57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2014 1

Chapter 3 Bernoulli Equation

3.1 Flow Patterns: Streamlines, Pathlines, Streaklines
1) A streamline ψ ( x , t ) is a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity
vector at a given instant.

Examples of streamlines around an airfoil (left) and a car (right)

2) A pathline is the actual path traveled by a given fluid particle.

An illustration of pathline (left) and an example of pathlines, motion of water induced by surface waves (right)

3) A streakline is the locus of particles which have earlier passed through a

particular point.

An illustration of streakline (left) and an example of streaklines, flow past a full-sized streamlined vehicle in the GM
aerodynamics laboratory wind tunnel, and 18-ft by 34-ft test section facilility by a 4000-hp, 43-ft-diameter fan (right)
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Note:

1. For steady flow, all 3 coincide.

2. For unsteady flow, ψ ( t ) pattern changes with time, whereas pathlines and
streaklines are generated as the passage of time

Streamline:

By definition we must have V ×d r=0 which upon expansion yields the

equation of the streamlines for a given time t=t 1
dx dy dz
= = =d s
u v w

where s = integration parameter. So if (u, v, w ) know, integrate with respect to s

for t =t 1 with I.C. ( x 0, y 0, z 0, t 1) at s=0 and then eliminate s.

Pathline:

The path line is defined by integration of the relationship between velocity

and displacement.

dx dy dz
=u =v =w
dt dt dt

Integrate u, v, w with respect to t using I.C. ( x 0, y 0, z 0, t 0) then eliminate t .

Streakline:

To find the streakline, use the integrated result for the pathline retaining
time as a parameter. Now, find the integration constant which causes the
pathline to pass through ( x 0, y 0, z 0) for a sequence of time ξ <t . Then eliminate ξ .
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3.2 Streamline Coordinates

Equations of fluid mechanics can be expressed in different coordinate
systems, which are chosen for convenience, e.g., application of boundary
conditions: Cartesian ( x , y , z ) or orthogonal curvilinear (e.g., r , θ, z ) or non-
orthogonal curvilinear. A natural coordinate system is streamline coordinates ( s,
n , l ); however, difficult to use since solution to flow problem ( V ) must be known
to solve for steamlines.

For streamline coordinates, since V is tangent to s there is only one velocity

component.

V ( x , t )=v s ( x , t ) s^ +v n ( x ,t ) n^

where v n=0 by definition.

Figure 4.8 Streamline coordinate system for two-dimensional flow.

The acceleration is

DV ∂V
a= = + (V ⋅ ∇ ) V
Dt ∂t

where,
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∂ ∂ ∂
∇= ^s + n^ ; V ⋅ ∇=v s
∂s ∂n ∂s

∂V ∂V
a=a s s^ + an n^ = + vs
∂t ∂s

∂ vs ∂ s^ ∂ vs ∂ s^
¿ [ ∂t
s^ +v s
∂t ] [
+ vs
∂s
s^ + v s
∂s ]

Figure 4.9 Relationship between the unit vector along the streamline, ^s, and the radius of
curvature of the streamline, R

Space increment

Normal to

∂θ ∂ s^
^s + ds n^ = s^ + ds
∂s ∂s

∂ s^ n^
=
∂s R

Time increment
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2
∂ vs ∂v ∂θ v s
a= ( ∂t ∂s ) (
+ v s s s^ + v s
⏟
+
∂t R
n^
)
∂ v n/ ∂ t

or

∂ vs ∂vs ∂ v n v 2s
a s= +v s ,a = +
∂t ∂s n ∂t R

where,

∂ vs
= local a s in s^ direction
∂t

∂ vn
= local a n in n^ direction
∂t

∂vs
vs = convective a s due to spatial gradient of V
∂s

i.e. convergence /divergence ψ

v 2s
= convective a n due to curvature of : centrifugal accerleration
R
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3.3 Bernoulli Equation

Consider the small fluid particle of size δs by δn in the plane of the figure
and δy normal to the figure as shown in the free-body diagram below. For
steady and inviscid flow, the components of Newton’s second law along the
streamline and normal directions can be written as following:

1) Along a streamline

δm ⋅a s=∑ δ F s =δ W s +δ F ps

where,

∂ vs
(
δm ⋅a s=( ρδ V ) ⋅ v s
∂s )
δ W s=−γδ V sin θ

δ F ps=( p−δ ps ) δnδy −( p +δ ps ) δnδy=−2 δ p s δnδy

∂p ∂ p δs
¿− δV δ p s=
∂s ∂s 2
1st order Taylor Series
Thus,
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∂ v s −∂ p
(
( ρδ V ) ⋅ v s
∂s ) =
∂s
δ V −γδ V sinθ

