CP 105: CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is Material and Energy Balance?

Material and energy balances are applications of the laws of conservation of mass and
energy. They present a systematic way of accounting all material and energy flows in a
particular process or system. For instance the general mass balance equation suggests
that:

Accumulation = input -output +generation –consumption (1.1)

A similar equation can be written for energy balance.

Material and energy balance is applied in almost every day of operation of a chemical
plant. CPE engineers need to do mass and energy balances during designing of a
chemical plant. Mineral processing engineers need to know how much mineral recovery
a particular process achieves. This can be known by making mass balance around the
whole process.

Before starting doing a material and energy balance exercise, it is necessary to define
actually what it is going to be accounted. This involves dealing with two concepts that
may be familiar from other courses that is units and dimensions.

1.2 Units and Dimensions

A unit is a standard magnitude of a quantity that can be measured or quantified.

Example: 2 meters, 4.5 kilograms, 3 cows, etc. The units here are meters, kilograms,
and cows. Their magnitudes are 2, 4.5 and 3 respectively. Thus any physical quantity
consists of two parts i.e. the magnitude or the number and the unit. The unit tells what
the quantity is and gives the standard by which it is measured. The number tells how
many units are needed to make up the quantity.

It is very important in all engineering calculations to write the value (or magnitude) and
the unit of each quantity appearing.

Units can be treated as variables when quantities are added, subtracted or divided. It
should be noted that the units should be the same to perform these manipulations.

Example: 3 cm – 2 cm = 1 cm, 3 cm- 1mm = ?, 1 foot + 3 seconds = ?, 5 kg + 3 Joules

= ?, 10 pounds + 5 g = ?

Combination of units: 3N x 4 m = 12 N.m (work), 5 km/2.0 h = 2.5 km/h (velocity), 6/s x

5 cm/s = 30 cm/s2 (acceleration).

A dimension is any property that can be measured or quantified. For example: Length,
time, mass, temperature, viscosity, tensile strength, electrical resistance, etc. It can be
noted that dimensions can be multiplied or divided to give other complex dimensions:

Examples:
Area (length) 2, Volume (length)3, Velocity (length/time), Density (mass/(length)3 )

1
Dimensions are grouped into two types: Simple (basic dimensions), derived dimensions

Simple dimensions are those that cannot be subdivided. These include: mass, length,
time, temperature, amount (mole), electric current, luminous intensity, etc.
Derived units are functions/combination of two or more basic dimensions. Example:
Velocity (length/time), volume (length)3 , density(mass/(length)3 ) , etc

Conversion of Units: A measured quantity can be expressed in terms of any units

having appropriate dimensions. For instance, velocity can be expressed as feet per
second, miles per hour, or centimetres per year. It just depends on the units chosen and
convenience.

Example 1.1
Convert 36 mg into g

1g
Solution: 36mg    0.036 g
1000mg

Example 1.2
Convert an acceleration of 1 cm/s2 into its equivalent in km/yr2

Solution:

1cm 3600 24 2 h 365 2 day 2 1m 1km km

2
 2
 2
 2
   9.95  10 9
s 1h 1day 1yr 100cm 1000m yr 2

h2 h
Note that: The conversion factor for 2
is the square of that factor ( )
day day

Example 1.3
Convert 400 in3/day into cm3/min

400in 3 1day 1h 2.543 cm 3 cm 3

Solution:     4.55
day 24h 60 min in 3 min

1.3 System of Units

A system of units has the following components i.e Base units, multiple units and
derived units
Base units; these are units which are arbitrarily set as standards. For instance, in the SI
units the units of mass, length and time are set as standards. Other units that added on
this are those of Temperature, electric current and light intensity.

In SI unit system: The standard unit of mass is kilogram (kg): It is defined as the mass of
international kilogram, a platinum cylinder preserved at Sevres in France.

2
The standard unit of length is meter (m): It is defined as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of a
spectral line emitted by Krypton (86 Kr).

The standard unit of time is second (s): it is defined as 9,192,631.770 frequency cycles
of a certain quantum transition in an atom Cerium (133Ce).

The standard unit of temperature is Kelvin (K): Defined by assigning a value of 273.16 K
to the temperature of pure water at its triple point. This is a unique temperature at which
liquid, ice and vapour can exist at equilibrium.

The standard unit for amount is a gmole (which is also known as mole): It is defined as
the amount of substance containing as many elementary entities as there are in 12 g of
12
C.

There are almost three systems of units that are used worldwide:
i) The SI (systeme’s Internationale d’unites) also called the MKS system
ii) The CGS system
iii) The American Engineering System (AES)

The base units for SI unit system are as presented above. The CGS system of units uses
centimetre, gram, and second as base units all other units can be derived from these.
The AES uses foot, pounds and second as base units. Table 1.1 shows the base units
for the three systems of unit for various quantities.

Table 1.1: The base units used for the three systems on various quantities.

Quantity American engineering CGS System SI System

system (AES)
Adopted in 1215 based Adopted in 1790 Adopted in 1960 to
on English system based on French clear confusion in
system CGS system
Length Foot (ft) Centimetre (cm) Meter (m)
Mass Pound mass (lbm) Gram (g) Kilogram (kg)
Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)
Temperature Degrees Fahrenheit or Degree centigrade or Kelvin (K)
Rankine Kelvin
Amount Pound mole (lb mole) Mole (mol) Kilo mole (kmol)
Force Pound force (lbf) Dyne Newton (N)
Pressure Pound force per square Dyne/cm2 Paschal (Pa)
inch (psi)
Energy BTU (British thermal Calorie or erg Joule (J)
unit)

It should be noted that the AES has two difficulties:

i) The presence of conversion factors that are not multiples of 10, e.g. 1 ft = 12
inch
ii) The unit of force brings a lot of confusion i.e. 1 lbf is not equal to 1lbm

It can also be noted that the unit of time (second) is used for all unit systems
3
Why do we learn these different unit systems: This is just because of two main reasons:

i) To be able to communicate with engineers and scientist all over the world.
CPE and mineral processing engineers should be competent with all of these
systems
ii) To be able to acquire any data from literature presented with any of the
systems. Engineers should be able to convert the data to the required system
of units.

1.4 Force / Weight and Mass

Consider Newton’s second law of motion

The force is proportional to the product of mass and acceleration

1
F  k ma  ma (1.2)
gc
Where m = mass, a = acceleration and k= 1/gc. k is a constant whose numerical values
and units depend on those selected for F, m, and a.

