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INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM
UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION OF INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM
Meaning of Indian financial system
The financial system enables lenders and borrowers to exchange funds. India
has a financial system that is controlled by independent regulators in the
sectors of insurance, banking, capital markets and various services sectors.
Thus, a financial system can be said to play a significant role in the economic
growth of a country by mobilizing the surplus funds and utilizing them
effectively for productive purposes.
FEATURES OF INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM:
• It plays a vital role in economic development of a country.
• It encourages both savings and investment.
• It links savers and investors.
• It helps in capital formation.
• It helps in allocation of risk.
• It facilitates expansion of financial markets.
COMPONENTS/ CONSTITUENTS OF INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM
The following are the four major components that comprise the Indian
Financial System:
1. Financial Institutions
2. Financial Markets
3. Financial Instruments/ Assets/ Securities
4. Financial Services.
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COMPONENT IS DISCUSSED BELOW:
FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Financial institutions are the intermediaries who facilitate smooth functioning

of the financial system by making investors and borrowers meet. They
mobilize savings of the surplus units and allocate them in productive activities
promising a better rate of return. Financial institutions also provide services
to entities (individual, business, government) seeking advice on various issue
ranging from restructuring to diversification plans. They provide whole range
of services to the entities who want to raise funds from the markets or
elsewhere.
Financial institutions are also termed as financial intermediaries because they

act as middle between savers by accumulating Funds them and borrowers by
lending these fund.
It is also act as intermediaries because they accept deposits from a set of

customers (savers lend these funds to another set of customers (borrowers).
Like - wise investing institutions such ICCIC, mutual funds also accumulate
savings and lend these to borrowers, thus perform the role of financial
intermediaries.
TYPES OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Financial institutions can be classified into two categories:
A. Banking Institutions
B. Non - Banking Financial Institutions
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A. BANKING INSTITUTIONS (Reserve Bank of India)
Indian banking industry is subject to the control of the Central Bank. The RBI
as the apex institution organises, runs, supervises, regulates and develops the
monetary system and the financial system of the country. The main legislation
governing commercial banks in India is the Banking Regulation Act, 1949.
The Indian banking institutions can be broadly classified into two categories:
1. Organised Sector
2. Unorganised Sector.
1. Organised Sector
The organised banking sector consists of commercial banks, cooperative

banks and the regional rural banks.
(a) Commercial Banks: The commercial banks may be scheduled banks or

non – scheduled banks. At present only one bank is a non - scheduled hank. All
other banks are schedule banks. The commercial banks consist of 27 public
sector banks, private sector banks and foreign banks. Prior to 1969, all major
banks with the exception of State Bank of India in the private sector. An
important step towards public sector banking was taken in July 1969, when
14 major private banks with a deposit base of 50 crores or more were
nationalised. Later in 1980 another 6 were nationalised bringing up the total
number banks nationalised to twenty.
(b) Co-operative banks: An important segment of the organized sector of

Indian banking is the co-operative banking. The segment is represented by a
group of societies registered under the Acts of the states relating to co-
operative societies. In fact, co-operative societies may be credit societies or
non-credit societies.
Different types of co-operative credit societies are operating in Indian

economy. These institutions can be classified into two broad categories:
(a) Rural credit societies which are primary agriculture, (b) Urban credit
societies which are primarily non-agriculture.
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For the purpose of agriculture credit there are different co-operative credit
institutions to meet different kinds of needs.
(c) Regional Rural Banks (RRBs): Regional Rural Banks were set by the
state government and sponsoring commercial banks with the objective of
developing the rural economy. Regional rural banks provide banking services
and credit to small farmers, small entrepreneurs in the rural areas. The
regional rural banks were set up with a view to provide credit facilities to
weaker sections. They constitute an important part of the rural financial
architecture in India. There were 196 RRBs at the end of June 2002, as
compares to 107 in 1981 and 6 in 1975.
(d) Foreign Banks: Foreign banks have been in India from British days.
Foreign banks as banks that have branches in the other countries and main
Head Quarter in the Home Country. With the deregulation (Elimination of
Government Authority) in 1993, a number of foreign banks are entering India.
Foreign Banks are: Citi Bank. Bank of Ceylon.
2. Unorganised Sector.
In the unorganised banking sector are the Indigenous Bankers, Money

Lenders.
1. Indigenous Bankers
Indigenous Bankers are private firms or individual who operate as banks and
as such both receive deposits and given loans. Like bankers, they also financial
intermediaries. They should be distinguished professional money lenders
whose primary business is not banking and money lending. The indigenous
banks are trading with the Hundies, Commercial Paper.
2. Money Lenders:
Money lenders depend entirely to on their one funds. Money Lenders may be
rural or urban, professional or non-professional. They include large number of
farmer, merchants, traders. Their operations are entirely unregulated. They
charge very high rate of interest.
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B. NON – BANKING INSTITUTIONS

The non – banking institutions may be categorized broadly into two
groups:
(a) Organised Non – Banking Financial Institutions.
(b) Unorganised Non – Banking Financial Institutions.
(a) Organised Non – Banking Financial Institutions

The organised non - banking financial institutions include:
1. Development Finance Institutions.
These include: The institutions like IDBT, ICICI, IFCI, IIBI, IRDC at all India
level.
The State Finance Corporations (SFCs), State Industrial Development
Corporations (SIDCs) at the state level.
Agriculture Development Finance Institutions as NABARD,LDBS etc.
Development banks provide medium and long term finance to the corporate
and industrial sector and also take up promotional activities for economic
development
2. Investment Institutions.
These include those financial institutions which mobilise savings at the public
at large through various schemes and invest these funds in corporate and
government securities. These include LIC, GIC, LTT, and mutual funds.
The non - banking financial institutions in the organised sector) have been
discussed at length in detail in separate chapters of this book.
(b) Unorganised Non - Banking Financial Institutions
The unorganised non - banking financial institutions include number of non -
banking financial companies (NBFCs) providing whole range of financial
services. These include hire - purchase 300 consumer finance companies,
leasing companies, housing finance companies, factoring companies,
Credit rating agencies, merchant banking companies etc. NBFCs mobilise
public funds and provide loanable funds.
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FINANCIAL MARKET
It is through financial markets and institutions that the financial system of an
economic works. Financial markets refer to the institutional arrangements for
dealing in financial assets and credit instruments of different types such as
currency, cheques, bank deposits, bills, bonds etc.
Functions of financial markets are:
(i) To facilitate creation and allocation of credit and liquidity
(ii) To serve as intermediaries for mobilisaton of savings.
(iii) To assist the process of balanced economic growth.
(iv) To provide financial convenience.
(v) To cater to the various credit needs of the business houses.
These organised markets can be further classified into two they are
(i) Capital Market
(ii) Money Market
CAPITAL MARKET
The capital market is a market for financial assets which have a long or
indefinite maturity. Generally, it deals with long term securities which have a
maturity period of above one year. Capital market may be further divided into
three namely:
(I) Industrial securities market
(II) Government securities market and
(III) Long term loans market
1. INDUSTRIAL SECURITIES MARKET:
As the very name implies, it is a market for industrial securities namely:

(i) Equity shares or ordinary shares,
(ii) Preference shares and
(iii) Debentures or bonds.
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It is a market where industrial concerns raise their capital or debt by issuing

appropriate instruments. It can be further subdivided into two. They are:
(i) Primary market or New issue market
(ii) Secondary market or Stock exchange
PrimaryMarket
Primary market is a market for new issues or new financial claims. Hence, it is
also called New Issue market. The primary market deals with those securities
which are issued to the public for the first time.
In the primary market, borrowers exchange new financial securities for long
term funds. Thus, primary market facilitates capital formation. There are
three ways by which a company may raise capital in a primary market.
They are:
(i) Public issue

(ii) Rights issue
(iii) Private placement
The most common method of raising capital by new companies is through sale
of securities to the public. It is called public issue. When an existing company
wants to raise additional capital, securities are first offered to the existing
shareholders on a pre-emptive basis. It is called rights issue. Private
placement is a way of selling securities privately to a small group of
investors.
SecondaryMarket
Secondary market is a market for secondary sale of securities. In other words,
securities which have already passed through the new issue market are
traded in this market. Generally, such securities are quoted the Stock
Exchange and it provides a continuous and regular market to buying and
selling of securities. This market consists of all stock exchanges recognised by
the Government of India. The stock exchanges in India are regulated under the
Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act 1956. The Bombay Stock Exchange is the
principal stock exchange in India which sets the tone of the other stock
markets.
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II. GOVERNMENT SECURITIES MARKET
It is otherwise called Gilt - Edged securities market. It is a market where

