Professor Yashar Ganjali

Department of Computer Science

University of Toronto

yganjali@cs.toronto.edu
http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~yganjali
Announcements
• Problem Set 1 out today (Sep 24th).
• Problems from the textbook
• Due Friday Oct. 4th at 5pm.
— Remember the late submission policy.
— Remember academic integrity guidelines.
— Submit electronically on MarkUS.
— NOTE. File names must be: ps1.pdf
— You can scan and save as a pdf file.
— Not preferred, but acceptable.

• This week’s tutorial: sample problems (PS1)

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Announcements – Cont’d
• Programming assignment 1
• Have you tested MiniNet?
• Have you been able to setup your VM?
• Slides for the tutorial available on class web page
• Start early! Start early! Start early! …

• Reading for next week:

• Chapter 3 of the textbook

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The Story
• So far …
— Layers, and protocols
— Link layer
— Media type, encoding Application
— Framing, link model Presentation
— Error detection, correction Session
Transport
Network
• This time Data Link
— Interconnecting LANs Physical
— Hubs, switches, and bridges
— The Internet Protocol

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Ethernet
— Dominant wired and wireless LAN technology
— First widely used LAN technology
— Simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM
— Kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps

Metcalfe’s
Ethernet
sketch

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Ethernet Uses CSMA/CD
— Carrier sense: wait for link to be idle
— Channel idle: start transmitting
— Channel busy: wait until idle
— Collision detection: listen while transmitting
— No collision: transmission is complete
— Collision: abort transmission, and send jam signal
— Random access: exponential back-off
— After collision, wait a random time before trying again
— After mth collision, choose K randomly from {0, …, 2m-1}
— … and wait for K*512 bit times before trying again
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Limitations on Ethernet Length
A B
latency d

— Latency depends on physical length of link

— Time to propagate a packet from one end to the other
— Suppose A sends a packet at time t
— And B sees an idle line at a time just before t+d
— … so B happily starts transmitting a packet
— B detects a collision, and sends jamming signal
— But A doesn’t see collision till t+2d

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Limitations on Ethernet Length
A B
latency d

— A needs to wait for time 2d to detect collision

— So, A should keep transmitting during this period
— … and keep an eye out for a possible collision
— Imposes restrictions on Ethernet
— Maximum length of the wire: 2500 meters
— Minimum length of the packet: 512 bits (64 bytes)

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Ethernet Frame Structure
— Addresses: source and destination MAC addresses
— Adaptor passes frame to network-level protocol
— If destination address matches the adaptor
— Or the destination address is the broadcast address
— Otherwise, adapter discards frame
— Type: indicates the higher layer protocol
— Usually IP
— But also Novell IPX, AppleTalk, …
— CRC: cyclic redundancy check
— Checked at receiver
— If error is detected, the frame is simply dropped

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Unreliable, Connectionless Service
— Connectionless
— No handshaking between sending and receiving
adapter.
— Unreliable
— Receiving adapter doesn’t send ACKs or NACKs
— Packets passed to network layer can have gaps
— Gaps will be filled if application is using TCP
— Otherwise, the application will see the gaps

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Shuttling Data at Different Layers
— Different devices switch different things
— Physical layer: electrical signals (repeaters and hubs)
— Link layer: frames (bridges and switches)
— Network layer: packets (routers)

Application gateway

Transport gateway
Frame Packet TCP User
Router header header header data

Bridge, switch

Repeater, hub

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Physical Layer: Repeaters
— Distance limitation in local-area networks
— Electrical signal becomes weaker as it travels
— Imposes a limit on the length of a LAN
— Repeaters join LANs together
— Analog electronic device
— Continuously monitors electrical signals on each LAN
— Transmits an amplified copy

Repeater

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Physical Layer: Hubs
— Joins multiple input lines electrically
— Designed to hold multiple line cards
— Do not necessarily amplify the signal
— Very similar to repeaters
— Also operates at the physical layer
hub

hub
hub hub

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Limitations of Repeaters and Hubs
— One large collision domain
— Every bit is sent everywhere
— So, aggregate throughput is limited
— E.g., three departments each get 10 Mbps independently
— … and then connect via a hub and must share 10 Mbps
— Cannot support multiple LAN technologies
— Does not buffer or interpret frames
— So, can’t interconnect between different rates or formats
— E.g., 10 Mbps Ethernet and 100 Mbps Ethernet
— Limitations on maximum nodes and distances
— Does not circumvent the limitations of shared media
— E.g., still cannot go beyond 2500 meters on Ethernet

