7 Social em 2020-21 PDF

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CHILDREN’S BILL OF RIGHTS
DO YOU KNOW DO’S AND DON’TS
A child is every person under the age of 18 years. Parents have the primary FOR FACING THESE
responsibility for the upbringing and development of the child. The State shall
respect and ensure the rights of the child. NATURAL DISASTERS !
• I have the Right to express my views freely, which should be taken seriously, and
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everyone has the Responsibility to listen to others. [Article-12,13]
• I have the Right to good health care and everyone has the Responsibility to help
others get basic health care and safe water. [Article- 24]
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• I have to Right to good education, and everyone has the Responsibility to encourage
all children to go to school [Article- 28,29,23]
• I have the Right to be loved and protected from harm and abuse, and everyone
has the Responsibility to love and care for others. [Article-19]
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• I have the Right to be included whatever my abilities, and everyone has the
Responsibility to respect others for their differences. [Article- 23]
• I have the Right to be proud of my heritage and beliefs, and everyone has the
Responsibility to respect the culture and belief of others. [Article- 29,30]
• I have the Right to safe and comfortable home and everyone has the Responsibility
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to make sure all children have homes. [Article- 27]
• I have the Right to make mistakes, and everyone has the Responsibility to accept
we can learn from our mistakes. [Article- 28]
• I have the Right to be well fed and everyone has the Responsibility to prevent
people starving. [Article- 24]
• I have the Right to a clean environment, and everyone has the Responsibility not
to pollute it. [Article- 29]
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• I have the Right to live without violence (verbal, physical, emotional), and everyone
has the Responsibility not to be violent to others. [Article- 28, 37]
• I have the Right to be protected from economic exploitation, and everyone has the
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Responsibility to ensure that no child is forced to work and is given a free and
secure environment. [Article- 32, 34]
These rights and responsibilities are enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the
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Rights of the Child, 1989. It contains all the rights which children and young people have
all over the world. The Government of India signed this document in 1992.
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5 SOCIAL STUDIES
Class VII %
Editors
Sri C.N. Subramanyam, Prof. G. Omkarnath, Dept. of Economics,
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Eklavya, Bhopal, M.P. University of Hyderabad. Hyderabad.
Prof. I. Laxmi, Dept.of History, Prof. S. Padmaja, Dept.of Geography,
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Osmania University, Hyderabad. Osmania University, Hyderabad.
Prof. M.Kodandaram, Dept. of Political Prof. A. Satyanarayana (Retd.), Dept. of
Science, P.G. College, Sec’bad, Hyd. History, Osmania University, Hyderabad.
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Prof. K. Vijaya Babu, Dept. of History, Dr. K.K. Kailash, Dept. of Political Science,
Kakatiya University, Warangal. HCU, Hyderabad.
Dr. M.V. Srinivasan, Asst. Prof.
N Sri Aravind Sardana, Director,
Eklavya, Bhopal, M.P.
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DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi.
Dr. M.V.S.V. Prasad, Asst. Prof. Dr. K. Narayana Reddy,
DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi. Asst.Prof. Dept.of Geography, O.U., Hyd.
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Dr. C. Dayakar Reddy, Asst. Prof. Sri Rammurthy Sharma,

University College for Women, Koti, Hyd. Dept. of Education, Govt. of Punjab.
Sri K. Suresh, Sri Alex. M.George,
Manchi Pustakam, Hyderabad. Eklavya, Bhopal, M.P.
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Textbook Development Committee
Smt. B. Seshu Kumari, Director, Sri B. Sudhakar, Director,

SCERT, Telangana, Govt. Textbook Printing Press,
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Hyderabad. Telangana, Hyderabad.
Dr. N. Upender Reddy,

Professor & Head C&T Dept.,
SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
% Published by Government of Telangana, Hyderabad. 5

Respect the Law Grow by Education
Get the Rights Behave Humbly
i Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21

© Government of Telangana, Hyderabad.
First Published 2012
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New Impressions 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020
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All rights reserved.
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No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means without the prior permission in writing of the
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publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any form of
binding or cover other than that in which it is published
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and without a similar condition including this condition
being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
The copyright holder of this book is the Director
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of School Education, Hyderabad, Telangana.

We have used some photographs which are under
creative common licence. They are acknowledge at
the end of the book.
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This Book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. Maplitho,

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Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card
Free Distribution by Government of Telangana 2020-21

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Printed in India
at the Telangana Govt. Text Book Press,
Mint Compound, Hyderabad,
Telangana.
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Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 ii

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SOCIAL STUDIES
Class VII
Writers
Sri K. Laxminarayana, Lecturer, DIET, Angalur, Krishna Dist.
Sri M. Narasimha Reddy, GHM, ZPHS Peddajangampally, Y.S.R.Kadapa.
Sri K. Subramanyam, Lecturer, DIET, Kurnool.
Sri M. Papaiah, Lecturer, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
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Dr. B.V.N. Swamy, S.A., GHS Huzurabad, Karimnagar.
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Sri P. Srinivasulu, S.A., ZPHS Bandaposanipally, Medak.
Sri Ayachithula Laxman Rao, S.A., GHS Dhangarwadi, Karimnagar.
Smt S. Suvarna Devi, Lecturer, Govt. Degree College, Narsapur, Medak.
Dr. Racharla Ganapathi, S.A., ZPHS Ladella, Warangal.
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Sri Korivi Srinivasa Rao, S.A., MPUPS, P.R.Pally, Tekkali, Srikakulam.
Sri Ch. Radha Krishna, S.A., ZPHS Venkatapuram, Srikakulam.
Sri T. Rama Krishna, S.A., ZPHS Deva Penugonda, West Godavari.
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Sri K. Kumara Swamy, S.A., ZPHS Dowdepally, Adilabad.
Smt B. Sarala, S.A., ZPGHS Indukurupet, Nellore.
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Sri P.V. Krishna Rao, LFL HM, P.S. Mohalla No. 16, Yellandu, Khammam
Sri A.R. Ramesh Rao, S.A., ZPHS Roddam, Anantapur.
Sri Gaddmeedi Rathanga Pani Reddy, SA, ZPHS Janampet, Moosapet, Mahabubnagar.
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Sri Vanguri Gangi Reddy, SA, ZPHS Kondurg, Mahabubnagar.

Dr. Chakinala Srinivas, GHM, GHS Durgammagadda, Karimnagar.
Sri U. Anandkumar, S.A, Z.P.H.S, Sujatha Nagar, Khammam.
Sri NC Jagannath, GHS Kulsumpura, Hyderabad.
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Smt. Hemakhatri, IGNIS, Hyd. (Proof reading)

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Coordinators
Prof. J. Raghavulu, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Sri M. Papaiah, Lecturer, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Sri S.Vinayak, Coordinator , C&T Dept. SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
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Dr. Racharla Ganapathi, S.A., ZPHS Ladella, Warangal.

Sri Ayachithula Laxman Rao, S.A., GHS Dhangarwadi, Karimnagar.
Sri P. Srinivasulu, S.A., ZPHS Bandaposanipally, Medak.
Illustrators
Sri Kurella Srinivas, S.A., ZPHS, Pochampally, Nalgonda.
Sri B. Kishore Kumar, SGT, MP UPS, Alwala, Anumula, Nalgonda.
Sri P. Anjaneyulu, Geomapper, CESS-DCS, Hyderabad
DTP & Design
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Kishan Thatoju, Computer Operator, C&T Dept., SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
Kannaiah Dara, Computer Operator, C&T Dept., SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.
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Smt. K. Pavani, Graphic Designer, Hyderabad.
iii Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21
Letter to students
“As my mother lies down too tired to move after a full day of work in the fields and at home,
I sit beside her and wonder,why is life so difficult for women? If I set out of my home I find so
many different people – people who speak such different languages and follow such different
customs, I wonder who they are and why there are such different kinds of people.
I read newspapers and find out that so many of our farmers who grow our food with such
effort are committing suicide out of desperation. I wonder, what has made them so desperate
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and feel so hopeless. As I walk in the streets of a town, I see such large and beautiful buildings
and roads and temples, mosques and churches. I wonder who built them and at what cost. I also
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see slums in which thousands live in conditions most unfortunate and I wonder, why don’t they
have a good place to live in cities with such beautiful buildings.
My elders too discuss some of these problems and talk of voting and electing the right people
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to rule and I wonder who rules us and how do they rule us? My grandparents tell me tales of
olden days when there were kings and queens and of times when gods and saints walked among
us people. I wonder if such things were really possible.
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I have so many questions that I often wonder if anyone has answers to them at all. Perhaps no
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one person knows all the answers and perhaps no one may know the answers to some of the
questions. Perhaps I need to find out myself. How can I find out? Who will help me?”
Dear Friends,
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The questions that are arising in your minds are some of the most important questions
which everyone needs to find some answers. They are not at all easy to answer for most of them
do not have any one definite answer. In fact many questions will be answered differently by
different people. So perhaps you too will have your own answer after you have studied the
problem carefully. Social Sciences try to understand the society we live in – by asking questions
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and working out methods for answering them. It also seeks to help us to understand why different
people answer the questions differently- for example if you ask anyone, why are there very few
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girls in colleges compared to schools, you will get different answers from different kinds of
people. If you ask why the slums are not cleaned like the colonies of the rich, you will again get
very different answers. Why do people answer these questions differently? Social Sciences try
to understand this problem too.
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Social Sciences do not merely compile different answers to a problem. They try to bring
a rigorous method to study them. They try to understand the problem by seeing how it developed
– and how and why it has changed; they try to see if it is similar all over the earth or it changes in
different parts of the world; and they try to understand the different points of view about it. Have
there been fewer girls in colleges in the past? Is it that all over the world there are fewer girls in
colleges? Why? What prevents girls from attending colleges? What do parents who don’t send
their daughters say? What do parents who send their daughters say? What do the girls say?
What do the teachers say? Social Scientists put together all these before answering the main
question. But no Social Scientist can give you the final or definite answer and it is you who have
to decide which answer you find more convincing and useful for you to act.
– Editors
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 iv

About this book
This book is a part of your Social Science Curriculum or a part of various things you would be
doing to study the society around you. However, remember that it is only one small part of that curriculum.
The Social Science Curriculum requires you to analyse and share in the classroom what you know. It
requires you above all to ask questions – think why things are the way they are. It also requires you and
your friends to go out of the classroom to the market, to the Panchyat or municipality office, to the
village fields, to temples and mosques and museums and find out various things. You will have to meet
and discuss with a number of people, farmers, shopkeepers, officials, priests, and so on.
This book will introduce you to a range of problems and enable you to study them and arrive at
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your own understanding of them. So, the most important thing about this book is that it does not have
answers. In fact, this book is not really complete. It can only be completed when you and your friends
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and teachers bring their own questions and experiences and discuss everything threadbare in the class.
You may disagree with many things in this book - do not be afraid to say so - only give your reasons.
Your friends may disagree with you, but try to understand why they have a different view. Finally arrive
at your own answers. You may not even be sure of your answer - you may want to find out more before
you make up your mind. In that case list your questions carefully and request your friends, teachers or
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elders to help you to find out.
This book will help you to study different aspects of our social life - about diversity of land and
people, about how people get their livelihoods, how people provide for their common needs and manage
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them, how all people in our society are not equal and how people try to bring about equality, how people
worship different gods in different ways, and finally how they communicate with each other and build
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a culture which is shared by them. It also helps the children in seeking protection and security.
To understand some of these matters you may have to study about the earth - the hills, plains and
rivers and seas; to understand others you may have to know what happened hundreds or even thousands
of years ago; but most of all you may have to go out and talk to different kinds of people around you.
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As you study this book in the class room, you will come across many questions - do stop and try to
answer those questions or do the activity suggested before you proceed ahead. It is not so important to
finish the lesson fast as it is to discuss the questions and do the activities.
Many lessons will suggest projects which may take a few days to do. These projects will enable
you to develop skills of social science enquiry and analysis and presentation - these are more important
than remembering what is written in the lessons.
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Please remember that you don't have to memorise what is given in the lesson, but think about them
and form your own opinion about them.
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We can use content related maps, tables & graphs other than text book for practice and evaluation.
Discussions, conducting interviews, debates and projects are given in the middle of the running
lesson and after the improve your learning. To develop social consiousness, sensitivity and positive
attitude among the children is the purpose. Hence these must be taken up.
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Director, SCERT,
Telangana, Hyderabad.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to acknowledge the contributiojn of Dr. K.N. Anandan, linguist, Kerala, Sri. P. Dakshina Murthy,
Rtd. Dy.director, Telugu Academy, Deepa Srinivasan, Krithika Viswanath, K. Bhagya Lakshmi, R.V. Vyas, Ramamurthy
Sarma, Roy Sinai, who participated in our workshops and contributed in improving the quality of the text book. Our
outmost respects to Dr.Upinder Singh, University of Delhi, Archaeological Museum Dept, Govt. of Telangana, Layout
and designers. We are also thankful to the photographers used in the book are taken from flickr, wikipedia or other
internet sources.
We gratefully acknowledge the feedback received from a large number of school teachers, academics and others,
which has helped us to update and revise the books. In particular we would like to acknowledge the detailed review of
the textbooks by Indian History Awareness & Research (IHAR), Houston Taxas, USA which enabled us to improve the
textbook.
v Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21
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Subs. by the constitution [Forty-second Amendment] Act, 1976, Sec.2, for “Sovereign Democratic
Republic” (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
Subs. by the constitution [Forty-second Amendment] Act, 1976, Sec.2, for “Unity of the Nation”
(w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 vi

