bhagwati

Guide
Aayojan School of Architecture, Jaipur

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This dissertation study would not have been possible without the support of
my college. I extend my sincere gratitude and would thank Prof. K.S.
Mahajani for providing a conductive college environment and to all the
faculties for giving me their valuable input.

I shall always be highly indebted and grateful to my guide, Prof. Pushpak

Bhagwati, whose expertise, understanding, generous guidance and support
made it possible for me to work on a topic that was of great interest to me.
Thank you for always being so patient with us sir and guiding us through the
process of research, adding value to the study at every step. Thank you, sir.

My heartfelt thanks to my family and friends who have been a constant

support to me and have always encouraged me to give my best.

Radhika Khandelwal
V Year B.Arch. (B)
Aayojan School of Architecture, Jaipur

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 Floating Structures

ABSTRACT

“As an architect you design for the present, with an awareness of the past,
for a future which is essentially unknown”

- Norman Foster

Floating architecture is the architecture capable of floating in the water and

maintaining a functional floor height above the water surface when exposed
to high tide or flood. A floating building is a building unit with
a flotation system at its base, to allow it to float on water. It is common to
define such a building as being "permanently moored" and not usable in
navigation. Floating buildings are usually towed into location by another ship
and are unable to move under their own power.

They can be built off-site and then towed into location, minimising
disturbance to the build site. If the building is decommissioned, it can be
relocated elsewhere. Floating architecture could be a resolution in the future
for current problems in many districts, cities and landscapes. Such problems
can be seen particularly in the need for additional housing areas and
construction grounds in some countries in Europe and Asia as a result of the
growing population and/or the slowly rising sea level in context with the
worldwide climate change.

In the following dissertation report, an attempt has made to study materials

and construction techniques of constructing on water and analysing floating
structures in terms of need, feasibility and various factors related to these
structures.

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CONTENTS

Approval 2
Declaration 3
Certificate 4
Acknowledgement 5
Abstract 6
Contents 7- 9
List of illustrations 10- 12
List of tables 13

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 14-20

1.1 Background of the study

1.2 Criteria of selection

1.3 Need of the study

1.4 Research Question

1.5 Hypothesis

1.6 Aim

1.7 Objectives

1.8 Scope and Limitation

1.9 Methodology

CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES 21- 41

2.1 Architecture on Water

2.1.1 On water and in water

2.1.2 Evolution of architecture

2.2 Data related to floatation

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 Floating Structures

2.2.1 Buoyancy

2.2.2 Archimedes principle’s

2.2.3 Wind Loading

2.2.4 High rise is possible

2.3 Materials used in superstructure in floating structures

2.3.1 Carbon Fibre Composite Panels

2.3.2 Light Weight Aggregate Concrete
2.3.3 Thermoplastic Timber
2.3.4 EPS Blocks (Expanded Polystyrene or Styrofoam)
2.3.5 AAC Blocks (Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Blocks)
2.3.6 Steel Floating Bodies

2.4 Materials used in substructure in floating structures

2.4.1 Concrete pontoon

2.4.2 Plastic pontoons
2.4.3 Metal pontoons
2.4.4 Concrete Caisson
2.4.5 Composites
2.4.6 Air Cushions
2.4.7 Log float

2.5 Contemporary floatation bases

2.6 Types of anchorage

2.7 Limitations of Contemporary construction

2.8 Advantages of Floating Structures

2.9 Parameters which affect the substructure of Floating Buildings

2.9.1 Minimum water depth

2.9.2 Load from superstructure
2.9.3 Chemical composition of water (salinity/ sulphates/ acidity)
2.9.4 Intensity of waves and tides

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CHAPTER 3: CASE STUDIES 42- 52

3.1 Makoko floating school, Nigeria
3.2 The Rotterdam Pavilion, Netherlands
3.3 Poovar Island Resort, Kerela

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS 53- 57

4.1 Characteristics to be Considered
4.2 Services
4.3 Selection of materials

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 58- 67

5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendations
5.2.1 Recommended techniques and materials
5.2.2 Indigenous techniques to use Different Materials
5.2.3 Properties of recommended materials

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 68-69

BIBLIOGRAPHY 70

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

No. Description
1 Rate of Global mean sea level rise
2 Rate of depletion of Glacial Ice
3 Countries most affected by sea level rise
4 Site for thesis project

5 View of Dharmadam Island from Thalasseri beach

6 Four Seasons hotel, Australia

7 Palm Jumeriah, Dubai
8 Trilobis 65, Dubai
9 Hotel Hydropolis, Dubai

10 The city of Venice

11 Lake Palace, Udaipur
12 Houseboats, Kashmir
13 Rotterdam Pavilion
14 (a). Buoyancy = weight + vertical loads (b). Buoyancy < weight + vertical loads
15 Archimedes’ Principle
16 Wind Loading
17 Carbon Fibre Composite Panels
18 Various Types of High strength light weight aggregate concrete
19 Thermoplastic Timber panels
20 Expanded Polystyrene panels
21 Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Blocks
22 Floating house from Herzberger, Middelburg
23 Steel joinery details
24 Concrete Pontoon
25 Plastic Pontoon bridge
26 Metal Pontoons
27 Standard Caisson

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28 Pneumatic Caisson
29 Composite bridge
30 Air cushions
31 Wooden log float
32 Flex Base
33 Foam Concrete base
34 Reinforced Concrete Hull base
35 Cable anchorage
36 A house on mooring posts– before and during flooding
37 The anchorage cables are attached in diagonals to minimize lateral shift;
Anchorage hook
38 Chain and Elastic Cables Anchoring
39 Heat radiation examination to measure the surrounding temperature of floating
structure

40 Corrosion of metal bases due to presence of salts in water

41 Algae deposition on steel body
42 Draught of a floating body

43 Load affecting the base of the floating structure

44 Corrosion on floating bridge
45 Wave conditions
46 Makoko Floating School
47 Location of Makoko Floating School
48 A- frame structure
49 MFS Design
50 Location pavilion in Rijnhaven, with functions around Rijnhaven
51 The floor plan of floating pavilion
52 Section of floating pavilion
53 Rotterdam Pavilion Design
54 Location of Poovar Island Resort
55 Poovar Island Resort
56 Interior of the cottage
57 Hull shaped base

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58 Services inside the hull

59 Service pipes

60 Mooring system with breakwater

61 EPS blocks with timber reinforcement
62 Flex base
63 Foam concrete base
64 Reinforced concrete hull base
65 Litter bottles used as base for floating structures
66 Plastic barrel bridge
67 Styrofoam used as base
68 Plastic barrels used as floating body
69 Plastic bottles used with concrete to make floating shell
70 EPS block panels
71 Thermoplastic timber panels
72 AAC blocks

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LIST OF TABLES

No. Title
1.1 Methodology of Research
2.1 Types of architecture on water
4.1 Case study analysis
4.2 Comparison between materials

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CHAPTER 01

INTRODUCTION

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1.1 Background of the study:

Global sea level rise

Global sea level has risen by about 8 inches since reliable record keeping began in
1880. It is projected to rise another 1 to 4 feet by 2100. The two major causes of
global sea level rise are thermal expansion caused by warming of the ocean (since
water expands as it warms) and increased melting of land-based ice, such as
glaciers and ice sheets.