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Link Layer: Bridges
— Connects two or more LANs at the link layer
— Extracts destination address from the frame
— Looks up the destination in a table
— Forwards the frame to the appropriate LAN segment
— Each segment is its own collision domain

host host host host host host

Bridge

host host host host host host

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Link Layer: Switches
— Typically connects individual computers
— A switch is essentially the same as a bridge
— … though typically used to connect hosts, not LANs
— Like bridges, support concurrent communication
— Host A can talk to C, while B talks to D

A C

switch

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Dedicated Access and Full Duplex
— Dedicated access
— Host has direct connection to the switch
— … rather than a shared LAN connection
— Full duplex
— Each connection can send in both directions
— Host sending to switch, and host receiving from switch
— E.g., in 10BaseT and 100Base T
— Completely avoids collisions
— Each connection is a bidirectional point-to-point link
— No need for carrier sense, collision detection, and so on

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Bridges/Switches: Traffic Isolation
— Switch breaks subnet into LAN segments
— Switch filters packets
— Frame only forwarded to the necessary segments
— Segments become separate collision domains

switch/bridge

collision
domain

hub
hub hub

collision domain collision domain

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Advantages Over Hubs/Repeaters
— Only forwards frames as needed
— Filters frames to avoid unnecessary load on segments
— Sends frames only to segments that need to see them
— Extends the geographic span of the network
— Separate collision domains allow longer distances
— Improves privacy by limiting scope of frames
— Hosts can “snoop” the traffic traversing their segment
— … but not all the rest of the traffic
— Applies carrier sense and collision detection
— Does not transmit when the link is busy
— Applies exponential back-off after a collision
— Joins segments using different technologies

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Disadvantages Over Hubs/Repeaters
— Delay in forwarding frames
— Bridge/switch must receive and parse the frame
— … and perform a look-up to decide where to forward
— Storing and forwarding the packet introduces delay
— Solution: cut-through switching
— Need to learn where to forward frames
— Bridge/switch needs to construct a forwarding table
— Ideally, without intervention from network administrators
— Solution: self-learning
— Higher cost
— More complicated devices that cost more money

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Motivation For Cut-Through Switching
— Buffering a frame takes time
— Suppose L is the length of the frame
— And R is the transmission rate of the links
— Then, receiving the frame takes L/R time units
— Buffering delay can be a high fraction of total delay
— Propagation delay is small over short distances
— Making buffering delay a large fraction of total
— Analogy: large group walking through NYC

A B

switches

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Cut-Through Switching
— Start transmitting as soon as possible
— Inspect the frame header and do the look-up
— If outgoing link is idle, start forwarding the frame
— Overlapping transmissions
— Transmit the head of the packet via the outgoing link
— … while still receiving the tail via the incoming link
— Analogy: different folks crossing different intersections

A B

switches

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Motivation For Self Learning
— Switches forward frames selectively
— Forward frames only on segments that need them
— Switch table
— Maps destination MAC address to outgoing interface
— Goal: construct the switch table automatically

A C

switch

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Self Learning: Building the Table
— When a frame arrives
— Inspect the source MAC address
— Associate the address with the incoming interface
— Store the mapping in the switch table
— Use a time-to-live field to eventually forget the mapping

Switch learns how B

to reach A.

A C

D
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Self Learning: Handling Misses
— When frame arrives with unfamiliar destination
— Forward the frame out all of the interfaces
— … except for the one where the frame arrived
— Hopefully, this case won’t happen very often

When in B
doubt,
shout!
A C

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Switch Filtering/Forwarding
When switch receives a frame:

index switch table using MAC dest address

if entry found for destination
then {
if dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frame
else forward the frame on interface indicated
}
else flood
forward on all but the interface
on which the frame arrived

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Flooding Can Lead to Loops
— Switches sometimes need to broadcast frames
— Upon receiving a frame with an unfamiliar destination
— Upon receiving a frame sent to the broadcast address
— Broadcasting is implemented by flooding
— Transmitting frame out every interface
— … except the one where the frame arrived
— Flooding can lead to forwarding loops
— E.g., if the network contains a cycle of switches
— Either accidentally, or by design for higher reliability

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Solution: Spanning Trees
— Ensure the topology has no loops
— Avoid using some of the links when flooding
— … to avoid forming a loop
— Spanning tree
— Sub-graph that covers all vertices but contains no cycles
— Links not in the spanning tree do not forward frames