CONTENTS
S.No Content Page No Month
Theme - I: Diversity on the Earth
1. Reading Maps of Different kinds 1-6 June
2. Rain and Rivers 7-21 June
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3. Tanks and Ground Water 22-32 July
4. Oceans and Fishing 33-41 July
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5. Europe 42-57 July
6. Africa 58-68 August
Theme - II: Production Exchange and Livelihoods
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7. Handicrafts and Handlooms 69-77 August
8.
9.
Industrial Revolution
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Production in a Factory - A Paper Mill
78-85
86-94
August
September
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10. Importance of Transport System 95-100 September
Theme -III: Political Systems and Governance

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11. New Kings and Kingdoms 101-109 September

12. The Kakatiyas - Emergence of a Regional Kingdom 110-116 October
13. The Kings of Vijayanagara 117-125 November
14. Mughal Empire 126-134 November
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15. Establishment of the British Empire in India 135-146 November

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16. Making of Laws in the State Assembly 147-157 December
17. Implementation of Laws in the District 158-164 December
Theme - IV: Social Organisation and Inequities

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165-171 January
18. Caste Discrimination and the Struggle for Equalities
172-180 January
19. Livelihood and Struggles of Urban Workers
Theme - V: Religion and Society

20. Folk - Religion 181-187 February
21. Devotional Paths to the Divine 188-196 February
Theme -VI: Culture and Communication

22. Rulers and Buildings 197-207 February
Revision & Annual Examinations March

vii Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21
OUR NATIONAL ANTHEM
- Rabindranath Tagore
Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he
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Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.
Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha
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Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
Uchchhala-jaladhi-taranga.
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Tava shubha name jage,
Tava shubha asisa mage,
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Gahe tava jaya gatha,
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Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.
Jaya he! jaya he! jaya he!
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Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!!

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PLEDGE
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- Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao

“India is my country; all Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
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I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,

and treat everyone with courtesy. I shall be kind to animals.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.
In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.”
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 viii

1
CHAPTER
Reading Maps of
Different Kinds
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The world we live in is so full of variety – mountains, hills, sea coasts, deserts,
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forests, snow-covered regions.... Why is there so much variation? How does this affect
the lives of people who live in those parts? To study and understand these questions,
we need to take the help of maps of different kinds. Some maps tell us about how
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high or low the places are, some tell us about how much it rains there or how hot or
cold it gets, some tell us about crops that grow there or the kinds of forests that are
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found in those areas. By studying them, we can know many things about the world.
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Fig 1.1 Evergreen forest in Western Fig 1.2 Cocana Beach in Brazil
ghats of Karnataka of South America
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Fig 1.4 Ice covered continent -

Fig 1.3 An Oasis in the Sahara desert of Libya Antarctica
in Africa
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 1
Bring copies of School Atlas and see how many different kinds of maps are there. Make
a list of the maps you would like to read and understand. Last year, we learnt to read some
simple maps. This year, we will learn to read maps that show height. But let us first revise
what we learnt last year.
Hang a political map of India in the class. Look at the map carefully and answer
the following questions:
i. Mehar went to Bhopal from Hyderabad. In which direction did he travel?
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ii. Ashok went to Chennai from Lucknow. In which direction did he travel?
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iii. Regina went to Bhubaneshwar from Mumbai. In which direction did she
travel?
iv. Weprechu went to Jaipur from Kohima. In which direction did he travel?
Make such questions and ask each other.
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Look at the symbols shown on the map. Now try to find out the boundary of
Telangana. Trace your finger along the boundary.
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Draw the symbol for the boundary of a state and the symbol for the boundary of
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India (international boundary) in your notebook.
Can you make a list of states which lie to the north, south, west and east of
Telangana?
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In class VI, you have learnt to measure the distance between places with the help of the
‘scale’ given in the map. Now try to find out the distance between Hyderabad and various
state capitals like Jaipur, Imphal, Gandhinagar and Tiruvananthapuram.
Symbols
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Point, Line, Area: We use symbols to show physical objects on the map. You have seen
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some of them in class VI.

If we are asked to show Delhi in the map of India, we will mark a point ( ) and label it
as Delhi. To show the river Manjeera, we draw a line ( ) along its course.For the
Railway line, we will draw a track line ( ) to represent it. In Telangana map, if we
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want to show the area of Medak or Hyderabad district, we demarcate its boundary and mark
it with some colour or pattern, which is known as a real symbol. Thus, all physical objects
are shown on the map with the help of a point, line or an area symbol.
Look at a few maps in the later chapters of this book and list out the objects in
the given map in the following table:
Point Symbol Line Symbol Area Symbol
1. Delhi 1. River 1. Playground
2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
2 Diversity on the Earth Social Studies
Map-1 : States and Capitals
Srinagar
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Jammu
1 centimeter = 200 kilometers
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Shimla
Chandigarh
Dehra Dun
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New Delhi Itanagar
Gangtok
Jaipur
Dispur
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Lucknow
Patna
Shillong
Kohima
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Imphal
Gandhinagar Ranchi Agartala
Bhopal Aizawal
Kolkata
Raipur
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Bhuvaneswar
Mumbai
Hyderabad
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Amaravati
Panaji
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Index
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The external
lor
boundary of India
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henn Boundary of States
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Capital of States
Lakshadweep
Thiruvananthapuram
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Reading Maps of Different Kinds 3

Physical Maps
You will find some maps in your Atlas called ‘Physical Maps’. In these maps, you will
usually find different parts of the land coloured in green, yellow or brown. Actually, they
show the variety of landforms (mountains, plateaus, plains etc.) and depict the height of
places.
How can we represent the heights of land on flat paper? Of course, we can make a drawing
like the one below:
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Nimpur As you can see this is a
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Temple
picture and not a map. Here
the height of the hills hide
what is behind them. A map
River should show all the places
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without hiding them. Can
you think of a way in which
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place?
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One way in which we can
show heights on maps is
Fig 1.5 Drawing of “Nimpur” Village through the use of colour.
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Let us see how this is done.

Measuring Height on Land
All heights on the land are calculated from the sea level. Since all the seas in the world
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are connected to each other, the sea level (the top surface) all over the world is taken to be
roughly the same. Look at the picture of Nimpur village given below to understand this
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idea.
You can see from the picture that Nimpur village is fifty meters above the sea level.
How many meters above the sea level is the temple?
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How many meters above the sea level is the top of the hill?
Temple
Nimpur Village
Fig 1.6 Heights in Nimpur Village

Showing Height on a Map
0 to 50
Look at the map of Nimpur village area Meters
given here (Fig 1.7). 51 to 100
Can you see that the map shows three Meters
height zones – firstly, areas which are 101 to 150
between 0 meter to 50 meters height, areas Meters
which are between 51 meters and 100
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meters and then finally, areas which are Fig 1.7 Figure of Nimpur Village showing heights
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between 101 meters and 150 meters? Thus,
Uses of Maps showing Heights
any place which falls in the height zone 51-
100 meters will have a height of above 50 These maps help us to understand the
meters but below 100 meters. Height is nature of the terrain, where the mountains
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shown in different shades of colours. are, where the valleys are, etc. If you look
Look at the map of Nimpur at the physical map of Telangana, you can
showing height. What is the colour
given to the area adjacent to the
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part. If you travel westwards from the
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sea? slopes, you will reach the hills in the
What is the colour given to the Plateau region. The plateau region itself is
highest region in this map? cut by many rivers like the Krishna and the
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Now, look at the Physical Map of India Godavari, which form deep and broad
or Telangana in your atlas or wall map. Find valleys in them.
out the range of heights and colours for the Maps showing height are very essential
places given below by reading the index. when roads or dams have to be
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Contour Lines constructed. If we have to lay roads in an

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A contour is a line joining places with undulating region between two places, such
equal heights on the map. On the map of maps help us in deciding the route to be
Nimpur, you would have seen a line passing taken by the road. Similarly, when dams are
through the village, this is the 50 meter planned, it is necessary to know how much
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contour line. All places on this line will land will be submerged by the water of the
have the same height of 50 meters. Contour dam.
lines are shown in irregular shapes
depending upon the land form. These lines 0 to 20
cannot cut with each other. The distance Meters
between two contour lines will depend 21 to 30
upon the landscape. If the land has a steep Meters
climb then the contour lines will be near 31 to 40
each other. If the slope of the land is gentle, Meters
then the contour lines will be quite far from 41 to 50
Fig 1.8 Meters
each other.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Reading Maps of Different Kinds 5
Mean Sea Level Look at figure 1.8 and answer the
There are high tides and low tides on following questions:
the level of the sea, and they never stand
Mark the direction of flow of the
still. As a result of this phenomenon, the
river.
level of the sea keeps on either rising or
falling. Which of these heights do we The height of the lowest land is
take as the sea level or 0 meter height? between ____ meters and _____
meters.
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In order to solve this problem, the level
of the sea is carefully measured at There are two high points in this
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frequent intervals and the mean level of map. What are their heights?
the sea is calculated. Over a period,
scientists observed the high and low Improve your learning
levels of the sea and they have come to
1. Why are the levels of all the seas equal in the
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one calculated average level, which is world?
known as Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.).
2. How is the sea level measured?
If you live near a Railway station,
find out the height of that place with
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4. What differences do you find between the life
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the help of display board. The height style of people living on high altitudes and low
is mentioned as “________ M.S.L.”. altitudes?
Note it down in your note book. 5. How are maps helpful to people?
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6. Read the para ‘Contour Lines’ on page 5 and

Look at figures 1.6 & 1.7 and tell comment on it.
whether Nimpur would be 7. Observe the Telangana map given and list out
submerged if sea waters were to the areas of districts which are below
flood up to 30 meters?
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150 MSL.
Map-2 TELANGANA -
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R Penganga
R Wainganga SEA LEVEL
MAHARASHTRA
ita
ah
R Godavari RG ran CHHATTISGHARH
oda P
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var R
i
R Manair
R Manjeera
Telangana Plateau
KARNATAKA
R Musi
R Dindi
R Krishna
ANDHRAPRADESH
R Krishna
R Tungabhadra

2
CHAPTER
Rain and Rivers
A
AN
All life on earth is very crucially
dependent on water. As you know, over
71% of the earth’s surface is covered
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with water. We depend on water for
growing crops. But we do not get water
uniformly over the year. It is also not
available uniformly all over the earth.
N
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Nor is the quality of water the same
everywhere.
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Discuss the following in the class: in

which months you get rain, in which part get salty or hard water. In the following
of the village or town do you have more chapters, we will study about the
water or less water, where do you get diversity in water availability and its
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good drinking water and where do you consequences.