∂ v s −∂ p
(
ρ vs
∂s
=
∂s )−γ sin θ
sin θ=
dz
ds
∂
¿− ( p+ γz )
∂s

∂p ∂z
 change in speed due to ∂ s and ∂ s (i.e. W along ^s)

2) Normal to a streamline
δm ⋅a n=∑δ F n=δ W n +δ F pn

where,

v 2s
δm ⋅a n=( ρδ V ) ⋅ ( )
R

δ W n=−γδ V cos θ

δ F pn=( p−δ pn ) δsδy−( p+ δ pn ) δsδy=−2 δ p n δsδy

∂p ∂ p δn
¿− δV δ p n=
∂n ∂n 2
1st order Taylor Series
Thus,

v 2s −∂ p
( ρδ V ) ⋅ ( ) R
=
∂n
δ V −γδ V cos θ

dz
v 2s −∂ p cos θ=
ρ = −γ cos θ dn
R ∂n

∂
¿− ( p +γz )
∂n
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∂p ∂z
 streamline curvature is due to ∂ n and ∂ n (i.e. W along n^ )

In a vector form:

ρ a=−∇ ( p+ γz ) (Euler equation)

∂ v s v 2s ∂ ∂
or (
ρ vs
∂s R ) (
^s + n^ =− s^ +
∂ s ∂n )
n^ ( p+γz )

Steady flow, ρ = constant, ^s equation

∂ v s −∂
ρvs = ( p+ γz )
∂s ∂s

2
∂ vs p
∂s 2 ρ[
+ +gz =0 ]
v 2s p
∴ + + gz=constant
2 ρ
⏟
Bernoulli equation

Steady flow, ρ = constant, n^ equation

v 2s −∂
ρ = ( p+γz )
R ∂n

v 2s p
∴∫ dn+ + gz=constant
R ρ

For curved streamlines p+ γz (= constant for static fluid) decreases in the n^

direction, i.e. towards the local center of curvature.

It should be emphasized that the Bernoulli equation is restricted to the

following:

 inviscid flow
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 steady flow
 incompressible flow
 flow along a streamline

Note that if in addition to the flow being inviscid it is also irrotational, i.e.
rotation of fluid = ω = vorticity = ∇ × V = 0, the Bernoulli constant is same for all ψ ,
as will be shown later.

3.4 Physical interpretation of Bernoulli equation

Integration of the equation of motion to give the Bernoulli equation
actually corresponds to the work-energy principle often used in the study of
dynamics. This principle results from a general integration of the equations of
motion for an object in a very similar to that done for the fluid particle. With
certain assumptions, a statement of the work-energy principle may be written as
follows:

The work done on a particle by all forces acting on the particle is equal to
the change of the kinetic energy of the particle.

The Bernoulli equation is a mathematical statement of this principle.

In fact, an alternate method of deriving the Bernoulli equation is to use the

first and second laws of thermodynamics (the energy and entropy equations),
rather than Newton’s second law. With the approach restrictions, the general
energy equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation.

An alternate but equivalent form of the Bernoulli equation is

p V2
+ + z=constant
γ 2g

along a streamline.

p
Pressure head: γ

V2
Velocity head:
2g
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Elevation head: z

The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the pressure head, the velocity
head, and the elevation head is constant along a streamline.

3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

1
p+ ρ V 2+ γz= p T =constant
2

along a streamline.

Static pressure: p

1 2
Dynamic pressure: 2 ρ V

Hydrostatic pressure: γz

Stagnation points on bodies in flowing fluids.

1 2
Stagnation pressure: p+ 2 ρ V (assuming elevation effects are negligible) where p
and V are the pressure and velocity of the fluid upstream of stagnation
point. At stagnation point, fluid velocity V becomes zero and all of the
kinetic energy converts into a pressure rize.

1 2
Total pressure: pT = p+ 2 ρV + γz (along a streamline)
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The Pitot-static tube (left) and typical Pitot-static tube designs (right).

Typical pressure distribution along a Pitot-static tube.