The oceans are absorbing more than 90 percent of the increased atmospheric heat
associated with emissions from human activity. Sea level plays a role in flooding,
shoreline erosion, and hazards from storms. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), forecasts a temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees
Fahrenheit over the next century.

Globally, eight of the world's 10 largest cities are near a coast, according to the
U.N. Atlas of the Oceans. Mumbai, Kolkata, Karachi, Dhaka and Shanghai are
among cities considered most at risk.

Figure 1: Rate of Global mean sea level rise

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Depletion of Ice Sheets

Data from NASA's GRACE satellites show that the land ice sheets in both Antarctica
and Greenland have been losing mass since 2002. Both ice sheets have seen an
acceleration of ice mass loss since 2009.

Figure 2: Rate of depletion of Glacial Ice

Figure 3: Countries most affected by sea level rise

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1.2 CRITERIA OF SELECTION:

Thesis Topic: Floating Resort, Dharmadam Island, Kannur, Kerela

The Dharmadam island is a small island spreading at an area of 5 acres of land. It

is located near to Thalasseri and is just 100 metres away from Dharmadam
mainland. This makes it possible for the visitors to walk to the island from the
mainland during low tide. Since the ocean recedes during a low-tide time, water
will remain only up to the knee-level. This makes the walk to the island an
auspicious one.

The main intent of selection is, there is a live proposal by Kerela tourism
development for an island resort here. Many people opposed this as there will be
disturbance to the flora and fauna of the island. So my proposal is to make a
floating resort without disturbing the species on island. The water is clean and the
depth is low with attractive views which makes it a perfect site for such project.

Figure 4: Site for thesis project Figure 5: View of Dharmadam Island from Thalasseri
beach

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1.3 NEED OF THE STUDY:

As it is known environmental issues such as rapid growth of human population,

depletion of the energy sources, global warming and increasing water level have
affected the ecosystems and biological diversity which need to be considered with
design strategies and innovative solutions.

The concept of floating architecture can be introduced as an innovative solution to

climate change challenges in the built environment rather than hypothesis. Not only
does floating architecture can create new architecture style but also connect an
interface between the offshore renewable energy and the built environment. The
idea of living and working on water itself is neither new nor innovative.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

• Which structural part plays the most important role in floating buildings?
• What are the factors on which substructure of a floating building depends?
• What are the materials that can be used as the base in floating buildings?

1.5 HYPOTHESIS:

‘Substructure of floating buildings depends upon superstructure and site

conditions of the building..’

1.6 AIM:

Understanding floating architecture through an overall study and understanding

superstructure and substructure, based on this arriving at various ways to use
different materials as the base of floating structures.

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1.7 OBJECTIVES:

• To understand floating architecture through literature studies.

• To understand superstructure and substructure of floating buildings.
• To collect data on materials that have the scope on being used as
substructure for floating buildings.
• To understand the climatic and site conditions of Dharmadam Island and
recommend appropriate materials and construction techniques for the same.

1.8 SCOPE & LIMITATION:

• In this research, the study of built environment shall be restricted to built

buoyant structures sited over water bodies
• The mechanical aspects would not be covered for the dissertation.

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1.9 METHODOLOGY:

OBJECTIVES DATA SOURCE

DATA REQUIRED
1. To understand floating Definitions, preliminary data, Case studies, Books,
architecture through construction techniques online databases,
literature studies. reports etc.

2. To understand Data related to flotation and Online sources, research

superstructure and buoyancy, materials used in papers, reports etc.
substructure of floating superstructure and
buildings. substructure

3. To collect data on Materials used as base in Literature studies,

materials that have the floating structures and research articles, reports
scope on being used as different methods to use etc.
base for floating structure. them.

4. To understand the Analysis of climatic and site Conclusions made from

climatic and site conditions conditions of the area and the entire course of
of Dharmadam Island and study the settlement in the research study.
recommend appropriate vicinity.
materials and construction
techniques for the same.

Table 1.1 Methodology of Research

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CHAPTER 02

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

TECHNIQUES

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2.1 Architecture on Water:

Architecture in water is the study of structures that can be constructed in and on

water. In present context under water and on water, construction is very trending
which enables the use of new technologies in the field of construction. Some
examples – The Palm Jumeirah, Dubai; Hydropolis, Dubai; Floating Island, South
Korea.

Floating Structures

Table 2.1 Types of architecture on water

2.1.1 ON WATER:

1) Floating Architecture:

It consists of various structures such as floating

bridges, floating houses, floating roads which are
kept afloat on the surface of water using various
techniques and structural mechanisms. Figure 6: Four Seasons hotel, Australia

For e.g.: - Four Seasons hotel, Australia

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2) Structures with habitable spaces above water:

It consists of structures in which the main

habitable area is on the water surface but the
supporting foundations are submerged in water.
Projects of various scales have been

covered under this type. Figure 7: Palm Jumeriah, Dubai

For e.g.: - City of Venice; Palm Jumeriah, Dubai etc.

IN WATER:
1) Semi- Submerged:
It consists of structures in which major habitable
space is under water and the rest is above water
which caters to the various services like lighting,
ventilation, etc. There are special mechanisms Figure 8: Trilobis 65, Dubai

and techniques involved to keep the structures submerged.

For e.g.: - Floating seashore villa, Dubai; Trilobis 65

2) Fully Submerged:

It consists of structures that are fully submerged

in water. It includes structures such as tunnels,
recreational spaces, aquariums, etc. It uses
special mechanisms for ventilation, lighting and
other services. Figure 9: Hotel Hydropolis, Dubai

For e.g.: - Hotel Hyropolis in Dubai.

2.1.2 EVOLUTION OF ARCHITECTURE ON WATER:

1. Venice:

When the new settlers arrived on the islands

around 402 A.D., they were faced with the need
for more space and a stronger foundation to live
on. So, they dug hundreds of canals and shored Figure 10: The city of Venice

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up the banks with wood pilings. They also used similar wood pilings as
foundations for their buildings.

The settlers pounded thousands of wooden piles into the mud, so close together
that they were touching. Then, they cut off the tops and created solid platforms
for the foundations of their homes. Because the wood was underwater, it didn’t
rot. It’s hard to believe, but there are many buildings in Venice today that are still
standing on 1,000 years old piles of wood.

2. Lake palace, Udaipur:

The palace was built between 1743 and 1746

under the direction of the Maharana Jagat
Singh II, the 62nd successor to the royal
dynasty of Mewar of Udaipur, Rajasthan as a
royal summer palace and was initially called
Jag Niwas after its founder. Figure 11: Lake Palace, Udaipur

The palace is built on a natural foundation of 4 acres rock on the Jag Niwas
island. When the water level is high, it hides all traces of the island and the
palace appears to be almost floating in the water.

3. Houseboats, Kashmir:

Made out of Deodar wood, houseboats in

Kashmir are usually stationary, moored at the
edges of Dal Lake anchored individually and
interconnected by bridges. Such a houseboat is
about 60 to 70 feet (18 to 21 m) long and about
15 feet (4.6 m) wide at the middle. The hull is Figure 12: Houseboats, Kashmir

made of wooden planks that are held together by ropes of coconut fiber. The
roof is made of bamboo poles and palm leaves. The exterior of the boat is
painted with protective coats of nut oil.