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PART - I
Sun, Clouds and Rainfall the water heated up, water vapours touched
the lid and with the help of outside cool air,
After the unbearable heat of April, May
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vapour became water drops and stuck to

and June comes the rainy season, which
lasts for a few months. Do you know what the lid of the dish. When she removed the
causes rains? Where do the rain bearing lid, some of the water drops fell down into
clouds come from? Discuss whatever you the dish. By observing this, she realised
know or think about these things in the that the water evaporates and latter it
class. becomes condensed into water by
Evaporation cooling.
Pranavi woke up early in the morning. The story of rain begins with water
She needed to take bath in hot water, so vapour. What is water vapour? When you
she heated water in a dish over fire. As dry your wet clothes in the open, you see

that the water disappears after a while and Formation of Clouds and Rain
the clothes dry. Similarly, if you keep some
When there is rise in temperature, water
water in a plate, it dries up in a couple of
vapour rises and reaches high up in the sky,
days. Actually, water in the clothes or in
and it gets cooled. This is because the
the plate becomes water vapour and mixes
atmosphere gets cooler as we rise above
with the air through a process called
the surface of the earth. With the cooling,
‘evaporation’. So, even when water is not
water vapour is transformed into tiny water
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boiling there is evaporation.
droplets. These droplets gather around
There are several water bodies on the minute dust or smoke particles in the air
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earth’s surface – oceans, rivers, lakes etc. and gradually increase in size. These small
There is constant evaporation of water from drops of water gather to form the clouds.
these water bodies. In fact, wherever there
is moisture, evaporation will take place.
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There is evaporation from our bodies, from
trees, plants and soil. The process of
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evaporation speeds up with the increase in
temperature.
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In which season would there be
more evaporation, summer or
winter?
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When will the evaporation be more,

during the day or night?
Look at the figure 2.1 and make a list
of the places from where evaporation
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takes place.
Where do you think the maximum
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evaporation would take place – from

plants, rivers, oceans or soils?
Make a diagram to
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explain how vapour

is transformed into
clouds in the box
given above. Label
your diagram with
these terms – earth,
sky, rising vapour,
dust particles,
water droplets,
clouds….
Fig 2.1 Evaporation

As the clouds continue to rise upwards,
it gets cooler and more droplets are Some Important Terms
formed. The droplets come together to Evaporation: Change of water
form bigger drops. As they get heavier, it into vapours is known as
gets more and more difficult for them to evaporation. The process in which
remain in the air and so they begin to fall water vapour changes into water is
as rain drops. called condensation. Clouds are
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tiny droplets of water hanging in the
Why do you think is it necessary air above.
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for the clouds to rise in order to Water Cycle : The process of
cause rain? water evaporating from the seas,
Have you ever observed dew? forming clouds in the sky, coming
Where is it formed?
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down as rain, flowing down the
In which part of the day do you see slopes on land in the form of rivers
and finally joining the sea, is called
fog?
In which season do you have more
N the water cycle.
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foggy days? Precipitation: Different forms of
Have you ever seen snow fall? How condensation of water vapours is
is it different from rain fall? known as precipitation. This may take
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Have you ever seen the hail storm? place in the form of dew, fog, rain,
snow or hail.
Humidity: The amount of invisible
water vapours present in the
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atmosphere is known as humidity.

When temperature and humidity
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rise, we feel uncomfortable. We

perspire and the sweat does not
evaporate quickly. We feel sticky
and such weather is called sultry.
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Winds and Clouds

Since evaporation takes place all over
the earth’s surface, clouds are also being
formed all over. However, it is on the
surface of the oceans that maximum
evaporation and cloud formation takes
place. After all, oceans are vast water
bodies extending upto thousands of
Fig 2.2 Water cycle kilometres. As a result, it also rains very
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Rain and Rivers 9

heavily on the oceans. Clouds also travel inland for thousands of kilometres to bring rain to
us. Do you know what brings them deep inland?
From which direction does the wind blow during the rainy season?
These winds come all the way from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal and they transport
the rain clouds. They are called ‘Monsoon winds’. They are also called ‘south- west monsoon
winds’ as they blow from that direction. These winds blow only in the summer.
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There are two arms of the monsoon winds: one blows from the Arabian Sea and the other
from the Bay of Bengal. The arrows in Map 1 show us the direction of winds.
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Map 1: Monsoon
winds in India
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N
Index :
N Areas of Heavy Rainfall
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Wind direction
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Dispur
Imphal
T
ER
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THE
THE

Towards which parts of the country The mountain ranges like the Western
would the winds take the clouds Ghats come in the path of rain-bearing winds
from the Bay of Bengal? and cause them to rise. Rising air cools down
Towards which parts of the country and the water vapour condenses faster, which
would the winds take the clouds leads to rainfall. This type of rainfall is
from the Arabian Sea? common in the mountainous regions.
From which direction would the From May to October, cyclones form
A
winds blow to bring monsoon rains in the Bay of Bengal. These cyclones may
to West Bengal, Lucknow and or may not bring rain to our region. It
AN
Delhi? depends upon the intensity of the cyclone
in the Bay of Bengal and the direction of
From which direction would the
the cyclone after crossing the Coast.
winds blow to bring monsoon rains
Sometimes, monsoons and cyclones bring
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to Mumbai, Hyderabad, and
together wide spread rainfall in this region
Bangalore?
and cause damage to the crops also.
Rainfall in Telangana N The direction of the winds reverses after
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In which months does it rain the October as the winds begin to blow from
most in your place? List the three the Bay of Bengal towards south west . This
rainiest months. causes very little rains in October and
Name the three driest months. November in Telangana region. This is
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Do you have ‘normal’ rainfall every called North East Monsoons or the
year or does it vary every year? Retreating Monsoons.
Have you e v e r experienced 10 Years Rainfall in Sircilla town:
drought?
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Year Rainfall Year Rainfall

Have you ever experienced floods? in M.M in M.M
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In Telangana state, the temperature rises 1996 933 2001 763

higher every day between March and June. 1997 695 2002 605
When the South West Monsoons sets
1998 926 2003 819
around the beginning of June, The winds
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carrying the clouds reach Telangana. The 1999 823 2004 619
immediate effect of the rains is that there 2000 895 2005 891
is suddenly a big difference of temperature Source: Tahasildar office, Sircilla
after a week’s rain. See map 1. What is the average rainfall of
The South West Monsoons bring normal
Sircilla town?
rains to Telangana. The North and Eastern
Observe the above data. In which
parts of Telangana receive heavy rainfall.
year did Sircilla recieve the highest
Large areas in the Telangana Plateau receive
and the lowest rainfall?
low rainfall. Mahabubnagar and Jogulamba
During which two years did it get
districts receive very little rainfall in
high rainfall?
Telangana State. See map 2.
A
AN
G
N
LA
TE
Look at the map given above showing rainfall received in different parts of
Telangana:
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i. Does your district receive heavy, moderate or low rainfall?

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ii. Which town has the least/highest rainfall – Nalgonda, Jogulamba, Komrambheem,
Yadadri, Hyderabad?
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iii. Make some more questions and ask each other.

Look at the physical map of India in your Atlas and identify Western Ghats and
Eastern Ghats. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences.
Western Ghats are spread across the following states _____, _____, _____.
Eastern Ghats are spread across the following states _____, _____, _____.
In which region do Western and Eastern Ghats intersect ?
First, create rough outlines of India in a note book; then draw Western Ghats and
Eastern Ghats; after that, roughly mark the areas of Telangana; Finally, label them
with months in which it rains.
Rain gauge
An instrument by which the rainfall is measured is known as ‘Rain gauge’. The amount
of rainfall for a unit area is measured in centimeters. How do we measure the amount of
rainfall? How do we find out if Nizamabad has more rain or Rangareddy?
Make your own Rain gauge
A
AN
G
N
LA
Collect the above items to Cut the top of the bottle like this.
make a rain guage (pic 1). This ensures the top of the bottle and
bottom of the bottle has the same
circumference (pic 2).
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4
T
3
2
1
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Turn top of the bottle upside Fill the bottle with sand and water till the
spot where you can mark zero. (pic 4)
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down like this, and fix it to

the bottle. (pic 3).
Now ensure that you keep this bottle in an open place. Make sure that there are no
walls or trees that can block the rain water from falling into the bottle. You can use a
scale to measure the water. If you leave the bottle in the open for a few days, you can
know how much it rained in a week or a month.
When it rains, the water level in the bottle rises. Measure the height of water with
the help of a scale and you will get the rainfall in Centimetres for your area during the
period you had kept the bottle in the open.

PART -II
Flow of Rivers Study the figure below:
What happens to the water that falls on
Mark the flow of the river with
the earth? Some of it percolates into the arrows.
soil, some flows on the surface of the land
Mark the slope of the land with
and the rest becomes water vapour and
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arrows.
mixes with air. You will read about the water
Does the river flow in the same
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that percolates down into the soil in the
next chapter. In this part, we will discuss direction as that of the slope of the
the water which flows on the surface of land?
land.
Transformation of a stream into a
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Rivers broad river
Have you seen rain water flowing in

small streamlets on sloping land? Water
N At its source, a river usually starts in
the form of a thin stream. As it flows
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further, it gets bigger and broader. This
flows in small streams from the mountain
happens because many small streams join
slopes during the rainy season. However,
it as the stream flows. Smaller rivers or
these streams dry up after some time. streams which join a large river are called
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Nevertheless, water also cuts channels on ‘tributaries’.

the mountains.
As the river becomes bigger and
When it rains again, water flows down broader, its flow gets slower. It starts
the same channels. In this way, river courses depositing the silt and sand it has carried,
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and river valleys are formed. This process on its bed and banks. This causes the
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is shown in figure 2.3. formation of plains.

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Fig 2.3 Slope and

the formation of
Rivers

As it nears the sea, the speed of water in Rivers like Krishna and Godavari starts
the river decreases and is no longer able to from the Western Ghats, which receive
carry the silt and sand. It deposits them on heavy rainfall. The rain water slowly
its own course, which then gets filled up. percolates into the ground and flows into
When flood waters come again, they have
the river all through the year. On the other
to cut through new channels to reach the
hand, many rivers which start from the dry
sea. Thus, towards the end of its journey to
regions like Dindi, Manjeera, Musi are fed
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the sea, the river forms a delta. River
Krishna and Godavari form deltas in the by scanty rainfall. Others, which start in the
AN
Eastern Coast. They have water through out Eastern Ghats, receive only moderate
the year. However, we also have a number rainfall and the water flows rapidly into the
of small rivers that have water only during sea. That is why they go dry during the non-
the rainy season. Why is this so?
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rainy season.
N Map -3 Rivers of Telangana

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Kadem N
Pranahitha
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Godavari
Manair
T
ra
Go
jee
an
da
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M
va
ri
SC
Musi
Dindi
Peddavagu
Krishna
Thungabhadra
Based on map prepared by
Telangana State Remote Sensing Applications Centre
Planning Department,
Govt. of Telangana.

Map 3 marks only major rivers of the Telangana state. Take note that some parts of
river Krishna form boarder to the Southern side and Godavari forms border to the
North Eastern side.
Make a list of important streams in your district and identify the major river it
joins.
Mark whether the stream in your district flows round the year or only during rainy
season.
A
District Name of the Stream Joins the River
AN
G
N
LA
What do you think is the direction You must have heard that during the rainy
of the slope in Telangana map. seasons some parts of the country get
From north to south, east to west flooded due to excess rainfall. You may
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or west to east? have read about floods occurring in rivers

like Krishna, Godavari, Brahmaputra or the
Ganga.
Flood-Plains and Floods
Figure 2.5 depicts a flood situation.
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A river does not contain the same

amount of water all year round. While the Look at it carefully and answer the
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following questions:
river is full during the rainy season, it
usually shrinks during the dry season. Look Has the river water covered the
entire flood-plain or confined to
at figures 2.4 and 2.5. You can see that the
the tiny stream that was flowing in
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river trough is very wide and it has high the dry season?
banks. This valley is filled with sand and
Is the water confined to the flood-
gravel. The river flows in a small stream
plain or overflown to the banks of the
amidst them. You will notice that there are river?
no trees here. This is because every year
In what way have the floods
when it rains heavily, this valley is filled
affected the villages, agricultural
with water allowing no permanent trees or fields and trees?
plants to grow here. This treeless bed is
How are floods beneficial to
called the flood-plain of the river. All
agricultural fields?
major rivers have their flood plains.
Main River
Flood Plains
stream bank Water level during flood
Pebbles and
Sand
deposit
A
AN
Fig 2.4 Flood Plains Fig 2.5 Flood
Floods have become a major problem Massive tree plantation

in India in recent years. Some part or the
With this aspect as the main focus,
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other is flooded every year during the rainy
season. This causes severe damage to majority of the governments are initiating
the afforestation programmes in the name
people, crops and livestock. Let us find out
if we have contributed to this in any way.
N of Greenery. Teleangana state is in
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Vegetation cover on the land (trees, forefront with massive tree plantation
plants, grass etc.) obstructs the run off of programme.
rainwater and slows down the speed of its The government is implementing
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flow. This slowing down helps the rainwater plantation of 230 crore saplings all over
to percolate into the soil. Floods are often the state. It is aimed to plant 40,000
caused by sudden increase in the volume seedlings in each village and 40 lakh
of water reaching a river. Vegetation allows seedlings in each assembly constituency
the water to flow slowly into the river, thus
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every year. Representatives of the people,

preventing sudden flooding. It also helps
officials, villagers and all community
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to increase the amount of water which goes

people are trying to make it a successful
into the soil.
programme by planting trees on all road
Vegetation also helps to prevent floods
sides, on barren hills, tank bunds, housing
in another way. It reduces the erosion of
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colonies and community lands etc.