Government securities are traded. In India there are many kinds of
Government Securities - short term and long term. Long term securities are
traded in this market while short term securities are traded in the money
market. Securities issued by the Central Government, State Governments,
Semi Government authorities like City Corporations, Port Trusts etc.
Improvement Trusts, State Electricity Boards, All India and State level
financial institutions and public sector enterprises are dealt in this market.
III. LONG TERM LOANS MARKET
Development banks and commercial banks play a significant role in this

market by supplying long term loans to corporate customers.
Long term loans market may further be classified into:
(1) Term loans market
(ii) Mortgages market
(iii) Financial Guarantees market.
Term Loans Market
In India, many industrial financing institutions have been created by the

Government both at the national and regional levels to supply long term and
medium term loans to corporate customers directly as well as indirectly.
These development banks dominate the industrial finance in India.
Institutions like IDBI, IFCI, ICICI, and other financial corporations come under
this category.
Mortgages Market
A mortgage loan is a loan against the security of immovable property like real
estate. The transfer of interest in a specific immovable property to secure a
loan is called mortgage. This mortgage may be equitable mortgage or legal
one.
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MONEY MARKET
Money market is a market for dealing with financial assets and securities
which have a maturity period of upto one year. In other words, it is a market
for purely short term funds. The money market may be subdivided into four.
They are:
(i) Call money market
(ii) Commercial bills market
(iii) Treasury bilis market
(iv) Short term loan market.
Call Money Market
The call money market is a market for extremely short period loans say one
day to fourteen days. So, it is highly liquid. The loans are repayable on demand
at the option of either the lender or the borrower. In India, call money
markets are associated with the presence of stock exchanges and hence, they
are located in major industrial towns like Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Delhi,
Ahmedabad etc. The special feature of this market is that the interest rate
varies from day to day and even from hour to hour and Centre to Centre. It is
very sensitive to changes in demand and supply of call loans.
Commercial Bills Market
It is a market for Bills of Exchange arising out of genuine trade transactions. In

the case of credit sale, the seller may draw a bill of exchange on the buyer. The
buyer accepts such a bill promising to pay at a later date specified in the bill.
The seller need not wait until the due date of the bill. Instead, he can get
immediate payment by discounting the bill.
Treasury Bills Market
It is a market for treasury bills which have ' short - term ' maturity. A treasury
bill is a promissory note or a finance bill issued by the Government.
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It is highly liquid because its repayment is guaranteed by the Government. It is

an important instrument for short term borrowing of the Government There
are two types of treasury bills namely (i) ordinary or regular and (ii) ad hoc
treasury bills popularly known as ' ad hocs’. Ordinary treasury bills are
issued to the public, banks and other financial institutions with a view to
raising resources for the Central Government to meet its short term financial
needs. Ad hoc treasury bills are issued in favour of the RBI only. They are not
sold through tender or auction. They can be purchased by the RBI only.
Ad hocs are not marketable in India but holders of these bills can sell them
back to RBI.
Short - Term Loan Market
It is a market where short - term loans are given to corporate customers for
meeting their working capital requirements. Commercial banks play a
significant role in this market. Commercial banks provide short term loans in
the form of cash credit and overdraft Over draft facility is mainly given to
business people whereas cash credit is given to industrialists. Overdraft is
purely a temporary accommodation and it is given in the current account
itself. But cash credit is for a period of one year and it is sanctioned in a
separate account.
FINANCIAL INSREUMENTS
Financial instruments refer to those documents which represents financial

claims on assets. As discussed earlier, financial asset refers to a claim to a
claim to the repayment of a certain sum of money at the end of a specified
period together with interest or dividend. Examples: Bill of exchange,
Promissory Note, Treasury Bill.
Financial securities can be classified into:
(i) Primary or direct securities.
(ii) Secondary or indirect securities.
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Primary Securities
These are securities directly issued by the ultimate investors to the ultimate
savers. Eg. shares and debentures issued directly to the public.
Secondary Securities
These are securities issued by some intermediaries called financial

intermediaries to the ultimate savers. Eg. Unit Trust of India and mutual funds
issue securities in the form of units to the public and the money pooled is
invested in companies.
Again these securities may be classified on the basis of duration as follows:
(i) Short - term securities
(ii) Medium term securities
(iii) Long - term securities.
Short - term securities are those which mature within a period of one year.
Eg, Bill of Exchange, Treasury bill, etc. Medium term securities are those
which have a maturity period ranging between one and five years. Eg.
Debentures maturing within a period of 5 years, Long - term securities are
those which have a maturity period of more than five years. Eg, Government
Bonds maturing after 10 years.
FINANCIAL SERVICES
Efficiency of emerging financial system largely depends upon the quality and
variety of financial services provided by financial intermediaries. The term
financial services can be defined as “activities, benefits, and satisfactions,
connected with the sale of money, that offer to users and customers, financial
related value. within the financial services industry the main sectors are
banks, financial institutions, and non-banking financial companies.
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KINDS OF FINANCIAL SERVICES
Financial services provided by various financial institutions, commercial

banks and merchant bankers can be broadly classified into two categories.
1. Asset based/fund based services.

2. Fee based/advisory services.
Asset based/fund based services
The asset/ fund based services provided by banking and non - banking
financial institutions as discussed below briefly.
1. Equipment Leasing/ Lease Financing
Leasing is a arrangement that provides a firm with the use and control over
assets without buying and owning the same. It is a form of renting assets.
However, in making an investment, the firm need not own the asset. It is
basically interested in acquiring the use of the asset. Thus, the firm may
consider leasing of the asset rather than buying it.
In comparing leasing with buying, the cost of leasing the asset should be
compared with the cost of financing the asset through normal sources of
financing, i. e. debt and equity. Since payment of lease rentals is similar to
payment of interest on borrowings and lease financing is equivalent to debt.
2. Hire Purchase and Consumer Credit
Hire purchase means a transaction where goods are purchased and sold on
the terms that (i) payment will be made it installments, (ii) the possession of
the goods is given to the buyer immediately, (iii) the property ownership) in
the goods remains with the vendor till the last installment is paid,(iv) the
seller can repossess the goods in case of default in payment of any instalment,
and (v) each instalment is treated as hire charges till the last instalment is
paid.
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Consumer credit includes all asset based financing plans offered to

individuals to help them acquire durable consumer goods. In a consumer
credit transaction the individual/ consumer/ buyer pays a part of the cash
purchase price at the time of the delivery of the asset and pays the balance
with interest over a specified period of time.
3.VENTURE CAPITAL
In the real sense, venture capital financing is one of the most recent entrants
in the Indian capital market. There is a significant scope for venture capital
companies in our country because of increasing emergence of technocrat
entrepreneurs who lack capital to be risked. These venture capital
companies provide the necessary risk capital to the entrepreneurs so as to
meet the promoters contribution as required by the financial institutions. In
addition to providing capital, these VCFS (venture capital firms) take an active
interest in guiding the assisted firms.
4. Insurance Services
Insurance is a contract where by the insurer e. insurance company agrees/

undertakes, in consideration of a sum of money (premium) to make good the
loss suffered by the insured (policy holder) against a specified risk such as fire
or compensate the beneficiaries (insured) on the happening of a specified
event such as accident or death. The document containing the terms of
contract, in black and white, between the insurer and the insured is called
policy. The property which is insured is the subject matter of insurance. The
interest which the insured has in the subject matter of insurance is known as
insurable interest. Depending upon the subject matter, insurance services are
divided into (i) life (ii) general.
5. Factoring
Factoring, as a fund based financial service provides resources to finance

receivables as well as it facilitates the collection of receivables. It is another
method of raising short - term finance through account receivable credit
offered by commercial banks and factors.
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A commercial bank may provide finance by discounting the bills or invoices of

its customers. Thus, a firm gets immediate payment for sales made on credit.
A factor is a financial institution which offers services relating to management
and financing of debts arising out of credit sales.
B. FEE BASED ADVISORY SERVICES
(i) Merchant Banking
Fee based advisory services includes all these financial services rendered by
Merchant Bankers. Merchant bankers play an important role in the financial
services Sector. The Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India
(ICICI) was the first development finance institution to initiate such service in
1974. After mid - seventies, tremendous growth in the number of merchant
banking organisations les taken place. These include banks financial
institutions, non - banking financial companies (NBFCS), brokers and so on.
financial Services provided by these organisations include loan syndication
portfolio management, corporate counselling project counselling debenture
trusteeship, mergers acquisitions.
(ii) Credit Rating
Credit rating is the opinion of the rating agency on the relative ability and
willingness of the issuer of debt instrument to meet the debt service
obligations as and when they arise. As a fee based financial advisory service,
credit rating useful to investors, corporates (borrowers), banks and financial
institutions. For the investors, it is an indicator expressing the underlying
credit quality of a (debt) issue programme. The investor is fully formed about
the company as any effect of changes in business/ economic conditions on the
agency company is evaluated and published regularly by the rating agency.
(iii) Stock - Broking
Prior to the setting up of SEBI, stock exchanges were being supervised by the
Ministry of Finance under the Securities Contracts Regulation Act (SCRA) and
were operating more or less self-regulatory organisations.
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The need to reform stock exchanges was felt, when malpractices crept into
Trading and in order to protect investor's interests, SEBI was set up to ensure
that stock exchange perform their self - regulatory role properly. Since then,
stock broking has emerged as a professional advisory service Stockbroker is a
member of a recognised stock exchange who buys, sells or deals in shares/
securities. It is mandatory for each stockbroker to get him/ herself registered
with SEBI order to act as a broker. SEBI is empowered to impose conditions
while granting the certificate of registration.
FINANCIAL MARKET
It is through financial markets and institutions that the financial system of an
economic works. Financial markets refer to the institutional arrangements for
dealing in financial assets and credit instruments of different types such as
currency, cheques, bank deposits, bills, bonds etc.
Financial market classified into two they are:
(i) Money Market
(ii)Capital Market
(i) Money Market
Money market is a market for dealing with financial assets and securities
which have a maturity period of upto one year. In other words, it is a market
for purely short term funds.
The importance/functions of the money market is highlighted as under:
1. Economic development: The money market provides short term funds to