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4. The Rotterdam pavilion, Netherlands:

Lightweight and unsinkable qualities of the floating

body has been constructed using expanded
polystyrene sheets (esp.). Five layers of eps are
placed on top of each other, the thinnest layer
measuring 20 centimeters in thickness, and the
thickest 75 Centimeters. The thickest layer contains a Figure 13: Rotterdam Pavilion

grid of concrete beams, which is fastened to the prefab concrete slabs. The
thickness of the island is 2.25 meters. The top of the floor is about 80 centimeters
above the water level.

2.2 DATA RELATED TO FLOATATION:

2.2.1 Buoyancy

In physics buoyancy is the upward force on an object arising from the displacement
of the fluid that is liquid or gas in which it is fully or partially immersed. This force
enables the object to float or appear lighter.

Figure 14: (a). Buoyancy = weight + vertical loads (b). Buoyancy < weight + vertical loads

2.2.2 Archimedes principle’s:

Archimedes' principle indicates that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a
body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight
of the fluid that the body displaces.

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Figure 15: Archimedes’ Principle

2.2.3 Wind loading

Wind loading shall be applied to the completed floating home including dead load
and live load but not off-center loading.

Figure 16: Wind Loading

2.2.4 High-rise is possible

With a high floating structure, like an apartment building on a floating body, the
center of gravity of the structure will go up, and the draught of the float easy
becomes high. Both could be a problem for stability. But when the floating body is
given a large enough width, also high-rise is possible.

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2.3 MATERIALS THAT CAN BE USED IN SUPERSTRUCTURE IN FLOATING

STRUCTURES:

2.3.1 Carbon Fibre Composite Panels:

Carbon Fibre Composite Panels, also known as epoxy sandwich panels as the
superstructure material can be used for walls. It is a material having lesser density
compared to other building materials, but at the same time, has high strength. The
basic advantage is the resistance of the separate panel components to full impact
loads. The weight density of the material is 1600 kg per cubic mere.

Figure 17: Carbon Fibre Composite Panels

2.3.2 Light Weight Aggregate Concrete:

For roof slab, light weight aggregate concrete, with a weight density of 1440 kg per
cubic meter can be used. Light weight concrete is light in weight, so there is no risk
for the wall panels to carry roof load.

Figure 18: Various Types of High strength light weight aggregate concrete

2.3.3 Thermoplastic Timber:

The term “wood-plastic composites” refers to any number of composites that
contain wood (of any form) and either thermoset or thermoplastic polymers.

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Thermosets or thermoset polymers are plastics that, once cured, cannot be

remelted by heating.
The wood used in WPCs is most often in particulate form (e.g., wood flour) or very
short fibers and bundled fibers rather than long individual wood fibers. These
composites also contain additional materials that are added in small amounts to
affect processing and performance, additives such as coupling agents, light
stabilizers, pigments, lubricants, fungicides, and foaming agents are all used to
some extent.

• It can withstand very hot and very cold temperatures and has no
biodegradation or oxidation. Accelerated weather testing demonstrated that
thermoplastic timbers last over 50 years with minimal maintenance.
• This material is virtually impervious to moisture absorption and retains key
mechanical properties in humid and wet environments.
• Thermoplastic timber has a high resistance to the abrasion that may occur in
marine environments due to sand and salt content in the water environment.
The sand and salt-water resistance is based on the fact that HDPE (the major
ingredient) is one of the more resistant polymer materials.

Figure 19: Thermoplastic Timber panels

2.3.4 EPS Blocks (Expanded Polystyrene or Styrofoam):

EPS is a closed cell lightweight cellular plastics material produced from

polystyrene. The material has been modified by the addition of flame retardant
additives. Polystyrene literally translated is “polymerized styrene”. That is, the
single styrene molecules are chemically joined together to form a large molecule
which is called the polymer.

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• Thermal Insulation: Thermal Properties EPS gains its exceptional insulating

properties from the stabilized air trapped within its cellular structure. Since it
contains no CFCs or any other gas that may leak out, it will not harm the
ozone layer or decrease its insulation properties.

• Moisture Resistance: Moisture Resistance of all the materials used for

insulation applications, EPS is one of the most resistant to the adverse
effects of moisture content. At ten times its dry weight, EPS has been found
to maintain 80% of its R value.

• Floatation Properties: The density of EPS is low compared to water, with a

normal density range of 11 to 32 kg/m3 compared to water at 100 kg/m3. The
water buoyancy per cubic meter of EPS is determined by subtracting its
kg/m3 density from 1000. The result is the weight in kilograms that a cubic
meter of EPS can support when fully submerged in water.

Figure 20: Expanded Polystyrene panels

2.3.5 AAC Blocks (Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Blocks):

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete is a lightweight, load-bearing, high-insulating, durable

building product, which is produced in a wide range of sizes and strengths. AAC
blocks is lightweight and compare to the red bricks, AAC blocks are three times
lighter.

AAC is produced from the common materials lime, sand, cement and water, and a
small amount of rising agent. After mixing and molding, it is then autoclaved under
heat and pressure to create its unique properties.

• Thermal Insulation: AAC block has exceptional thermal insulating qualities.

The thermal conductivity of the AAC blocks helps maintaining the inner
temperature to be warm during the winters and cool during the summers

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which ultimately leads to savings in air conditioning load and consequently

enhanced energy efficiency.

• Moisture Resistance: External moisture sources include rain and water

from the soil. Internal moisture, usually in the form of humidity, can cause
condensation on the surface of the walls as well as condensation inside
the wall itself.

• Porosity: AAC has a very porous structure which is characterized by "macro"

pores. Macro pores are small air bubbles evenly distributed throughout the
material. Therefore, absorption of water into the AAC material is minimal.

Figure 21: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Blocks

2.3.6 Steel Floating Bodies:

Steel is the most used material in offshore industry and ships. Floating bodies made
of steel can have any shape. This house is based on a hexagon of six large steel tubes
welded to each other.
Steel floating bodies can have small wall thicknesses, which results in a small self-
weight, which gives high buoyancy. This also results in small weight stability, but this
can be simply counteracted by adding ballast weight. The disadvantage from steel is
that it is susceptible for corrosion, so it needs a lot of maintenance. This was also the
case for the floating pavilion.
Aluminium is another possibility, which is less susceptible of corrosion and it is even
lighter, but also more expensive. Subsidence can be prevented with filling the steel/
aluminium bodies with EPS.

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Figure 22: Floating house from Herzberger, Middelburg Figure 23: Steel joinery details

2.4 MATERIALS USED IN SUBSTRUCTURE IN FLOATING STRUCTURES:

• The construction and materials of floating architecture are subjected to

attacks of water and climate components, such as wind waves, salts, solar
radiation, humidity and so on. In the sense of sustainability, new materials and
composites of them with innovative properties are to be developed and tested.

• Steel, or concrete or steel-concrete composite may be the materials used for

the floating body and the relevant specifications should be followed. Since
water- tightness of concrete is important to avoid or limit corrosion of the
reinforcement, either watertight concrete or offshore concrete should be used.
High-performance concrete containing fly ash and silica fume is most suitable
for floating structures.

• The effects of creep and shrinkage are considered only when the pontoon is
dry, and hence not considered once the pontoon are launched in the sea.
Steel used for floating structures shall satisfy the appropriate standard
specifications.

