Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

OFFICE OF THE VICE PRESIDENT FOR BRANCHES AND CAMPUSES

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR ETHICS (GEED 10093)

Course Title : Ethics

Course Code : GEED 10093

Course Credit : 3.0

Pre-requisite : None

Course Description : The course will introduce the necessity of moral thinking and the choosing of meaningful moral positions and manners
of acting and behaving in the face of various situations requiring such. For the sake of flexibility, it should encourage the learner to draw out
and analyse the correctness or wrongness of behaviour from acquired communal values/culture, from one’s situatedness at the level of
person, society, environment, and later from the standpoint of classic ethical principles (Greek Virtue Ethics, Augustinian/Thomistic Ethics,
Kantian Deontology, Utilitarianism, and beyond).

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Institutional Learning Outcomes Program Outcomes Course Outcomes
Students with full capacity for academic and practical At the end of the course, students are expected
application of the theoretical studies and critical analyses to:
Creative and Critical Thinking
instilled by the program.
 Develop and choose moral positions in the
Graduates have excellent communication skills as face of situations that require moral decision
manifested by their understanding of not only of the subject making
Effective Communication matter in its totality but also evident in the manner they carry  Argue for the correctness of the moral
out reasonable life decisions and create good human positions taken and for the inadequacies of
interactions. alternatives
Graduates are committed to achieve excellence for the  Comprehend and confidently articulate the
success of the learning process by being cognizant of how most basic ethics principles and their
Strong Service Orientation reasoning must be exhibited in their relationship with others relevance to the moral choices in today’s
in the society. world
 Enhance awareness of others, and how one’s
Graduates maintain a high literacy in the technologies used
moral decisions and behavior affect them.
Adeptness in the Responsible Use in the present social setting and, at the same time, can
of Technology adapt to any given situation with regard to technical
equipment and facilities.

Graduates never cease to improve their knowledge of the

ever-changing development in the study philosophy and
Passion to Life-Long Learning logic in the world by pursuing graduate studies or joining
workshops, conferences, and debate-oriented programs.
Graduates are capable of leading any responsibility given to
High Level of Leadership and
them with exemplary organizational skills.
Organizational Skills
Graduates have a strong sense of ethical conduct
Sense of Personal and Professional manifested in their personal and professional attitude and
Ethics set of values as guided by their reason.

Graduates are rooted to a nationalist perspective in the

manner they analyze issues concerning the Philippine
Sense of Nationalism and Global setting in general while exhibiting world-class caliber in
Responsiveness response to the demands of the global scenario.

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COURSE PLAN
Week Topic Learning Outcomes Methodology Resources Assessment

Week 1 Course Introduction  Students must be able to  Lecture/ Class/group

Course Syllabus Introduction
and Overview understand the necessity of Interactive discussion and
(Oct. 16/17- ethical thinking, especially in from Ethel Albert, et. al., Great
Discussion presentation:
2020) considering reasons behind Traditions in Ethics (Belmont,
Respond to Situations
action/behaviore the California: Wadsworth
requiring moral
question, how man ought to Publishing Co., 1984)
choice(s) on current
live? social issues
 Issues raised on Part I, First
 Students must be able to Principles, Daniel Bonevac,
respond to commonplace Today’s Moral Issues (New
examples that might require York: MacGraw-Hill, inc., 2006)
moral decision/correction:
Truth-telling, Cheating, Ethics and Morality, in Amable
Stealing, Gossiping, Tuibeo, Ethics for a Better
Obeying Parents, Bullying, World (Sta. Mesa, Manila:
etc. Students are able to Learning Tree Publishing, 2016)
distinguish moral decision
making from non-moral
ones

Week 2 Examining one’s  Students are able determine Interactive Powerpoint presentation on Individual output:
(Oct. 30/31 - predispositions/ what, for them, is worth Discussion on what pursuits, goals and values in the Reflection on one’s
2020) tendencies: pursuing and compare this do we value?, contemporary world, photos and personal values and
 What is with the pursuits of others choices of pursuits/ illustrations Socratic critique on justifications
values are resented. pleasure as the highest good in
right/wrong from
 Students realize what for A Socratic mode of chapter 2, Ethel Albert, et. al.,
one’s
them is most valuable questioning may be Great Traditions in Ethics
perspective?
from a list of values employed, especially (Belmont, California: Wadsworth
 What makes an with regard to what Publishing Co., 1984)
individual happy? education is for?
 What do you even how corporate/
value? market interests
affect our choices?

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 Week Topic Learning Outcomes Methodology Resources Assessment

Weeks 3-4 Introducing Moral  Exhibit critical thinking: Lecture/Interactive Electronic source: 10 Moral Group output: oral
Dilemma discussion - Dilemmas, report/ presentation
(Nov. 13/14 Coming up with best decision http://listverse.com/2007/10
and good judgment on -Examples of Moral on the group’s
– 2020) Dilemma: /21/top-10-moraldilemmas/, for consensus/ moral
dilemmas Integrate values, examples, printed material
facts, weighing advantages Contemporary and decision on a
Classic Chapter 2, Ethel Albert, et. al.,
and disadvantages, best dilemma
Great Traditions in Ethics
possible outcomes in (Belmont, California: Individual output:
decision making.
Wadsworth Publishing Co., Reflections on moral
 Understand that the good is 1984) dilemma (personal
pursued for itself, not and/or current social
because of any attachment issues)
value

Weeks 5-6 Understanding  Understand the human Lecture/Interactive  The section on Man as Liberty
Human Freedom person as a fundamentally Discussion on in Manuel B. Dy, Jr., Group output: oral
(Nov. 27/28 report/ presentation
a moral agent (destined to Human Freedom Philosophy of Man: Selected
- 2020 on Human Freedom:
be free, to make moral Readings (Makati City: Katha
decisions), subjectivity and Publishing Co., Inc., 2012) a) man as embodied
accountability subject and b) the
 Ethics and Morality and its three positions on
 Explain man as embodied
Social Origin in Amable freedom
subjectivity Differentiate
between crude negative Tuibeo, Ethics for a Better Individual output:
liberty and positive liberty World (Sta. Mesa, Manila: Reflections on
(the possibility of action) Learning Tree Publishing, Human Freedom
2016) (personal and/or n
 Differentiate between
three standpoints:  Ethics as Radical Freedom current social
Sartrean Absolute (Simone de Beauvoir) chapter issues)
Freedom, Determinism, 19 of Ethel Albert, et. al.,
and Situated Freedom Great Traditions in Ethics
(Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Co.,
1984)