both public and private institutions. These institutions need money to finance
their capital needs.
In other words, the money market assures supply of funds; the financing is
done through discounting of the trade bills, commercial banks, acceptance
houses, discount houses and brokers. In this way, the money market helps in
the economic development by providing financial help to trade, commerce
and industry. The businessmen take advantage by investing their cash in
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highly liquid assets to earn income and also to enjoy liquidity because these
assets can be converted into cash without much difficulty.
2. Profitable investment: The commercial banks deal with the deposits of

their customers. The banks are required to put their assets into cash form to
meet the directions of the central bank on the one hand, while on the other,
they have to put their excess reserves into productive channels to earn
income on them. The aim of the commercial banks is to maximize profits. The
excess reserves of the banks are invested in near money assets.
3. Borrowings by the government:
The money market helps the government in borrowing short term funds at
very low interest rates. The borrowing is done on the basis of treasury bills.
But in case the government resorts to deficit financing or to print more
currency or to short term funds at the money supply over and above the
borrow from the central bank, it will merely raise Thus it is clear that the
needs of the economy and hence the price level will boost up. Money market is
very useful for the government since it meets its financial needs.
4. Importance for central bank:
If the money market is well - developed, the central bank implements the
monetary policy successfully. It is only through the money market that the
central bank can control the banking system and thus contribute to the
development of trade and commerce. The money market is very sensitive a
change in one sub – market affects the other sub - markets immediately. It
means the central bank can affect the whole money market by changing just
one sub - market.
5. Mobilisation of funds:
The money market helps in transferring funds from one sector to another.
The development of any economy depends on availability of finance. No
country can develop its trade, commerce and industry until and unless the
financial resources are mobilized.
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6. Savings and investment
The money market is that it helps in promoting liquidity and safety of

financial assets. By doing so it can help in encouraging savings and
investment. The saving and investment equilibrium of demand and supply of
loanable funds helps the allocation of resources.
CAPITAL MARKET
The capital market is a market for financial assets which have a long or
indefinite maturity. Generally, it deals with long term securities which have a
maturity period of above one year.
FUNCTIONS OF CAPITAL MARKET
' The major functions performed by a capital/ security market are:
1. Helps in capital formation.
The capital market plays an important role in mobilisation of savings and

channel them into productive investments for the development of commerce
and industry. As such, the capital market helps in capital formation and
economic growth of the country.
2. Act as link between savers and investors.
The capital market acts as an important link between savers and investors.
The savers are lenders of funds while investors are borrowers of funds. The
savers who do not spend all their income are called "Surplus units" and the
borrowers are known as " deficit units. The capital market is the transmission
mechanism between surplus units and deficit units. It is a conduit through
which surplus unity lend their surplus funds to deficit units.
3. Helps in increasing national income.
Funds come into the capital market from individuals and financial
intermediaries and are used by commerce, industry and government. It thus
facilitates the transfer of funds to be used more productively and profitability
to increases the national income.
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4. Facilitates buying and selling.
Surplus units buy securities with their surplus funds and deficit wits ells
securities to raise the funds they need. Funds flow from lenders to borrowers
either directly or indirectly through financial institutions such as banks, unit
trusts, mutual funds, etc. The borrowers issue primary securities which are
purchased by lenders either directly or indirectly through financial
institutions.
5. Channelizes funds from unproductive to productive resources.
The capital market provides a market mechanism for those who have savings
and to those who need funds for productive investments. It divers resources
from wasteful and unproductive channels such as gold, jewellery, real estate,
conspicuous consumption, etc, to productive investments
6. Minimises speculative activities.
It does so by providing capital to the needy al reasonable interest rates and

helps in minimising speculative activities.
7. Brings stability in value of stocks.
A well - developed capital market comprising expert banking and non -

banking intermediaries brings stability in the value of stocks and securities..
8. Promotes economic growth. The capital market encourages economic

growth. The various institutions which operate in the capital market give
quantities and qualitative direction to the flow of funds and bring rational
allocation of resources. They do so by converting financial assets into
productive physical assets. This leads to the development of commerce and
industry through the private and public sector, thereby inducing economic
growth.
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Primary Market / New Issue Market
Primary market is a market for new issues or new financial claims. Hence, it is
also called New Issue market. The primary market deals with those securities
which are issued to the public for the first time.
In the primary market, borrowers exchange new financial securities for long
term funds. Thus, primary market facilitates capital formation. There are
three ways by which a company may raise capital in a primary market.
FEATURES OF PRIMARY MARKETS
(i) This is the market for new long term equity capital. The primary market is
the market where the securities are sold for the first time. Therefore it is also
called the new issue market (NIM).
(ii) in a primary issue, the securities are issued by the company directly to
investors.
(iii) The company receives the money and issues new security certificates to
the investors
(iv) Primary issues are used by companies for the purpose of setting up new
business or for expanding or modernizing the existing business.
(v) The primary market performs the crucial function of facilitating capital
formation in the economy.
(vi) The new issue market does not include certain other sources of new long
term external
finance, such as loans from financial institutions. Borrowers in the new issue
market may be raising capital for converting private capital into public capital,
this is known as " going public. "
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FUNCTIONS OF NEW ISSUE MARKET
A three service functions:
The main functions of a new issue sue market can divided into new project.
1. Origination.
It refers to the work of investigation analysis and processing of new project

proposals.. It starts before an issue is actually floated in the market. This
function is done by merchant bankers who may be commercial banks, all India
financial institutions or private firms. At present, financial institutions and
private firms also perform this service is highly important the success of the
issue depends, to a large extent on the efficiency of the market.
2. Underwriting.
It is an agreement whereby the underwriter promises to subscribe to

specified number of shares or debentures or a specified amount of stock in the
event of public not subscribing to the issue. If the issue is fully subscribed,
then there is no liability for the underwriter. If a part of share issues remains
unsold, the underwriter will buy the shares. Thus, underwriting is a guarantee
for marketability of shares. There are two types of underwriters in India -
Institutional (LIC, UTI, IDBI, ICICI) and Non - institutional are brokers.
3. Distribution.
It is the function of sale of securities to ultimate investors. This service is

performed by specialized agencies like brokers and agents who maintain a
regular direct contact with the ultimate investors.
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SECONDARY MARKET
Secondary market is a market for secondary sale of securities. In other words,

securities which have already passed through the new issue market are
traded in this market. Generally, such securities are quoted the Stock
Exchange and it provides a continuous and regular market to buying and
selling of securities. This market consists of all stock exchanges recognised by
the Government of India. The stock exchanges in India are regulated under the
Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act 1956. The Bombay Stock Exchange is the
principal stock exchange in India which sets the tone of the other stock
markets.
FUNCTIONS OF STOCK EXCHANGE
The stock exchanges play an important role in the economic development of a

country.
The importance of stock exchange will be clear from the functions they
perform and discussed:
as follows: provide a place where shares and stock
1. Ensure Liquidity of Capital.
The stock exchanges where buyers and sellers are converted into cash. The
exchanges provide a ready market. Had are always available and those who
are in need of hard cash can sell their holdings this not been possible then
many persons would have feared for blocking their savings in Securities as
they can not again convert them into cash.
2. Continuous Market for Securities.