2.4.1 Concrete pontoon:

• Concrete pontoons stand out in contrast to other

pontoons for its stability and durability. The
concrete pontoons are filled with foam plastic
covered from all sides with armoconcrete. These
pontoons are resistant to freezing in and to
saltwater exposure. Figure 24: Concrete Pontoon

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• The pontoons, from the heavier breakwaters made of concrete to the lighter
ones made of wood, are designed to last for 30-50 years. The all concrete
and Styrofoam construction of the pontoon produces a very high degree of
buoyancy thus making it virtually unsinkable. It is practically maintenance-free
and has little or no impact upon Nature and the Environment. Each standard
pontoon is designed to accept electrical and water supply services.

• Floats are manufactured of reinforced concrete and have an expanded

polystyrene core. Standard float modules are 12 m long, 2.4 m wide and with
0.6 m freeboard. Floats can be fitted with mooring buoys or mooring fingers.
Wood decking, mooring rings, fenders, service channels for electricity and
water supply are available as auxiliaries.

• Concrete pontoons have a high load capacity and provide long service life.
They can be used as piers, breakwaters or trestle bridges. In the winter
season they have absolutely unsinkable and reliable functions in operation.

2.4.2 Plastic pontoons:

• Plastic pontoons are equipped with plastic

floating platforms and wooden frames.
Pontoons can be used for various purposes
such as a boat station, as a footbridge or
simply as a platform for relaxing and spending
time by the water.

• The shallow beach can be transformed into a Figure 25: Plastic Pontoon bridge

Harbor deep enough for sailing- boats. Even the most unsheltered beach can
be turned into a safe and calm berth to accommodate your own boat and
those of your boating friends.

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2.4.3 Metal pontoons:

Metal pontoons are made of iron pipes in diameter

from 500 to 1220mm. Such pontoons have wall
thickness from 8mm to 12mm. The ends of the
pontoon pipes are thoroughly whipped. The weld
quality is tested at a pressure of 5 atm. Figure 26: Metal Pontoons

2.4.4 Concrete Caisson

The name ‘caisson’ is French and has s to be translated as ‘large chest’, which
refers to the general shape of caissons. In civil engineering a caisson could be
designated as a retaining watertight case or box.

• Standard Caisson:

The standard concrete caisson is a closed

concrete box with concrete walls, bottom and
top. Larger caissons have also got concrete
inner walls. This has two reasons:

- decreasing the spans Figure 27: Standard Caisson

- partitioning for safety in case of leakage

• Pneumatic Caisson:

➢ The difference between the standard caisson

and the pneumatic caisson, is that the
pneumatic concrete has no bottom. Now the
buoyancy must come from the enclosed air
between water and concrete top. Figure 28: Pneumatic Caisson

➢ Usually the air pressure is enlarged by high pressure air pumps. This system
will fail if the enclosed air can escape, so airtightness is very important. This
floating system is in fact not suitable as floating body for floating structures,
since it has a very low buoyancy and it is a somewhat risky system.

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 Floating Structures

2.4.5 Composites:

• Composites can also be a very interesting

material for floating bodies. The new composite
materials are very strong and light and can be
shaped in any form. So floating bodies
constructed out of composites can be very light.
Composites are currently also used for
constructing bridges and therefore they have Figure 29: Composite bridge

already proven themselves as construction material. However, they have not

yet been used as foundation for large floating structures yet.
The big disadvantage of composites is that they are still very expensive now.
The expectation is that they will become cheaper in the future.

2.4.6 Air Cushions:

For floating there can be made use of air cushions.

Generally, these air cushions will be made of plastics.
The great advantage of air cushions is their flexible
buoyancy, but at the same time this is also a
disadvantage. The lack of having a shape of their own
will make them less reliable, and the risk of leakage
is also higher with cushions systems and the
consequences will be more critical. Figure 30: Air cushions

2.4.7 Log float:

• In older days, Log floats where used as the
buoyant foundation of old floating architecture.
For this purpose, rafts using timber logs were
used.
• Larger logs that are stacked in an inverted
triangle beneath the water and the timber Figure 31: Wooden log float

stringers that sit on top. Over time, maintenance is required for both the
stringers that are subject to deterioration and need to be replaced, and the

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 Floating Structures

logs that slowly take on water and sink.

2.5 TYPES OF CONTEMPORARY FLOTATION BASES:

• Flex Base:
Expanded polystyrene and reinforced concrete is
constructed on the water to produce floating
foundations.
Figure 32: Flex Base

• Foam Concrete: Concrete which is completely

watertight, can be poured in the desired
thickness in one go. And is poured into the cast
on the water.

Figure 33: Foam Concrete base

• Reinforced Concrete Hull: Pre-casted concrete

hulls are installed on site where the inside hollow
area can be used for services and storage.

Figure 34: Reinforced Concrete

Hull base

2.6 ANCHORAGE OF FLOATING BASES TO THE GROUND:

• Through Cables:

Cables anchored into the floor bed allow the floating structure to move
with the fluctuation in water but retains its position.

Figure 35: Cable anchorage

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 Floating Structures

• Mooring Posts:

Mooring posts are steel/timber posts anchored 6 m deep into the floor bed
with allow vertical movement of the structure and prevents lateral deviation
with water.

Figure 36: A house on mooring posts– before and during flooding

• Cross cables with Deadmen weights:

Figure 37: The anchorage cables are attached in diagonals to minimize

lateral shift; Anchorage hook

Figure 38: Chain and Elastic Cables Anchoring

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 Floating Structures

2.7 LIMITATIONS OF CONTEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION:

• Indoor Climate: There is no problem in improving the heat insulation

during the cold season even during strong winter climate, e.g. by an
increased intensity of the wind. But during the summer season, innovative
solutions are essential, in order to assure a moderate indoor climate.

• Disturbances in Aquatic Life: If proper planning of the structures on water is

not done then, it harms and disturbs the aquatic life to a great extent.

• Glare and Heat Reflection: Water causes reflection of sun rays and heats up
the surroundings. Uncomforting glare and heat are generated. The figures
below show the water temperature due to sun rays and house temperature.

Figure 39: Heat radiation examination to measure the

surrounding temperature of floating structure

• Corrosion: Corrosion is caused by the extra impacts of chemical

components of salts, pH-values, ions etc. The components of the local
outdoor climate cause an intense corrosion of materials.

Figure 40: Corrosion of metal bases due to presence of salts in water

• Algae Deposition: The microbiological growth on surfaces to

improve the thermal insulation of covering parts of the buildings;
the external surfaces tend to have a natural growth of algae.

Figure 41: Algae

deposition on steel body

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 Floating Structures

2.8 ADVANTAGES OF FLOATING STRUCTURES:

2.8.1 Mobility:

• The floating planning is movable and can bring closer and

exclude volumes and flows.

• That practical advantage allows you to move with your construction by

a very inexpensive way.

2.8.2 Modularity:

• The floating architecture is scalable and can be adapted to better meet

the needs of these users.

• Flexible and based on a modular system, the floating planning provides the
ability to create and compose an ideal building to suit to all needs and desires.

• Different modules are available for a quick assembly without the need of
complex editing techniques.

2.8.3 Luminosity:

• The reflection of light and the glare from water amplifies the natural light and a
bright atmosphere.

2.8.4 Regulation:

• In many countries the construction of a floating home is not subject

to planning permission

2.8.5 Quickly profitable and sustainable investment:

• A floating construction has a much lower price than a construction on

land. It can achieve significant energy savings everyday

2.8.6 Land and plots

• The purchase of a land is not required and there are many varied

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 Floating Structures

affordable location (rivers, canals, lake, pond, ocean, floodplains).