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Constructing a Spanning Tree
— Need a distributed algorithm
— Switches cooperate to build the spanning tree
— … and adapt automatically when failures occur
— Key ingredients of the algorithm
— Switches need to elect a “root” root
— The switch with the smallest identifier
— Each switch identifies if its interface
is on the shortest path from the root
— And exclude it from the tree if not
— Messages (Y, d, X) One hop
— From node X
— Claiming Y is the root
— And the distance is d
Three hops

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Steps in Spanning Tree Algorithm
— Initially, each switch thinks it is the root
— Switch sends a message out every interface
— … identifying itself as the root with distance 0
— Example: switch X announces (X, 0, X)
— Switches update their view of the root
— Upon receiving a message, check the root id
— If the new id is smaller, start viewing that switch as
root
— Switches compute their distance from the root
— Add 1 to the distance received from a neighbor
— Identify interfaces not on a shortest path to the root
— … and exclude them from the spanning tree

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Example From Switch #4’s Viewpoint
— Switch #4 thinks it is the root
— Sends (4, 0, 4) message to 2 and 7
— Then, switch #4 hears from #2
— Receives (2, 0, 2) message from 2 1
— … and thinks that #2 is the root
— And realizes it is just one hop away 3 5
— Then, switch #4 hears from #7 2
— Receives (2, 1, 7) from 7 4
6
— And realizes this is a longer path 7
— So, prefers its own one-hop path
— And removes 4-7 link from the tree

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Example From Switch #4’s Viewpoint
— Switch #2 hears about switch #1
— Switch 2 hears (1, 1, 3) from 3
— Switch 2 starts treating 1 as root
— And sends (1, 2, 2) to neighbors
1
— Switch #4 hears from switch #2
— Switch 4 starts treating 1 as root
3 5
— And sends (1, 3, 4) to neighbors
— Switch #4 hears from switch #7 2
— Switch 4 receives (1, 3, 7) from 7 4
6
— And realizes this is a longer path 7
— So, prefers its own three-hop path
— And removes 4-7 Iink from the tree

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Robust Spanning Tree Algorithm
— Algorithm must react to failures
— Failure of the root node
— Need to elect a new root, with the next lowest identifier
— Failure of other switches and links
— Need to recompute the spanning tree
— Root switch continues sending messages
— Periodically reannouncing itself as the root (1, 0, 1)
— Other switches continue forwarding messages
— Detecting failures through timeout (soft state!)
— Switch waits to hear from others
— Eventually times out and claims to be the root
See the textbook for details and University
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Switches vs. Routers
— Advantages of switches over routers
— Plug-and-play
— Fast filtering and forwarding of frames
— No pronunciation ambiguity (e.g., “rooter” vs.
“rowter”)
— Disadvantages of switches over routers
— Topology is restricted to a spanning tree
— Large networks require large ARP tables
— Broadcast storms can cause the network to collapse

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Comparing Hubs, Switches, & Routers
hubs routers switches

traffic no yes yes

isolation
plug & play yes no yes

optimal no yes no
routing
cut yes no yes
through

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Part II – The Internet Protocol (IP)
— IP: The Internet Protocol
— Service characteristics
— The IP Datagram format
— IP addresses
— Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
— An aside: Turning names into addresses (DNS)

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The Internet Protocol (IP)

Protocol Stack
App

Transport TCP / UDP Data Hdr TCP Segment

Network IP Data Hdr IP Datagram

Link

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The Internet Protocol (IP)
Characteristics of IP
• CONNECTIONLESS: mis-sequencing
• UNRELIABLE: may drop packets…
• BEST EFFORT: … but only if necessary
• DATAGRAM: individually routed

Source D H Destination
A B
R2
D H R1 R3
R4 • Architecture
• Links Transparent
• Topology

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 The IP Datagram

bits 0 8 16 32

vers HLen TOS Total Length Offset within

original packet
ID Flags FRAG Offset
Hop count
TTL Protocol checksum

SRC IP Address
<=64 KBytes
DST IP Address

(OPTIONS) (PAD)

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Fragmentation
Problem: A router may receive a packet larger than the maximum
transmission unit (MTU) of the outgoing link.
Source Destination

A B
Ethernet MTU=1500 bytes MTU=1500 bytes

MTU<1500 bytes
R1 R2

Solution: R1 fragments the IP datagram into multiple, self-contained datagrams.