The stock exchanges provide a ready market in securities. The securities once
listed continue to be traded at the exchanges irrespective the fact that owners
go on changing. The exchanges provide a regular market for trading in
securities.
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3. Mobilising Surplus Savings.
The stock exchanges provide a ready market for various securities. The
investors do not have any difficulty in investing their savings by purchasing
shares, bonds etc, from the exchanges. If this facility is not there then many
persons who want to invest their savings will not find avenues to do so. In this
way stock exchanges play an important role in mopping up surplus funds of
investors.
4. Helpful in Raising New Capital.
The new and existing concerns need capital for their activities. The new
concerns raise capital for the first time and existing units increase their capital
for expansion and diversification purposes. The shares of new concerns are
registered at stock exchanges and existing companies also sell their shares
through brokers etc, at exchanges. The exchanges are helpful in raising capital
both by nets old concerns.
5. Safety in Dealings.
The dealings at stock exchanges are governed by well - defined rules and
regulations of Securities Contract (Regulation) Act, 1956. There is no scope
manipulating transactions. Every contact is done according to the procedure
laid down and there is no fear in the minds of contracting parties. The safety
in dealings brings confidence in the minds of all concerned parties and helps
in increasing various dealings.
6. Listing of Securities.
Only listed securities can be purchased at stock exchanges. Every company

desirous of listing its securities will apply to the exchange authorities. The
listing is allowed only after a critical examination of capital structure,
management and prospects of the company. The listing of securities gives
privilege to the company. The investors can form their own views about the
securities because listing a security does not guarantee the financial stability
of the company.
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.7. Smoothens the Price Movements.
A stock exchange smoothens the price movements of stocks in the market by

ensuring a continuous flow of securities,
8. Investor Protection.
The stock exchange renders safeguarding activities for investors in securities.

It provides a grievance redressal mechanism for investors. Stock exchanges
also operate a compensation fund for the protection of investors.
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UNIT-3 FINANCIAL SERVICES
FINANCIAL SERVICES
Efficiency of emerging financial system largely depends upon the quality and
variety of financial services provided by financial intermediaries. The term
financial services can be defined as “activities, benefits, and satisfactions,
connected with the sale of money, that offer to users and customers, financial
related value. within the financial services industry the main sectors are
banks, financial institutions, and non-banking financial companies.
FACTORING
INTRODUCTION
Receivables constitute a significant portion of Current Assets of a firm. But for

investment in receivables, a firm has to incur certain costs such as Lusts
financing receivables and costs of collection from receivables. Further, there is
a risk of had debts also, it is therefore, very essential to have a proper control
and management of receivables. In fact, maintaining of receivables poses to
types of problems; the problem of raising funds to finance the receivables, and
(ii) the problems relating to collection, delays and defaults of the receivables.
A small firm may handle the problem of receivables management of its own,
but it may not be possible for a large firm to do so efficiently as it may be
exposed to the risk of more and more bad debts. In such a casts, a firm nay
avail the services of specialised institutions engaged in receivable
management, called factoring firms.
MEANING & DEFINITION
Factoring may broadly be defined as the relationship, created by an

agreement between the seller of goods/ services and a financial institution
called the factor, whereby the later purchases the receivables of the former
and also controls and administers the receivables of the former
Factoring may also be defined as a continuous relationship between Financial

institution (the factor) and business concern selling goods and/ or providing
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service (the client) to a trade customer on an open account basis, whereby the
factor purchases the client’s book debts( account receivables) with or without
recourse to the client , thereby controlling the credit extended to the customer
and also undertaking to administer the sales ledgers relevant to the
transaction.
FUNCTIONS OF THE FACTOR
These are the functions of factor:
1. Administration of Sales Ledger.
The factor maintains sales ledger in respect of each client. When the sales
transaction action takes place an invoice is prepared in duplicate by the client
one copy is given to customer and second copy is sent to the factor. Entries
are made in the ledger on open - item method.
Each receipt is matched against the specific invoice. Periodic reports are sent
by factor to the client with respect to current status of receivables and amount
received from customers. Depending upon the volume of transactions, the
periodicity of report is decided. Thus, the entire sales ledger administration
responsibility of the client gets transferred to the factor.
2. COLLECTION OF RECEIVABLES
The main functions is to collect the receivables on behalf of the client and to
relieve him from all the botheration/ problems associated with the collection.
This way the client can concentrate on other major areas of his business on
one hand and reduce the cost of collection by way of savings in labour, time
and efforts on the other hand.
3. PROVISION OF FINANCE
Finance, which id the life blood of a business, is made available easily by the
factor to the client. A factor purchases the book debts of his client and debts
are assigned in favour of the factor. 75 % to 80 percent of assigned debts is
given as an advance to the client by the factor.
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(i) Where an agreement is entered into between the client (seller) and the
factor for the purchase of receivables without recourse, the factor becomes
responsible to the seller on the date of the invoice whether ether or not the
buyer makes the payment to the factor.
4. PROTECTION AGAINST RISK
This service is provided where the debts are factored without recourse. The
factor fixes the credit limits (i.e. the limit up to which the client can sell goods
to customers) in respect of approved customers and factor collect that fixed
trade debt.
The factor not only relieves the client from the collection work And also
advises the client on the creditworthiness of potential customers.
The credit standing of the customer is assessed by the factors on the basis of
information collected from credit rating reports, bank reports, trade
reference, financial statement.
5. Advisory Services
These services arise out of the close relationship between a factor and a client.
Since the factors are better knowledge and wide experience in field of finance,
and possess extensive credit Information about customer's standing, they
provide various advisory services on the matters relating to:
(i) Customer ' s preferences regarding the clients products,
(ii) Changes in marketing policies/ strategies of the competitors.
(iii) Suggest improvements in the procedures adopted for invoicing, delivery

and sales return.
(iv) Helping the client for raising finance from banks/ financial institutions,
etc.
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TYPES OF FACTORING
A number of factoring arrangements are possible depending upon the

agreement reached between the selling firm and the factor. The most common
feature of practically all the factoring transactions is collection of receivables
and administration of sale ledger. However, following are some of the
important types of factoring arrangements.
(i). Recourse and Non - recourse Factoring
In a recourse factoring arrangement, the factor has recourse to the client

(selling firm) if the receivables purchased turn out to be bad, i.e. the risk of
bad debts is to be borne by the client and the factor does not assume credit
risks associated with the receivables. Thus the factor acts as an agent for
collection of bills and does not cover the risk of customer 's failure to pay debt
or interest on it. The factor has a right to recover the funds from the seller
client in case of such defaults as the seller takes the risk of credit and
creditworthiness of buyer. The factor charges the selling firm for maintaining
the sales ledger and debt collection services and also charges interest on the
amount drawn by client (selling firm) for the period.
Whereas, in case of non - recourse factoring, the risk or loss on account of

non - payment by the customers of the client is to be borne by the factor and
he cannot claim this amount from the selling firm. Since the factor bears the
risk of non - payment, commission or fees charged for the services in case of
non - recourse factoring is higher than under the recourse factoring. The
additional fee charged by the factor for bearing the risk of bad debts/ non -
payment on maturity is called Del credere commission.
(ii) Maturity Factoring
Under this type, the factor does not provide immediate cash payment to the
client at the time of assignment of debts. He undertakes to pay cash as and
when collections are made from the debtors. The entire amount collected less
factoring fees is paid to the client immediately. Hence it is also called
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collection Factoring '. In fact, under this type, no financing is involved. But all
other services are available.
(iii) Bulk Factoring
Under this type, the factor provides finance after disclosing the fact of
assignment of debts to the debtors concerned. This type of factoring is
resorted to when the factor is not fully satisfied with the financial condition of
the client. The work relating to sales ledger administration, credit control,
collection work etc., has to be done by the client himself. Since the notification
has been made, the factor simply collects the debts on behalf of the client. This
is otherwise called as " Disclosed Factoring " or " Notified Factoring "
(iv) Agency Factoring
The word agency has no meaning as far as factoring is concerned, Under this
type, the factor and the client share the work between themselves as follows:
(i) The client has to look after the sales ledger administration and collection
work and
(ii) The factor has to provide finance and assume the credit risk.
(v) International Factoring
Under this type, the services of a factor in a domestic business are simply
extended to international business. Factoring is done purely the basis of the
invoice prepared by the exporter. Thus, the exporter able to get immediate
cash to the extent of 80% of the export invoice under international factoring.
International factoring is facilitated with the help of export factors and import
factors.
(vi) Suppliers Guarantee Factoring
This type of factoring is suitable for business establishments which sell goods
through middlemen Generally goods are sold through wholesalers, retailers or
through middlemen. In such cases, the factor guarantees the supplier of goods
against invoices raised by the supplier upon another supplier. The bills are
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assigned in favour of the factor who guarantees payment of those bills. This
enables the supplier to earn profits without much financial involvement.
(vii) Limited Factoring
Under this type, the factor does not take up all the invoices of a client. He
discounts only selected invoices on merit basis and converts credit bills into
cash in respect of those bills only.
(ix) Buyer Based Factoring
In most cases, the factor is acting as an agent of the seller. But under this type,
the buyer approaches a factor to discount his bills. Thus, the initiative for
factoring comes from the buyers ' end. The approved buyers of a company
approach a factor for discounting their bills to the company in question. In
such cases, the claims on such buyers are paid by discounting the bills without
recourse to the seller and the seller also gets ready cash. This facility is
available only to reputed credit worthy buyers and hence it is also called
selected Buyer Based Factoring,
(x) Seller Based Factoring
Under this type, the seller, instead of discounting his bills, sells all his accounts
receivables to the factor, after invoicing the customers. The seller ' s job is
over as soon as he prepares the invoices. Thereafter, all the documents
connected with the sale are handed over to the factor who takes over the
remaining functions. This facility is extended to reputed and credit worthy
sellers and hence it is also called Selected Seller Based Factoring!
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LEASING
INTRODUCTION
The main objective of a business is to maximise the owner ' s economic