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 Week Topic Learning Outcomes Methodology Resources Assessment

Week 7/8  Scheler’s Hierarchy  Understand the progression Lecture/Interactive Manuel B. Dy, Jr.  Group output: oral
of Values into deeper levels of values: Discussion Philosophy of Man: Selected report/ presentation
(Dec. 10/11 from sensory- spiritual/ Readings on Hierarchy of
- 2020) Phenomenology of holy/unholy (Scheler). (Makati City: Katha Values and
Love, Starting from Publishing Co., Inc., Phenomenology of
an encounter with  Understand Love as 2012) Love
solitude and into a progression from solitude to
loving encounter a disinterested giving.  Individual output:
Reflections: Write
 Differentiate between mere down a concept that
contingencies and genuine you associate with
loving Encounter love; After the
lesson, is your
notion of loving
encounter
deepened? Justify.

Week 9/10 Understanding  Appreciate the diversity of Lecture/Interactive  Electronic Source:  Group Output: oral
Cultural Relativism cultural practices, critically Discussion: http://allthat-is- report/ presentation
(Dec.17/18 determine conditions that Examining a strange interesting.com/7bizarre- on cultural
- 2020 limit the respect for autonom culture/social cultural-practices, for relativism -
(some cultures do more practice; critique of illustrated exampes of Cultural -examination and
harm than others) cultural relativism, Practices Jay Early, assessment of
the limits of Transforming Human Culture
tolerance/respect for strange cultures
 Is it defensible?: Argue for or (Albany, New York: State
against cultural relativism autonomy University of New York Press,  Individual output:
Criticize our own modern 1997)
Reflection: Is
development and its moral
 The section The Future of Cultural Relativism
implications
Human Civilization in Amable Defensible?
 Differentiate cultural Tuibeo, Introduction to
relativism and cultural Philosophy: A New Perspective
diversity (Sta. Mesa, Manila: FCA
Printhouse, 2010) Daniel
Bonevac, Today’s Moral Issues
(New York: MacGraw-Hill, inc.,
2006)
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 Week Topic Learning Outcomes Methodology Resources Assessment

Week 10 MIDTERM EXAMINATION

 Group Output: oral

Weeks 11- Virtue Ethics: Plato  Know and appreciate the  Lecture/interactive  Ethel Albert, et. al., Great
report/ presentation
12 and Aristotle contentions of Socrates and Discussion with the Traditions in Ethics (Belmont,
on value ethics
the Sophists concerning the aid of Socratic California: Wadsworth
(Jan. 8/9, necessity of virtue, Socratic approach: Why Publishing Co., 1984)  Individual output: an
- 2021) (Backgrounder on critique on pleasure as should anyone essay appraising
Socrates) ultimate good.  Plato, Republic (Indianapolis:
prefer a virtuous Socrates’s
existence rather Hacket Publishing Co., 1974) response to
 Articulate the meaning of
than incontinence? Polemarchus and
virtue as good life drawn  Aristotle, Nicomachean Thrasymacus in
from regulating the soul: Ethics (Hertfordshire: Republic, Book 1,
 Reading dialogue
reason, will, appetites Wadsworth Editions Limited, or similar theme
of characters in
selected dialogues 1996)
 Connect and establish
continuity of thought of
Aristotle to Plato by way of
the Doctrine of the mean:
avoiding deficiency and
excess
Week 13/14 Augustine’s answers Assess the significance of Lecture/interactive Daniel Bonevac, Today’s Moral  Group Output: oral
to the Problem of Evil free will (St. Augustine) as discussion: Issues (New York: MacGraw-Hill, report/ presentation
(Jan. 22/23, determiner of action, but as inc., 2006) Augustine,
Why does and on value ethics
2021) Aquinas: Natural Law subject to the good cause of Confessions (Indianapolis:
omnipotent and  Reflection/Position
the Divine Understand the Hackett Publishing, 1943)
omniscient God allow Paper: Can the
notion of natural law as
evil, does He cause biblical Divine
demonstrable and self-
evident in the rational being, it? ordinances be used
law as ordinance of reason as good basis for
Textual analysis, the constitutional
short reading laws?
excerpts from the
Summa

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 Week Topic Learning Outcomes Methodology Resources Assessment
Theologica

Week 15-16 Kant, Duty, Gain a decent understandin g Lecture/interactive Ethel Albert, et. al., Great Group and Individual
Categorical of Kantian deontology, how discussion: Traditions in Ethics (Belmont, output:
(Feb. 5/6 dutybound action is different California: Wadsworth Publishing
Imperative Can Kant’s Moral
- 2021) from that propelled by Elicit examples as Co., 1984) aniel Bonevac, imperative serve as a
inclination Explain the supplement Today’s Moral Issues (New York: guide on one’s
categorical imperative MacGraw-Hill, inc., 2006) decision with regard
and the two fold test for the Group reading and to: a) suicide, b) theft,
principle behind the act activity c) lying, d) borrowing
without the capacity to
pay back (may be
non-dilemma
situations)
Week 17 J.S. Utilitarianism Differentiate consequentialist Lecture and Ethel Albert, et. al., Great Group and Individual
Mill’s from deontological/ Non- interactive discussion Traditions in Ethics (Belmont, output:
(Feb. 19/20, California: Wadsworth Publishing Music/film/literatu re
consequentialist theory Apply on the basics of Mill’s
- 2021) Co., 1984) Daniel Bonevac, listening/review and
and factor in human values Utilitarian Philosophy
(intellectual, moral sentiment, Today’s Moral Issues (New York: comparative: what
Discussion: what MacGraw-Hill, inc., 2006) explains our
aesthetic, and the like) into the
makes one truly predisposition to
standard of happiness
happy and fulfilled? ―lower forms of
Draw the line and appreciate: Music Listening, aesthetic values?
values fit for human subject critique, reaction: example, market
and values fit for swines driven pop-music/
Maybe ―Classical‖ some pop-culture
Explain why some choose piece (Mozart/Bach, films, Dan Brown’s
lesser values while etc.), can the youth ―Da Vinci Code and
maintaining preference to today still appreciate its misguided content
higher human values in the classical culture? —was Mill correct?
light of Mill

