Descriptive and Prescriptive Theory

3
Descriptive and Prescriptive Learning Theories
Learning theories describe how people learn, often by reference to a partic-

ular model of human cognition or development. Depending on the learning
theory, different requirements arise regarding the learning process, e. g., how
to structure it, what questions to ask the learner, etc.
Learning theories can be divided into descriptive and prescriptive theo-
ries [162, page 137]. Descriptive learning theories make statements about how
learning occurs and devise models that can be used to explain and predict
learning results. When describing different descriptive theories of learning
below, I will follow the common categorization that distinguishes between
behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist learning theories [151, 162].
Prescriptive learning theories are concerned with guidelines that describe
what to do in order to achieve specific outcomes. They are often based on
descriptive theories; sometimes they are derived from experience. Instructional
design is the umbrella which assembles prescriptive theories. I will describe
instructional design in Section 3.4.
3.1 Behaviorism
Behaviorism explains human behavior based on observable stimulus-response
associations, without referring to mental processes. Behavioristic theories were
developed in the beginning of the 19th century as a reaction to the then
predominantly used psychological methods of introspection and subjectiv-
ity, which behavioral theorists such as John B. Watson qualified as non-
scientific [206].
Learning is viewed as the forging of the desired condition-action pairs. Pos-
itive reactions have to be reinforced, undesired ones avoided. Behaviorists such
as Burrhus F. Skinner applied their research results to technology-supported
learning. Skinner [169] provided principles for programmed instruction, which
is characterized by leading the learner through the learning material in gradual
steps, providing immediate feedback, and continuous positive reinforcement.
C. Ullrich: Courseware Generation for Web-Based Learning, LNAI 5260, pp. 37–42, 2008.

c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2008
38 3 Descriptive and Prescriptive Learning Theories
In the sixties, the US government, especially the Department of Defense

invested considerable amounts of money in the development of programmed
instruction, with the hope of reducing the costs for civil and military train-
ing.1 One prominent system developed at that time was Plato whose trade-
mark is still used today.2 Yet, evaluation results of programmed instruction
were mixed, and the authoring costs were extremely high, so that educational
systems based on pure behavioristic principles became rare.
3.2 Cognitivism
Cognitive psychology makes mental processes the primary object of study. Ex-
periments involving mental operations are designed such that they allow con-
clusions on the cognitive structures used in the mind during problem solving.
These experiments are reproducible, in contrast to the former introspective
and subjective experiments.
Learning is viewed as transferring the cognitive structures in long-term
memory and being able to use them, when necessary. Learning takes place
through organizing, storing and linking the new structures to old knowledge.
Based on cognitive theories, one can devise principles for instruction. In
the 1960ties, Gagné [44] published his principles of instruction, an effort to
collect the existing theories and to put them into a common framework. He
distinguishes nine cognitive processes and assigns specific instructional events
to the objectives, e. g., the process “retrieval”, with the instructional event
“stimulating recall of prior learning”.
In technology-supported learning, the research in cognitive psychology led
to the new field of Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS). ITS were designed to
support the learner during problem solving in his creation of the appropriate
cognitive structures. One of the most prominent ITS, the Pact-tutors were
originally based on Anderson’s ACT-* theory [3, 4, 5].
3.3 Constructivism
Constructivism is based on the premise that knowledge can not be transmitted
but has to be constructed by the individual. Therefore, learning is an active
process of integrating information with pre-existing knowledge.
1
The ratio between military and civilian investment in education is astonishing:
“within government agencies, the military spends seven dollars for every civilian
dollar spent on educational technology research. Each year, for example, the mil-
itary spends as much on educational technology research and development as the
Department . . . of Education has spent in a quarter century” [132].
2
http://www.plato.com [145].

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Descriptive and Prescriptive Learning Theories

Learning theories describe how people learn, often by reference to a partic-

In the sixties, the US government, especially the Department of Defense

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