welfare. The firm makes investments to maximise stockholder’s wealth. After
identifying attractive projects, the firm considers various methods of
financing them. In addition to debt and equity financing, leasing has emerged
as a third important source of intermediate and long - term financing of
corporate enterprises during the recent few decades. It is widely used in
western countries to finance investments. Prior to 1950, leasing was primarily
concerned with real estate, i. c. land and buildings. But today, almost all types
of fixed assets can be leased. In India, leasing is a recent development and
equipment leasing was introduced by First Leasing Company of India Limited
in 1973 only. Since then, a number of medium to large - sized companies,
financial institutions like ICICI, IRCI, SICOM and CIC have also entered the field
of leasing.
MEANING
Leasing is an arrangement that provides a firm with the use and control over
assets without buying and owning the same. It is a form of renting assets.
Lease is a contract between the owner of the asset (lessor) and the user of the
asset called the lesser, whereby the lessor gives the right to use the asset to
the lessee over an agreed period of time for a consideration called the lease
rental. The lease contract is regulated by the terms and conditions of the
agreement. The lessee pays the lease Tent periodically to the lessor as regular
fixed payments over a period of time. The rentals may be payable at the
beginning or end of a monthly, quarter, half - year or year. The lease rentals
can also be agreed both in terms of amount and timing as per the profits and
cash flow position of the lessee. At the expiry of the lease period, the asset
reverts back to the lessor who is the legal owner of the asset.
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ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF LEASING
1. No. of Parties to the Contract. There are always two parties to a contract
of lease financing
(a) The user or the lessee (b) The owner or the lessor
2. Asset. The subject matter of a lease financing contract may be an asset,

property equipment e.g. plant and machinery, land and building etc.
3. Consideration. The right to use an asset is given to lessee for a

consideration called lease rental. Lease rent is determined by the lessor taking
into consideration the capital invested in the asset, depreciation, interest on
capital, repairs etc.
4. Lease Period. A contract of leasing is usually undertaken for a fixed period

(no. of years). It may sometimes spread over the entire economic/ useful life
of the asset. At the expiry of the lease period, the asset reverts back to the
lesser who is the legal owner of the asset.
5. Use VIS. Ownership. During the term of lease, ownership of the asset
remains with the lessor where as the possession of asset lies with the lessee.
He is allowed to use the asset during the tenure of lease agreement.
Types of Leasing
1. Operating Leasing
2. Financial Leasing
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OPERATING OR SERVICE LEASE
An operating lease is usually characterised by the following features:
(i) It is a short - term lease on a period to period basis. The lease period in
such a contract is less than the useful life of the asset.
(ii) The lease is usually cancellable at short - notice by the lessee.
(iii) As the period of an operating lease is less than the useful life of the asset,
it does not necessarily amortize the original cost of the asset. The lessor has to
make further leases or sell the asset to recover his cost of investment and
expected rate of return.
(iv) The lessee usually has the option of renewing the lease after the expiry of
lease period.
(v) The lessor is generally responsible for maintenance, insurance and taxes of
the asset. He may also provide other services to the lessee.
As it is a short - term cancellable lease, it implies higher risk to the lessor but
higher lease rentals to the lessee Operating or service leasing is common to
the equipment which require expert technical stat for maintenance and are
exposed to technological developments, e.g. computers, vehicles
II. FINANCIAL LEASE
A lease is classified as financial lease if it ensures the term of the lessor for
amortisation of the entire cost of investment plus the expected return on
capital outlay during the term of the lease. Such a lease is usually for a longer
period and non - cancellable. As a source of funds, the financial leases is an
alternative similar to debt financing. Most of the leases in India are financial
leases that are commonly used for leasing land, building, machinery and fixed
equipment.
A financial lease is usually characterised by the following features:
(1) The present value of the total lease rentals payable during the period of
the lease exceeds or is equal to substantially the whole of the fair value of the
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leased asset. It implies that within the lease period, the lessor recovery his
investment in the asset along with an acceptable rate of return.
(2) As compared to operating lease, a financial lease is for a longer period of

time.
(3) It is usually non - cancellable by the lessee prior to its expiration date.
(4) The lessee is generally responsible for the maintenance, insurance and
service of the asset. However, the terms of lease agreement, in some cases.
may require the lessor to maintain and service the asset. Such an arrangement
is called ' Maintenance or gross lease’.
(5) A financial lease usually provides the lessee an option of renewing the
lease for further period at a nominal rent.
Forms of Financial Lease arrangements:
The following are the important forms of financial lease arrangements:
(i) Sale and Leaseback. A sale and leaseback arrangement involves the sale
of an asset already owned by a firm (vendor) and leasing of the same asset
back to the vendor from the buyer.
This form of lease arrangement enables a firm to receive cash from the sale of
asset and also retain the economic use of the asset in consideration of periodic
lease payments. A sale and leaseback arrangement is generally preferred by
firms facing shortage of working capital funds. The lessors engaged in sale and
lease back include insurance companies, pension funds, private finance
companies and financial institutions.
(ii) Direct Leasing. In contrast with sale and leaseback, under direct leasing
a firm acquires the use of an asset that it does not already man. A direct lease
may be arranged either the manufacturer supplier directly or through the
leasing company.
In the first case, the manufacturer/ supplier himself acts as the lessor while in
the second case the lessee firm arranges the purchase of the asset for the
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leasing company (lessor) from the manufacturer or the supplier and also
enters into an agreement with the lessor for the lease of on the asset.
(iii) Leveraged Lease. A leveraged lease is an arrangement under which the

lessor borrows funds for purchasing the asset, from a third party called lender
which is usually a bank, finance company. The loan is usually secured by the
mortgage of the asset and the lease rentals to be received from the lessee. The
loan is paid back out of the lease rentals, may be directly by the lessee by
paying only the excess amounts to the lessor. The lessor acts as the owner as
well as the borrower and the lender is usually a bank insurance company
financial institution or a private financing company.
(iv)Straight Lease and Modified Lease. Straight lease requires the lessee
firm to pay lease rentals over the expected service life of the asset and does
not provide for any modifications to the terms and conditions of the basic
lease.
Modified lease, on the other hand, provides several options to the lessee
during the lease period. For example, the option of terminating the lease may
be provided by either purchasing the asset or returning the same.
(v) Primary and Secondary Lease (Front - ended and Back - ended
Lease). Under primary and secondary lease, the lease rentals are charged in
such a manner that the lesser recovers the cost of the asset and acceptable
profit during the initial period of the lease and then a secondary lease is
provided at nominal rentals. In simple words, the rentals charged in the
primary period are much more than that of the secondary period. This form of
lease arrangement is also known as front - ended and back - ended lease.
OTHER TYPES OF LEASES
(1) Floating Rental Rate Lease Contracts. Frequent changes in the interest
rates in the last few years have led to this type of lease contract. Under this
type of lease, lease rentals are reduced or increased according to the
borrowing rates by the lessor. This type of lease contract permits the lessee to
undertake the risk and enjoy the benefits of interest rate variations
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(2) Domestic Lease and International Lease. When the lessor, lessee and
the equipment supplier involved in the lease contract are resident in the same
country, the lease transaction is said to be domestic lease. When the parties to
the lease contract are residing in different countries it is known as
international lease.
It is of two types:
(a) Import Lease. In this type of lease, both the lessor and lessee are residing
in the same country but the equipment supplier belongs to different country.
The lessor first imports the equipment and leases it to the lessee.
(b) Cross Border Lease. When a lessor - leases an equipment to a lessee who
is not falling in the jurisdiction of the lessor ' s country then the lease is known
as cross Border leasing, the domicile of the supplier is immaterial.
(3) Sale - Aid Leasing. Under this type of leasing, a manufacturer directly
extends facility of leasing either by one of his own subsidiaries of through a
third party. The leasing enables a manufacturer to have direct liaison with the
customer, ensure regular updating or replacement of equipment and improve
sales position. The lessee is also at great advantage because he gels asset on
monthly payment basis spread out on a very long period. He gets the asset
installed and operational without incurring capital expenditure.
CONSUMER FINANCE
Consumer Finance/ Consumer Credit includes all asset based financing

plans offered to individuals to help them acquire durable consumer goods. In
a consumer credit transaction the individual/ consumer/ buyer pays a part of
the cash purchase price at the time of the delivery of the asset and pays the
balance with interest over a specified period of time.
IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES OF CONSUMER FINANCE
Consumer finance plays an important role in the mass production and

distribution of consumer durables such as motorcars, refrigerators, TV sets.
radios, typewriters, sewing machines, electrical Appliances and many other
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goods. Offering credit is a great convenience to consumers. Further, credit has