2.8.7 Huge potential for commercial attractiveness

• Eco-designed floating architecture attract the curiosity of your customers by

its ecological and unusual character and the well-being associated to water.

• Easy to rent (rent, filming videos, houses ...) due to its unusual nature.

2.9 PARAMETERS WHICH AFFECT THE SUBSTRUCTURE OF

FLOATING BUILDINGS:

2.9.1 Minimum water depth: Water depth under a floating building must at
all times be sufficient to prevent grounding of the building. If the depth is 0–10
m within 10 km from the shoreline the mooring system dimensioning will be
considered as an average depth of 20 m. The draught of a floating structure
is its depth in the water. In case of a floating body with a flat and level bottom
plane and vertical walls the draught is equal as the depth of its bottom plane.
In case of tilt, the term draught is used both for the average depth of the
bottom of the structure, as well as for the largest depth of the floating body.

Figure 42: Draught of a floating body

2.9.2 Load from superstructure: Self weight and imposed loads have to be
determined according to the building codes. The self-weight and the imposed
loads mainly determine the height of freeboard and draught and the
buoyancy. Imposed loads Imposed loads are an important factor for draught
and tilt. So, with a modular floating structure, imposed loads also play an
important role for the forces and movements in the connections.

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 Floating Structures

Figure 43: Load affecting the base of the floating structure

2.9.3 Chemical composition of water (salinity/ sulphates/ acidity): Corrosion is

caused by the extra impacts of chemical components of salts, pH-values, ions etc.
The components of the local outdoor climate cause an intense corrosion of
materials.

Shock delivered to the concrete surface could crack concrete cover layer on the
bars and provides the conditions to reach the seawater and its chloride content to
the bars. This will cause corrosion. Iron oxide production capacity is several
times of the volume of raw steel, thus the increase in volume cause pressure
inside the concrete and makes it collapse.

Figure 44: Corrosion on floating bridge

2.9.4 Intensity of waves and tides: Naturally, wave heights are equivalent
to half the wavelength, therefore a 200 m long wave is relatively smaller than
a 100 m long wave. Usually, when waves of higher than 80 percent of the
water depth advance towards shorelines, more energy is generated, and
waves gets steeper and unsteady till they break.

Wave properties data are essential to get, as they have influence on the
platform dimensions. with possible severe wave conditions, the pneumatic
stabilizing platform, the semi-submerged structure and the tension leg
structure are good options, since these structures are less susceptible for
waves and will behave well in severe wave conditions. These three options

40
 Floating Structures

are not suitable for shallow inner waters, so they can be disregarded for the
second situation.

Figure 45: Wave conditions

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 Floating Structures

CHAPTER 03

CASE STUDIES

For the case study, structures have been chosen that have adopted different
techniques for floating. The local case study has been done on floating structure
currently present in Kerala and the other case studies are done on floating
structure made using different materials and local techniques.

The following case studies are:

• Makoko floating school, Nigeria

• The Rotterdam Pavilion, Netherlands
• Poovar Island Resort, Kerela

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 Floating Structures

3.1 MAKOKO FLOATING SCHOOL, NIGERIA:

Makoko floating school is a prototype floating

structure, built for the historic water community of
Makoko, located on the lagoon heart of Nigeria’s
largest city, Lagos. As a pilot project, it has taken an
innovative approach to address the community’s
social and physical needs in view of the impact of the
climate change and a rapidly urbanizing African
context. Its main aim is to generate sustainable, Figure 46: Makoko Floating School

ecological, alternative building systems and urban water cultures for the teeming
population of Africa’s coastal regions.

PROGRAM: School, community building

AREA: 220 m2
STATUS: Scaling up, Industrialization and
urban regeneration plans in progress.

Figure 47: Location of Makoko Floating School

• Makoko is a cluster of communities living on water and thrives on fishing and

sawing industries. The community is built on stilts structures, highly dense,
over 100,000 people, in the lagoon heart of Lagos, Nigeria yet it has almost
no road, no land and no modern infrastructure.

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 Floating Structures

• The relationship resulted in a holistic, innovative architectural solution as well

as a wider urban vision that address the challenges of urbanisation, climate
change, energy, waste, water and food facing many African coastal regions.

• The prototype solution addresses physical and social needs in the view of the
growing challenges of climate change and an urbanizing African context. It is
a movable 'building' or 'watercraft' currently located in the aquatic community
of Makoko.

• It is a floating structure that adapts to the tidal changes and varying water
levels, making it invulnerable to flooding and storm surges. It is designed to
use renewable energy, to recycle organic waste and to harvest rainwater.

• The structure serves primarily as a school, whilst being scalable and

adaptable for other uses, such as a community hub, health clinic, market,
entertainment centre or housing. The prototype’s versatile structure is a safe
and economical floating triangular frame that allows flexibility for
customization and completion based on specific needs and capacities.

• The 220m A-frame or pyramid building is

10m high with a 10m x 10m base. It is an
ideal shape for a floating object on water due
to its relatively low centre of gravity, which
provides stability and balance even in heavy
winds. It also has a total capacity to safely
support a hundred adults, even in extreme
weather conditions.

• The building has three levels. The 1st level is

an open play area for school breaks and
assembly, which also serves as a community Figure 48: A- frame structure

space during afterhours. The 2nd level is an enclosed space for two to four
classrooms, providing enough space for sixty to a hundred pupils. A staircase
on the side connects the open play area, the classrooms and a semi enclosed
workshop space on the 3rd level.

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 Floating Structures

• The simple yet innovative structure adheres to ideal standards of sustainable

development with its inclusive technologies for renewable energy, waste
reduction, water and sewage treatment as well as the promotion of low-
carbon transport. Furthermore, it was constructed using eco-friendly, locally
sourced bamboo and wood procured from a local sawmill.

• The project was initiated, designed and built by NLÉ in collaboration with the
Makoko Waterfront Community, in Lagos State. The project was initially self-
funded by NLÉ and later received research funds from Heinrich Boll Stiftung
as well as funds for its construction from the UNDP/Federal Ministry of
Environment Africa Adaptation Programme (AAP).

Materials:

• Structural members the foundation raft is assembled with plastic barrels and
wooden frames.
• The A-frame superstructure is assembled with local hard-wood (Eki, Akun)
beams and bamboo joists.
• Roofing is assembled with metal sheets and interior reed ceiling.

Services:

• Very limited services are installed. There is one dry toilet located at the
ground level, with the provision of a rainwater gutter to fill a bucket, and a
ventilation pipe for the pit.
• A series of PV solar panels are installed on the roof and power a line of
batteries, charge controller and inverter that feed the electrical system.

45
 Floating Structures

Figure 49: MFS Design

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 Floating Structures

3.2 THE ROTTERDAM PAVILION, NETHERLANDS:

The eye-catching structure in Rotterdam has become a global example for climate
adaptation and sustainable innovation. It’s an attractive conference and exhibition
space designed to be relocated. The floating pavilion bridges the gap between port
and city – land and water – and offers attractive working and living environments in
the historic port area. Floating structures provide a safe and climate robust solution
for these unprotected areas outside the dikes.