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3.6 Applications of Bernoulli Equation

1) Stagnation Tube

V 21 V 22 z 1=z 2
p1 + ρ = p2 + ρ
2 2
p1=γd ,V 2 =0
22
V = ( p 2−p 1 )
1
ρ p2=γ ( l+d ) gage

2
¿ ( γl )
ρ

V 1= √2 gl Limited by length of tube and need

for free surface reference
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2) Pitot Tube

p 1 V 21 p 2 V 22
+ +z = + +z
γ 2g 1 γ 2g 2

1
p1 p

{ [( ) ( ) ]}
2
V 2= 2 g + z 1 − 2 + z2
γ
⏟ ⏟γ
h1 h2

where, V 1=0 and h = piezometric head

V =V 2=√ 2 g ( h1 −h2 )

h1 −h2 from manometer or pressure gage

For gas flows or when Δ z is small, i.e., Δ p /γ ≫ Δ z,

2Δp
V=
√ ρ
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3) Free Jets

Vertical flow from a tank

Application of Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2) on the streamline
shown gives

1 1
p1 + ρV 21+ γ z 1= p2 + ρV 22 + γ z 2
2 2

Since z 1=h, z 2=0, V 1 ≈ 0, p1=0 , p2=0 , we have

1
γh= ρ V 22
2

γh
√
V 2= 2
ρ
=√ 2 gh

Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (5) gives

V 5= √2 g ( h+ H )
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4) Simplified form of the continuity equation

Steady flow into and out of a tank

Obtained from the following intuitive arguments:

Volume flow rate: Q=VA

Mass flow rate: ṁ=ρQ =ρVA

Conservation of mass requires

ρ1 V 1 A1 =ρ2 V 2 A 2

For incompressible flow ρ1= ρ2, we have

V 1 A 1=V 2 A 2

or

Q 1=Q2
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5) Volume Rate of Flow (flowrate, discharge)

1. Cross-sectional area oriented normal to velocity vector

(simple case where V ⊥ A ¿

U = constant: Q = volume flux = UA [m/s  m2 = m3/s]

U ≠ constant: Q=∫ UdA

A

Similarly the mass flux = ṁ=∫ ρUdA

A

2. General case

❑
Q=∫ V ⋅n dA
CS

❑
¿ ∫ |V |cos θ dA
CS

❑
ṁ=∫ ρ ( V ⋅ n ) dA
CS

Average velocity:

Q
V́ =
A
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Example:

At low velocities the flow through a long circular tube, i.e. pipe, has a
parabolic velocity distribution (actually paraboloid of revolution).
2
r
u=umax
( ( ))
1−
R

where, umax = centerline velocity

a) find Q and V́
❑ ❑
Q=∫ V ⋅n dA=∫ udA
A A

❑ 2π R

∫ udA=∫ ∫ u ( r ) rdθdr
A 0 0

R
¿ 2 π ∫ u ( r ) rdr
0

2π

where, dA=2 πrdr, u=u ( r ) and not θ, ∴ ∫ dθ=2 π

0

R 2
r 1
Q=2 π ∫ umax 1−
0
( ( ))
R
rdr= u max π R2
2

Q umax
V́ = =
A 2
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6) Flowrate measurement

Various flow meters are governed by the Bernoulli and continuity

equations.

Typical devices for measuring flowrate in pipes.

Three commonly used types of flow meters are illustrated: the orifice
meter, the nozzle meter, and the Venturi meter. The operation of each is based
on the same physical principles—an increase in velocity causes a decrease in
pressure. The difference between them is a matter of cost, accuracy, and how
closely their actual operation obeys the idealized flow assumptions.

We assume the flow is horizontal ( z 1=z 2), steady, inviscid, and

incompressible between points (1) and (2). The Bernoulli equation becomes:

1 1
p1 + ρV 21=p 2+ ρV 22
2 2
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If we assume the velocity profiles are uniform at sections (1) and (2), the
continuity equation can be written as:

Q=V 1 A1=V 2 A2

where A2 is the small ( A2 < A1) flow area at section (2). Combination of these two
equations results in the following theoretical flowrate

2 ( p 1 − p2 )
Q= A 2
√ ρ [ 1−( A2 / A1 )
2
]
assumed vena contracta = 0, i.e., no viscous effects. Otherwise,

2 ( p1 −p 2 )
Q=C C A C
√ ρ [ 1−( A 2 / A 1) 2 ]

where C C = contraction coefficient

A smooth, well-contoured nozzle (left) and a sharp corner (right)

The velocity profile of the left nozzle is not uniform due to differences in
elevation, but in general d ≪h and we can safely use the centerline velocity, V 2, as
a reasonable “average velocity.”

For the right nozzle with a sharp corner, d j will be less than d h. This
phenomenon, called a vena contracta effect, is a result of the inability of the fluid
to turn the sharp 90 corner.
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Figure 3.14 Typical flow patterns and contraction coefficients

The vena contracta effect is a function of the geometry of the outlet. Some
typical configurations are shown in Fig. 3.14 along with typical values of the
experimentally obtained contraction coefficient, C C = A j / A h, where A j and Ah are
the areas of the jet a the vena contracta and the area of the hole, respectively.
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Other flow meters based on the Bernoulli equation are used to measure
flowrates in open channels such as flumes and irrigation ditches. Two of these
devices, the sluice gate and the sharp-crested weir, are discussed below under
the assumption of steady, inviscid, incompressible flow.