soil by rainwater. If there is little or no
vegetation, rainwater cuts and carries with Preventing soil erosion
it a lot of top soil. This soil is deposited on
Forest cover controls floods and soil
the riverbed, which reduces the depth of the
river. This results in the reduction of erosion. Tree roots with their holding
capacity of the river to carry water. Thus, capacity of the soil, not only lessen erosion
with even a little rain, the rivers are flooded but also reduce the flow of surface water
and they overflow their banks, causing which otherwise resulting floods. To
damage. If the surface of the land is construct roads, big trees of more than fifty
covered with vegetation, then soil erosion years old, are being cut down. Hence
is greatly reduced. plantation of trees has become mandatory.
For the effective implementation of the Facing the challenge in Cyclones and
programme, the protection and Floods
safeguarding the plants and to monitor the India has a long coast line and it is
programme, the village level Haritha frequently faced with destructive cyclones
Rakshaka Committees are formed under the from the Bay of Bengal. When heavy winds
chairmanship of sarpanch. In the same way, blow from the sea, heavy rains lash the
district and state level committees are also lands, and high waves make the sea very
A
formed. unsafe. These usually occur between June
and December. The worst cyclone hit the
AN
What are the activities taken up
East Coast in November 1977. When six -
under tree plantation programme in metre high tidal waves swept across villages
your school? in coastal area, killing 9941 people. At
Why is it necessary to take up the least, 100 villages were washed away by the
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initiation of massive plantation of cyclonic storms and the ensuing floods.
saplings? Seen from air, it seemed like a sheet of
N
Let us take the case of the Ganga. Earlier,
water drawn over the affected areas floating
in the swirling waters.
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there were dense forests on the Himalayas
Formation of cyclones may seem
from where Ganga and its tributaries
natural over which human beings have no
originate. In the recent years, there has
control. However, the impact of these
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been a large scale felling of trees and

disasters are heightened or lessened due to
hence, the forest cover in the Himalayas how our society is organised and prepared.
has reduced considerably. As a result, For example, if you see who lives in the
whenever there is heavy rainfall, the most vulnerable part of the land which is
T
rainwater rapidly flows down the slopes of most affected by cyclones, you will find
the mountains and fills up the floodplain that it is the people who live there with least
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of the river. The waters also bring a very resources to defend themselves. The sea
large quantity of silt and deposit it on the coasts are lined with the huts of poor fisher
riverbed. This results in frequent floods folk and the low lands of the towns and
SC
which cause heavy damage to life and villages, which get flooded, are usually
property along the river. inhabited by the slums of the poor. The
All this tells us about the importance of people who live in high cement concrete
buildings are able to store food, water etc.
protecting our forests and increasing the
for many days. Thus, we can see that
vegetative cover over other lands.
disasters affect the poorest the most.
Can you explain how forests and Usually, immediately after the flood
vegetation help in preventing waters recede, all sources of water are
floods? polluted and become unsafe for drinking.
Can forests and vegetation help in But, the poor are forced to use the polluted
reducing droughts? How? water and face the risk of several diseases

like cholera, dysentery, jaundice etc. Only
those with resources are able to arrange for
safe bottled water to drink. Since roads are
damaged and it rains heavily, bringing in
relief to the worst affected areas is not easy.
Here, people are forced to rely on their own
resources to save themselves.
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While the immediate damage of the
cyclones is also heavy – like loss of lives,
AN
crops, houses property etc., more importantly
they also cause long term damages.
For example, the life savings of most of
the poor stored in the houses in the form of
G
food, tools, cattle, small shops, vehicles,
boats, nets, etc. are destroyed. To go back to
their work, they need to buy all these again.
Many families may lose their working
N Fig 2.6 Cyclone in the Bay of Bengal
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members. Daily wage workers face loss of should be kept ready whenever there is a
work for several weeks till normalcy returns forecast of cyclone.
and therefore, loss of livelihood. Farmers too How can the people prepare for
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not only face loss of crops but also permanent

disasters?
damage to their lands.
1. Cyclones and floods are a seasonal
How can people meet the challenge of
phenomenon. During the cyclone,
disasters like cyclones and floods?
listen to the radio or TV weather
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This can be done through long term reports. In case of a cyclone/flood

planning by governments and close
warning, ensure that everyone is
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cooperation between the people and the

alerted. This is usually done through
government agencies.Today, with the
loudspeakers or by going from door
installation of early warning systems by the
to door.
government, it is possible to predict the
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possibilities of natural disasters like 2. Keep an emergency kit ready at

cyclones and floods. Governments thus put home. These kits should contain
these systems in place and inform people important papers, some food, some
about the possibility of disasters. money and emergency telephone
Governments are also responsible for numbers.
providing long term security to all the 3. The nearest available place where
people by building strong roads which are refuge could be sought in case of a
not easily destroyed, safe pucca houses for cyclone should be identified in
those living in vulnerable areas like sea advance.
coast or along the rivers or in low lands. 4. Wherever necessary, the walls of the
Food, water and medical emergency teams house, roofing, doors and windows

should be strengthened.
5. When you get a cyclone warning, store adequate drinking water and food grains in
waterproof bags.
6. Do not venture outside, especially into the sea during and after the warning has been sounded.
7. Close doors and windows and stay indoors.
8. Move to a pucca building if you feel your house is not strong enough..
9. If the cyclone strikes while you are in a vehicle, stop but keep away from the sea-
A
shore, trees, electric poles and other objects that may be uprooted during the gale.
10. If the cyclone wind suddenly drops, do not go out, as it could be the eye of the
AN
cyclone. Wait till the all clear declaration is made officially.
11. Listen to Radio/TV for updates on the situation.
12. Even after ‘all clear’ has been sounded, take necessary precautions while moving to
or out of your house. There may be partially uprooted trees or poles.
G
13. Look out for snakes that may have come out of their holes.
14. Do not enter flood waters. They may be too deep.
N
15. As a student group, you can play a very significant role in spreading awareness about
the above precautions.
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If you need to Evacuate:
1. Pack clothing, essential medication, valuables, personal papers etc. in water-proof
bags, to be taken to the safe shelter.
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2. Put furniture, clothing, appliances on beds or tables.

3. Turn off power.
4. Whether you leave or stay, put sandbags in the toilet bowl and cover all drain holes to
prevent sewage back-flow.
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5. Lock your house and take the recommended or known evacuation routes from your
area to the safe-shelter.
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6. Do not get into water of unknown depth and current (stream).

During Floods:
1. Drink boiled water.
SC
2. Keep your food covered and don’t eat too much.

3. Use raw tea, rice water, tender coconut water etc. during diarrhoea.
4. Do not let children remain on empty stomach.
5. Use bleaching powder and lime to disinfect the surroundings.
6. Avoid entering floodwaters. If you have to enter, wear proper protection for your feet
and check the depth and current with a stick. Stay away from water with over knee-
deep depth.
7. Do not eat food that got wet in the flood waters.
8. Boil tap water before drinking in rural areas. Use halogen tablets to purify water
before drinking (ask Village Health Worker for details).
9. Be careful of snakes. Snakebites are common during floods.

Keywords:
1. Rivers and Tributaries 2. Condensation 3. Annual rainfall 4. Flood plain
Improve your learning

1. Explain how water changes into water vapours and how clouds are formed from it?
2. Where do evaporation and cloud formation take place on a large scale?
A
3. How do the clouds reach deep inlands ?
AN
4. Where does it rain the most? Choose the correct option :
a) sea coasts that are in the direction of the winds
b) mountains that are in the direction of the winds
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c) lands far away from the seas.
5. The Godavari flows from the west to the east. Why?
6.
7.
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Describe the main stages of the water cycle.
There may be streams and rivers flowing near your village or town. Find out about them and
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fill in the table below:
No. Name Source Which river Which sea
does it join? does it meet?
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T
ER
8. Do the rivers/streams in your area contain water throughout the year? Find out from your
elders if they had more water in earlier times.
9. How can the people be prepared to face the disasters?
10. Collect the pictures showing cyclones and floods and prepare an album.
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11. Make a poster on the floods devastation.

Project:
Observe in your village/locality where the water is being wasted, furnish the details in a table,
discuss the reasons, suggest the ways how water can be saved.
Sl. The place where the Reason Ways to prevent/
No. water is being wasted save the water

3
CHAPTER
Tanks and Ground Water
A
AN
PART - I
Tanks (Cheruvulu) Tanks were sometimes built by a king,
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For thousands of years, our ancestors sometimes by a military leader or nayaka
have tried to utilize run-off rain-water by or often by the people of the village
building tanks. We have evidence of tanks
being built and used for agriculture from
N themselves. Usually, every village preserved
the memory of those who were responsible
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the times of the Megaliths. You will also for building the tank through stories or
read about the Kakatiya kings who built a temples or festivals. In building the tank,
large number of tanks in Telangana. This
everyone in the village contributed
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enabled the extension of agriculture into

towards the expenses and labour. All the
dry regions. To this day, most of the villages
in these regions have at least one or two people of the village maintained the tank
major tanks. together by repairing the tank bund (wall) or
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How were the tanks built? removing silt from the tank bed. They also
ensured that no one stopped the water from
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The tanks were usually built by building

a strong wall of stones and mud across a flowing into the tank. They also appointed
small stream in such a way that with a wall a person to regulate the use of the water from
on just one side, a large lake could be the tank. This particular person is called
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formed. Look at the picture below: ‘Neerati’ or ‘Neeru Katte manisi’.
Fig 3.1(a) Tank and fields

How did the Tanks Help? over the tank land for building houses or
for agriculture. As a result, in almost every
Tanks helped the people not only by giving part of the state, we see the sad state of dry
them and their animals drinking water, but tanks lying uncared for. Instead of caring
also in irrigating their fields in such a way for the tanks, we have been digging deeper
that even during drought years, they could and deeper tube wells at a great expense.
raise at least some crops. The tanks also But they only benefit a few, and in the long
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helped to increase the water level in the wells run, deplete the water resources. On the
nearby. other hand, tanks build resources for all.
AN
After the rain stopped and the tank water
Project
decreased, the tank bed could be used for
raising some crops. Prepare a report with the following
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details about the tank in your
The most important thing is that tanks
village or town.
helped to prevent run-off of rain-water and
the erosion of top soils. Every year, people
would collect tank silt and use it in their
N Prepare a sketch map of the tank
and its nearby areas.
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fields to fertilise the soil. Find out from where does the water
We should remember that no one person come into the tank and where does
owned the tanks and they belonged to all the the excess water go.
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people of the village. Thus, they benefitted

Find out the names of the river or
not one or two people but all the villagers.
stream across which it has been
Decline of Tanks in Our Times built or the names of the hills near
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During the last twenty or thirty years, which it has been built.
tanks have been neglected and have been
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Find out what is the tank bund made

allowed to break down. Repairs to the of and who maintains it.
tanks, desilting etc. have not been done
Find out who built the tank and
regularly. People also have gradually taken
when it was built.
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Fig 3.1(b) Ramappa Cheruvu-Jayashankar District If there are any stories related to the
tank, write them down
Prepare an illustration of the tank
with various things around it or get
photographs of the tank.
Find out what crops are grown, who
controls the water, and how is it
regulated.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Tanks and Ground Water 23

Mission Kakatiya (Our Village - Our Tank)
After the formation of the new state, the government
of Telangana has started a programme for minor irrigation
tanks in the state. This programme, called ‘Mission
Kakatiya, mana uru mana cheruvu”, aims at removal of
silt from tank beds and repair and construction of tank
A
bunds on about 47000 tanks.
Find out about the implementation of this programme
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in your area. How many tanks have been improved and
whether people have benefitted from this.
Fishing in Tanks
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Tanks not only provide drinking water
and water for irrigation of fields, but also
provide livlihood for fisherfolk. Many of
the fisherfolk are from traditional fishing
N
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communities like Besta (Gangaputra),
Goondla and Mudiraj (Tenugu) Community
depend upon these tanks and rivers for
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leading their lives. Let’s find out more

about their lives by visiting a village in Fig 3.1 (d) : Goddess of Katta Maisamma
Suryapet district.
built in the name of his wife, Veerala Devi.
Bhethavolu village Thus the villagers call the large tank as
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This village is 16 kilometers from Veerala Devi tank or Eerla Devi Tank. The
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Kodada near Suryapet. tank irrigates about 1900 acres in the

According to village elders ‘Bhethavolu’ village today even though originally it was
got its name from Bhethala Reddy, the meant to irrgate about 3000 acres. The
subordiante of Kakatiyas. He got the tank ayakat (command area of tank) has been
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reduced due to illegal encroachements

Fig 3.1 (c) : Veerala Devi Tank on the tank bed and due to silting.
On the tank bund is situated the
shrines of Katta Maisamma and
Gangamma, who considered the
guardian dieties of the tank. Fisherfolk
and other villagers worship in these
shrines before fishing and also
celebrate annual festivals in their
honour.