In SI units, the unit for F is Newton, 1N = 1 kg.m/s2, whereas in CGS units the unit for F
is dyne, 1 dyne = 1 g.cm/s2 .In American Engineering system (AES) the unit for F is
pound-force (lbf). It is defined as a product of a unit mass (1 lbm) and the acceleration
due to gravity at sea level and 45 degrees latitude which is 32.174 ft/s2.

1 lbf = 32.174 lbm.ft/s2.

It can thus be easily seen that, the value of gc for the different unit systems is as follows:
In SI system: gc = 1 kg.m/s2. N; In CGS system; gc = 1 g.cm/s2.dyne; whereas in AES:
gc = 32.174 lbm.ft/s2.lbf

It can therefore be seen that in SI and CGS systems the problem of gc is not there
because it is unity. However, in AES, g and gc are almost numerically equal. The main
differences between g and gc are as follows:

g is the gravitational acceleration

 It has a value of 9.81 m/s2 or 32.174 ft/s2 at sea level and 45 degrees latitude
 It’s value changes slightly as one changes elevation from the earth’s surface.
 It’s value could change dramatically if one travels to a different planet/moon.

gc is a constant conversion factor

 It has a defined value of 1 kg.m/s2.N or 1 g.cm/s2.dyne or 32.174 lbm.ft/s2.lbf

depending on the unit system in use.
 It’s value does not change as one changes the elevation from the earth’s surface.
 It’s value would not change even if one travels to another planet/moon.

4
The weight of a substance is normally expressed as

g
W  m (1.3)
gc

From equation 1.3, it can be seen that the problems encountered during calculation of F
g
are similar to those encountered during estimation of W. The ratio for the three unit
gc
systems is as follows:

g g g
In SI : = 9.8066 N/kg; in CGS: = 980.66 dyne/g ; in AES : = 1
gc gc gc
lbf/lbm.

Example1.4
100 lbm of water is flowing through a pipe at a rate of 10 ft/s . What is it’s kinetic energy
in (ft).(lbf).

Solution: It can be noted that the units of kinetic energy requested are in AES, thus
the kinetic energy will be given by:

1 mv2
K .E.  
2 gc
2
1 10 2 ft 2 1lb f s
K .E.   100lbm  2
  155.4 ft  lb f
2 s 32.174lbm ft

Example 1.5
Convert 23 lbm. ft/min2 to its equivalent in kg.cm/s2.

23lbm 0.454kg 100cm 1min 2 kg  cm

Solution:
    0.088
min 2 1lbm 3.281 ft 60 2 s 2 s2

1.5 Dimensional Homogeneity and Dimensionless Groups

So far it has been established that quantities can be added or subtracted only if their
units are the same. If the units are the same it follows that the dimensions of each term
must be the same. Thus every valid equation or relationship must contain terms with the
same dimensions, that is all terms on both sides of the equation must have the same
dimensions. These types of equations are said to be dimensionally homogeneous.

Example 1.6
Consider the following equation: V (m/s) = V0 (m/s) + g (m/s2).t (s)

This equation is dimensionally homogeneous as each term has units of (m/s).

5
Consider the following equation: (P + a/V2) (V - b) = RT

This is a well-known van der Waal’s equation, for the equation to be homogenous, a
must have dimensions of pressure /(volume)2 and b must have the dimensions of
volume

Thus all valid equations and relationships must exhibit dimensional homogeneity,
however not all equations that are dimensionally homogeneous are valid. Some may not
be valid. E.g. M=2M, where M is the mass of an object. It is dimensionally homogeneous
but it is not valid.

Example 1.7
Consider the equation: D (ft) = 3.t (s) + 4

i) If the equation is valid what are the dimensions of 3 and 4: solution: 3

(length/time) and 4 (length)
ii) If the equation is consistent in it’s units what are the units of 3 and 4: solution:
3 (ft/s) and 4 (ft).
iii) If we define new variables D’ (m) and t’ (min). What will be the new
relationship?

Solution:
D ' (m)  3.2808 ft
D( ft )   3.2808 D ' (m)
1m
t ' (min)  60 s
t (s)   60t ' (min)
1 min
Inserting these new variables in the original equation we have;

3.2808xD ' (m)  3(60t ' (min))  4  D ' (m)  55t ' (min)  1.22

Thus the relationship will be:

D' (m)  55t ' (min)  1.22

The constants will have the following units: 55 (m/min) and 1.22 (m)

Thus to transform an equation into another with new variables having the same
dimensions but different units, the following procedure can be followed:
i) Define the new variable (e.g. by affixing primes to the old variable names) that
have the desired units
ii) Write an expression in terms of the corresponding new variables.
iii) Substitute these expressions into the original equation and simplify

Example 1.8
Consider the following equation: d = 16.2 – 16.2. e (-0.021 .t)

Where d is in (μm) and t is in (s). Transform this equation such that d is in (in) and t is in
(min)

6
Solution:
106 m 1m 106 60s
d ( m)  d ' (in )      d ' and t ( s )  t ' (min)    60t '
1m 39.37in 39.37 1min

Substituting these expressions into the equation, we have:

106 d '
 16.2(1  e( 0.0 2 1x 6 0t ' )
39.37

Simplifying,

d ' (in )  6.38  10 4 (1  e 1.26t )

'

A dimensionless group is a group of variables that has no net dimensions. The groups
may be obtained by theoretical considerations or through experimental work. The groups
play significant roles in various areas of engineering such as fluid mechanics, heat and
mass transfer, etc. Some important dimensionless groups are shown in Table 1. 2.

Table 1.2: Some Important dimensionless groups

Symbol Name of group In terms ot Definition Are of application

other groups
Ar Archimedes Ga  S    Gravitational settling of
gd 3   particle in fluid
  
2

Db Deborah tP Flow of viscoelastic fluid

tF
Eu Euler P Pressure and momentum in
fluid
u 2
Fo Fourier Dt Unsteady state heat/mass
transfer
l2
Fr Froude u2 Fluid flow with free surface

gl
Gr Grashof l 3  2 gT Heat transfer by natural
convection
2
Gz Graetz GCP Heat transfer to fluid in tube
kl
He Hedstom RY d 2 Flow of fluid exhibiting yield
stress
 p2
Le Le Sc. Pr 1 k Simultaneous heat and mass
transfer
CP D
Ma Mach u Gas flow at high velocity
uW
Nu Nusselt hl Heat transfer in fluid
k
Pe Peclet Re Sc ul Fluid flow and mass transfer
D

7
 Pr Prandtl CP  Heat transfer in flowing fluid
k
Re Reynolds ul Fluid flow involving viscous
and inertia forces

Sc Schmidt  Mass transfer in flowing fluid
D
Sh Sherwood hDl Mass transfer in fluids
D
St Stanton Nu. Pr 1 Re1 h Heat transfer in flowing fluid
CP u
We Weber u 2 l Fluid flow with interfacial
forces

 Friction factor R Fluid drag at surface
u 2
NP Power number P Power consumption for
mixers
N 3d 5

1.6 The mole unit

The mole has already been defined, to recap, it will be defined also here:
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (e.g.
atoms, molecules, etc) as there are in 12 g of carbon 12.