Week 18 FINAL EXAMINATION

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 OVERVIEW
Ethics is innate in human beings as a rational being. Ethics studies and covers all actions
performed by human beings. It specifically deals with the rightness or wrongness of the actions
performed by man. We would investigate where do we base our judgement if a certain action is to
be judged as right or wrong. Is there an objective source of morality where we base these
judgements of morality? Does morality spring from the depths of our intellect or does it come from
an external source? do we make the basis of morality or are we mere followers of commandments
of what is right or wrong? Can they be changed by our culture or by the passing of time or
perhaps by what is viewed by the majority?
Furthermore, we would investigate the scope and importance of studying ethics in our lives. We
will also study the relationship of ethics to other fields of sciences and other phases of human life.

COURSE OUTCOMES

At the end of the course, students are expected to:

• Develop and choose moral positions in the face of situations that require moral decision
making

• Argue for the correctness of the moral positions taken and for the inadequacies of
alternatives

• Comprehend and confidently articulate the most basic ethics principles and their relevance
to the moral choices in today’s world

• Enhance awareness of others and how one’s moral decisions and behaviour affect them.

Ethics and its roots

Objectives:
• Define ethics
• Identify the origin and meaning of ethical concepts
• Realize the importance of ethics in our lives

Course material:
• Ethics is one of the five main branches of Philosophy.
• Ethics is the branch of study dealing with what is the proper course of action for man.
• It answers the question, "What do I do?" It is the study of right and wrong in human
endeavors.
• At a more fundamental level, it is the method by which we categorize our values and pursue
them. Do we pursue our own happiness, or do we sacrifice ourselves to a greater cause? Is
the foundation of ethics based on the Bible, or on the very nature of man himself, or
neither?

FOUNDATIONS OF ETHICS

• To better understand Ethics and the moral principles we hold, we must first look for and
investigate where these things stand or where are they founded.
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 • We may ask the following questions: What is morality? What is its nature? Is it an objective
reality? Is it a preference, an opinion or a bunch of cultural conventions? Is it a kind of
science that it seeks to discover moral truths, whose existence is testable and provable? Or
is the nature of morality subjective?
• Metaethics is the study of the origin and meaning of ethical concepts.
• The term "meta" means after or beyond, and, consequently, the notion of metaethics
involves a removed, or bird's eye view of the entire project of ethics.
• Metaethics investigates where our ethical principles come from, and what they mean. Are
they merely social inventions? Do they involve more than expressions of our individual
emotions? Metaethical answers to these questions focus on the issues of universal truths,
the will of God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms
themselves.
• The major meta-ethical views are commonly divided into two camps: Moral Realism and
Moral Anti-Realism:
o Moral Realism (or Moral Objectivism) holds that there are objective moral values, so
that evaluative statements are essentially factual claims, which are either true or
false, and that their truth or falsity are independent of our beliefs, feelings or other
attitudes towards the things being evaluated.
 Some variants of Moral Realism:
• Moral Absolutism is the ethical belief that there are absolute standards against which moral
questions can be judged, and that certain actions are right or wrong, regardless of the
context of the act. Thus, actions are inherently moral or immoral, regardless of the beliefs
and goals of the individual, society or culture that engages in the actions. It holds that
morals are inherent in the laws of the universe, the nature of humanity, the will of God or
some other fundamental source.
• Moral Relativism is the position that moral or ethical propositions do not reflect objective
and/or universal moral truths, but instead make claims relative to social, cultural, historical
or personal circumstances.
o Cultural relativism:
 Descriptive cultural relativism: people’s moral beliefs differ from culture to
culture.
 Normative cultural relativism: it is not our moral beliefs but moral facts
themselves differ from culture to culture. (if culture is the sole arbiter of what is
right then no culture can be wrong)
o Moral Anti-Realism (or Moral Irrealism) is the meta-ethical doctrine that there are
no objective moral values.
 Ethical Subjectivism holds that moral statements are made true or false by the
attitudes and/or conventions of the observers, or that any ethical sentence
implies an attitude held by someone.
These ideas of Metaethics will be used as foundations of the different ethical theories.
SCOPE AND MEANING OF ETHICS
• Ethics studies human acts or human conduct. It studies in particular the morality of
human actions.
• Definitions of Ethics o Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human
conduct. o Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality. o Ethics is the
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 science of human acts with reference to right and wrong. o Ethics is the study of
human conduct from the standpoint of morality.
o Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct.
o Ethics is the science which lays down the principles of right living.
o Ethics is the practical science that guides us in our actions that we may live rightly
and well.
o Ethics is a normative and practical science, based on reason, which studies human
conduct and provides norm for its natural integrity and honesty.
 Ethics is a science - a science is a relatively complete and systematically
arranged body of connected data together with the causes or reasons by
which these data are known to be true. Ethics squares with this definition, for
it is a complete and systematically arranged body of data which relate to
morality of human conduct; and it presents the reasons which show these
data to be true.
 Ethics is a practical science – if the data of a science directly imply rules or
directions for thought or action, the science is called speculative. A
speculative science presents truths to be known. A practical science
presents truths that are to be acted upon. It gives us knowledge with definite
guidance. Now the science of Ethics presents data which directly imply and
indicate directions for human conduct.
 Ethics is a science of human conduct - human conduct means only such
human activity as is deliberate and free. An act performed with advertence
(consciousness) and motive, an act determined (i.e. chosen and given
existence) by the free will, is called a human act. Acts performed by human
beings without advertence, or without the exercise of free choice, are called
acts of man. Ethics treats of human acts; human acts make human
conduct.
 Ethics is the science of the morality of human conduct – human conduct is
either in agreement or disagreement with the dictates of reason. The relation
of human conduct with the dictates of reason is called morality. Ethics
studies human activity to determine what it must be to stand in harmony with
the dictates of reason.
o Ethics is derived from the Greek word ―ethos‖ which means ―a characteristic way
of acting.‖ The characteristic mark of human conduct is found in human acts (free
and deliberate use of the will). o The Latin word ―mos‖ (stem: mor-) is equivalent
to the Greek ―ethos‖; hence we understand why ethics is sometimes called moral
science or moral philosophy.
RELATION OF ETHICS WITH OTHER SCIENCES
• Ethics and Logic – logic is the science of correct thinking. Ethics is the science of right
living. Right living presupposes correct thinking. Doing follows thinking. To think right often
means to do right, as knowledge of right leads to the doing of right.
• Ethics and Psychology - both deal with the study of man, human nature, and human
behavior. Psychology studies how man behaves; ethics studies how man ought to behave.
Ethics is concerned with moral obligation while psychology is not.
• Ethics is related to Sociology – ethics deals with the moral order which includes the social
order. Society depends on ethics for its underlying principles.