A
AN
Fig 3.1 (e) : Throwing net Fig 3.1 (f) : Fishing
There are about 600 families of Besta Why do we eat only a few types of
(Gangaputra) and Mudiraj Community in fish?
Bethavolu village. Out of which 60-70
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Why is the cat fish banned?
households are leading their lives by
fishing. However, they fish in the tank only Net Types
during the months of March and April.
During the rest of the year they work as
N The fishermen use nets of different
kinds to catch the fish. There would be 30
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small farmers or labourers. ‘Kannulu’ (holes) in small parisha (thinner
Fishes in the tanks net) whereas 60 Kannulu in big Parisha
Earlier, different kinds of fishes like (thicker net). These nets are also called as
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Buddaparakalu, Jellalu, Kodipelu, ‘Sannapu vala and Doddu vala’ in some

Chandamamalu, Kuntumukkulu, Pulishalu, areas. The nets contain the beads made by
Isuka dondulu, paperalu, Gandraparakalu, either iron or lead. The Sannapu vala weighs
Guriyopillalu, Koraminulu, Valugalu etc., less. They catch fish and prawns by Sannapu
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were easily available in the streams, small vala. Doddu vala is used to catch the fish of
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rivers and canals. When these waters flowed weight 100 grams to 5 kilos. Doddu vala
into the tanks the fishes bred in them. But weighs more. Can you think why….. ?
during the recent times these fishes are
disappearing due to heavy usage of Visit the fishermen families of
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pesticides and chemical fertilizers in the your area and see how they catch
agricultural fields. So now, the young fish fish.
are bred artificially in fish farming centres Find out which types of nets are
and are let out as seedlings into the tank. used in your region and discuss in
When they grow big they are fished and the class.
sold. The important among these are
Merige, Ravvu, Bochche (Katla) and Fisherfolk use two methods to catch fish
Bangaru Theega.These fishes are mainly - one in shallow waters and one in deep
available in the market nowadays. Each fish waters. Visire vala is used when there is less
has its own special taste. Have you tasted water in the tank. Kachchu vala weighs less.
the above mentioned fishes? Fisher men go farther in to the stable water

and spread the Kachchu vala. These are used
mostly in the occasions where the water is
deep.
Discuss why the nets are selected
based on the depth of water.
Fishing:
A
Fishermen start for fishing early in the
morning. Some use Visire vala for the fishing Fig 3.1 (g) : Fish Market
AN
on the banks where the water is not deep. into the tanks. They are supposed to pool
Others go into the lake on a ferry made with the produce and share the earnings equally
thermocol and reach a place where water is among all members.
G
very deep and spread the Kachchu vala. Meet the members of Co-operative
Fishing is done twice a day. They catch the society of your village and find
fish from 4‘0’ clock to 8‘0’ clock in the
N
morning and take them to market. Again they
about the Functioning of the
society.
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catch fish from 1 to 4‘0’ clock in the Why do you think the fisherfolk
afternoon and take them to market. They have to make payments to the
don’t care for cold, rains and heat and do the Fisheries Department?
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fishing. The fish left over after the sale are

Recently a new practice can be seen in
washed neatly and dried under the sun. When
many fishing tanks. The fishermen are too
the catch is small they take them to Kodad
poor and need loans for running their
or Suryapet for selling and when it is large households. They cannot afford to buy the
they take it to cities like Hyderabad. Usually
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fish seedlings from the fish farms. Hence

it is the men who do the fishing and it is the they are forced to take loans from traders.
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women who do the selling in the market. See Traders give advance loans and also take the
figure 3.1(g) responsibility of putting seedlings in the
Cooperative Society of Fishermen tank. In return the fisherfolk have to sell
all their produce to the trader at a price
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A family needs to have a membership in fixed by him which is usually about 10 to

the Cooperative Society for fishing. The 20 percent of the actual market price. In
membership is decided on the basis of the this way the trader makes a huge profit. If
ayakat. Usually the Society takes one banks could give loans to the Cooperative
member per one hectare (two and half societies, the fishermen could become
acres). There are 339 members in the independent of the trader-contractors.
society today. The Society pays
Rs.2,35,000 to the Department of Why do you think the banks are
Fisheries for fishing in the tank. The Society reluctant to give loans to the
has to purchase fish seedlings and put them fishermen?

PART - II
Groundwater rocks. Most of the rocks underlying the soil

in telangana are of this kind. A small portion
Rainwater not only flows down the
of land in Telangana, which is next to rivers,
streams or rivers but also slowly goes down
A
has deep layers of sand, soil and pebbles.
into the soil. This water accumulates below
Water also accumulates in these layers.
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the ground in the gaps between rocks,
pebbles, sand etc. This is the groundwater The layer of water which accumulates
which we reach through wells and bore under the ground among rocks is called
wells. aquifer. The thickness of the aquifer
G
determines the availability of groundwater
Rocks which have cracks or pores
in the area.
(minute holes) in them and can contain
water are called pervious rocks. In N Visit the wells in your area and try to
find out how many feet below the ground
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Telangana, there are some areas where
such rocks like sandstones are found. Some is the water level. Find out if there is any
rocks like granite, Kadapa limestone etc. rocks underneath and if so, what kind of
rock it is. Also find out about who owns
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are very compact and do not have pores in

them. Water cannot enter into them. the well, when was it dug and how much
Groundwater usually accumulates above money was spent. Add up all the
such rocks. Since the water cannot go information about the wells and prepare
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beneath them, these are called impervious a small booklet.

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Do you think
groundwater would
accumulate if there
were no imper-
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vious rocks?
What would
happen if the
pervious rock is
below the imper-
vious rock? Where
would the ground
water accumulate?
Fig 3.2. Rocks and Water below the ground level

Water Table or Groundwater Rocks and Groundwater in
Level Telangana
Look at the wells in figure 3.3 given Most of the rocks under the soil in
below carefully, the water level is the same Telangana consist of granites, which are
in all these wells. This is the water level in hard and impervious. However, the top
the wells after the rains. You can see that in portion of these rocks (about 20 meters)
A
all these wells, water is available at the are broken (weathered) and they carry
depth of 5 meters, this means that if you water. Many of these rocks also have deep
AN
were to dig a new well in the same region cracks going down to 50-100 meters
you would strike water at the same depth. depth. These cracks too contain water.
This is the level of groundwater, which is also Normally, with ordinary wells that we dig,
called the water table. we tap the water present in the top
G
Water level is never stable. It goes weathered layer. Bore wells, which are dug
with the help of drill machines, reach the
deeper in summer months and comes up
during the monsoons.
N deep cracks and draw water from them.
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TE
T
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Fig 3.3. Groundwater level
Look at figure 3.3 and answer the Look at the figure 3.4 and answer
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following questions: the following questions:

i. The groundwater level is ....... Can you find out how water entered
meters below the ground level. the level below the impervious
ii. In summer, if water level goes rock and reached the crack in the
down to 10 meters below the rock below?
ground level which of the four During summer, which well will go
wells will go dry? dry first? Give reasons.
iii. Which well will have the Will there be water in the well even
maximum water available? if there is no crack in the rock?

A
AN
G
In many mandals of Telangana, the
N
Fig 3.4. Rocks and Water below the ground level
Recharging Groundwater
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predominant rocks are not granites. Small
Water flows swiftly on naked ground
quantity of ground water goes in these
which has no cover of trees or grass, as
structures. Rocks of the Kadapa type of
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there is nothing to stop the flow. However,

limestones are avilable in some areas. They
if the flow of the rain water is checked by
are also hard but are greatly broken and have
vegetation or bunds, then there is a greater
a lot of gaps between them allowing water
possibility of it percolating into the soil
to accumulate in them. In the cracks of the
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to join the groundwater. Grass is planted

rocks, ground water is available in some
on the hill slopes from where a stream starts
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areas.
and small check dams are also built across
The areas adjacent to the great rivers like streams to store water for a longer time.
Krishna and Godavari have deep layers of All of these help to increase or recharge
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sand and silt. The water level here depends the groundwater.
upon the water in the river. Usually, there However, it is seen in most parts of
is plenty of water. It is nearly five to seven Telangana that we are extracting more
meters below the ground in these areas and water than the recharging rate. This means
it is very easy to dig wells in them. that we are over using the groundwater. The
amount of water that percolates into the
Can you recall the wells and bore
soil has also declined due to the cutting
wells in Penamakuru, Dokur and
down of forests. Consequently, there is a
Penugolu villages you had studied
rapid fall in the water table or water level
in class VI?
by half to two meters every year.

If we draw more water than what Are there any watershed
percolates down, the groundwater will development projects in your area?
decrease over time. Finally, there may be Try to visit the site and study how
little groundwater left for us. This has been this is done. Try to draw a sketch-
happening during the last few years. map of the project area.
Can you think of ways in which
groundwater can be used less Quality of Groundwater
A
without wastage? Groundwater is usually mixed with many
AN
minerals. Sometimes, the water is salty and
In our part of the country, it rains only
sometimes it is sweet.
for about three to four months. For the rest
of the year we are dependent upon Collect the water from various
groundwater. Rivers, wells and ponds all get
G
places like dug well or bore well,
their water from these groundwater lake or pond. Can you explain why
sources.
Can we increase the ground water? You
N the taste of the water taken from
some dug wells is sweet, while that
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may observe that water quickly flows when of others is salty or brackish?
they are no trees, vegetation stones etc.
Then water quickly flows into streams and This difference is because of the
rivers. However, if the flow of the rainwater minerals which are dissolved in the
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were to be checked by vegetation and groundwater. These minerals come from

bunds, there would be a greater possibility the rocks and soils underneath. Hence,
of the water percolating into the soil to join depending upon the minerals which mix
the groundwater. This is why vegetation like with the water, the taste and nature of water
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trees, grasses and bunds are used to changes. In many mandals of Telangana,
there is excess quantity of certain minerals
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enhance groundwater.
like Sodium, Fluoride, Chloride, Iron,
Over the last few years, great efforts have
Nitrate, etc. Drinking such water is not
been made to ‘harvest’ rainwater by these
good for our health and can cause diseases,
means. These measures are usually taken
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which affect our bones, teeth etc. (Fig 3.5).

for a stream or a river. Such efforts are In such situations, the drinking water should
called ‘watershed development projects’. be properly treated to remove the excess
Under these projects, trees and grasses are minerals.
planted on the hill slopes from where a Many times, water is polluted due to the
stream starts. Also, small bunds are built excessive use of fertilisers, pesticides or
across streams to stop the flow of water. poor drainage. In our country this problem
Small check dams are also built across is increasing day by day. Unless we take the
streams to store water for a longer time. preventive steps, most of the wells or river
All of these help to increase or ‘recharge’ water soon will become unsafe for drinking
groundwater. or even for bathing.

a result, the wells in the neighbourhood are
going dry. Unless we use the groundwater
as a common resource and in a restrained
manner, can we ensure that everyone is able
to benefit from them? In fact, after a few
years, even those who dig deeper tube wells
will not have any water left to pump.
A
Can you think of a way in which the
AN
groundwater in your village can be
used equitably so that all families
– including those who do not have
any land, get water? Draw up such
G
a plan and discuss them in the class.
N Today’s generation has received water

from the past as a sacred asset. We should
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Fig 3.5 Person affected by excessive pass it on to the future generation just as
fluoride in drinking water we received it. We should also develop
ways of using and conserving water in a
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Use of Groundwater
restrained manner. Otherwise, future
Groundwater like the rivers, is the generations will fight destructive wars over
common resource of all people and not just water and we will be responsible for it.
of those who have land over aquifers.
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However, at present, it is being used only Keywords :

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by those who have such lands. 1. Pervious rocks

Those who own land over aquifers tend 2. Impervious rocks
to over use the water, which decreases 3. Vegetation
water table for all the neighbouring people.
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4. Aquifers
Some of them dig deeper tube wells, which
cause further decline in the water level. As 5. Megalithic age

1. Correct the incorrect sentences.
a. Water flows from the plains to the plateau.
b. There is a thick deposit of sand and gravel in the plateau.
c. Groundwater will never dry.
d. It is easy to dig wells in Mahabubnagar.