Data HDR (ID=x) Offset=0

Offset>0 More Frag=1
More Frag=0

Data HDR (ID=x) Data HDR (ID=x) Data HDR (ID=x)

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Fragmentation
— Fragments are re-assembled by the destination host; not
by intermediate routers.
— To avoid fragmentation, hosts commonly use path MTU
discovery to find the smallest MTU along the path.
— Path MTU discovery involves sending various size
datagrams until they do not require fragmentation along
the path.
— Most links use MTU>=1500bytes today.
— Try:
traceroute –F www.uwaterloo.ca 1500 and
traceroute –F www.uwaterloo.ca 1501
— (DF=1 set in IP header; routers send “ICMP” error
message, which is shown as “!F”).
— Bonus: Can you find a destination for which the path MTU
< 1500 bytes?
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IP Addresses
— IP (Version 4) addresses are 32 bits long
— Every interface has a unique IP address:
— A computer might have two or more IP addresses
— A router has many IP addresses
— IP addresses are hierarchical
— They contain a network ID and a host ID
— E.g. Apple computers addresses start with: 17….
— IP addresses are assigned statically or dynamically
(e.g. DHCP)
— IP (Version 6) addresses are 128 bits long

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IP Addresses
Originally there were 5 classes:

1 7 24

CLASS “A” 0 Net ID Host-ID

2 14 16

CLASS “B” 10 Net ID Host-ID

3 21 8

CLASS “C” 110 Net ID Host-ID

4 28
CLASS “D” 1110 Multicast Group ID

5 27
CLASS “E” 11110 Reserved

A B C D
0 232-1

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IP Addresses – Examples

Class “A” address: www.mit.edu

18.7.22.83
(18<128 => Class A)

Class “B” address: www.toronto.edu

142.150.210.13
(128<142<128+64 => Class B)

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IP Addressing
Problem:
— Address classes were too “rigid”. For most organizations, Class
C were too small and Class B too big. Led to inefficient use of
address space, and a shortage of addresses.
— Organizations with internal routers needed to have a separate
(Class C) network ID for each link.
— And then every other router in the Internet had to know about
every network ID in every organization, which led to large
address tables.
— Small organizations wanted Class B in case they grew to more
than 255 hosts. But there were only about 16,000 Class B
network IDs.

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IP Addressing
Two solutions were introduced:
— Subnetting within an organization to subdivide the
organization’s network ID.
— Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in the Internet
backbone was introduced in 1993 to provide more
efficient and flexible use of IP address space.

— CIDR is also known as “supernetting” because

subnetting and CIDR are basically the same idea.

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 Subnetting
2 14 16
CLASS “B”
10 Net ID Host-ID
e.g. Company

2 14 16 2 14 16
e.g. Site 10 Net ID 0000 Host-ID 10 Net ID 1111 Host-ID
Subnet Subnet
Subnet ID (20) Host ID (12)
Subnet ID (20) Host ID (12)

2 14 16 2 14 16
e.g. Dept 10 Net ID 000000 Host-ID 10 Net ID 1111011011 Host-ID
Subnet
Subnet ID (22) Subnet Subnet ID (26) Host ID (6)
Host ID (10)

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Subnetting
— Subnetting is a form of hierarchical routing.
— Subnets are usually represented via an address plus a
subnet mask or “netmask”.
— E.g.
yganjali@apps0.cs.toronto.edu > ifconfig eth0
Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:15:17:1C:85:30
inet addr:128.100.3.40 Bcast:128.100.3.255 Mask:ffffff00
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1

— Netmask ffffff00: the first 24 bits are the subnet ID,

and the last 8 bits are the host ID.
— Can also be represented by a “prefix + length”, e.g.
128.100.3.0/24, or just 128.100.3/24.

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Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) Addressing
— The IP address space is broken into line segments.
— Each line segment is described by a prefix.
— A prefix is of the form x/y where x indicates the prefix
of all addresses in the line segment, and y indicates
the length of the segment.
— E.g. The prefix 128.9/16 represents the line segment
containing addresses in the range: 128.9.0.0 …
128.9.255.255. 128.9.0.0
142.12/19
65/8
128.9/16

0 232-1
216
128.9.16.14
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Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) – Addressing

128.9.19/24
128.9.25/24

128.9.16/20 128.9.176/20

128.9/16

0 232-1

128.9.16.14

Most specific route = “longest matching prefix”

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Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) – Addressing
Prefix aggregation:
If a service provider serves two organizations with
prefixes, it can (sometimes) aggregate them to form a
shorter prefix. Other routers can refer to this shorter
prefix, and so reduce the size of their address table.
E.g. ISP serves 128.9.14.0/24 and 128.9.15.0/24, it can
tell other routers to send it all packets belonging to
the prefix 128.9.14.0/23.
ISP Choice:
In principle, an organization can keep its prefix if it
changes service providers.