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 • Ethics and Economics – man is also an economic being because he has to support himself
by earning a living. Economics and morality are two aspects of one and the same human
nature. Economics deals with topics such as wages, labor, production and distribution of
wealth. But what will determine the relation of employer and employee, for instance? This
and all other relations in business must be based on justice and charity which after all are
moral principles. In order that peace and happiness will prevail in the community, the
actions of man must be governed by the invariable principles of morality.

MORALITY AND THE OTHER PHASES OF HUMAN LIFE

• Ethics and Education – education develops the whole of man: his moral, intellectual and
physical capacities. Man is primarily a rational moral being; the objective of education
should be the development of these powers in man which consists his true perfection.
• Morality and Law - Morality and Law are intimately related. Right and wrong, good and bad
in human actions presuppose a law or rule of conduct. There is, however, a striking
difference between what is moral and what is legal. The legal only covers the external acts
of man; the moral governs even the internal acts of man.
• Ethics and Beauty – ethics stands for moral goodness, art for beauty. Beautiful and good
are one. Evil implies ugliness or defects and the good is always beautiful.
• Ethics and politics - man owes allegiance to the state. Politics aims at good government for
the temporal welfare of the citizens.
• Religion and ethics – both have the same end - the attainment of man’s supreme purpose
or ultimate end. Both prescribe the same means for attaining the goal of man: right living.
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
• Ethics means right living and good character; and it is in good moral character than man
finds his true worth and perfection.
• Education is the harmonious development of the whole man – of all man’s faculties: the
moral, intellectual, and physical powers in man. The primary objective of education is the
moral development of the will.
According to Socrates, ―the unexamined life is not worth living‖. Ethics is the supreme science or
the science par excellence, as it is this science that deals with the Summum Bonum, the supreme
purpose of human living.

Watch:
• Metaethics: Crash Course Philosophy #32
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FOoffXFpAlU
Read:
• Ethics: The Philosophy of life by Felix Montemayor; Chapters 1 and 2

Assessment / Activity:
• Our society, specially profoundly observable in social media, expresses different views
regarding certain issues if it is right or wrong however takes for granted and looks lowly on the
teaching and explain about ethics or morality. Many people only hear or know the word ethics or
morality nominally but does not understand its real meaning.
As a student of this course, do you think is it or is it not necessary to include ethics
in the curriculum? Explain your argument by making a short essay where you
provide evidences and reasons supporting your claim. Your essay should be
presented in a short video of yourself elucidating on the said topics. You may add
images and use various applications to better drive your point.
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Page 12 of 26
Rubrics for the activity:
Criteria Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Beginning
(4 points) (3 points) (2 points) (1 point)

CONTENT All information Most information Some information Information

presented is presented is presented are stated is
clear, accurate accurate, clear accurate and vague and
and specific. All and specific. related to the topic required
the required Statements are given. Some information is
information is related to the required not observed.
stated and topic given. Few information is too
related to the required broad and vague,
topic given. information is while some are
missing. missing.

INSIGHTS AND Fresh insights Fresh insights are Fresh insights are No new
CREATIVITY are articulated, articulated. A new articulated. A insights were
especially in or nontypical typical perspective articulated. A
terms of perspective is is taken as the typical
application to taken as the framework of perspective is
actually-lived life. framework of analysis. taken as the
A new or analysis. framework of
nontypical analysis.
perspective is
taken as the
framework of
analysis.

DEVELOPMENT There is There is There is evidence There is no

AND ANALYSIS evidence of evidence of of research and the evidence of
OF IDEAS thorough research and the data gathered are research. No
research and the data gathered somewhat new ideas
data gathered are are considered in considered in the were
critically the formation of formation of new presented.
considered in the new insights. insights. Ideas
formation of new Ideas presented presented are not
insights. Ideas are defended. clearly defended.
presented are
cogently and
clearly defended.

ORGANIZATION The sequence of The sequence of The sequence of No logical

ideas is very ideas is fluid. ideas is somehow connection
fluid, logical and Logical disconnected. can be
can easily be connection can observed.
followed. be observed.

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 Fundamental Concepts of Morality Overview:
A moral agent is a person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to be held
accountable for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral responsibility not to cause
unjustified harm. By expecting people to act as moral agents, we hold people accountable for the
harm they cause others.
Moral patients are things towards which moral agents can have moral responsibilities. Only
moral agents can function as the bearers of moral obligations towards others, while moral patients
can be the objects of the moral obligations of others but need not themselves be capable of moral
agency. A moral agent is a person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to be held
accountable for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral responsibility not to cause
unjustified harm. Traditionally, moral agency is assigned only to those who can be held responsible
for their actions.

Objectives:
• Define morality
• Identify the determinants of morality
• Realize what dictates the morality of an action

Course material:

Morality
• Morality refers to the quality of goodness or badness in human act.
Norm of Morality
• The basis of distinction between right and wrong.
• By norm of morality we mean therefore:
o The standard of right and wrong in human acts.
o The reason why certain acts are morally right and why certain actions are wrong.
Human acts

• Ethics deals with the study of man and particularly with his actions.
• Not every acct which proceeds from man is a human act.
• By human acts in ethics, we mean:
o The (free) voluntary acts of man.
o Acts done with knowledge and consent.
o Acts which are proper to man as man; because, of all animals, he alone has
knowledge and freedom of will.
o Acts which, we are conscious, are under our control and for which we are
responsible. o Human acts are those of which man is master, which he has the power
of doing or not doing as he pleases.
• Acts, to be truly human, must be done knowingly and willfully.
• Without knowledge and consent, there can be no human act.
• Only human acts have moral significance.
• Movement of other things do not fall under the study of ethics. If things do its purpose, then
it acts well.