In SI units, a mole has about 6.023 x 10 23 molecules/atoms whereas in AES, a lb

mole has 6.023 x 10 23 x 453.6 molecules/atoms.

gmole = mass in g/molecular weight; lbmole = mass in lb/molecular weight

Thus a mole of species is the amount of that species whose mass in grams is
numerically equal to its molecular weight. e.g. 1 mole of carbon monoxide (CO) contains
28 g

Example 1.9
How many moles are contained in:
100g of CO2, 34 kg of NH3, 20 kg of NaOH

Solution:

1  molCO2
a) 100  gCO2   2.27  molCO2
44  gCO2
1  kmolNH 3
b) 34  kgNH 3   2.0  kmolNH 3
17  kgNH 3
1  kmol  NaOH
c) 20  kgNaoH     0.5  kmol  NaOH
40  kg  NaoH

Example 1.10
How many g-mole and 1b-mole are contained in 2.0 lb of NaOH?
8
Solution:

1 lbmolNaOH
2.0  lbmolNaOH    0.05  lbmolNaOH
40lbNaOH

454 g 1  gmolNaOH
2.0  lbNaOH     22.7 gmolNaOH
1lb 40 gNaOH

Mass, mole fractions and average molecular weights

Process streams occasionally contain one substance, but more often they consist of
liquids, gases or solutions of one or more components. The following terms are normally
used to define the composition of a mixture of substances:

mass  of  A
Mass fraction: XA  (1.4)
Totalmass

moles  of  A
Mole fraction: YA  (1.5)
Total  moles

The percentage by mass of A is 100XA and the mole percent of A is 100 YA.

Example 1.10
A solution contains 15 % A by mass and 20 mole % B, Calculate:
i) The mass of A in 175 kg of solution
ii) The mass flow rate of A in a stream flowing at 53 lbm/h
iii) The mass flow rate of B in a stream flowing at 100 mol/min
iv) The total solution flow rate that corresponds to a flow rate of 28 kmolB/s
v) The mass of the solution that contains 300 lbm of A.

Solution:

0.15  kg  A
i) 175  kg  of  solution     26.25  kg  of  A
1  kg  of  solution
53  lbm  of  solution 0.15  lbm  A lb A
ii)   7.95  m
h 1 lbm  of  solution h
100  mol  of  solution 0.2  mol  B mol  B
iii)   20 
min 1  mol  of  solution min
28  kmol  B 1 kmol  solution kmol  solution
iv)   140 
s 0.2  kmol  B s
1  lbm  solution
v) 300  lbm A   2000  lbm solution
0.15  lbm A

NB : Volume percentages are normally equivalent to mole percentages especially for

gases which exhibit Ideal gas behaviour.

9
Example 1.12:
A mixture of gases has the following composition by mass: O 2: 16%, CO: 4.0 %, CO2:
17%, N2: 63%, what is the molar composition and average molecular weight:

Solution: Select a basis of 100 g of mixture:

Number of moles of O2 (NO2) = 16/32 = 0.5 mol O2, Number of moles of C0 (NCO) = 4/28
= 0.143 mol CO, Number of moles of CO2 (NCO2) = 17/44 = 0.386 mol CO2, number of
moles of N2 (NN2) = 63/28 = 2.25 mol N2.

Total number of moles (NT) = NO2+ NCO+ NCO2+ NN2= 0.5 + 0.143 + 0.386 + 2.25 = 3.279
moles, Hence the molar compositions are as follows:

N O2 0.5 mol  O2 N 0.143 mol  CO

YO2    0.152  , YCO  CO   0.044 
NT 3.279 total  moles NT 3.279 total  moles

NCO2 0.386 mol  CO2 NN2 2.25 mol  N 2

YCO2    0.118  , YN 2    0.686 
NT 3.279 total  moles NT 3.279 total  moles

The average molecular weight of the mixture can therefore be computed from

n
M   Yi M i (1.6)
i 1
Where Yi is the molar fraction of the component i and Mi is the molecular weight of the
component i, and M is the average molecular weight.

Alternatively, using the mass fractions the average molecular weight can be calculated
as follows:

n
1 X
 i (1.7)
M i 1 M i
Where Xi is the mass fraction of the component i.

g
Thus using equation 1.6, M  0.152  32  0.044  28  0.118  44  0.686  28  30.5 
mol
1 0.16 0.04 0.17 0.63 mol g
Using equation 1.7,      0.03279  ,  M  30.5 
M 32 28 44 28 g mol
Example 1.13:
Calculate the average molecular weight of air from its approximate molar composition of
79% N2, 21% O2 and compare the result from that computed from its approximate mass
composition of 76.7% N2, 23.3% O2.
kg
Solution: M air  0.79  28  0.21 32  28.84  ,
kmol
1 0.767 0.233 kmol kg
   0.03467  ,  M air  28.84 
M air 28 32 kg kmol

The two results are equal.

10
1.7 Concentration Measurements

The concentration of chemical species can be expressed using any of the following:
i) Mass concentration: This gives the mass of the component per unit volume
of the mixture e.g. grams per cubic centimetre of the mixture (g/cm 3), kg/m3,
etc
ii) Molar concentration: This gives the number of moles of the component per
unit volume of the mixture. E.g. kmol per cubic meter (kmol/m 3), moles/m3, etc.
iii) Molarity: This gives the molar concentration of the component (or solute)
expressed in g-moles solute per 1 litre of solution. Note the reference volume
here is one litre of solution. e.g. A 2 Molar NaOH solution, contains 2 moles of
NaOH per 1 litre of solution.