come to occupy an important place in the modern competitive market. It is
used as a selling device and also as an ideal method of sale promotion.
Following arguments can be given in favour of consumer of consumer

finance:
(i) Enjoying Possession of Goods. An important benefit of consumer credit is

that it allows people the possession of goods without having to pay for them
immediately. The user does not have to wait and save money for purchasing a
dream product.
(ii) Compulsory Saving. Consumer credit allows for a mechanism of

compulsory saving. This has the effect of inducing people into using their
income more wisely. It promotes thrift among people and enables people with
limited means to acquire goods.
(iii) Easy Mode of Purchase. Consumer credit through the open account
system, offers a convenient mode of acquiring consumer durables.
(iv) To Meet Emergency Needs. Consumer credit is useful in meeting

emergencies, such as illness, accident and death, which involve expected
expenses. This also helps save the esteem of the consumer in dire
circumstances.
(v) Maximization of Revenue. Consumer credit facilitates speedy disposal of

goods, which would have remained unsold in the absence of a credit facility to
customers. Credit induces more business. This is quite true with regard to non
- essential or luxury goods, such as motorcars, trucks, refrigerators,
typewriters, all kinds of electrical appliances, TV sets, sewing machines, etc. It
is therefore possible for the manufacturers and dealers to secure ever -
increasing sales and profits through credit sales.
(vi) Realization of Dreams. Consumer credit is a boon for a consumer who

can enjoy the possession of goods without paying for them immediately. The
installments can be conveniently paid, spread over a fixed future period.
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Consumers are in a position to budget for the purchase of even expensive

capital items out of their regular, fixed and limited income .
1. AUTOMOBILE FINANCE (VEHICLE FINANCE)
The changing paradigm of society and further in this era of fast life every one
wants to own a vehicle of his own. Thus, auto loans have become a need of the
hour because the people who do ne have sufficient funds prefer to buy today
and pay tomorrow Under the banks auto loan scheme the is a vehicle loan for
every classic 2 wheeler ' s loan, 2nd hand car loans, new car loan. The market
auto loans is large and lot of opportunity exists there for the banks and other
finance companies who by adopting customer friendly policies and mass
advertising can surely make auto loan schemes a success.
Eligibility. Auto loan facility is extended to
(i)Permanent employees of government, public/ private sector with minimum

of 3 years’ service.
(ii)Professionals and self-employed such as doctors, CAs, Company

Secretaries, engineers architects and MBAs etc.
(iii) Persons engaged in agricultural and allied activities.
Purpose. Auto loans are extended for the purchase of vehicle both for
personal and professional.
Type of loan. Finance is provided in form of term loans extending for a period
from 1 to 5 years.
Rate of Interest. The rate of interest varies from bank to bank.
Security. All the banks ask for hypothecation of the financed automobile.
Insurance. All vehicles are insured. A comprehensive insurance policy is

taken for market value or 10 % above the loan amount whichever is higher.
Bank ' s interest is noted in policy.
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Processing Charges. Most of the banks do not charge any processing fee, or
250 to 500 may be collected as one time fee from the customers.
Price Discounts. Some banks offer various discounts to its customers in the
form of any of the
following:
(a) Volume discount of 0. 5 % is offered to customers taking a loan for more

than one car or an existing auto loan customer availing another loan subject
loan. to satisfactory conduct of earlier
(b) Relationship discount of 1. 0 % may be offered to applicant maintaining

current account or saving bank account satisfactory for atleast 3 months,
customer having an equivalent amount of FD with lien marked to bank and
applicant maintaining satisfactory working capital or term loan account.
(c) Good Credit Discount of 1. 0 % may be offered to credit card holders

maintaining satisfactory account for a minimum period of 12 months with no
adverse credit card history, and customers repaying previous car loans/ 2
wheelers loans in time
(d) Income discount of 1. 0 % is offered to those applicants whose income

exceeds certain limit
For example, Bank of Punjab has limits:
Rs 1, 00, 000 for a standard segment car loan
Rs 1, 20, 000 for a middle segment car loan
Rs 140, 000 for a premium segment car loan
(e) Professional discount of 10 % is offered to doctors. CAs and lecturers
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UNIT-4 REGULATORY INSTITUTIONS
Reserve Bank of India
Establishment:
The Reserve Bank of India was established in 1935 under the provisions
of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 in Calcutta, eventually moved
permanently to Mumbai. Though originally privately owned, was nationalized
in 1949.
Organisation and Management:
The Reserve Bank’s affairs are governed by a central board of directors. The
board is appointed by the Government of India for a period of four
years, under the Reserve Bank of India Act.
(i) Full-time officials : Governor and not more than four Deputy
Governors. The current Governor of RBI is Mr. Urjit Pattel.
There are 3 Deputy Governors presently – B P Kanungo, N S Vishwanathan
and Viral V Acharya.
 Nominated by Government: ten Directors from various fields and two

government Officials
 Others: four Directors – one each from four local boards.
Let us make in-depth study of the functions and promotional roles of

Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
Functions:
The Reserve Bank of India is performing various functions related to

monetary management, banking operations, foreign exchange, developmental
works and research on problems of economy.
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The following are some of the major functions normally performed by

the Reserve Bank of India:
1. Note Issue:
Being the Central Bank of the country, the RBI is entrusted with the sole
authority to issue currency notes after keeping certain minimum reserve
consisting of gold reserve worth Rs. 115 crore and foreign exchange worth Rs.
85 crore. This provision was later amended and simplified.
2. Banker to the Government:
The RBI is working as banker of the government and therefore all funds of
both Central and State Governments are kept with it. It acts as an agent of the
government and manages its public debt. RBI also offering “ways and means
advance” to the government for short periods.
3. Banker’s Bank:
The RBI is also working as the banker of other banks working in the country.
It regulates the whole banking system of the country, keep certain percentage
of their deposits as minimum reserve, works as the lender of the last resort to
its scheduled banks and operates clearing houses for all other banks.
4. Credit Control:
The RBI is entrusted with the sole authority to control credit created by the
commercial banks by applying both quantitative and qualitative credit control
measures like variation in bank rate, open market operation, selective credit
controls etc.
5. Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserves:
The RBI is entrusted with sole authority to determine the exchange rate
between rupee and other foreign currencies and also to maintain the reserve
of foreign exchange earned by the Government. The RBI also maintains its
relation with International Monetary Fund (IMF).
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6. Developmental Functions:
The RBI is also working as a development agency by developing various sister

organisations like Agricultural Refinance Development Corporation. Industrial
Development Bank of India etc. for rendering agricultural credit and industrial
credit in the country.
On July 12, 1986, NABARD was established and has taken over the entire
responsibility of ARDC. Half of the share capital of NABARD (Rs. 100 crore)
has been provided by the Reserve Bank of India. Thus, the Reserve Bank is
performing a useful function for controlling and managing the entire banking,
monetary and financial system of the country.
Regulatory and Promotional Roles of Reserve Bank of India:

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has been playing an important role in the
economy of the country both in its regulatory and promotional aspects. Since
the inception of planning in 1951, the developmental activities are gaining
momentum in the country. Accordingly, more and more responsibilities have
been entrusted with the RBI both in the regulatory and promotional area.
Now-a-days, the RBI has been performing a wide range of regulatory and
promotional functions in the country.
The following are some of the regulatory and promotional functions

performed by the RBI:
1. Regulating the Volume of Currency:
The RBI is performing the regulatory role in issuing and controlling the entire
volume of currency in the country through its Issue Department. While
regulating the volume of currency the RBI is giving priority on the demand for
currency and the stability of the economy equally.
2. Regulating Credit:
The RBI is also performing the role to control the credit money created by the
commercial banks through its qualitative and quantitative methods of credit
control and thereby maintains a balance in the money supply of the country.
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3. Control over Commercial Banks:
Another regulatory role performed by the RBI is to have control over the
functioning of the commercial banks. It also enforces certain prudential norms
and rational banking principles to be followed by the commercial banks.
4. Determining the Monetary and Credit Policy:
The RBI has been formulating the monetary and credit policy of the country
every year and thereby it controls the Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR), Cash
Reserve Ratio (CRR), bank rate, interest rate, credit to priority sectors etc.
5. Mobilizing Savings:
The RBI is playing a vital promotional role to mobilize savings through its
member commercial banks and other financial institutions. RBI is also guiding
the commercial banks to extend their banking network in the unbanked rural
and semi-urban areas and also to develop banking habits among the people.
All these have led to the attainment of greater degree of monetization of the
economy and has been able to reduce the activities of indigenous bankers and
private moneylenders.
6. Institutional Credit to Agriculture:
The RBI has been trying to increase the flow of institutional credit to
agriculture from the very beginning. Keeping this objective in mind, the RBI
set up ARDC in 1963 for meeting the long term credit requirement of rural
areas. Later on in July 1982, the RBI set up NABARD and merged ARDC with it
to look after its agricultural credit functions.
7. Specialized Financial Institutions:
The RBI has also been playing an important promotional role for setting
specialized financial institutions for meeting the long term credit needs of
large and small scale industries and other sectors. Accordingly, the RBI has
promoted the development of various financial institutions like, WCI, 1DBI,
ICICI, SIDBI, SFCs, Exim Bank etc. which are making a significant contribution
to industry and trade of the country.
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8. Security to Depositors:
In order to remove the major hindrance to the deposit mobilization arising