Sluice gate geometry

We apply the Bernoulli and continuity equations between points on the free
surfaces at (1) and (2) to give:

1 1
p1 + ρV 21+ γ z 1= p2 + ρV 22 + γ z 2
2 2

and
z2
Q=V 1 A1=bV 1 z 1=V 2 A 2=b V 2 z2 ∴ V 1= V
z1 2

With the fact that p1= p2=0:

2 g ( z1 −z2 )
Q= A 2 V 2=z 2 b
√ 1−( z 2 /z 1 )
2

In the limit of z 1 ≫ z 2, then V 2 ≈ √2 g z1:

Q=( z2 b ) V 2=z 2 b √ 2 g z 1
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Rectangular, sharp-crested weir geometry

For such devices the flowrate of liquid over the top of the weir plate is
dependent on the weir height, Pw , the width of the channel, b , and the head, H , of
the water above the top of the weir. Between points (1) and (2) the pressure and
gravitational fields cause the fluid to accelerate from velocity V 1 to velocity V 2. At
(1) the pressure is p1=γh, while at (2) the pressure is essentially atmospheric, p2=0
. Across the curved streamlines directly above the top of the weir plate (section
a–a), the pressure changes from atmospheric on the top surface to some
maximum value within the fluid stream and then to atmospheric again at the
bottom surface.

For now, we will take a very simple approach and assume that the weir flow
is similar in many respects to an orifice-type flow with a free streamline. In this
instance we would expect the average velocity across the top of the weir to be
proportional to √ 2 gH and the flow area for this rectangular weir to be
proportional to Hb. Hence, it follows that
3
2
Q=C 1 Hb √ 2 gH=C 1 b √2 g H
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3.7 Energy grade line (EGL) and hydraulic grade line (HGL)
This part will be covered later at Chapter 5.

3.8 Limitations of Bernoulli Equation

Assumptions used in the derivation Bernoulli Equation:

(1) Inviscid
(2) Incompressible
(3) Steady
(4) Conservative body force

1) Compressibility Effects:

The Bernoulli equation can be modified for compressible flows. A simple,

although specialized, case of compressible flow occurs when the temperature of a
perfect gas remains constant along the streamline—isothermal flow. Thus, we
consider p= ρRT , where T is constant (In general, p, ρ , and T will vary). An
equation similar to the Bernoulli equation can be obtained for isentropic flow of a
perfect gas. For steady, inviscid, isothermal flow, Bernoulli equation becomes

dp 1 2
RT ∫ + V + gz=const
p 2

The constant of integration is easily evaluated if z 1, p1, and V 1 are known at some
location on the streamline. The result is

V 21 RT p V2
2g
+ z 1+
g ( )
ln 1 = 2 + z 2
p2 2 g
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2) Unsteady Effects:

The Bernoulli equation can be modified for unsteady flows. With the
inclusion of the unsteady effect (∂ V /∂ t ≠ 0) the following is obtained:

∂V 1
ρ ds+ dp+ ρd ( V 2 ) + γdz=0 (along a streamline)
∂t 2

For incompressible flow this can be easily integrated between points (1) and (2) to
give
s2
1 ∂V 1
p1 + ρV 21+ γ z 1=ρ∫ ds+ p2 + ρ V 22+ γ z 2 (along a streamline)
2 s
∂t
1
2

3) Rotational Effects

Care must be used in applying the Bernoulli equation across streamlines. If

the flow is “irrotational” (i.e., the fluid particles do not “spin” as they move), it is
appropriate to use the Bernoulli equation across streamlines. However, if the
flow is “rotational” (fluid particles “spin”), use of the Bernoulli equation is
restricted to flow along a streamline.

4) Other Restrictions

Another restriction on the Bernoulli equation is that the flow is inviscid. The
Bernoulli equation is actually a first integral of Newton's second law along a
streamline. This general integration was possible because, in the absence of
viscous effects, the fluid system considered was a conservative system. The total
energy of the system remains constant. If viscous effects are important the
system is nonconservative and energy losses occur. A more detailed analysis is
needed for these cases.

The Bernoulli equation is not valid for flows that involve pumps or turbines.
The final basic restriction on use of the Bernoulli equation is that there are no
mechanical devices (pumps or turbines) in the system between the two points
along the streamline for which the equation is applied. These devices represent
sources or sinks of energy. Since the Bernoulli equation is actually one form of
the energy equation, it must be altered to include pumps or turbines, if these are
present.