Example 1.14
A 0.5 molar aqueous solution of sulphuric acid flows into a process unit at a rate of 1.25
m3/min. The specific gravity of the solution is 1.03, calculate:

a) The mass concentration of sulphuric acid in kg/m3

b) The mass flow rate of sulphuric acid in kg/s
c) The mass fraction of sulphuric acid

Solution:

0.5  mol  H 2 SO4 1000  litre 1 kg 98  g  H 2 SO4 kg  H SO

a)     49  3 2 4
litre 1 m 3
1000  g 1 mol  H 2 SO4 m .solution
1.25  m3 1min 49  kg  H 2 SO4 kg  H 2 SO4
b)   3
 1.02 
min 60s m s
1.03  kg  solution 1000  kg.H 2O kg  solution
c) Density of solution =  3
 1030  3
kg.H 2O m m .solution
1.25  m3solution 1030  kg  solution 1 min kg  solution
Mass flow rate of solution =  3
  21.46 
min m solution 60s s
kg  H 2 SO4 1 kg  H 2 SO4
Mass fraction = X H 2 SO4  1.02    0.048 
s kg  solution kg  solution
21.46
s
Example 1.15
A solution of NaOH in water has a molarity of 2.0 and density of 53 kgmol/m 3. Calculate
the mole fraction of NaOH and the mass density of the solution in ton/m3.

Solution:
2.0  gmol  NaOH 1000  litre 1kmol  NaOH 1m3 kmolNaOH
YNaOH      0.0377 
1litre 1m 3
1000  gmol  NaOH 53  kgmol  solution kmolsolution

Since YNaOH + YH2O = 1, then YH2O = 0.9623 kmolH2O/kmol solution

Average molecular weight of the solution = 0.9623x18 +0.0377x40 = 18.83 kg/kmol

Solution:
Mass density = density x molecular weight
kmol  solution kg 1ton ton
= 53  18.83   0.998  3
m 3
kmol  solution 1000  kg m

11
1.8 Density and specific gravity

Density is the ratio of mass per unit volume. Thus, it can be expressed in kg/m 3, lbm/ft3,
etc. For solids and liquids the density can be measured using the Density bottle
technique (pycnometry). In solids and liquids, temperature and pressure have very little
effect on density. However, for gases, the density varies dramatically with temperature
and pressure. For the gases obeying the ideal gas law, it is not difficult to show that the
density of the gas (  gas ) can be given as:

PM
 gas  (1.8)
RT

Where P is the pressure, M is the molecular weight of the gas, R is the universal gas
constant and T is the absolute temperature.

Thus knowing the pressure, temperature and molecular weight one can estimate the
density of an ideal gas. However, since most of gases do not obey fully the ideal gas
law, the density of such gases can be estimated from equations of state for real gases or
they can be obtained from literature.

Specific gravity is a ratio of two densities. That is a density of a material divided by the
density of a reference material at a given temperature. Since this quantity involves
division of quantities (density) with the same dimensions, then specific gravity is normally
dimensionless. The reference material is usually water at 4 ºC, at these conditions water
has a density of 1000 kg/m3 or 62.4 lbm/ft3. Thus:

 substan ce
specific  gravity 
 H O  at  40 C
2
(1.9)

Specific gravity of petroleum products are usually reported in terms of hydrometer scale
called API (American Petroleum Institute) defined as follows:

141.5
0
API   131.5 (1.10)
600 F
Spgr 0
60 F
0
60 F
Where Spgr 0 represents the specific gravity of the substance at a reference
60 F
temperature of 60 ºF.

There are also other ways of reporting the specific gravity as indicated below

For liquids heavier than water:

 
 
145
0
Baume ( Be )  145  
0 '  (1.11)
 15.60 C 
 Spgr 
 15.60 C 

12
For liquids lighter than water:

 
 
140
0
Baume ( Be )  
0 '   130 (1.12)
 15.60 C 
 Spgr 
 15.60 C 

In sugar industries, the concentration of sugar solution is normally expressed in degree

Brix (º Brix). 1 º Brix is approximately equal to 1% w/w sugar solution. The º Brix is
defined as follows:

 
 
400
0
Brix     400 (1.13)
 15.60 C 
 Spgr 
 15.60 C 

1.9 Temperature Scale

The temperature of a substance is the measure of the thermal energy possessed

(contained) by the substance. Various instruments can be used to measure the
temperature. These include: The mercury-glass thermometer, resistance thermometer,
thermocouples, pyrometers (these use radiation spectra emitted by the heat source).

Several temperature scales have been used to characterise the temperature of a

substance. There are two temperature scales that are commonly known these are
centigrade and Fahrenheit scales. Both of these scales are relative scales they are
based on arbitrary selected reference states. For instance the 0 C and 0 F do not
correspond to a complete lack of temperature. The Celsius scale is based on the
freezing and boiling points of pure water at a pressure of 1 atmosphere whereas the
Fahrenheit scale is base on the freezing point of water/ammonium chloride mixture and
the boiling point of mercury.

The Celsius scale (centigrade)

0 C = freezing point of water at 1 atmospheric pressure
100 C = boiling point of water at 1 atmospheric pressure

The Fahrenheit scale

0 F = Freezing point of water/ammonium chloride mixture
600 F = boiling point of mercury

It follows from this scale that:

Freezing point of water = 32 F
Boiling point of water = 212 F

Quite often it is necessary to use absolute temperatures instead of these relative ones.
Absolute temperature is a temperature corresponding to the complete lack of thermal
motion (absolute zero). The Kelvin and the Rankine are the absolute zero scales. These
are defined as follows:

0 K = - 273.15 C, and 0R = - 459.67 F.

13
Table 1. 3 : Various temperatures for the two scales:

Parameter Fahrenheit Celsius

Boiling point of mercury 600 315
Boiling point of water 212 100
Freezing point of water 32 0
Freezing point of H2O/NH4Cl mixture 0 -18
Boiling point of nitrogen -321 -196
Absolute zero -459.67 -273.15

The relationships between the various temperature scales are shown below:

T [ K ]  T [0 C ]  273.15 ; T [0 R]  T [0F ]  459.67 ; T [0F ]  1.8T [0C ]  32 (1.14)

1  0C  1   K , 1 0 F  1 0 R ,
1  K  1.8  0 R , 1  0C  1.8  0 F (1.15)

Example 1.16:
The heat capacity of ammonia gas can be expressed as a function of temperature as
follows:

 BTU 
CP  0   0.487  2.29  10 4 T 0 F  
 lbm F 

Determine the expression for CP (J/g C) in terms of T (C)

Solution: Note that the degree Fahrenheit indicated in the units of CP refers to a
temperature interval in Fahrenheit (i.e.  F ) whereas that in the equation of CP
0

refers to temperature.
Two alternatives approaches can be used to solve this problem. These approaches are
presented below:

ALTENATIVE I

Step 1: Substitute T(ºF) with the appropriate relationship of T (ºC), thus using
equation 1.14, we have:
 BTU 
 