out of frequent bank failures, the RBI took major initiative to set up the
Deposit Insurance Corporation of India in 1962. The most important objective
of this corporation is to provide security to the depositors against such
failures.
9. Advisory Functions:
The RBI is also providing advisory functions to both the Central and State
Governments on both financial matters and also on general economic
problems.
10. Policy Support:
The RBI is also providing active policy support to the government through its
investigation research on serious economic problems and issues of the
country and thereby helps the Government to formulate its economic policies
in a most rational manner. Thus, it is observed that the RBI has been playing a
dynamic role in the economic development process of the country through its
regulatory and promotional framework.
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SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE BOARD OF INDIA (SEBI)
Under these circumstances, the government felt the need for setting up of an
apex body to develop and regulate the stock market in India Eventually, the
Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) Was set on April 12, 1998. To
start with, SEBI was set up as a non - statutory body.
It took almost four years for the government to bring about a separate
legislation in the name of Securities and Exchange Board of India Act 1992
conferring statutory powers. The Act, charged to SEBI with comprehensive
powers over practically all aspects of capital market operations.
Objectives of SEBI
According to the preamble of the SEBI Act, the primary objective of the SEBI is
to promote healthy and orderly growth of the securities market and secure
investor protection. For this purpose, the SEBI monitor the activities of not
only stock exchanges but also merchant bankers etc. The objectives of SEBI
are as follows:
1. To protect the interest of investors so that there is a steady flow of savings

into the capital market.
2. To regulate the securities market and ensure fair practices by the issuers of
securities so that they can raise resources at minimum cost.
3. To promote efficient services by brokers, merchant bankers and other

intermediaries so that they become competitive and professional.
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Functions of SEBI
Section 11 of the SEBI Act specifies the functions as follows:
1. Regulatory Functions:
(a) Regulation of stock exchange and self regulatory organisations.
(b) Registration and regulation of stock brokers, sub - brokers, registrar to all
issue, merchant bankers, underwriters, portfolio managers and such other
intermediaries who are associated with securities market.
(c) Registration and regulation of the working of collective investment

schemes including mutual funds.
(e) Prohibit insider trading in securities.
(f) Regulating substantial acquisitions of shares and take over of companies
2. Developmental Functions:
(a) Promote investor ' s education.
(b) Training of intermediaries
(c) Conducting research and published information useful to all market

participants.
(d) Promotion of fair practices. Code of conduct for self regulatory

organisations.
(e) Promoting self regulatory organisations.
Powers of SEBI
SEBI has been vested with the following powers:
1. Power to call periodical returns from recognised stock exchanges.
2. Power to call any information or explanation from recognised stock

exchanges or their members.
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3. Power to direct enquiries to be made in relation to affairs of stock

exchanges or their members.
4. Power to grant approval to bye - laws of recognised stock exchanges.
5. Power to make or amend bye - laws of recognised stock exchanges.
6. Power to compel listing of securities by public companies.
7. Power to control and regulate stock exchanges.
8. Power to grant registration to market intermediaries.
9. Power to levy fees or other charges for carrying out the purpose of
regulation
10. Power to declare applicability of Section 17 of the Securities Contract

(Regulation) Act is any state or area to grant licences to dealers in securities.
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UNIT-5 MUTUAL FUNDS AND VENTURE CAPITAL
MUTUAL FUND
Mutual funds have become a hot favourite of millions of people all over the
world. The driving force of mutual funds is the ‘safety of the principal’
guaranteed, plus the added advantage of capital appreciation together with
the income earned in the form of interest or dividend. People prefer mutual
funds to bank deposits, life insurance and even bonds because with a little
money, they can get into the investment game.
What is Mutual Fund
To state in simple words, a mutual fund collects the savings from small
investors, invest them in Government and other corporate securities and earn
income through interest and dividends, besides capital gain.
IMPORTENCE OF MUTUAL FUNDS
(i) DIVERSIFICATION:
A large number of investors have small savings with them. They can at the
most buy shares of one or two companies. When small savings are pooled and
entrusted to mutual funds then these can be used to buy shares of many
different companies. Thus, investors can participate in a large basket of shares
of different companies.
(ii) Liquidity
A peculiar advantage of a mutual fund is that investment made in its schemes

Can be converted back into cash promptly without heavy expenditure on
brokerage, delays, etc. According to the regulations of SEBI, a mutual fund in
India is required to ensure liquidity. For open ended schemes, the investor can
always approach the Mutual Fund to repurchase units at declared het assets
value ' (NAV). In case of close can easily be sold in the stock market. ended
schemes, units
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(iii) Reduced Risk.
As mutual funds invest in large number of companies and are managed

professionally, the risk factor of the investor is reduced. A small investor, on
the other hand, may not be in a position to minimise such risks.
(iv) Tax advantage. There are certain schemes of mutual funds which
provide lax advantage under the Income Tax Act. Thus, the tax liability of an
investor is also reduced when he invests in these schemes of the mutual funds.
(v) Low Operating costs.
Mutual funds have large investible funds at their disposal and thus can avail
economics of large scale. This reduces their operating costs by way of
brokerage, fees, commission etc. Thus, a small investor also gets the benefit of
large scale economies and low operating costs.
(vi) Flexibility.
Mutual funds provide flexible investment plans to its subscribers such as,
regular investment plans, regular withdrawal plans and dividend
reinvestment plans, etc. Thus, an investor can invest or withdraw funds
according to his own requirements,
(vii) Higher Returns.
Mutual funds are expected to provide higher return to the investors as

compared to direct investment because of professional management,
economies of scale, reduced risk, etc.
(viii) Investor Protection.
Mutual funds are regulated and monitored by the Securities and Exchange
Board of India (SEBI). The SEBI Mutual Funds) Regulations, 1996 which have
replaced the regulations of 1993, provide better protection to the investors,
impart a greater degree of flexibility and facilitate competition
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TYPES OF MUTUAL FUNDS
(A) Close - ended Funds
Under this scheme, the corpus of the fund and its duration are prefixed. In
other words, the corpus of the fund and the number of units are determined in
advance. Once the subscription reaches the pre - determined level, the entry
of investors is closed. After the expiry of the fixed period, the entire corpus is
disinvested and the proceeds are distributed to the various unit holders in
proportion to their holding. Thus, the fund ceases to be a fund, after the final
distribution.
Features: The main features of the close - ended funds are:
(i) The period and/ or the target amount of the fund is definite and fixed
beforehand.
(ii) Once the period is over and/ or the target is reached, the door is closed for
the investors. They cannot purchase any more units.
(iii) These units are publicly traded through stock exchange and generally,
there is no repurchase facility by the fund.
(iv) The main objective of this fund is capital appreciation.
(B) Open - ended Funds
It is just the opposite of close - ended funds. Under this scheme, the size of the
fund and/ or the period of the fund is not pre - determined. The investors are
free to buy and sell any number of units at any point of time. Anybody can buy
this unit at any time and sell it also at any time at his discretion.
The Main Features of the Open - Ended Funds are:
(i) There is complete flexibility with regard to one’s investment or

disinvestment. In other words, there is free entry and exit of investors in an
open - ended fund. There is no time limit. The investor can join in and come
out from the Fund as and when he desires.
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(ii) These units are not publicly traded but, the Fund is ready to repurchase
them and resell them at any time.
(iii) The investor is offered instant liquidity in the sense that the units can be
sold on any working day to the Fund.
(iv) The main objective of this fund is income generation. The investors get
dividend, rights or bonuses as rewards for their investment.
(v) Since the units are not listed on the stock market, their prices are linked to
the Net Asset Value (NAV) of the units. The NAV is determined by the Fund
and it varies from time to time.
On the Basis of Income
A) Income Funds: As the very name suggests, this Fund aims at Generating
and distributing regular income to the members on a return is higher than
periodical basis. It concentrates more on the distribution that of income and it
also sees that the average the income from bank deposits.
The main features of the Income Funds are
(i) The investor is assured of regular income at periodic intervals. say half -
yearly or yearly and so on.
(ii) The main objective of this type of Fund is to declare regular dividends and
not capital appreciation.
(iii) The pattern of investment is oriented towards high and fixed income
yielding securities like debentures, bonds etc.
(iv) This is best suited to the old and retired people who may not have any
regular income.
(v) Il concerns itself with short run gains only.
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(B) Pure Growth Funds (Growth Oriented Funds). Unlike the Income
Funds, Growth Funds concentrate mainly on long run gains i.e. capital
appreciation. They do not offer regular income and they aim at capital
appreciation in the long run. Hence, they have been described as " Nest Eggs "
investments.
The Main features of the Growth Funds are.
(i) The growth oriented Fund aims at meeting the investors ' need for capital
appreciation.
(ii) The investment strategy therefore, conforms to the Fund objective by