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 • Some acts are morally indifferent, i.e., they are neither good nor bad in themselves. (sitting
walking, smiling) they become bad only when they are forbidden by some law or certain
circumstances.
Voluntariness and responsibility
1. Relation between voluntariness and ethics - ethics studies human acts, and human acts
to be human, must be voluntary.
2. Between morality and voluntariness - only voluntary acts have moral bearing. Animals
do not possess freedom of choice in their actions.
3. Human act and voluntariness – human acts are the free acts of man.
4. Responsibility and voluntariness - there can be responsibility only if there is knowledge
and consent; and consent means voluntariness.
5. Punishment - it is absurd and cruel to punish anyone who acted because of pure
necessity, for doing what he could not do otherwise. Unless there is voluntariness, there
can be no responsibility, and without responsibility, punishment is meaningless.
The notion of voluntariness is most basic and inseparable from ethics

o Immoral and amoral

 Immoral is the contradictory of moral. It means contrary to, or violative of, the rules of
right conduct.
 Amoral means morally indifferent, i.e., it is neither good nor bad, in itself.

o Moral and normal

 Normal refers to a physical or psychological standard and has no reference
to moral rectitude. A perfectly normal person can be very immoral, whereas
an abnormal person can be very moral in his acts and live in accordance
with the moral law.

o Peculiarity and perversity

 Perversity or perversion always involves moral turpitude and responsibility,
whereas peculiarity or anomaly does not. (ex. Homosexuality)

 Further studies on voluntariness

1. Ethics deals precisely with the study of human acts, i.e., the voluntary acts of man.
2. It is the amount or degree of voluntariness present in an act which determines the
amount or degree of responsibility and this in turn will determine the amount of
punishment, if any, to be meted out.

o Nature of voluntariness:
 Prefect and imperfect voluntariness:
A. Prefect voluntariness – with full knowledge and full consent.
B. Imperfect voluntariness - occurs when there is no perfect knowledge
nor consent, or either or both knowledge or consent is partial.
 Direct and indirect voluntary act
A. Direct voluntary act – (also called voluntary in se) when the act is
intended for its own sake, either as a means or as an end.

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 B. Indirect voluntary act- (also called voluntary in causa) an act which is
not intended for its own sake but which is which is merely follows as
a regrettable consequence of an action directly willed.

o Why is an indirect voluntary act still voluntary when it is not

intended and follows only as a regrettable side issue?
 When we will to do an act, we will the whole act
including its consequences; and, since we place the
cause, we also indirectly will the effect, although this
in itself regrettable.
 We are therefore responsible for the consequences of
our actions even if these are not intended.
 The cause of the cause is the cause of the thing
caused. In a series of caused causes the first cause is
the true cause.

o The moral principle involved in actions having two effects.

 Is it morally right to do an action from which both good and bad effects follow?
 The answer is yes, but under the following conditions:
A. The act in itself should be good, or at least morally indifferent.
B. The evil effect should not be directly intended, but morally allowed to
happen as a regrettable side issue.
C. There should be a reason sufficiently grave in doing the act; and
D. That the evil effect should not outweigh the good effect.

A. The first condition requires that the act be good in itself. The reason
for this is that if the act itself is bad, then we would be doing evil that
good may come from it. But, ―the end does not justify the means‖.
We should not employ bad means even in order to attain a good end.
We may not do evil that good may result.
B. The second condition requires that the evil effect be not intended. If
the evil be directly intended, the act would be done for the sake of
evil, and this is forbidden directly by the moral law.
C. The act entails bad effects and we should not trifle with evil effects.
D. If the evil effect be greater, then the intention and the motive in doing
the act would be more for evil than for good, and this is against the
moral law.
Factors that lessen Accountability
Since responsibility depends on the voluntariness present in act, we must inquire in to the factors
which affect voluntariness in an action. Factors that influence man’s inner disposition towards
certain actions are called ―modifiers‖ of human acts.

These are namely: ignorance, concupiscence, fear, violence and habits.

1. Ignorance
a. is the absence of intellectual knowledge which a person ought to possess. It is
either vincible or invincible.

Page 16 of 26
 i. Vincible ignorance – can be easily reminded through ordinary diligence and
reasonable efforts. Under of it is the affected ignorance, this is the type which a
person keeps by positive efforts in order to escape responsibility or blame. ii.
Invincible ignorance – is the type which a person possesses without being
aware of it, or, having awareness of it, lack the means to rectify it.
o Principles:
• Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary.
• Vincible ignorance does not destroy, but lessens the voluntariness and the
corresponding accountability over the act.
• Affected ignorance, though it decreases voluntariness, increases the
accountability over the resultant act.

2. Concupiscence (Passions)
a. are either tendencies towards desirable objects, or, tendencies away from
undesirable or harmful things. The former are called positive emotions; latter,
negative emotions. It is either antecedent or consequent.
a. Antecedent – are those precede an act.
b. Consequent – are those that are intentionally aroused and kept.
 Principles:
• Antecedent passions do not always destroy voluntariness, but they diminished
accountability for resultant act.
• Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, but may even increase
accountability.
3. Fear
a. is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by an impending
danger or harm to himself or loved ones.
 Principles:

• Acts done with fear are voluntary.

• Acts done out of fear, however great, is simply voluntary, although it is also
conditionally voluntary.
• Acts done because of intense fear or panic are involuntary.
4. Violence
a. refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the
purpose of compelling said person to act against his will.
• Principles:
• External actions, or commanded actions, performed by a person subjected to
violence, to which reasonable resistance has been offered, are involuntary
and are not accountable.
• Elicited acts, or those done by the will alone, are not subject to violence and
are therefore voluntary.
5. Habits
a. -as defined by Glenn, ―is lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated
acts, for acting in a certain manner.