Erasmusbrug

Figure 50: Location pavilion in Rijnhaven, with functions around Rijnhaven

• Floating expertise and exhibition center consist of three semi-transparent

domes of respectively 18. 5, 20 and 24 meter in diameter. In total, they cover
a surface of about 1000 square meters.
• In the left sphere, the auditorium dome, the chairs of the auditorium are
depicted. This dome accommodates 150 people. This auditorium needs to have
an indoor climate, while the 'exhibition' part of the pavilion can have a semi-
outdoor environment.
• The design of the floating pavilion exists out of two floating isles: the pavilion
isle and the plaza isle. The pavilion isle has a superstructure existing of three
half domes, from which the center dome is the largest with a height of 12
meters.

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 Floating Structures

Figure 51: The floor plan of floating pavilion

• The idea of the architects behind this design that the domes look like soap
bubbles on the water. The pavilion is 46 meters long and 24 meters wide, the
floating plaza measures 24x24 meters. The pavilion and floating plaza are two
separate floating structures connected with each other.
• The floating plaza is moored with 2 large mooring piles, the pavilion is on it’s
turn moored to the plaza. The floating plaza is connected to the quay with two
steel bridges.
• The average depth of the in the Rijnhaven with high water is 7 metres. At the
sides the water is less deep. At the location of the pavilion the depth at high
water will be taken as 5,5 metres.
• Green facts
- Climate change resilient
- Heating and air conditioning systems rely on solar energy and surface water
- Water recycling system

Figure 52: Section of floating pavilion

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 Floating Structures

Materials:

• The floating body is designed with a rectangular beam grid with a center to
center distance of 3 meters and a waffle-slab floor.

• Lightweight and unsinkable qualities of the floating body has been constructed
using expanded polystyrene sheets (esp.).

• Five layers of eps are placed on top of each other, the thinnest layer measuring
20 centimeters in thickness, and the thickest 75 Centimeters.

• The thickest layer contains a grid of concrete beams, which is fastened to the
prefab concrete slabs. The thickness of the island is 2.25 meters. The top of
the floor is about 80 centimeters above the water level.

Services:

• The shelter’s heating and air conditioning systems rely on solar energy and
surface water and the systems are only used in areas of the structure where
they are specifically required. The pavilion also purifies its own water to use in
the toilets and whatever is left can be discharged back into the water with no
negative impact.

Figure 53: Rotterdam Pavilion Design

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 Floating Structures

3.3 POOVAR ISLAND RESORT, KERELA

Poovar Island Resort is a venture of Floatels

India Pvt. Floatels India Pvt was formed in the
year 1999 by Mr. Kabeer Khader an NRI based
in Dubai and Mr. M.R. Narayanan, a technocrat
industrialist. Mr. Kabeer Khader, a chartered
Accountant by profession has been successfully
running business activities for the last 25 years in
the Middle East involved in the area of Surface
Preparation Equipment and materials for
Refinery, Shipping and chemical factories. Mr. Figure 54: Location of Poovar Island Resort

Narayanan is an Electronics Engineer by Profession and has promoted several

industries in the electronics, Software and Environmental pollution control areas,
which are operating well under professional management.

LOCATION: Pozhiyoor, Trivandrum, Kerala

AREA: 25 acres
CONSTRUCTED BY: Floatels India Pvt. Ltd.

Figure 55: Poovar Island Resort

Poovar Island Resort has 86 cottages offering a range of accommodation options. 56

rooms can be used as triples. The bathrooms of the well-appointed beach hotel in
Kerala come equipped with Jacuzzis, bathtubs or rain showers. 48 rooms come with
a hammock in the balcony. 86 rooms – 44 Superior Land Cottages, 18 Ayurveda
Village Cottages, 08 Premier Deluxe Rooms, 12 Floating Cottages & 04 Deluxe
Floating Cottages.

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 Floating Structures

Floating Cottages:

• The resort was completed in the year

1999 and the floating structures were
added in the year 2000.
• Floating cottages are private
accommodations with all the facilities
of a home. The bedroom is glass
paneled along with the private deck
that offers magnificent views of the Figure 56: Interior of the cottage

backwaters and the beach.

• The privacy is the best part along with the traditional décor that is quite
elegant. The amenities offered are satellite T.V with premium channels, clock
and radio, hairdryer and ironing board (on request), mini bar, direct dial
telephone, digital safe and tea/coffee maker.
• The attached bathroom comes with a bath cubicle and a wide range of
toiletries.

Construction and materials used:

• The material used are all available locally from the market.
• The cottages are docked on a 1m deep hard chine hull.
• The cottage is built in traditional Kerala architecture and it is made up of
Malaysian teak wood as wood can be easily dismantled and is lighter than a
concrete structure.
• The material used for the hull are laminated cement using fiber steel1-layer
weld mesh, 2-layers of expanded metal, 8mm stainless steel rod is used to
make the case of the hull and then a coat of cement is sprayed on it and
again a layer of weld mesh is used along with cement coating to finish it.

Figure 57: Hull shaped base

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 Floating Structures

• Hollow bulk-heads hold the slab above it and also is the frame work for the
hull base.
• The hull is covered with a base and plinth is made on it and bolted with stainless
steel bolts and the rest of the superstructure is made on it.
• he floor area is under 500 sq. ft.

Figure 58: Services inside Figure 59: Service pipes

the hull
Services:
• The services are taken through the void inside the hull.
• Manholes are given on the floor for inspection of the services.
• Septic tanks are placed inside the hull and each septic tank is connected to
an automatic pump that pumps the waste to a collections tank on land.
• A 1⁄2 inch flexible PVC hose are used to pump the waste.
• Waterlines are connected through 1⁄4 inch flexible PVC tube to the floating
cottage.
• The electricity supply is made through submersible cables.

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 Floating Structures

CHAPTER 04

ANALYSIS

From the studies it is understood that the main aspect of floating house is its
base. And the super structure to be light weight. The base is preferably in a hull
shape. Materials such as wood, metal, hollow concrete, plastic can be used for
this purpose. Even plastic canisters can be used for the purpose of making a
base if addressing a community. Such as for the inhabitants of the sinking island
of Munroe, in Kollam and other settlements in flood plains.

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 Floating Structures

MAKAKO FLOATING ROTTERDAM PAVILION POOVAR ISLAND

SCHOOL RESORT

• Though MFS-1 was • The EPS/concrete system results • From the Poovar
a failure as it in a floating body with the island resort we can
collapsed later on, following characteristics: understand that what
the idea is o unsinkable matters in a floating
innovative. With o small draught structure is the base.
further testing and o low maintenance • The hull or hull shape
improvement, it • For this reason, the combination is what makes boats
could be made EPS and concrete is best for the and ships float.
strong. pavilion, as for the pavilion no • The same hull can be
• The Makoko floating internal space in the floating body applied as the float
school used all is necessary. for houses to make
locally available and • High beams are needed for rigidity them float.
low-cost materials. (also for protection of EPS). • The hull is very
• The base is made up • A dome structure gives other convenient to use as
of simple plastic loads than a standard it provides enough
barrels and wood superstructure, but the space for inspection
hence making it easy superstructure is relative light, so as well as services.
for people to build by this does not give any problems
self. and the floating body does not
• The shear force due to have to be adjusted.
wind is tackled • A geodetic geometry without
through the triangular triangles, is from a structural
shape. viewpoint not a good geometry, as
• The services are not large moments will occur in the
that proper as the elements. With another geometry
waste is disposed to a lighter structure can be
the water. achieved.