2. The wells shown in this figure are situated on the slopes of the Godavari. But there
seems to be a mistake in the figure. Can you correct it?
A
AN
Soil
G
3. N
In which of these places do you expect maximum percolation to take place?
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Soil Soil Metalled Road
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Weathered Rock Weathered Rock Weathered Rock Weathered Rock

4. When the owners of some wells in Pallerla started using high-powered motors to
draw water from the wells, the owners of other wells noticed that their wells were
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drying up. Discuss the possible solution to the problem.

5. In areas where there is a shortage of groundwater, should there be any restrictions on
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digging bore wells? Why?

6. Think about the ways to restore the groundwater in your area.
7. Observe the figure 3.1(a) and compare it with your locality.
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8. Draw the map of your village and locate the water resources of your village in it.
9. Read the third paragraph under “Quality of Ground water” in page no. 30 and
comment on it.
Project:
Collect the following information about the tanks/Kuntas.
Sl. Name of the Ayacut (in acres) Other uses Reasons for Benefits, it
No. Tank/Kunta Previously at present of tanks not repairing repaired

4
CHAPTER
Oceans and Fishing
A
PART - I
AN
The earth is known as a watery planet as it is the only planet containing water in
abundance. It is estimated that about 71% of the earth‘s surface is covered by oceans
and seas. What is your image of a sea or an ocean? What have you seen or heard
G
about oceans and seas? An extension of saline water on earth is called sea. Large
sea areas are called oceans. Oceans are huge bodies of water generally separated
by continents. N
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Is the water found in your village/ It will be interesting to find out what lies
town saline or potable? Is it under the water. The surface of water does not
different in different parts of the tell us about what lies under it. You may have
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village/town? had the opportunity to notice or feel what the

What names do you know for bed of a river or stream or pond is like.
different water bodies? Do large or Please share what you have seen or
small waterbodies have different felt about what lies under the
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names? surface of waterbodies.

In a map of the world or on the How many meters deep are the
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globe, find the names of five seas water bodies that you have seen?
and five oceans. Run your fingers
over the areas they cover. Ocean Relief
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The floor of the ocean

Continental Shelf is just like the surface of
the earth. The bottom of
Sea level the sea is not a flat surface.
Continental Slope
Deep sea plain It consists of hills,
mountains, plateaus,
Trench plains, trenches etc. Many
trenches on the ocean
floor are so deep that even
if the Mount Everest was
Fig 4.1 Relief features of an Ocean placed in them, it would

drown completely. A
major part of ocean
floor is about 3-6 kms
below the sea level.
Figure 4.1 is a sketch
of the different kind of
land forms that can be
A
found under the surface
AN
of an ocean. Fig 4.2
shows the relief
features of what lies
below the surface of the
G
oceans around India.
In figure 4.2 ,
observe the land mass N Fig 4.2 Relief features of Indian Ocean
of India and then go over to the floor of the 2) Currents: In the oceans, water
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Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea and the moves from one part to another in big
Indian Ocean. Try to point out the areas look streams. These streams which flow
constantly in a definite direction on the
like hills, plains and trenches on the ocean
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surface of the ocean are called ocean

floor.
currents. The ocean currents are of two
The waters of the oceans are never still. types - the warm currents and the cold
There are different kinds of movements in currents. The warm currents flow from the
them. equatorial region towards the poles. The
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Have you experienced the different cold currents flow from the poles to the
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equatorial regions. They are mainly caused

movements of water in a river? You
by the prevailing winds, difference in
may be aware of waves, currents temperature and salinity of the ocean water.
and the coming and receding of
3) Tides: Tides are the rhythmic rise
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floods. Discuss these experiences and fall in the level of the water in the
in the class. oceans every day. All places on the coast
Ocean waters have three kinds of experience some hours of low tide and
movements. They are: some hours of high tide. Tides do not rise
to the same height every day. When the tide
1) Waves: When the water on the is high, water comes up to the coast for
surface of the ocean rises and falls, they some distance. Then as low tide begins, the
are called waves. Waves are formed when water moves back from the land. The tides
gentle winds scrape across the ocean are of great help for fishing. Tides at some
surface. The faster the wind, the bigger will places take away the mud brought down by
be the waves. rivers and prevent silting.

PART - II
A
AN
Fishing Village on the Coastal i) Identify the water bodies in the
Plains image.
Ocean water is always saline. It contains ii) Identify the land that is used for
G
several mineral salts dissolved in it. Oceans activities other than agriculture in
are the main source of rainfall. Oceans are this village. If so, for what purpose?
also storehouses of fish and other seafoods.
Oceans provide natural highways for
N Fishing
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international trade. Let us visit It is four in the morning. Appalakonda’s
Bhavanapadu, a fishing village near the wife, Dhanamma, wakes him up and gives
coast of Andhra Pradesh and study the life him some rice gruel to eat by 5.00 am after
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of people living near the ocean. which Appalakonda is ready to go out to

the sea. His friends wait for him on the
Find the districts that lie on the beach. All of them are poor fishermen. They
coastline of Andhra Pradesh. don’t own any boats or nets. They work on
Tata Rao’s mechanical boat. Altogether
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Find the district in which

Bhavanapadu village is located. there are 20 members on a boat. Tata Rao
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Look at the image of Bhavanapadu also joins them and works along with them.
village (Fig 4.4) and find the The boat had already been made ready the
following: day before, with all the necessary things
properly loaded in it.
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Fig 4.3 Bhavanapadu village settlement
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Oceans and Fishing 35

A
AN
G
N
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Fig 4.4 Aerial view of Bhavanapadu village settlement
Before launching into the sea, they members are on the boat. They go up to
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check the engine, the rope puller, the 15-20 kilometers in the sea.
additional stock of diesel and also put their Dhanamma, wife of Appalakonda attends
food packages down. They pray to the to domestic work after he leaves for work
goddess in whom they have a strong faith. and finishes this work by 9 am. Then, she
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Tata Rao owns this boat, which he goes to work in the salt pans. Sometimes,
she also attends to agricultural work. As
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purchased from Markonda in Odisha. It

they don’t possess any agricultural land or
cost him around Rs. 6 lakhs. He borrowed
salt pans, their family depends on the daily
the money from private lenders at a high rate wages they get. While labouring in the salt
of interest. He couldn’t get a bank loan as he
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pans, Dhanamma eagerly waits for her

had no fixed assets. Even for daily fishing husband’s phone call. She remains anxious
expenses, he has to get advances from about her husband’s safety and also about
middlemen. He has to invest a minimum of the catch. If there is a good catch, they will
Rs. 5,000/- per trip for diesel, wages and get more money for the household.
other expenses. Since he borrowed money The fishermen return any time between
from a middle man, Tata Rao has to sell 1 pm and 8 pm or sometimes even late in
the day’s catch of fish to the middleman at the night. On the day we visited the village,
the rate he fixes. By this time, the boat is they came back at 3 pm with a good catch
ready for sailing and all the twenty of a type of fish known as “para”.

Fig 4.5
Fig 4.6
A
Fig 4.5 Anchored Boat with
neatly packed net heap,
AN
Fig 4.6 Engine of the boat,
lunch carriers, diesel cans and
picture of the goddess
G
Some middlemen temporarily store the So far we discussed the big fishing
fish, segregate them and carry them in cold business but there are also small fisher folk
in this village. Karrateppa is a country
container tanks to faraway places like
Kolkata, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad,
N made boat which goes up to 5 kilometers
into the sea and brings small catch of fish.
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Kerala and so on. These people get four
times more money than the catcher does. This fish can be taken by the wives of the
Observe the following pictures of the fishermen known as Berakatthelu. They
Potaiah adda (4.9), the local middleman. sell this fish in nearby towns like Naupada,
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Tekkali, Pundi and Palasa.

Compared to the Karrateppa, there is
What makes the middlemen in the
far more risk of life in Marapadava
fish business to earn much more
(mechanised boat) because it goes far into
money than the fishermen?
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sea and it is difficult to swim over to the

shore in times of trouble. Apart from that,
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For what purpose are the thermocol

there is no first aid available in the big
boxes shown in the photo lined up
boats, nor any life jacket. Fishing is a risky
in the middleman’s adda? and brave occupation.
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Fig 4.7
Fig 4.7 Unloaded

fish being carried to
Auction hall.
Fig 4.8 Fish spread in

the Auction hall,
Middlemen are
already there.
Fig 4.8

A
AN
G
Fig 4.9 Middleman’s adda Fig 4.10 Loading at the middle man’s adda to sell the fish in the
storage tanks. big cities.
Nets N Nets are of different types based on

different sizes of the Kannulu (Rings) and
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After reaching home in the afternoon, the layers of the net. Now a days, a net
Appalakonda had his lunch, came to the known as Ring Net which helps in getting
cyclone shelter with the broken nets, and a better catch is being increasingly used
started repairing them. It is an activity
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by the fishermen. This has helped to

commonly seen everywhere in reduce migration from the village. Earlier,
Bhavanapadu. the nets were made of cotton thread. Now
The fishermen have a special tool kit for cotton nets have been almost completely
repairing the nets which consists of replaced by plastic, nylon and other
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Nulukarralu (net repairing fork) (Fig 4.12), synthetic material. A net lasts for 4-5
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Nulukanda (Thread) and a flattened stick years. Nets are purchased by weight and
that determines the net ring size. the type of rings they contain. Nets cost
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Fig 4.11 ‘Berakatthelu’,

waiting for their turn to load
fish in their Thattalu to sell at
nearby towns.

A B
A
AN
C D E
G
N
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Fig 4.12 (A) Repairing nets, (B) Fisherman stitches (C) Nulukarralu.
(D) Floating beads-Lead, (E) Floating beads-Plastic.
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around Rs. 250-300 per kg. Ring nets weigh There are no landlords in the village. A
around 500 kgs. The fishermen of this area large number of cultivators of
usually buy nets from Barhampur (Odisha). Bhavanapadu are small farmers. They don’t
grow any commercial crops. Some of them
Agriculture and Animal
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rear cows and buffaloes. There are two

Husbandry poultries in this village running profitably.
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Rice production is not sufficient for their

Fishing is not the only occupation of the needs, so the people get rice from the
people in Bhavanapadu village but they also ration shops through their ‘white cards’ and
cultivate the land to grow crops. They also sometimes buy it from the market.
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rear animals and birds. Salinity and Drinking Water

The village soil is mainly loamy and rice The water in the village is saline. If one
is the principal crop grown on it. Only a few digs upto 8 or 10 feet near the beach, one
can get potable water. But in summers,
acres of land are irrigated. Bhavanapadu lies
these wells dry up. And it takes a long time
at the tail end of Vamshadhara canal. Water
for the water to fill up again. Sometimes
comes to Bhavanapadu only after the you have to wait for an hour to get another
fulfilment of the needs of the nearby village, pot of water. So, women have to wait long
Marripadu. Hence, most of the agriculture to fetch water or have to walk upto 2 km
in Bhavanapadu depends on the rain. to collect fresh water.
Fig 4.13 Fig 4.13, 4.14 Salt pan leveling
work known as ‘Adugetha’, which
makes the pan impervious
A
AN
G
N
LA
Fig 4.15 An old woman fetching
water from a faraway place
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Fig 4.14
The government has sanctioned a
protective water project that pumps water
from the nearest village known as
T
Suryamanipuram. This project provided

some relief for some time. But cleaning of
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overhead water tank and frequent repair of

pumping motor is a hurdle. For some time,
a youth organisation helped in keeping the
water project active. But it has stopped
SC
functioning now. Fig 4.16 Why do you think people wear

tattoos? What is the symbol on
Social Life Appalakonda’s hand? What does it signify?
A large number of people of There is an open stage, where the dramas,
Bhavanapadu worship Gangamma, Gowri, burrakathas, harikathas and record
and Shiva. They perform puja of their boats dances are performed. All these activities
and nets. The most important festival is are led by the caste headmen called Pillas.
Gowri Purnima. They spend common good They determine customs and traditions of
fund of the village on these festivals. Observe the people. They even resolve disputes and
the Fig. 4.16. Most men, like Appalakonda , impose fines. The money collected goes
wear tattoos like this. to common good fund.