Page 17 of 26
 Principle:
• Actions done by force of habit are voluntary in cause, unless a reasonable
effort is made to counteract the habitual inclination.
Specific determinants of morality
Moral goodness is perfection. Since perfection must exclude all defects, it follows that moral
goodness requires fullness of being. An act to be morally good must be good in all aspects in its
totality. Any defect spoils it.
We have then to consider not only the act itself but also the end (intention) of the agent and the
circumstances under which the act has been done, in dealing with the morality of human actions.
The specific determinants of morality in man’s volitional activities are: 1) end of the agent; 2) end of
the action; and 3) the circumstances intrinsically affecting either.
Explanation of terms:
1. Specific determinants are those other factors which essentially affect the goodness or
badness of an action, asides from that which determine the generic moral quality of an
action.
2. End of the action – the natural purpose of an act; or that in which the act in its very nature
terminates or results. Thus, the end of the action of studying is learning. The end of the
action is the primary determinant of morality.
3. End of the agent – the intention or aim of the doer. This is to be distinguished from the end
of the action. It varies with different individuals while the end of the act is always the same.

The circumstances
The circumstances under which the act has been committed must be known in order to determine
the morality of an action. An act good in itself and done with good intention may still becomes bad
because it may been done in the wrong or improper circumstances.
Circumstances may likewise increase or decrease the gravity of an offense; or they may justify an
act; or even exempt the agent from criminal responsibility, liability, or punishment.
Types of circumstances:
1. Aggravating circumstances are those which add to the seriousness of the offense.
2. Mitigating or extenuating circumstances are those that lessen or palliate the gravity of a
crime.
3. Justifying circumstances are those that make the doing of an act right; so that there is no
crime committed nor is there any criminal or civil liability.
4. Exempting circumstances are those that exempt an agent from responsibility and
punishment.
The difference between mitigating and justifying circumstances is that the first only lessens but
does not remove the crime, while the second entirely removes responsibility and punishment
because the act done is then right or justified. In the presence of a mitigating circumstance, there
is still a crime.
The difference between justifying and exempting circumstance is that in the presence of a
justifying circumstance there is no crime, while in the exempting circumstance there is still a crime
materially although there is no criminal because then the agent is exempted from responsibility
and punishment.

Page 18 of 26
Situation ethics
In situation ethics, right and wrong depend upon the situation. There are no universal moral rules
or rights - each case is unique and deserves a unique solution. Situation ethics rejects
'prefabricated decisions and prescriptive rules'. It teaches that ethical decisions should follow
flexible guidelines rather than absolute rules and be taken on a case by case basis.
Elements of situation ethics
The elements of situation ethics were described by Joseph Fletcher, its leading modern proponent,
like this:
• Moral judgments are decisions, not conclusions o Decisions ought to be made
situationally, not prescriptively o We should seek the well-being of people, rather
than love principles.
The rightness depends on many factors
The rightness of an action does not reside in the act itself but in the loving configuration of
the factors in the situation--in the 'elements of a human act' --i.e., its totality of end, means,
motive, and foreseeable consequences.

Watch:
• Ethical Understanding: Morality of human acts
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NnJU7wKfnU8

Read:
• Ethics: The Philosophy of life by Felix Montemayor; Chapters 1 and 2
• http://classetika.blogspot.com/2008/05/factors-that-
lessenaccountability.html#:~:text=These%20are%20namely%3A%20ignorance%2C
%2 concupiscence,%2C%20fear%2C%20violence%20and%20habits.&text=%2D%
20is%20the%20absence%20of%20intellectual,is%20either%20vincible%20or%2
0invincible.
Assessment/ Activity:
1. The student should apply his/her understanding of the concepts we have studied by utilizing
the said concepts by providing proof and explanation regarding the justification of a given
issue. The student should choose one of the given issues and explain in detail why he/she
believes that the topic is morally justifiable or not by using the different determinants of
morality as proof.
a. War
b. Abortion
c. Euthanasia
d. Rebellion
The student should make a short essay and present it through a short video presentation.
You may add images and use various applications to better drive your point.

Page 19 of 26
Rubrics for the activity:
Exemplary (4 Satisfactory (3 Developing (2 Beginning (1
Criteria
points) points) points) point)
Most information Some information
All information
presented is presented are
presented is
accurate, clear accurate and Information
clear, accurate
and specific. related to the topic stated is
and specific. All
Statements are given. Some vague and
CONTENT the required
related to the required required
information is
topic given. Few information is too information is
stated and
required broad and vague, not observed.
related to the
information is while some are
topic given.
missing. missing.
Fresh insights Fresh insights are No new
Fresh insights are
are articulated, articulated. A new insights were
articulated. A
especially in or nontypical articulated. A
INSIGHTS AND typical perspective
terms of perspective is typical
CREATIVITY is taken as the
application to taken as the perspective is
framework of
actually-lived life. framework of taken as the
analysis.
A new or non- framework of
typical analysis. analysis.
perspective is
taken as the
framework of
analysis.
There is
evidence of
There is There is evidence
thorough
evidence of of research and
research and the There is no
research and the the data gathered
data gathered are evidence of
DEVELOPMENT data gathered are somewhat
critically research. No
AND ANALYSIS are considered in considered in the
considered in the new ideas
OF IDEAS the formation of formation of new
formation of new were
new insights. insights. Ideas
insights. Ideas presented.
Ideas presented presented are not
presented are
are defended. clearly defended.
cogently and
clearly defended.
The sequence of The sequence of
No logical
ideas is very ideas is fluid. The sequence of
connection
ORGANIZATION fluid, logical and Logical ideas is somehow
can be
can easily be connection can disconnected.
observed.
followed. be observed.

Page 20 of 26
 Norms of Morality
Overview:
• In the normative sense, ―morality‖ refers to a code of conduct that would be
accepted by anyone who meets certain intellectual and volitional conditions, almost
always including the condition of being rational.
There are numerous norms of morality where we can base our judgement whether
an action can be considered as right or wrong. However, with these numerous
norms of morality, we can view a specific action as right or correct for a certain
norm and at the same time wrong or morally incorrect for another. We must study
these norms of morality to better guide us in making the correct moral judgments
and actions.