CP  0   0.487  2.29  10 4 1.8T (OC )  32  0.494  4.12  10 4 T (0C )
 lbm F 

Step 2: Convert the units of CP into desired ones and simplify

 J  4 BTU 1.80 F 1J 1lbm

 
CP  0   0.494  4.12  10 T ( C )  0 
0
 4
  2.06  1.72  103T (0C )
 g C  lbm F 1 C 9.486  10 BTU 454 g
0

14
The required result is:

 J 
CP  0   2.06  1.72  10 3 T (0C )
 g C 

ALTERNATIVE II
Step 1: Assume new variables that have the required units. Let us say the new
J
variables are: CP' ( 0 ) and T ' (0C )
g C
Step 2: Obtain the relationships between the old variables and the new variables:

T (0F )  1.8T ' (0C )  32

 BTU   J  9.484  104 BTU 1g 1 0C  J 

CP  0   CP'  0    3
  0.2395CP'  0 
 lbm F  g C 1J 2.20  10 lbm 1.8 F
0
g C

Step 3: Insert these two relationships into the original equation of CP


0.2395CP'  0.487  2.29 104 1.8T ' (0C )  32 
Step 4: Simplify

 J 
CP'  0   2.06  1.72  103 T ' (0C )
 g C 
Which is the same as the result obtained earlier.

Example 1.17:
The heat capacity of sulphuric acid can be expressed as follows:
 Cal 
CP   
  33.25  3.727  10 2 T 0C
 gmol C 
0

Derive the formula for CP (BTU/lbmol R) and T in R

Solution:

Using ALTENATIVE I
From equation 1.14 it can be shown that:

 
T C 
0 T 0R  
 273.15 (1.16)
1.8

Step 1: Substitute T(ºC) with the appropriate relationship inT (ºR), i.e. equation
1.16, we have:

 Cal 
CP    33.25  3.727  10 2  T R

0
  
 
 273.15   23.0697  2.071 10 2 T 0 R
 
 gmol C 
0
 1.8 

15
Step 2: Convert the units of CP into desired ones and simplify

10C 454 gmol 1BTU

 BTU 
CP    23.0697  2.071  10 2
T 0
 
R
Cal
  
 lbmol R  gmol0 C 1.80R 1lbmol
0
252Cal

The required result is:

 BTU 
CP 
0 
 
 23.090  2.073  10 2 T 0 R
 lbmol R 

Using ALTENATIVE II

Step 1: Assume new variables that have the required units. Let us say the new
BTU
variables are: CP' ( ) and T ' (0R)
lbmol R
0

Step 2: Obtain the relationships between the old variables and the new variables:

 Cal  '  BTU  252Cal 1lbmol 1.80R

CP  
  C  0 
    0.9991CP'
 gmol C   lbmol R  1BTU 454 gmol 1 C
0 P 0

With equation 1.16 we have:

Step 3: Insert these two relationships into the original equation of CP

 T ' 0R
0.9991C  33.25  3.727  10 
' 2   
 273.15 
P
 1.8 
Step 4: Simplify

 BTU 
CP'  0 
 
 23.090  2.073 10 2 T ' 0 R
 lbmol R 

1.10 Pressure Measurements

Another measurable quantity that can be expressed in absolute and/or relative scales is
Pressure. It is defined as force per unit area. The units of pressure in SI are N/m 2 or
Pascal.. There are other units that are frequently used such as atmospheres (atm), Bars
(bar), Millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), feet of water (ft H2O), etc. Various instruments
can be used to measure the pressure at a particular point among of these are:
i) Bourdon Gauge
ii) Barometers
iii) Manometers (differential, open-ended, and sealed end manometers).
It can be noted that the pressure measured by these devices could be relative or
absolute depending on the nature of the instrument. For instance the open-ended
manometer would measure a relative pressure, since the reference for this measurement
is the atmospheric pressure. On the other end the sealed off manometer and creating a
vacuum would give an absolute pressure, since the reference point here is the vacuum
where there is no pressure (zero pressure). Since absolute pressure is based on
complete vacuum, which is a fixed reference point that doesn’t change with location or
temperature or weather or any factor, then absolute pressure is a precise, invariable
16
value that can be readily identified. On the other hand, the relative pressure has a
reference on atmospheric pressure and this varies slightly.

Thus pressure scales may be temporarily more confusing than temperature scales since
the reference point of relative pressure scale is not constant whereas that of temperature
are constant (e.g. the boiling and freezing points of water).

The following terms are frequently used in pressure measurements and the reader
should be well acquainted with them:
i) Atmospheric pressure: This is the pressure of the air at the atmosphere
surrounding us and it changes from day to day.
ii) Barometric pressure: This is the atmospheric pressure measured by using a
barometer.
iii) Absolute pressure: This is the pressure referred to a complete vacuum, or zero
pressure.
iv) Gauge pressure: This is a pressure expressed as a quantity measured
upwards from atmospheric pressure (or some other reference pressure)
v) Vacuum: refers to the reference point where the pressure is zero.

The relationship between gauge pressure and absolute pressure is as follows:

gauge  pressure  barometric  pressure  absolute  pressure (1.17)

The quantitative treatment of pressure measurement is presented in the Fluid mechanics

course. The reader is referred to this course for further reading on this topic.

1.11 Selection of Basis

Most of material and energy balance problems will involve selection of a basis. This is
commonly referred to as a basis of calculation. The basis is the reference chosen for the
calculations you want to make in any particular problem. A proper choice of basis
frequently makes the problem much easier to solve. A basis may be a period of time e.g.
seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, etc. or given mass or moles of a material. In
selecting a sound basis, you should ask your self the following questions:
a) What do I have to start with?
b) What do I want to find out?
c) What is the most convenient basis to use?
These questions and their answers will suggest the suitable basis.

1.12 Techniques of Problem Solving

One of the main objectives of the course is to enhance problem-solving skills to students.
If students can form good habits of problem solving early in their carrier, they will serve
considerable time and avoid any frustrations in all aspects of their work in and out of
school. Being able to solve material and energy balance problems, means that, in
addition to learning basic principles formulas, laws, etc, they must be able to apply them.
Routine substitution of data into an appropriate equation will by no means be adequate
to solve any material and energy balance problem other than the most trivial ones.