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 Floating Structures

The criteria for a base for floating:

o It should not corrode.

o Should not rust.
o Should be able to float.
o Should carry the load.
o Services should be done easily.
o It should be able to withstand the forces of nature.
o Should be leakproof.
o The material should not decay or rot in water.
o The materials should be affordable.

4.1 CHARACTERISTICS TO BE CONSIDERED:

• Horizontal forces due to waves much times greater than the (non-
seismic) horizontal loads on land-based structures
• In framed, tower-like structures the horizontal wave forces produce
extreme bending and overturning moments
• In a floating structure the static vertical self-weight and payloads are
carried by buoyancy.
• A particular type of structural system, denoted tension-leg system, is
achieved if a highly pre-tensioned mooring system is applied.
• Sizing of the floating structure and its mooring system depends on its
function.
• VLFS’s usually constructed at shore-based building sites remote from the
deep water installation area and without extensive preparation of the
foundation.
• Owing to the corrosive sea environment, floating structures have to be
provided with a good corrosion protection system.
• Possible degradation due to corrosion or crack growth (fatigue) requires a
proper system for inspection, monitoring, maintenance and repair during
use.

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 Floating Structures

4.2 SERVICES:

• All the pipes, ducts and wires for water, gas, electricity and sewage
disposal in such buildings are flexible, designed to remain functional even
when the house rises several metres from its usual position.
• Solar panels are provided for the energy requirements.
• Incinolet toilets which burn waste are provided.
• Drinking water is collected from rainstorms and filtered inside.
• The inner temperature is regulated in a case by a geothermal pond loop.

4.3 SELECTION OF MATERIALS:

• The materials used for the floating body may be steel, or concrete or steel-
concrete composite and the relevant specifications should be followed. Since
watertightness of concrete is important to avoid or limit corrosion of the
reinforcement, either watertight concrete or offshore concrete should be used.
• High-performance concrete with EPS or containing fly ash and silica fume is
most suitable for floating structures. The effects of creep and shrinkage are
considered only when the pontoons are dry, and hence not considered once
the pontoon are launched in the sea. Steel used for floating structures shall
satisfy the appropriate standard specifications.

Concrete Steel Concrete+ EPS

Durability and maintenance ++ -- ++

Draught -- ++ +

Safety (sinkable or not) -- - ++

Costs + - +

Internal Space + ++ --

Weight Stability (only applicable

for small structures <9m)
++ + -

Table 4.2: Comparison between materials

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 Floating Structures

• Materials used in the construction should be lightweight. The observed

common material used is EPS+ concrete hulls as the floatation base with
lightweight sandwiched panels for walls.
• Corrosion resistant materials should be used since the flood water is mainly
saltwater.

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 Floating Structures

CHAPTER 05

CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

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 Floating Structures

5.1 CONCLUSION:

Floating structures offer the flexibility and multi-functionality required to efficiently

face problems related with land scarcity and impacts of climate change and flooding.
However, before increasing the number and scale of these kind of floating projects,
it’s important to understand how these projects may affect the environment.

From the studies it is understood that the main aspect of floating house is its
base and the super structure to be light weight. The base is preferably in a hull
shape.

Materials such as wood, metal, hollow concrete, plastic can be used for this purpose.
Even plastic canisters can be used for the purpose of making a base if addressing a
community. Such as for the inhabitants of the sinking island of Munroe, in Kollam
and other settlements in flood plains.

The study of resilience of grounded, partially grounded and floating structures

conclude the most resilient structures being partially grounded with the base being
anchored to the floor bed in case of coastal areas with a high risk of coastal surges
and floods. In case of calmer waters, such as Dharmadam Island, isolated floating
structures prove to be the resilient solution.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS:

• Application of re-usable construction material, use of solar heat and

photovoltaic cells to meet the energy demand, provision of water-purification
and treatment plant is recommended.

• The plan for floating structures with amphibious foundations should preferably
be square and symmetrical to avoid imbalance during flood conditions.
• Building on stilts with a permanent static elevation in coastal regions should
be avoided due to high risk of damage during a coastal surge with high wind
velocity.

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 Floating Structures

5.2.1 Recommended techniques and materials:

a) Mooring posts
Timber or steel posts go upto 6m deep into the waterbody floor bed. The
house can rise upto 2.5 – 3 m on the posts. They are connected with steel
angles/sleeves to the base of the structure.

Figure 60: Mooring system with breakwater

b) Expanded Polystyrene Blocks

EPS blocks can support 25 kgs per cubic metre. Sizes: 2.4 m x 1.2m x 1 m
and 2.7 m x 1.2m x 1 m.

Figure 61: EPS blocks with timber reinforcement

c) Flex Base
EPS blocks under a layer of concrete (thickness 0.3 m) or grid of concrete
beams underneath.

Figure 62: Flex base

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 Floating Structures

d) Foam Concrete
Watertight concrete poured on site into the mould (0.3 – 0.5 m depth poured
into a mould lined with HDPE (high density polyethylene) to resist water
penetration.

Figure 63: Foam concrete base

e) Reinforced Concrete Hulls

Inverted hollow ferrocements hulls 0.3 – 0.5 m depth. Hollow space inside the
hull is usually used for services and reed beds.

Figure 64: Reinforced concrete hull base

5.2.2 Indigenous techniques to use Different Materials:

• Litter Bottles: It utilizes plastic 2-liter beverage bottles, which are

extremely common, cheap, and resistant to seawater. These bottles can
be tied together into hexagonal grids of 7 bottles each. Then stacked into
grids and layered to form a buoyant lattice. Some sort of rigid surface
then needs to be placed on top for flotation. This can be a cheap
alternative such as the one used in LIFT housing. Also, this can be used
as a replacement for plastic barrels. It has scope for low coast floating
house for climate refugees.

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 Floating Structures

Figure 65: Litter bottles used as base for floating structures

• Standard caisson with plastics barrels: Standards caisson has cavity at

bottom part. Though it is buoyant it has chances of toppling, due to the cavity
in the bottom. Hence the caisson can be made in such a way that it has
cavities can be filled with barrels which would in turn add to the buoyancy and
prevent from toppling.

Figure 66: Plastic barrel bridge

• Styrofoam: Like EPS concrete Styrofoam can be used to make rafts for small
temporary floating structures. Also, Styrofoam can be combined with other
materials to make them buoyant. Such as, filling timber base with Styrofoam
units, Styrofoam can be used as an outer layer for buoyant foundations,
caisson float can be filled with Styrofoam. Layering Styrofoam with other
materials like concrete, bamboo, timber etc.

Figure 67: Styrofoam used as base

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 Floating Structures

• Plastic barrels: Plastic barrels are good for recycling purpose. The plastic
barrels can be attached to timber rafts for making buoyant foundations.

Figure 68: Plastic barrels used as floating body

• Porous concrete: Plastic bottles can be used with concrete to make a shell.
The bottles will trap air in it and act as air bubbles, which would increase
buoyancy. This will be more rigid and stronger.