Objectives:
• Describe norms of morality
• Identify the different norms of morality
• Realize the importance of understanding the different norms of morality

Course material:

1. Hedonism
a. Hedonism, in ethics, a general term for all theories of conduct in which the criterion
is pleasure of one kind or another. The word is derived from the Greek hedone
(―pleasure‖), from hedys (―sweet‖ or ―pleasant‖).
b. Hedonism is a philosophy that regards pleasure and happiness as the most
beneficial outcome of an action. More pleasure and less pain is ethical. More pain
and less pleasure is not.
c. Hedonism is the belief that pleasure, or the absence of pain, is the most important
principle in determining the morality of a potential course of action. Pleasure can be
things like ―sex, drugs, and rock ’n’ roll,‖ but it can also include any intrinsically
valuable experience like reading a good book.
2. Utilitarianism
a. Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing on
outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism. Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical
choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number. Its
core idea is that whether actions are morally right or wrong depends on their effects.
More specifically, the only effects of actions that are relevant are the good and bad
results that they produce.
b. On utilitarian grounds, actions and inactions which benefit few people and harm
more people will be deemed morally wrong while actions and inactions which harm
fewer people and benefit more people will be deemed morally right.

3. Moral rationalism
a. Rationalism maintains that all knowledge and all truths are derived from human
reason. Human reason, therefore, according to the theory is the source of all truths,
all laws, and all principles. Moral rationalism is an ethical theory advocated by
Immanuel Kant. According to this theory, human reason is the source of all moral
laws and all moral obligation. Reason commands and the commands of reason are

Page 21 of 26
 absolute and unconditional, absolutely binding on all men for all times. This is what
Kant called the categorical imperative. Reason commands and we must obey
without questioning. Good must be done simply because we must.
b. Why must we do god according to Kant? We must do good because we must; it is
our duty to obey unconditionally without questioning. It is a priori (not derived from
experience); it is universal; it is absolute, invariable, immutable as the laws and
principles of mathematics. Since the command of reason is categorical and all are
obliged to obey, it is our moral duty to obey unconditionally. Therefore, duty is the
very root, the test and the main spring of all morally good acts. Any other motive or
purpose can only make an act legal but not moral. Morality is grounded on duty or
moral obligation.
c. Autonomy of reason – it is reason that commands and at the same it is reason that
obeys. Therefore, reason makes the law an at the same time is governed by its own
laws.
Heteronomy of reason – morality comes not from reason itself, but from a higher
and other source than human reason.
d. Since reason is universal and the same for all men, and since the command of
reason is categorical and universally binding on all men, it follows that the test for
goodness of an action is its capability of universalization without contradiction. An
action is good if it can be universalized.
4. Moral evolutionism
a. According to this theory, morality is never fixed or absolute, but is continually
changing and evolving gradually into a perfect morality. According to Friedrich
Nietzsche, the distinction of good and evil in the moral sense is originally unknown.
The laws that at present rule the world are the laws of the slaves who for a time
have, with the aid of priests, gained mastery over the aristocrats. These are the
laws derived and based on the teachings of Christianity which stands for meekness,
humility, sacrifice, etc. These glorify and favor the weak and produce weaklings but
we must produce the strong. The law of nature is the survival of the fittest.
Hardship, severe justice, rigid training, conflict is productive of the strong. Hate,
cruelty, harshness, and war toughen the spirit and is productive of the strong, the
superman. Therefore, might, strength and power form the basis of true morality.
Good, therefore, is one that makes one strong and powerful and, most of all,
superhuman.
5. Moral positivism
a. This theory holds that the basis or source of all moral laws is the laws of the state.
Good is that which is in accordance with the laws of the state. Bad is that which is
forbidden by the state. According to Hobbes, nature primitively was in a state of
universal war. ―Homo homini lupus.‖ Man is a wolf onto his fellow. Mankind was in
a state of war before forming the state. There was no law, no morality. To end this
state of war and anarchy, men came together to form the state. Laws, rights and
duties were then established. Morality then has its source, its origin from the laws of
the state according to this theory.

6. Moral Sensism
a. This is an ethical theory which holds that man is endowed with a special moral sense
by virtue of which man distinguishes between right and wrong.

Page 22 of 26
 7. Communism
a. Communism is primarily an economic theory. The moral philosophy of communism
is the logical consequence of its metaphysics or view of reality known as dialectic
materialism. According to this theory, matter is the only reality.
b. What is good according to communism? Good is that which brings about and
hastens the realization of a classless society; bad, that which hinders or delays its
coming.
c. The end of man, therefore, which is the classless society, is the norm of morality.
The end, therefore, determines the morality of an act according to communism. The
means does not matter.

8. Virtue ethics
Virtue ethics is a broad term for theories that emphasize the role of character and
virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing one's duty or acting in order to bring
about good consequences.

"Virtues" are attitudes, dispositions, or character traits that enable us to be and to

act in ways that develop this potential. They enable us to pursue the ideals we have
adopted. Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, selfcontrol,
and prudence are all examples of virtues.

Aristotle's 8 virtues:
 Courage – bravery.
 Temperance – moderation.
 Liberality – spending.
 Magnificence – charisma, style.
 Magnanimity – generosity.
 Ambition – pride.
 Patience – temper, calm.
 Friendliness – social IQ.

Aristotle. Moral virtues are exemplified by courage, temperance, and liberality; the key
intellectual virtues are wisdom, which governs ethical behaviour, and understanding, which
is expressed in scientific endeavour and contemplation.

One of the most famous aspects of the Ethics is Aristotle's doctrine that virtue exists as a
mean state between the vicious extremes of excess and deficiency. For example, the
virtuous mean of courage stands between the vices of rashness and cowardice, which
represent excess and deficiency respectively.

Adam Smith, in his important book The Theory of Moral Sentiments, wrote that excellent
people have three primary virtues: prudence, justice, and benevolence, in that order. Each
of them is essential to the others and to the living of a full life in society.

Because of this reference, a group of seven attributes is sometimes listed by adding the
four cardinal virtues (prudence, temperance, fortitude, justice) and three theological virtues
(faith, hope, charity). Together, they compose what is known as the seven virtues.

Ten virtues, they are

1. Deep honesty,

Page 23 of 26
 2. Moral courage,
3. Moral vision,
4. Compassion and care,
5. Fairness,
6. Intellectual excellence,
7. Creative thinking,
8. Aesthetic sensitivity,
9. Good timing, and
10. Deep selflessness.