There are basically four steps that are recommended for solving problems and puzzles:
i.e. define, plan, carry out the plan, and look back. The key features of this strategy
are the interactions among the steps and interplay between critical and creative thinking.
17
First you must identify what result you have to achieve i.e. what the problem is. Then you
must define the system, perhaps with the aid of a diagram. Various physical constrains
will apply as well as the time available for you to work on the solution. In almost all cases
you will have to look up data and make use of general laws. Finally the results will have
to be presented properly so that you can communicate them to someone else. The
detailed check list for solving material and energy balance problems is as follows:

a) Read the available (given) information thoroughly and understand what is

required for an answer. Sometimes the major obstacle is to find out what the
problem really is.
b) Determine what additional data are needed, if any, and obtain this information
e.g. from literature or elsewhere.
c) Draw a simplified diagram of what is taking place and write down the available
data. You may use boxes to indicate processes or equipment and lines for the
flow streams.
d) Pick a basis on which to start the problem
e) If a chemical equation is involved, write it down and make sure that it is
balanced.
f) Decide what formulas, or principles are governing this case and what type of
calculations and intermediate answers you will need to get to the final answer.
If alternative procedures are available, try to decide which are the most
convenient. If an unknown cannot be found directly, give it a letter symbol and
proceed as if you knew it.
g) Make the necessary calculations in good form, be careful to check the
arithmetic and units as you proceed.
h) Determine whether the answer is reasonable in view of your experience with
these types of calculations.

You can work backward as well as forward in solving problems if the forward sequence
of steps to take is not initially clear. Problems that are long and involving should be
divided into parts and solved systematically piece by piece. If you can assimilate the
procedure discussed above and make it a part of yourself, so that you do not have to
think about it step by step, you will find that you will be able to materially improve your
speed, performance, and accuracy in problem solving.

Beginners (novice) usually have difficulties with:

a) Translating the physical problem into a mathematical problem
b) Relating the physical problem to theory
c) Simplifying a complex problem
d) Learning how to ask the right questions.

To get rid of these difficulties one has to solve a great number of problems of different
level of complexity and become an expert.

1.13 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry

A s you already know, chemical equations usually provide a great deal of information
about the reacting species. They provide qualitative and quantitative information
essential for the calculations. For instance, consider the following chemical equation:

C7 H16  11O2  7CO2  8H 2O

18
In order to tell about stoichiometric ratios, first make sure that the chemical equation
is balanced. The above equation provides the following information:
a) Qualitative: Heptane reacts with oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water
b) Quantitative:
 1 gmole (or kmol or ton mol or lb mol) of heptane reacts with 11 gmole (or
kmol or ton mol or lb mol) of oxygen to give 7 gmole (or kmol or ton mol or lb
mol) of carbon dioxide and 8 gmole (or kmol or ton mol or lb mol) of water.

 1 molecule of heptane reacts with 11 molecules of oxygen to give 7 molecules

of carbon dioxide and 8 molecules of water.
 (12x7+16x1) = 100 g of heptane reacts with (11x32) = 352 g of oxygen to give
(7x44) = 308 g of carbon dioxide and (8x18) = 144 g of water

The coefficients 1 for C7H16, 11 for O2, 7 for CO2, 8 for H20, are called stoichiometric
coefficients.

Stoichiometry therefore deals with the combining weights of elements and compounds.
The ratios obtained from the numerical coefficients are called stoichiometric ratios.
These allow to calculate the moles of one substance as related to the moles of another
substance in the chemical equation. Note that it is more convenient to carry out the
calculations using moles, thus if the quantity of the reacting species are given in masses
(e.g. g, kg, lbm) use the molecular weights of the species to convert these masses into
moles and proceed with the calculations.

Example 1.18
In the combustion of heptane CO2 is produced. Assume that you want to produce 500 kg
of dry ice per hour and that 50% of the CO2 can be converted into dry ice. How many
kilograms of heptane must be burned per hour?

Solution: basis: 1 Hour of operation, dry ice produced = 500 kg

Equation: C7 H16  11O2  7CO2  8H 2O ,

Molecular weights; C7H16: 100 kg/kmol; CO2; 44 kg/kmol,

Total CO2 produced = 500/0.5 = 1000 kg, Number of moles of CO2 = 1000/44 = 22.73
kmol CO2. Using the Stoichiometry of the reaction, the amount of heptane required is:

1kmol  C7 H16 100kg  C7 H16

22.73kmol  CO2    325kg  of  C7 H16
7kmol  CO2 1kmol  C7 H16

Other products

C7H16 gas REACTOR CO2 solid (50%), 500 kg/h

CO2 gas (50%)

Fig. 1.1: Figure for example 1.18

19
Example 1.19
Corrosion of pipes in boilers by oxygen can be alleviated through the use of sodium
sulphite. Sodium sulphite removes oxygen from the boiler feed water by the following
reaction:
2 Na2 SO3  O2  2 Na2 SO4
How many pounds of sodium sulphite are theoretically required (for complete reaction) to
remove the oxygen from 8,330,000 lb of water (10 6 gal) containing 10 parts per million
(ppm) of dissolved oxygen and at the same time maintain 35% excess of sodium
sulphite?

Solution: Basis: 8.33 x106 lb of H2O with 10 ppm O2:

Molecular weight of Na2SO3 is 126 lb/lbmol.

Number of lbmoles of O2 in the boiler feed water is:

10 lb.O2 1 lbmol .O2

8.33  106 lb.H 2O    2.603 lbmol .O2
 
10  10 lb.H 2O 32 lb.O2
6

Using the Stoichiometry of the reaction, the amount of Na2SO3 required is:

2  lbmol  Na2 SO3 126  lb.Na2 SO3 1.35

2.603  lbmolO2     886 lb.Na2 SO3
1  lbmolO2 1  lbmol .Na2 SO3 1

H2O, 8.33x 106 lb

O2, 10 ppm
Hot H2O, Na2SO4, Na2SO3.
Na2SO3, 35% excess BOILER

Fig. 1.2: Figure for example 1.19

Example 1.20
A limestone has the following analyses: CaCO3: 92.89%, MgCO3; 5.41%, Insoluble
1.70%.
a) How many pounds of calcium oxide can be made from 5 tons of this
limestone?
b) How many pounds of CO2 can be recovered per pound of limestone?
c) How many pounds of limestone are needed to make 1 ton of lime?