Figure 69: Plastic bottles used with concrete to make floating shell

5.2.3 Properties of recommended materials:

1. EPS Blocks (Expanded Polystyrene or Styrofoam):

EPS is a closed cell lightweight cellular plastics material produced from
polystyrene. The material has been modified by the addition of flame retardant
additives. This can be used for high- rise buildings.
The standard EPS-blocks= 1.22m x1.22m x2.44m and 1.23m x1.23m x4.92m.
Density= range of 11 to 32 kg/m3
Compressive strength= range of 18.05 and 40.31 MPa

Figure 70: EPS block panels

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 Floating Structures

Properties:

• Acoustic property:
Acoustic Properties as EPS has a closed cell structure it offers only a limited
absorption of airborne sound. Structure borne sound, transmitted though such
structures as walls, may be effectively isolated by the use of floating floor
systems.
• Thermal Insulation:
Thermal Properties EPS gains its exceptional insulating properties from the
stabilized air trapped within its cellular structure. Since it contains no CFCs or
any other gas that may leak out, it will not harm the ozone layer or decrease
its insulation properties.
• Moisture Resistance:
Moisture Resistance of all the materials used for insulation applications, EPS
is one of the most resistant to the adverse effects of moisture content. At ten
times its dry weight, EPS has been found to maintain 80% of its R value.
• Floatation Properties:
The density of EPS is low compared to water, with a normal density range of
11 to 32 kg/m3 compared to water at 100 kg/m3. The water buoyancy per
cubic metre of EPS is determined by subtracting its kg/m 3 density from 1000.
• Toxicity:
Extensive research programs have been conducted overseas to determine if
thermal decomposition products of EPS present a toxicity hazard. The test
results have revealed that these decomposition products are less harmful
than those of burning wood.

2. Thermoplastic Timber:
The term “wood-plastic composites” refers to any number of composites that
contain wood and either thermoset or thermoplastic polymers. Thermosets
are plastics that, once cured, cannot be remelted by heating. This can be
used for high- rise buildings but is expensive and need skilled labour.
The wood used in WPCs is most often in particulate form (e.g., wood flour) or
very short fibers and bundled fibers rather than long individual wood fibers.
Density= range of 0.89 to 0.91g/cm3
Compressive strength= 207 GPa to 802 GPa.

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Figure 71: Thermoplastic timber panels

Properties:

• Chemical Resistance:
Thermoplastic timber does not leach harmful chemicals.
• Thermal Insulation:
It can withstand very hot and very cold temperatures and has no
biodegradation or oxidation. Accelerated weather testing demonstrated that
thermoplastic timbers last over 50 years with minimal maintenance.
• Moisture Resistance
This material is virtually impervious to moisture absorption and retains key
mechanical properties in humid and wet environments.
• Abrasion Resistance:
Thermoplastic timber has a high resistance to the abrasion that may occur in
marine environments due to sand and salt content in the water environment.
The sand and salt-water resistance is based on the fact that HDPE (the major
ingredient) is one of the more resistant polymer materials.

3. AAC Blocks (Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Blocks):

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete is a Lightweight, Load-bearing, High-insulating,

Durable building product, which is produced in a wide range of sizes and
strengths. AAC is produced from the common materials lime, sand, cement
and water, and a small amount of rising agent. After mixing and molding, it is
then autoclaved under heat and pressure to create its unique properties. This
is used for mid- rise structures.

Density= range of 320 to 800kg/m3

Compressive strength= range of 2.06 and 6.20 MPa
The standard AAC- blocks are= 20cmx 60cmx 10cm and 20cmx 60cmx 20cm

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Figure 72: AAC blocks

Properties:

• Fire Resistance:
Depending upon the thickness of the Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)
Blocks, they offer fire resistance from 2 hours up to 6 hours. These blocks are
highly suitable for the areas where fire safety is of great priority.
• Earthquake Resistant:
The light weight property of the AAC blocks results into higher steadiness of
the AAC blocks in the structure of the buildings. As the impact of the
earthquake is directly proportional to the weight of the building, the building
constructed using AAC blocks are more reliable and safer.
• Thermal Insulation:
AAC block has exceptional thermal insulating qualities. The thermal
conductivity of the AAC blocks helps maintaining the inner temperature to be
warm during the winters and cool during the summers which ultimately leads
to savings in air conditioning load and consequently enhanced energy
efficiency.
• Moisture Resistance:
AAC has a very porous structure which is characterized by "macro" pores.
Macro pores are small air bubbles evenly distributed throughout the material.
Therefore, absorption of water into the AAC material is minimal.

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From the entire study we can understand that the floating structures are simple to
construct. Through this study we have arrived at various possibilities to use
combinations of reusable materials and using the conventional and traditional
materials.

We have also understood that floating platforms can be made with simple materials,
which are cheap and low cost. Even the services can be done easily through the
pontoon and hull. It also creates possibilities to harness non-conventional energy
sources such as solar and wind energy. Hence, the base of the floating structure
depends upon the site conditions and the superstructure of the building.

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 Floating Structures

GLOSSARY OF TERMS:

• Acidification: Ocean acidification refers to a reduction in the pH of

the ocean over an extended period of time, caused primarily by uptake of
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.

• Barges: A long, large, usually flatbottom boat for transporting freight that is
generally unpowered and towed or pushed by other craft.

• Breakwater: A barrier that protects a harbor or shore from the full impact of
waves.

• Buoyancy: The upward force that a fluid exerts on an object less dense than
itself.

• Buoyant foundation: A buoyant foundation is a type of amphibious

foundation in which an existing structure is retrofitted to allow it to float as high
as necessary during floods while remaining on the ground in normal
conditions.

• Caisson: A watertight structure within which construction work is carried on

under water.

• Dredging: Dredging is the maritime transportation of natural materials from

one part of the water environment to another by specialised dredging
vessels.

• EPS: Expended Poly Styrene.

• Moored: Fastening a boat by attaching cable or rope to the shore or to an

anchor.

• Ocean warming: The ocean absorbs most of the excess heat from
greenhouse gas emissions, leading to rising ocean temperatures.

• Pontoon: a watertight float or vessel used where buoyancy is required in

water, as in supporting a bridge, in salvage work, or where a temporary or
mobile structure is required in military operations.

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• Semisubmersible: A seagoing, self-propelled barge that rides at anchor,

stands on partially submerged vertical legs on submerged pontoons, and
serves as living quarters and a base of operations in offshore drilling. Also
called semisubmersible rig.

• Submerged: to plunge, sink, or dive or cause to plunge, sink, or dive below

the surface of water, etc.

• Tugboats: A land, air, or space vehicle that moves or tows other vehicles.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

• https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-5/wor-5-in-short/
• https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/the-sinking-island-of-
kerala/article25803641.ece
• https://www.cherarocks.com/dharmadam-island-pristine-neighborhood/
• https://www.google.com/maps/place/Dharmadam+Island/
• http://www.beckettrankine.com/category/topics/projects-
structure/pontoons-floating-structures
• http://www. buoyantfoundation.org/
• http: // www.resilientdesign.org/theresilient-design-principles/
• Http://Www.Faqs.Org/Patents/App/20090217855
• http://www.nachi.org/inspecting-floating-homes.html
• http://www.igsfederal.com/thermoplastic-timber durability.html
• http://epsa.org.au/about-eps/eps-inbuilding/block/

• http://www.manitoupontoonboats.com/whats-apontoon/

• http://theconstructor.org/concrete/ferro-cement-in-construction/1156/

• http://www.coastalcooperation.net/part-0/CCC.pdf

• http://Britannica.com/

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber_rafting
• http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jestft/papers/vol1-
issue6/F0163143.pdf
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)

• https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/NRI-from-
Kerala-floats-tourist-cottages/articleshow/1734971455.cms

• https://physics.info/buoyancy/summary.shtm
• https://news.iqglassuk.com/designing-wind-
loading/

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