There are two kinds of virtue: intellectual and moral. We learn intellectual virtues by
instruction, and we learn moral virtues by habit and constant practice. We are all born with
the potential to be morally virtuous, but it is only by behaving in the right way that we train
ourselves to be virtuous.

Telos is the ancient Greek term for an end, fulfilment, completion, goal or aim; it is the
source of the modern word 'teleology'. In ethical theory, each human action is taken to be
directed towards some telos (i.e. end), and practical deliberation involves specifying the
concrete steps needed to attain that telos.

Virtues are habits. That is, once they are acquired, they become characteristic of a person.
For example, a person who has developed the virtue of generosity is often referred to as a
generous person because he or she tends to be generous in all circumstances.

Happiness as virtue
Happiness is not pleasure, nor is it virtue. It is the exercise of virtue. Happiness depends
on acquiring a moral character, where one displays the virtues of courage, generosity,
justice, friendship, and citizenship in one's life. These virtues involve striking a balance or
"mean" between an excess and a deficiency.

Aristotle concludes the Ethics with a discussion of the highest form of happiness:
a life of intellectual contemplation. Since reason is what separates humanity from animals,
its exercise leads man to the highest virtue.

Four Levels of Happiness:

o Happiness level 1: Laetus. Happiness from material objects.

o Happiness level 2: Felix. Ego gratification.
o Happiness level 3: Beatitudo. The happiness from doing good for others and
making the world a better place. o Happiness level 4: Sublime Beatitudo. Ultimate,
perfect happiness.

9. Natural law theory

Eternal and divine law
Eternal Law is the Divine Wisdom of God which oversees the common good and governs
everything. Eternal law is God’s plan to lead all creation towards God’s eternal salvific plan.
God, as ―Being-itself‖, is able to promulgate such a law as God the Creator’s reason is also
perfect wisdom. Everything in nature reflects the Eternal Law in their own natures. Things act
according to their nature, so they derive their proper ends (final cause) according to the law written
into their nature.

Page 24 of 26
Divine Law is the historical laws of Scripture given to us through God’s self-revelation.
Natural law and human law
It is ―natural‖ as it consists of Reason given to us by the ―higher reason‖ of the divine Lawgiver.
They are natural as they are objective principles which originate in human nature. The natural law
is universal because it encompasses every person, of every epoch: ―it is immutable and
permanent throughout history; the rules that express it remain substantially valid‖.
Every man is bound to live by his rational nature, guided by reason. The natural law expresses the
dignity of the person and determines the basis for his fundamental rights and duties. The first
principle of the natural law is ―good is to be done and pursued, and evil avoided‖. All other
precepts of natural law rest upon this.
Human Law is the interpretation of natural law in different contexts. Natural law is a foundation for
moral and civil law. Government laws are dictates of practical reason from the precepts of Natural
Law.
Hierarchy of Law
For Aquinas, human laws are derived from natural law which is a participation in the eternal law.
Therefore, eternal law is at the top, followed by natural law, and then human law. Divine law is the
revealed law of God to man, while natural law is the imprint of eternal law on the hearts of men.

Watch:
• Kant & Categorical Imperatives: Crash Course Philosophy #35
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bIys6JoEDw&list=PLa_ZSYFNmJvvtaPCcfY
-xQljsJDyhMtWe&index=4
• Utilitarianism: Crash Course Philosophy #36 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
a739VjqdSI&list=PLa_ZSYFNmJvvtaPCcfYxQljsJDyhMtWe&index=5

• Natural Law Theory: Crash Course Philosophy #34

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r_UfYY7aWKo

• Aristotle & Virtue Theory: Crash Course Philosophy #38

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrvtOWEXDIQ

Read:
• Ethics: The Philosophy of life by Felix Montemayor; Chapters 6
• https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/utilitarianism#:~:text=Utilitarianism
%20is%20an%20ethical%20theory,good%20for%20the%20greatest%20number.
• https://iep.utm.edu/util-a-r/
• https://www.utilitarianism.com/hedonism.html#:~:text=Ethical%20hedonism%20is
%20the%20view,minimize%20pain%20and%20maximize%20pleasure.
• https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/hedonism
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/hedonism
• https://iep.utm.edu/hedonism/

Assessment/ Activity:
1. To apply their understanding of the lessons learned, students would come up with a film
analysis paper utilizing the concepts learned. Students would identify the norms of morality
present and/or employed in the movie. They would also analyze and pronounce judgment
whether the given movie would be considered ethically good or bad in relation to the

Page 25 of 26
 different norms of morality. They should provide proof and justification to support their
argument.
Rubrics for the activity:

Exemplary (4 Satisfactory (3 Developing Beginning (1

Criteria
points) points) (2 points) point)
Most information Some information
All information
presented is presented are
presented is
accurate, clear accurate and Information
clear, accurate
and specific. related to the topic stated is
and specific. All
Statements are given. Some vague and
CONTENT the required
related to the required required
information is
topic given. Few information is too information is
stated and required broad and vague, not observed.
related to the information is while some are
topic given. missing. missing.
Fresh insights
are articulated,
especially in No new
Fresh insights are
terms of Fresh insights are insights were
articulated. A new
application to articulated. A articulated. A
or nontypical
INSIGHTS AND actually-lived life. typical perspective typical
perspective is
CREATIVITY A new or non- is taken as the perspective is
taken as the
typical framework of taken as the
framework of
perspective is analysis. framework of
analysis.
taken as the analysis.
framework of
analysis.
There is There is evidence There is evidence
evidence of of of research and
There is no
thorough research and the the data gathered
evidence of
DEVELOPMENT research and the data gathered are somewhat
research. No
AND ANALYSIS data gathered are are considered in considered in the
new ideas
OF IDEAS critically the formation of formation of new
were
considered in the new insights. insights. Ideas
Ideas presented presented are not presented.
formation of new
insights. Ideas are defended. clearly defended.
presented are
cogently and
clearly defended.
The sequence of The sequence of
No logical
ideas is very ideas is fluid. The sequence of
connection
ORGANIZATION fluid, logical and Logical ideas is somehow
can be
can easily be connection can disconnected.
observed.
followed. be observed.

Page 26 of 26