Keywords :
1. Tool kit 2. Kannulu 3. Burra Katha 4. Mechanical Boat

1. Does Bhavanapadu look like the place you live in? What differences and similarities
can you think of? Compare them in the following aspects:
A
a. Sources of livelihood b. Types of employment
c. Water sources d. Agricultural practices
AN
2. How many types of ocean movements are there? Which of them is useful to the fishermen?
3. What is the difference between fishing with mechanical boats and with Karrateppa?
4. Write the process of getting a mechanical boat ready for fishing.
G
5. What does the tool kit of fishermen contain?
6. What are the similarities that you find between the surface of the earth and the bottom of the sea?
7.
N
Collect information about the aquifers of your village / town and fill in the table.Analyse the
benefits.
LA
S.No. Name of the aquifer Uses Limitations
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8. Make an album of pictures that reflects the life of fishermen.

9. What solutions can you suggest to the fishermen so that they do not have to depend on the
middlemen for money?
10. In the last 4 chapters, we studied many different aspects of water. Here is more information about
T
the availability of water on Earth. Look at them carefully and explain the availability of water
resources on Earth.
ER
11. How do you support the statement ‘The life of fishermen is tied up with seas’?
12. Read the first paragraph under the heading “fishing villages on the coastal plains” in page 35 and
comment on it.
SC
Distribution of fresh water Distribution of water on earth Distribution of fresh

surface water
Saline water (Oceans) 97% Ice caps and Glaciers 68.7% Lakes 87%
Fresh water 3% Groundwater 30.1% Swamps 11%
Surface water 0.3%
Other 0.9% Rivers 2%

5
CHAPTER
Europe
A
In this chapter, we will try to find out about how the people of Europe have been
AN
using their distinct natural environment and resources.
Location of Europe or Australia. They only knew about Europe,
G
In order to find out the location of western parts of Asia and northern parts of
Africa. You can see that all these regions
N
Europe and to see how far it is from India,
you will need an atlas or a globe. To begin are situated around the Mediterranean Sea.
That is why Europeans thought that this sea
LA
with, look at Map 1 in which Europe has
been shaded. Identify the boundaries of was in the centre of the world and named it
Europe. There is an ocean to its north. so. It has been known by this name ever
since.
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Identify its name on the map. This ocean is

frozen for most of the year. Name the mountains to the east of
Name the ocean to the west of Europe.
Europe.
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The Eural mountains are eastern

This ocean separates the two continents boundaries of Europe. These mountains are
ER
Europe and North America. About 500 not very high. Asia is on the east of these
years ago, the people of Europe discovered Arctic Ocean
the sea route to America and millions of
Atlantic Ocean
SC
Europeans migrated to the continent of

Mountains
America and settled down there. Asia

Ural
Europe
Look at the atlas and find the name Pacific
of the sea just south of Europe. Ocean
Africa
This sea separates Europe in the north
Equator
from Africa in the south. The name of this
Me
sea means ‘middle of the world’. Do you Indian

dite e a
Ocean Australia
know why it is called by this name? In
S
rran
ancient times, the people of Europe did not

ean
know about other continents like America Map 1: Location of Europe

mountains while Europe is to their west. In
fact, Asia and Europe are one continuous
landmass. This landmass is therefore called
Eurasia.
Now you are familiar with the

location of Europe. You can also
look at the countries of Europe.
A
Look at Map 2 to find out their
AN
names. Have you heard the names
of some of these countries before? Fig 5.1 Budapest, capital of Hungary
Map 3 has been left blank for your by the river Danube in Eastern Europe
use. Write the names of the form the southern boundary of Europe.
G
countries of Europe on this map They too are very high and covered with
and colour them. See that no two snow all year round.
neighbouring countries have the
same colour.
N There is a lot of diffference between
Asia and Europe. We can see many plateaus
LA
in Asia. But, there are no large plateaus in
Mountains, Plains and Rivers Europe. There are only some small
Let us learn more about the mountains, plateaus in France, Germany and Spain.
TE
plains and rivers of Europe with the help There are vast plains in Europe. Eastern
of Map 4. Europe has several snow-covered Europe is a vast plain, which stretches
mountains. Look for the Alps and the across several countries like Russia,
Pyrenees in the map. The Alps, the most Ukraine, Poland, Bylorussia etc. These
T
important mountain ranges of Europe, are plains experience heavy snowfall and bitter
covered with snow all year round. cold in winters. When the snow melts in
ER
summer, small streams start flowing. They

The Alps stretch across several
join to form mighty rivers. It is from these
countries. Find out the names of
plains that rivers like the Dnieper and the
these countries by comparing Maps Volga (the longest river in Europe)
SC
2 and 4. originate.
Write the names of the two rivers European rivers are used not only for
starting from the Alps. irrigating the fields but also as major
Name the countries across whose waterways; ships and barrages ply on these
borders the Pyrenees stretch. rivers and transport people and goods from
Name the mountains stretching to one place to another. Since these rivers
the Eastern Europe. flow across several countries, they also
Identify the other mountains in facilitate international trade and transport.
Europe and prepare a table. In this respect, the Rhine is one of the most
The Caucasian Mountains, which lie important rivers as it flows through several
between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea, countries and empties itself into the North
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Europe 43
Arctic Ocean
44
Map 2: Europe
ICELAND
SC Political
DENMARK
LANDS
Diversity on the Earth

THER FINLAND
Asia
NE
SWEDEN
ER
NORWAY
ESTOINA
Northern
T RUSSIA
Sea LATVIA
IRELAND
UNITED LITHUANIA
KINGDOM RUSSIA
BELARUS
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Atlantic Ocean
POLAND
GERMANY
BELGIUM CHECH REP. UKRAINE

FRANCE
LA
AUSTRIA SLOVOKIA
HUNGARY Caspian
MOL
ROMANIA
N Sea
DOV
PO
A
ITA
Black Sea
G
RT
LY
SPAIN
BULGARIA
UG
TURKEY
AL
Mediteranean Sea TURKEY
AN
SWITZERLAND
Social Studies
Africa
MONTENEGRO
A
Practice Map
EUROPE
Map 3:
A
AN
G
N
LA
TE
T
ER
SC

46
ARTIC OCEAN
Map 4: Europe
Ur
Physical
al
s
M
nge
ou
SC
n
N
Ra
a
n
Dv
in
ins
via
a
na
Diversity on the Earth

ndi
a
ER
Sc
a
T
Se
North
c
alti
Sea W Dvina R
B
Volga R
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Pennine Range
V
TE
Rh
s
i
Od
El
Se
ne
er
b
Dn
in
tula
R
e
R
p
eR
R
er
Bay of Loire R R ASIA
R onR
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Biscay Da D
Alps nu
Ca
s
mts be
R
pi
Po R
N
mts
an
S
r
mo
Di Caucasus
Ap
e
n
ea
u
Carpathian
e
Black Sea
n
G
A
n
mo aric
Py ntai
un Al
n
ria
ine
ees s
t
tai ps
s
i
ns
c Sea
Mediterranean Sea Agean
AN
Sea
Social Studies
AFRICA
A
Sea. There are several major industrial and Peninsulas, Islands, Bays and
mining cities on the open sea and thus linked Gulfs
to intercontinental trade. Unlike the Rhine,
the Volga drains into the Caspian Sea, which The sea coast of Europe is very jagged.
is a vast lake. Transport to the open sea In several places, it appears that the sea has
cut deep into the land as in the case of the
through this river-way is not possible.
Baltic Sea. Elsewhere, it would appear that
Thus, the cities on the Volga are not linked
a part of the land has stretched far into the
A
to transcontinental trade through
sea as in the case of Italy.
waterways.
AN
Italy is surrounded on three sides by the
Study Maps 2 and 4 to answer the sea. Land masses that are surrounded by the
following questions: sea on three sides and connected to the
Names of countries through which mainland on the fourth side are called
G
the Rhine flows: 1……. 2…..… ‘peninsula’. Norway and Sweden are also
3….…. 4…..… 5..…… part of a peninsula. You can check this out
Names of countries through which
the Danube flows: 1……. 2…..…
N in the map. This peninsula is called the
Scandinavian Peninsula.
LA
3….…. 4…..… 5..……
Names of two mountain ranges on Land
the border of the Hungarian plains.
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1……… ................ 2………… y

Names of countries which ring the Ba
a
Black Sea. 1……. 2…..… 3….…. ul
ins
4…..… 5..…… n
Pe
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Names of oceans or seas into which

Sea
the following rivers empty
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themselves:
Fig 5.2 Peninsula and Bay
River Ocean/Sea
1. Seine Which of the following is a
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2. Rhine peninsula: Greece or France?

3. Oder Are Spain and Portugal peninsulas
4. Po too?
5. Danube
Name the mountain range in the
6. Vistula Scandinavian Peninsula.
7. Volga
The sea surrounds some of the European
8. Dnieper countries, not just on three sides but on all
9. Don four sides! These are island countries.
10. Dvina Great Britain is one such island country.
Find out the names of some other Why is the climate of Europe so
island countries of Europe. different from ours? Discuss in the
class.
Since ancient times, the seas have played
an important role in the lives of the people Distance from the Equator
of these islands and peninsulas. Central and The regions near the Equator remain
southern Europe is largely mountainous. warm all round the year. As we move
A
Travel and transport over them is both northwards or southwards away from the
difficult and expensive. In comparison, sea Equator, it gets cooler and cooler. Indeed, the
AN
transport is easy and less expensive. This Polar Regions are covered with ice all round
is the reason why Europeans have been the year.
extensively using sea routes since ancient Look at a globe or refer to map 1 to
times.
G
see how far is north Europe from the
The presence of a large number of bays Equator.
and gulfs has also facilitated the use of sea
N
routes. Bays and gulfs are parts of the sea
enclosed by land on three sides. In a bay,
Is Europe farther than India from the
Equator?
LA
Norway and Italy are two European
the land curves inwards and the mouth of
countries. Which country do you
the bay is usually wide as in the Bay of
think is warmer? Why?
Bengal. A gulf is a narrow inlet of the sea
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and has a narrow mouth. The entire Baltic The Atlantic Ocean
Sea as you can see in the map is a large The climate of Europe is influenced
gulf. Since the bays and gulfs are protected by another factor – the Atlantic Ocean and
from the storms of the high seas, they are the winds blowing from it. This impact is felt
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very useful for building harbours where more by the regions along the Atlantic
ships can be safely anchored and cargoes Ocean than the ones which are far inland.
ER
loaded or unloaded. Deep gulfs or bays are

preferred for building harbours as large Locate the regions of Europe along
ships can be anchored in them. Ships need the Atlantic Ocean and state
deep waters so that their bottoms do not whether they are on eastern side or
SC
touch the sea floor. western to the Atlantic Ocean?