investing the funds predominantly on equities with high growth potential.
(iii) The Fund tries to get capital appreciation by taking much risks and
investing on risk bearing equities and high growth equity shares.
(iv) The fund may declare dividend, but its principal objective is only capital
appreciation.
(v) This is best suited to salaried and business people who have high risk
bearing capacity and ability to defer liquidity. They can accumulate wealth for
future needs.
(C) Balanced Funds: This is otherwise called " income - cum - growth "
fund/. It is nothing but a combination of both income and growth funds. It
aims at distributing regular income as well as capital appreciation This is
achieved by balancing the investments between the high growth equity shares
and also the fixed income earning securities.
(D) Specialised Funds: These funds invest in a particular type of securities,

these funds may specialise in securities of companies dealing in a particular
product, firms in a particular industry or of certain income producing
securities. Ant investor wanting to invest in a particular security will prefer a
fund dealing in such securities.
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(E) Money - Market Mutual Funds (MMMFs): These funds are basically
open ended mutual Funds and as such they have all the features of the Open
ended Fund. But, they invest in highly liquid and safe securities like
commercial paper, banker ' s acceptances, certificates of deposits, Treasury
bills etc. These instruments are called money market instruments. They take
the place of shares, debentures and bonds in a capital market. They pay
money market rates of interest.
(F) Taxation Funds: A taxation fund is basically a growth oriented fund. But,
it offers tax rebates to the investors either in the domestic or foreign capital
market. It is suitable to salaried people who want to enjoy tax rebates
particularly during the month of February and March In India, at present the
law relating to tax rebates is covered under Sec. 88 of the Income Tax Act,
1961. An investor is entitled to get 20 % rebate in Income Tax for investments
made under this fund subject to a maximum investment of Rs. 10, 000/ - per
annum.
OTHER CLASSIFICATION
(G) Leveraged Funds: These funds are also called borrowed funds since they
are used primarily to increase the size of the value of portfolio of a mutual
fund. When the value increases, the earning capacity of the fund also
increases. The gains are distributed to the unit holders, This is resorted to
only when the gains from the borrowed funds are more than the cost of
borrowed funds.
(H) Dual Funds: This is a special kind of closed end fund. It provides a single
investment opportunity for two different types of investors. For this purpose,
it sells two types of investment stocks viz., income shares and capital shares.
Those investors who seek current investment income can purchase income
shares. They receive all the interest and dividends earned from the entire
investment portfolio. However, they are guaranteed a minimum annual
dividend payment. The holders of capital shares receive all the capital gains
earned on those shares and they are not entitled to receive any dividend of
any type. In this respect, the dual fund is different from a balanced fund.
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(I) Index Funds: Index funds refer to those funds where the portfolios are
designed in such a way that they reflect the composition of some broad based
market index. This is done by holding securities in the same proportion as the
index itself. The value of these index linked funds will automatically go up
whenever the market index goes up and vice versa.
(J) Bond Funds: These funds have portfolios consisting mainly of fixed
income securities like bonds. The main thrust of these funds is mostly on
income rather than capital gains. They differ from income funds in the sense
income funds offer an average returns higher than that from bank deposits
and also capital gains lesser than in equity shares.
VENTURE CAPITAL
CONCEPT OF VENTURE CAPITAL
The term ' Venture Capital ' is understood in many ways. In a narrow sense, if
refers to investment in new and tried enterprises that that are lacking a stable
record of growth.
In a broader sense, venture capital refers to the commitment of capital as

shareholding, for the formulation and setting up of small firm specialising in
new ideas or new technologies. It is not merely an injection of funds into a
new firm, it is a simultaneous input of skill needed to set up the firm, design
its marketing strategy and organise and manage it. It is an association with
successive stages of firm ' s development with distinctive types of financing
appropriate to each stage of development.
Meaning of Venture Capital
Venture capital is long term risk capital to finance high technology projects
which involve risk but at the same time has strong potential for growth.
Venture capitalist pool their resources including managerial abilities to assist
new entrepreneurs in the Early years of the project. Once the project reaches
the stage of profitability, they sell their equity holdings at high premium.
Definition of a Venture Capital Company
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A venture capital company is defined as " a financing institution which joins

an entrepreneur as a co - promoter in a project and shares the risks and
rewards of the enterprise. "
Features of Venture Capital
Some of the features of venture capital financing are as under:
1. Venture capital is usually in the form of an equity participation. It may

also take the form of convertible debt or long term loan.
2. Investment is made not only in high risk but also in high growth potential
projects.
3. Venture capital is available only for commercialisation of new ideas or

new technologies and not for enterprises which are engaged in trading,
booking, financial services, agency, liaison work or research and development.
4. Venture capitalist joins the entrepreneur as a co - promoter in projects

and share the risks and rewards of the enterprise.
5. There is continuous involvement in business after making an investment

by the investor.
6. Once the venture has reached the full potential the venture capitalist
disinvests his holdings either to the promoters or in the market. The basic
objective of investment is not profit but capital appreciation at the time of
disinvestment.
SCOPE OF VENTURE CAPITAL/ STAGES/TYPES OF VENTURE CAPITAL
Venture capital may take various forms at different stages of the project.
There are four successive stages of development of a project viz.
Development of a project idea, Implementation of the idea, commercial

production and marketing and finally large scale investment to exploit the
economics of scale and achieve stability. Financial institutions and banks
usually start financing the project only at the second and third stage but rarely
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from the first stage. But venture capitalist provide finance even from the first
stage of idea formulation.
The various stages in the financing of Venture Capital are described below:
1. Development Of An Idea- Seed Finance
In the initial stage venture capitalist provide seed capital for translating an
idea into business proposition. At this stage investigation is made indepth
which normally takes a year or more.
2. Implementation Stage - Start up Finance:
When the firm is set up to manufacture a product or provide a service, start up

finance is provided by the venture capitalists. The first and second stage
capital is used for full scale manufacturing and further business growth.
3. Fledging Stage - Additional Finance:
In the third stage firm has made some headway and entered the stage of
manufacturing product but faces teething problems. It may not be able to
generate adequate funds and so additional round of financing is provided to
develop the marketing infrastructure.
4. Establishment Stage. Establishment Finance:
At this stage the firm is established in the market and expected to expand at a
rapid pace. It needs further financing for expansion and diversification so that
is can reap economics of scale and attain stability. At the end of the
establishment stage, the firm is listed on the stock exchange and at this point
the venture capitalist disinvests their shareholdings through available exist
routes.
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INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION OF INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM

Meaning of Indian financial system

FEATURES OF INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM:

• It plays a vital role in economic development of a country.

• It encourages both savings and investment.

• It links savers and investors.

• It helps in capital formation.

• It helps in allocation of risk.

• It facilitates expansion of financial markets.

COMPONENTS/ CONSTITUENTS OF INDIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM

3. Financial Instruments/ Assets/ Securities

COMPONENT IS DISCUSSED BELOW:

Financial institutions are the intermediaries who facilitate smooth functioning

Financial institutions are also termed as financial intermediaries because they

It is also act as intermediaries because they accept deposits from a set of

TYPES OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Financial institutions can be classified into two categories:

B. Non - Banking Financial Institutions

A. BANKING INSTITUTIONS (Reserve Bank of India)

The organised banking sector consists of commercial banks, cooperative

(a) Commercial Banks: The commercial banks may be scheduled banks or

(b) Co-operative banks: An important segment of the organized sector of

Different types of co-operative credit societies are operating in Indian

In the unorganised banking sector are the Indigenous Bankers, Money

B. NON – BANKING INSTITUTIONS

(a) Organised Non – Banking Financial Institutions

(i) Capital Market

(ii) Money Market

(I) Industrial securities market

(II) Government securities market and

(III) Long term loans market

1. INDUSTRIAL SECURITIES MARKET:

As the very name implies, it is a market for industrial securities namely:

It is a market where industrial concerns raise their capital or debt by issuing

(i) Public issue

II. GOVERNMENT SECURITIES MARKET

It is otherwise called Gilt - Edged securities market. It is a market where

III. LONG TERM LOANS MARKET

Development banks and commercial banks play a significant role in this

Long term loans market may further be classified into:

(1) Term loans market

(ii) Mortgages market

(iii) Financial Guarantees market.

Term Loans Market

In India, many industrial financing institutions have been created by the

(i) Call money market

(ii) Commercial bills market

(iii) Treasury bilis market

(iv) Short term loan market.

Call Money Market

Commercial Bills Market

It is a market for Bills of Exchange arising out of genuine trade transactions. In

Treasury Bills Market

It is highly liquid because its repayment is guaranteed by the Government. It is

Short - Term Loan Market

Financial instruments refer to those documents which represents financial

Financial securities can be classified into:

(i) Primary or direct securities.