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Detour: Map Computer Names to IP addresses
The Domain Naming System (DNS)
— Names are hierarchical and belong to a domain:
— e.g. apps0.cs.utoronto.ca
— Common domain names: .com, .edu, .gov, .org, .net, .ca (or
other country-specific domain).
— Top-level names are assigned by the Internet Corporation
for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).
— A unique name is assigned to each organization.
— DNS Client-Server Model
— DNS maintains a hierarchical, distributed database of
names.
— Servers are arranged in a hierarchy.
— Each domain has a “root” server.
— An application needing an IP address is a DNS client.

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Mapping Computer Names to IP addresses
The Domain Naming System (DNS)

— A DNS Query
— Client asks local server.
— If local server does not have address, it asks the root
server of the requested domain.
— Addresses are cached in case they are requested again.

.stanford.edu
“What is the IP address of
Client
www.eecs.berkeley.edu?” .edu
.berkeley.edu .eecs.berkeley.edu
application e.g. gethostbyname()

Example: On CDF machines, try “host www.eecs.berkeley.edu”

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An Aside – Error Reporting (ICMP) and traceroute
On CDF machines try: traceroute www.google.com
traceroute to www.google.com (74.125.159.147), 30 hops max, 40 byte packets
1 butler.syslab.sandbox (192.168.70.100) 0.103 ms 0.092 ms 0.082 ms
2 foundry0.cs.toronto.edu (128.100.5.210) 2.146 ms 4.061 ms 5.977 ms
3 sf-cs1.gw.utoronto.ca (128.100.1.253) 2.184 ms 2.175 ms 2.168 ms
4 murus-gpb.gw.utoronto.ca (128.100.96.2) 2.146 ms 2.483 ms 3.037 ms
5 skye2murus-blue.gw.utoronto.ca (128.100.200.210) 7.088 ms 7.207 ms 7.198 ms
6 murus2skye-yellow.gw.utoronto.ca (128.100.200.217) 3.310 ms 11.325 ms 12.061 ms
7 ut-hub-utoronto-if.gtanet.ca (205.211.94.129) 12.681 ms 2.541 ms 2.535 ms
8 ORION-GTANET-RNE.DIST1-TORO.IP.orion.on.ca (66.97.23.57) 3.638 ms 4.391 ms 4.384 ms
9 BRDR2-TORO-GE2-1.IP.orion.on.ca (66.97.16.121) 4.368 ms 4.729 ms 4.844 ms
10 74.125.51.233 (74.125.51.233) 12.459 ms 12.453 ms 12.808 ms
11 216.239.47.114 (216.239.47.114) 4.681 ms 4.795 ms 12.661 ms
12 209.85.250.111 (209.85.250.111) 23.666 ms 23.659 ms 13.226 ms
13 209.85.242.215 (209.85.242.215) 32.436 ms 32.431 ms 32.913 ms
14 72.14.232.213 (72.14.232.213) 33.537 ms 72.14.232.215 (72.14.232.215) 33.525 ms 72.14.232.213
(72.14.232.213) 164.315 ms
15 209.85.254.14 (209.85.254.14) 45.864 ms 209.85.254.10 (209.85.254.10) 42.232 ms 209.85.254.6
(209.85.254.6) 42.346 ms
16 yi-in-f147.google.com (74.125.159.147) 34.728 ms 34.727 ms 34.713 ms

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An Aside – Error Reporting (ICMP) and traceroute
Internet Control Message Protocol
— Used by a router/end-host to report some types of
error:
— E.g. Destination Unreachable: packet can’t be forwarded
to/towards its destination.
— E.g. Time Exceeded: TTL reached zero, or fragment didn’t
arrive in time. traceroute uses this error to its advantage.
— An ICMP message is an IP datagram, and is sent back to
the source of the packet that caused the error.

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Summary
— Shuttling data from one link to another
— Bits, frames, packets, …
— Repeaters/hubs, bridges/switches, routers, …
— Key ideas in switches
— Cut-through switching
— Self learning of the switch table
— Spanning trees
— Internet Protocol
— Addresses, subnets, CIDR
— DNS, Traceroute, ICMP

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