Solution: Note here that the system of units used is American Engineering System,
hence 1 ton = 2202.64 lb.
The reactions for this system are as follows:
1. CaCO3   CaO  CO2
heat

2. MgCO3   MgO  CO 2
heat

The molecular weights are as follows: CaCO3: 100.1, MgCO3: 84.32, CaO: 56.08, MgO:
40.32, CO2: 44

20
Basis: 100 lb of limestone
The amount of reactants and products can be easily calculated and they are presented
in Table 1.4:

Table 1.4: Reactants and products for example 1.20

Component lb lbmol Lime lb CO2 (lb)

CaCO3 92.89 0.9280 CaO 52.04 40.83
MgCO3 5.41 0.0642 MgO 2.59 2.82
Insoluble 1.7 - 1.70 -
Total 100.0 0.9920 56.33 43.67

a) CaO produced per 5 ton of limestone will be equal to:

52.04 lb.CaO 2202.64 lb lim estone 5ton

   5731lb.CaO
100 lb. lim estone 1 ton lim estone

b) CO2 recovered per pound of limestone will be equal to:

43.74 lb.CO2
 0.4374 lb.CO2
100 lb. lim estone

c) Limestone required to make 1 ton of lime will be equal to:

100 lb. lim estone 2202.64 lb. lim e

  3902  62 lb. lim estone
56.44 lb. lim e 1 ton. lim e

CO2

Limestone, 5 tons
KILN CaO
CaCO3: 92.89% HEAT MgO
MgCO3: 5.41% Insoluble
Insoluble: 1.7%

Fig. 1.3: Figure for example 1.20

In all of the above calculations the reactions has been assumed to take place to 100%
completion. However in industrial operations (or in real cases) this is not always the
case. Reactants may be in excess but the yield of the products is very small. The
reaction may be catalysed (speeded up or slowed down) by a catalyst, but this option
may be very expensive. In most cases therefore the products will always be
accompanied by unused reactants, unwanted products due to side reactions that are to
be separated out. In these circumstances some definitions need to be understood.

a) Limiting reactant: This is the reactant that is present in the reaction mixture in
the smallest stoichiometric amount.
b) Excess reactant: This is the reactant that is present in the reaction mixture in
excess of the limiting reactant. The percent excess is expressed as follows:
21
 moles  in  excess
%  excess   100 (1.18)
moles  required  to  react  with  limiting  reactant

c) Conversion: This is the fraction of the material in the feed that has bee
converted to products. The percent conversion can be given as follows:

moles  of  feed  that  reacted

%  conversion   100 (1.19)
moles  of  feed  fed  to  the  reactor
To avoid ambiguities the component of the feed, which is converted to products or the
component that is being referred to, should be clearly known.

c) Degree of completion (fraction): this may be defined as followed:

mass or moles of lim iting reac tan converted to products

Degree of completion 
mass or moles of lim iting reac tan t fed (int roduced ) to the reactor

d) Selectivity: This is the ratio of the moles of particular product (usually the
desired one) produced to the moles of another product (usually unwanted one)
produced in the set of reactions. For example if you have a reaction of
compound A producing two products B (wanted one) and C (unwanted one).
The selectivity of B will be given as moles of B/moles of C. Thus:

moles  of  wanted  product

Selectivit y  (1.20)
moles  of  unwanted  product

e) Yield: For a single reactant and product, the yield is the weight (mass) or moles
of the final product divided by the weight (mass) or moles of initial reactant (mass
of product A per mass of reactant B) either fed or consumed.

mass or moles of the final product

Yield 
mass or moles of the initial reac tan t

For more than one products or reactants, the reactant upon which the yield is
based should be specified.
The terms Yield and selectivity are terms that measure the degree to which a desired
reaction proceeds relative to competing alternative (undesirable) reactions. As a
designer of process equipment you want to maximize production of desired product and
minimize production of unwanted products.

Example 1.21
Antimony (Sb) is obtained by heating pulverised stibnite (Sb2S3) with scrap iron and
drawing off the molten antimony from the bottom of the reaction vessel. The reaction is
as follows:
Sb2 S3  3Fe  2Sb  3FeS
Suppose that 0.6 kg of stibnite and 0.25 kg of iron turnings are heated together to give
0.2 kg of Sb metal. Calculate:
a) The limiting reactant
b) The percent of excess reactant
c) The degree of completion (fraction)
d) The percent conversion
e) The yield
22
Solution: The molecular weights and the no. of moles needed to solve the problem are
indicated in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5: Molecular weights and number of moles for the reacting species in
example 1.21.

Component kg Mol.wt. gmol

Sb2S3 0.6 339.7 1.77
Fe 0.25 55.85 4.48
Sb 0.20 121.8 1.64
FeS - 87.91 -

The process can be represented into the following block diagram

1.77 gmol Sb2S3 FeS

4.48 gmol Fe REACTOR

1.64 gmol Sb
Fig. 1.4: Figure for example 1.21

a) To find the limiting reactant we examine the chemical reaction and note the
following:
If 1.77 gmol of Sb2S3 reacts it will require 3(1.77) = 5.31 gmol of Fe, which is
higher than the given 4.48 gmol of Fe.

If 4.48 gmol of Fe reacts it will require 1/3(4.48) = 1.49 gmol of Sb 2S3 which is
less than the given 1.77 gmol Sb2S3.

Therefore Fe is present in smallest stoichiometric amount and hence it is

the limiting reactant and Sb2S3 is the excess reactant.

ALTERNATIVE I:
The limiting reactant can also be defined as a reactant with the minimum ration
of;
Moles of reactant fed/ stoichiometric coefficient of the reactant

Thus for Sb2S3 = 1.77/1 = 1.77, and for Fe = 4.48/3 = 1.49

Hence Fe is the limiting reactant and Sb2S3 is the excess reactant.

ALTERNATIVE II:
Another alternative approach on identifying the excess and the limiting
reactant is to calculate their mole ratios and compare with stoichiometric ration
presented in the chemical equation. In this case we have:
23
 moles of Sb2 S3 1.77
Ratio in the feed:   0.3951 ,
moles of Fe 4.48
1
Stoichiometric ratio in the chemical equation =  0.3333
3
Since the ratio in the feed is greater than stoichiometric ratio, then Fe is the
limiting reactant and Sb2S3 is the excess reactant.

b) The percent of excess reactant is:

1.77  1.49
%  excess   100  18.8%  excess  Sb2 S3
1.49

c) Although Fe is the limiting reactant, not all the limiting reactant reacts. We can
compute from the 1.64 gmol of Sb produced and get how much Fe actually
reacted. Thus, Fe reacted is:

3  gmol  Fe
1.64  gmol  Sb   2.46  gmol  Fe
2  gmol  Sb
The degree of completion (fraction) may be defined as follows:

moles  of  lim iting  reac tan t  converted  to  products

Degree  of  completion 
moles  of  lim iting  reac tan t  fed  (int roduced )  to  the  reactor
(1.21)
2.46
Degree of completion =  0.55
4.48

d) Since the reference compound for the conversion is not known, let us assume
that it refers to the conversion of Sb2S3 to Sb. Then Sb2S3 that actually reacted
is:
1  gmol  Sb2 S3
1.64  gmol  Sb   0.82  gmol  Sb2 S3
2  gmol  Sb

0.82
The percent conversion of Sb2S3 to Sb is:  100  46.3%
1.77
e) The yield of Sb from Sb2S3 is = moles of final product/moles of initial reactant =
1.64 gmol  Sb
 0.927 , Alternatively, the yield can also be expressed in mass
1.77 gmol  Sb2 S3
bases, i.e. kg of Sb formed per kg of Sb 2S3 of Sb fed =
0.2  kg  Sb kg  Sb
 0.33
0.6  kg  Sb2 S3 kg  Sb2 S3

Example 1.22
Aluminium sulphate can be made by reacting crushed bauxite ore with sulphuric acid
according to the following reaction:

Al2O3  3H 2 SO4  Al2 SO4 3  3H 2O

The bauxite ore contains 55.4% by weight of aluminium oxide, the remainder being
impurities. The sulphuric acid solution contains 77.7% H2SO4, the rest being water. To
24
produce crude aluminium sulphate containing 1798 lb of pure aluminium sulphate, 1080
lb of bauxite ore and 2510 lb of sulphuric acid are used.

a) Identify the excess reactant

b) What percentage of the excess reactant was consumed?
c) What was the degree of completion of the reaction?

Solution: The process can be represented in the block diagram below:

Bauxite (55.4% Al2O3), 1080 lb

REACTOR H20
Acid (77.7% H2SO4), 2510 lb

1798 lb Al2(SO4)3
Fig. 1.5: Figure for example 1.22

The molecular weights are as follows: Al2(SO4)3: 342.2 , Al2O3: 101.96, H2SO4: 98.1,
H2O :18 lb/lbmol. The lbmols of the various chemical species involved in the reaction are
as follows:

1  lbmol  Al2 ( SO4 )3

1798  lb  Al2 SO4 3   5.25  lbmol  Al2 SO4 3
342.2  lb  Al2 SO4 3

0.554  lb  Al2O3 1  lbmol  Al2O3

1080  lb  bauxite     5.87  lbmol  Al2O3
1  lb  bauxite 101.96  lb  Al2O3

0.777  lb  H 2 SO4 1  lbmol  H 2 SO4

2510  lb  Acid     19.88  lbmol  H 2 SO4
1  lb  Acid 98.1  lb  H 2 SO4

a) If all Al2O3 reacts it will require 3(5.87) = 17.61 lb mol of H2SO4 which is less than
the 19.88 lbmol H2SO4 provided.

However, if all H2SO4 reacts it will require 19.88/3 = 6.63 lb mol of Al2O3 which is
greater than 5.87 lbmol Al2O3 provided. Thus Al2O3 will disappear first before
H2SO4.

Therefore H2SO4 is the excess reactant and Al2O3 is the limiting reactant.

An alternative approach on identifying the excess and the limiting reactant is to

calculate their mole ratios and compare with stoichiometric ration presented in the
chemical equation. In this case we have:

H 2 SO4 19.88 3
Ratio in the feed:   3.39 , Ratio in the chemical equation =  3
Al2O3 5.87 1
Since the ratio in the feed is greater than stoichiometric ratio, then H2SO4 is the
excess reactant.

25
 b) From the amount of Al2(SO4)3 formed, H2SO4 that was actually consumed is:

3 lbmol  H 2 SO 4
5.25 lbmol  Al 2 SO4 3   15.75 lbmol  H 2 SO4
1 lbmol  Al 2 SO4 3

15.75
% Excess reactant consumed =  100  79.2%
19.88

c) The degree of completion of the reaction can be obtained using equation 1.21.
Since the limiting reactant is Al2O3, from the amount of Al2(SO4)3 formed, the
number of moles of Al2O3 consumed will be:

1  lbmol  Al2O3
5.25  lbmol  Al2 SO4 3   5.25  lbmol  Al2O3
1  lbmol  Al2 SO4 3

moles  of  lim iting  reac tan t  converted  to  products

Degree  of  completion 
moles  of  lim iting  reac tan t  fed  (int roduced )  to  the  reactor

5.25 lbmol  Al 2O3  consumed

Degree of completion =  0.89
5.87 lbmol  Al 2O3  fed

Example 1.23:
Two well known reaction take place in the dehydrogenation of ethane as follows:
1. C2 H 6  C2 H 4  H 2

2. C2 H 6  H 2  2CH 4
Given the following product distribution (in the gas phase reaction of C 2H6 in the
presence of H2) from the reaction of C2H6:

Component Percent
C2H6 35
C2H4 30
H2 28
CH4 7
Total 100
What is
a) The selectivity of C2H4 relative to CH4
b) The yield of C2H4 in kmol C2H4 per kmol of C2H6

Solution: Basis 100 kmols of products

Reactor

26
 a) Selectivity can be obtained using equation 1.20

moles  of  wanted  product

Selectivit y 
moles  of  unwanted  product

30  kmol  C2 H 4 mol  C2 H 4
Selectivity =  4.29 
7  kmol  CH 4 mol  CH 4

b) To compute the yield we have to establish the number of moles of C 2H6 fed to
the reactor. Using the Stoichiometry of the reaction we can find that:

From reaction 1: C2 H 6  C2 H 4  H 2

1 kmol  C2 H 6
30 kmol  C2 H 4   30 kmol  C2 H 6
1 kmol  C2 H 4

From reaction 2: C2 H 6  H 2  2CH 4

1 kmol  C2 H 6
7 kmol  CH 4  3.5 kmol  C2 H 6
2 kmol  CH 4

Total moles of C2H6 reacted = 30 +3.5 = 33.5 kmol C2H6

Total moles of C2H6 supplied to the reactor = 33.5 + 35 (unreacted) = 68.5

kmol C2H6

mass or moles of the final product

Yield 
mass or moles of the initial reac tan t

30 kmol  C2 H 4 kmol  C2 H 4
Yield =  0.44
68.5 kmol  C2 H 6 kmol  C2 H 6

To sum up our discussion on this topic, the following should be remembered:

 The chemical equation does not indicate the actual mechanism of the reaction
or how fast or to what extent the reaction/conditions of the reaction will take
place.

 The chemical equation indicates the stoichiometric amount required for the
reaction if it has to proceed in the manner in which it is written.

 Make sure that the chemical equation is balanced before using it in the
calculations.

27