In the winters, it is quite cold in Western
Find out the names of the countries Europe but it is even colder in Eastern
on the three sides of the Baltic Sea Europe. Thus, countries like Poland and
from Map 4. Russia have severe winters while France
and Great Britain are comparatively
Climate warmer. Russian winters are so cold that
Europe has a cooler climate than ours. the rivers and the nearby seas freeze.
Most of its countries experience snowfall in However, this does not happen in the
winter. Their summers too are not as warm countries of Western Europe that are
as ours. located along the sea coast.
Look at the map and tell which another along the continents. These are the
country is warmer, Spain or ocean currents, which flow for thousands
Slovakia? of kilometers in the ocean just as rivers
flow on land.
You would have guessed that this One such ocean current is to be found
difference must be because of the nearness in the Atlantic Ocean. This current
of Western Europe to the Atlantic Ocean. originates near the Equator where the
A
Let us see exactly how this ocean affects waters are warm throughout the year. This
the climate of Europe. current flows westward to North America.
AN
Westerlies It flows towards the north along the eastern
coast of America under the impact of
Winds blow all the year round from the
the Westerlies and then advances towards
Atlantic Ocean towards Europe. Since they
Europe. Moving northeast wards, it hits the
G
blow from the west, these winds are called
western coast of Europe. This current is
‘Westerlies’ (Actually, they blow from the
called ‘Gulf Stream (The ocean water
southwest towards the northeast). These
winds are warmer than the land temperature
N current which flows speedly is called a
stream)’ in America, while in Europe, it is
LA
and are moist too. The climate of Western
Europe is affected by these warm and moist called ‘North Atlantic Drift (The ocean
winds all year round as they blow throughout water current which flows slowly is called
the year. a drift)’.
TE
The coastal waters of the east coast of

Can you guess the impact of
North America and the west coast of
Westerlies on Europe ?
Europe do not freeze in winters, thanks to
Warm Ocean Currents the Gulf Stream. Thus, it is possible for
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The waters in the oceans are not static. ships to visit the ports on these coasts even
They keep flowing from one place to during winter.
ER
SC
north Europe north

America America Europe
Africa
Africa
Equator
south Equator
America
south
America
Map 5: The Westerlies Map 6: Gulf Strean

Why do you think is the climate of What differences did you notice
Eastern Europe not so strongly between the climates of India and
affected by the warm currents? West Europe?
Fill in the blanks: Western Europe also benefits in other

The waters near the Equator ways from the Gulf Stream. The warm
are…… (warm / cool / icy cold) currents are very good for fish breeding as
A
Starting near the Equator, the Gulf they contain ample food material for the
Stream reaches the …….. coast of fishes. As a result, the fishery industry is
AN
America. (eastern / western / well developed in the North Sea near
northern) Britain. This part of the North Sea is called
‘Dogger Bank’. Fish is an important part
The Gulf Stream flows in the
of the food of the Europeans and fishing is
G
………. (Atlantic Ocean /
a very important industry in Europe.
Mediterranean Sea / Black Sea)
The waters of the Gulf Stream
which hit the European coast are
N Name the countries which would
benefit from the Dogger Bank.
LA
…….. (cold / warm / icy cold)
Mediterranean Climate in Southern
The Westerlies blow from the Europe
Atlantic Ocean towards Europe
Look at the countries of Southern
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………….. (in winter / in summer

Europe. They have the Mediterranean Sea
/ all round the year)
to their south, so they are called
These winds are ……….. (dry / ‘Mediterranean Countries’. The lands along
moist / icy) the Mediterranean Sea have a distinct
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Western Europe: Showers all Year climate called the ‘Mediterranean

climate’.
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Round
The Westerlies, which blow throughout Look at Map 2 and name four
the year, also bring ample moisture to Mediterranean countries.
northern and western Europe. Since these The Mediterranean countries are the
SC
winds blow from the sea, they carry a lot of southernmost countries of Europe. As a
moisture and regularly cause rainfall. result, the winters here are not too cold
Therefore, it rains throughout the year and summers are warm. It does not rain all
through the year as in Western Europe. The
in northern and western Europe. While it
Westerlies blow here during the winter
rains only for a few months in our country,
months only. These winds bring rain to the
there are light showers all round the year in Mediterranean countries. In other words,
Western Europe. The sky is usually it rains here only in winter. Such rainy
clouded. While we, in India, eagerly await winters and dry summers are termed as
cool showers, the people of Western ‘Mediterranean climate’. Several regions
Europe await bright sunny days. in other continents too have a
Mediterranean climate. This climate is very four O’clock in the afternoon. The overcast
good for growing juicy fruits. Thus, regions sky makes it even darker. Broad-leaved
with Mediterranean climate are famous for trees shed their leaves in winter and stand
their fruits. Fruits like olives, figs, grapes, entirely leafless.
oranges etc. are grown extensively in
southern Europe. Spring: The landscape begins to change
as March comes. The days get longer and
Compare Mediterranean and
A
the nights shorter. The snow begins to melt
Telangana climates on the following
and new shoots appear on trees. Fresh
aspects:
AN
green leaves appear and colourful flowers
Seasons bloom everywhere. Lush green grass
Rainfall begins to grow on the pastures.
When does it rain the most in your
G
state, in summer months or in The fields are ploughed in spring and
winter months? sowing is done during this season. Wheat,
Find out if your region gets light
winter showers and the name given
N rye, barley, corn, sugar beet and oats are the
principal crops.
LA
to it in the regional language.
Which of these crops grow in our
Fishing industry is importance in state and in which area?
.…,
TE
whereas fruit growing is important Summer: It is summer from June to

in …… August. It does not rain much and there is
more sunshine. The days are longer - longer
Four Seasons
than our country too. The sun rises as early
T
In our country, we have three seasons, as four O’clock in the morning and sets
winter, summer and rains. However, most
ER
after eight O’clock in the evening. In fact,

European countries have four main seasons. in the northern countries like Sweden, the
They are winter, spring, summer and autumn. Sun does not set at all. These countries are
The look of the land changes according to
called lands of Midnight sun. Nevertheless
SC
the season and the agricultural routine

it does not get very hot. This is because
changes too. The transformation of a place
the Sun does not rise high on the sky and
over these seasons can be seen in the
remains close to the horizon – where the
pictures given in the next page.
earth and the sky seem to meet.
Winter: As November approaches, it
begins to get cold. December onwards, it Summer is the season of agriculture in
gets very cold and snow begins to fall once Europe. Crops mature in this season. There
in a while. It snows heavily on the mountains is no need for irrigation as the occasional
and less on the plains. The sun shines once showers are sufficient for the crops. At the
in a while. The sun rises very late in the day, end of summer, the crops are ready to be
at about nine or ten O’ clock and sets by harvested.
Winter Spring
A
AN
Summer Autumn
G
N
LA
TE
Look carefully at the pictures above. Land and Agriculture

They belong to different seasons. European plains and river valleys are
What differences can you identify? very fertile. It rains here all through the year
T
and the rivers also do not dry up in any

In our country, we have two agricultural
season. As a result, the plains are highly
ER
seasons: Rabi and Kharif (winter and

monsoon). Thus, it is possible to grow suitable for agriculture. However, a large
crops for nearly eight to ten months in a year. part of Europe is mountainous and not
On the other hand, in France and other suitable for agriculture. Some countries
have very little agricultural land. For
SC
European countries, cultivation is possible

only for six to seven months. example, only 3% of the land in Norway is
available for cultivation. 30% of England
Autumn: The climate changes once is cultivable while in Germany, it is about
again in September and October. Tree leaves 40%. This is very different from our
turn red and yellow and begin to fall. country. In India, as much as 55% of the
Agricultural operations are wound up. Hay land is cultivable.
is cut and dried for feeding farm animals in
There is an acute shortage of land in
winter. Grapes and other fruits are plucked
and used for making wine, jams and juices Holland. The people of Holland (the Dutch)
of various kinds and preserved in other have reclaimed small portions of land from
forms. the sea by building embankments called

dykes to push back the sea. The land that is is manufactured from beet in Russia,
reclaimed is called ‘polder’. Ukraine and Germany.
In eastern and northern Europe, it is not Agricultural Revolution
possible to cultivate the land in winter as snow Europe was like Asia, a continent of
covers it for almost six months. The snow small farmers and landlords. However, over
begins to melt only in spring leaving very the last two centuries this has changed so
little time for crops to ripen. It is in spring drastically that only a very small section
A
that sowing takes place and crops ripen in of the population practices agriculture and
the summer months and are ready for harvest
AN
there are no small farmers as in India. This
in autumn. As a result, it is possible to raise happened due to technological revolution
only one crop in a year in these parts. which enabled farmers to cultivate large
However, in southern Europe it is possible tracts of land with very little labour.
G
to raise two crops a year. Machines, chemical fertilisers etc came to
be used extensively in farming and the
Why is it possible to raise two
crops in the Mediterranean
countries?
N product of farming was now mainly for sale
in the market. At the same time, large
LA
landowners and capitlists took over the
Wheat is the main crop in the European agricultural land from small farmers who
plains. It is grown extensively in France, abandoned agriculture and took
Germany, Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Italy, employment in the cities in industries or
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Greece etc. We have seen that fruit other services.

cultivation is prominent in southern European Farms today
Europe. Fruits like grapes are used for Most of the cultivation in Europe is
making wine. The Mediterranean countries
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carried out in large farms - more than 50

like Portugal, Spain, Italy and southern to 100 acres in size. Generally, farmers
ER
France are famous for their wines. build their houses in their own farms. The
Barley, oats, rye, sugar-beet, potato etc. farmhouses are usually very large and have
are also important crops of Europe. Sugar a number of rooms for different purposes
- sheds for animals, godowns
SC
Fig 5.3 Hay bales after the harvest which for storing grains, coops and
will be stored as fodder for winter. sties for poultry and pigs.
These big farmers hire
labourers to work on their
fields. They also use heavy
machines like tractors and
harvesters. Almost the entire
product is sold in the market.
Sometimes the farmers also
hire machines from nearby
cooperative societies.
agriculture. Most of them work in industry
Find out the average size of the
or service sector like banks, transport etc.
farmer’s land in your area.
Even those who work in the field of
Do farmers in your area too hire
agriculture are helped by the government
tractors and harvesters?
with a lot of subsidy to carry on farming as
Large holdings and mechanized farming it gives them less income than other kinds
enable European farmers to earn a good of work. The government pays them for
A
income. They live in comfortable houses carrying on agriculture in the villages.
Discovery of Sea Routes
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equipped with modern amenities. They use
gas and electric stoves for cooking. About
fifty years ago, most European farmers No part of western Europe is too far
baked their own bread. Now, they sell off from the ocean. In contrast, many countries
of Asia are thousands of kilometers from
G
most of their produce and buy their bread
from the market daily. Several varieties of the sea.
bread and cakes are available in nearby
towns. Fresh meat, which is an essential
N Look at the wall map or atlas to
identify the names of at least six
LA
part of French diet, is obtained from cities of Europe which are situated
poultry, cattle and pigs of the farm. Meat is on the sea coast.
also preserved by smoking, drying or
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freezing. All houses have larders or cellars There are thousands of such seaside
to store meat, cheese and wine. Now, they settlements where seafaring people have
are also stored in large cold storages. been living for hundreds of years. With
centuries of experience of sea travel, the
The farmers obtain most of the things
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European sailors were famed for their skill

of their requirement from the nearby towns. and courage on the seas. They were also
ER
Besides bread and other food items, they

skilled in building boats and ships. Initially
also obtain agricultural tools and machines
ships were built and used for fishing in deep
from nearby towns.
seas. Later on, they are used for
Modern Agriculture international trade too.
SC
In Europe, agriculture is practised as a

From the very ancient times, the people
commercial enterprise, just as any industry.
of Europe have been trading with India and
The farmers make his living by selling their
other countries of Asia like Indonesia and
entire produce and getting all of their
China. From these countries, Europe
requirements from the market. The
obtained many goods like cotton and silk
agricultural technology they use also
cloth, gems, ivory and spices such as
requires the use of hybrid seeds, chemical
cloves, pepper and cinnamon – that were
fertilisers, pesticides etc.
not available in Europe. The Europeans got
However, compared to our country, very these in exchange for gold and silver, which
few people in Europe are dependent upon they brought from Europe. Do you know
A
ο
0 Equator
Index
AN
Route of Columbus
Trade winds
Old Land route to India
Map 7: Trade routes
G
what route they took from Europe to India? figure out that the earth must be round and
Look at map 7 in which two major routes
are given. Both the routes crossed the
N not flat. An Italian sailor named Christopher
Columbus thought: ‘If the earth is round
LA
Mediterranean Sea; while one of them took then it should be possible to reach India
a land route via the Middle East, Iran, and from the west too. If we were to travel
Afghanistan, the other route took a sea westward across the Atlantic Ocean we
TE
route via the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea. would reach China and India sooner or
About five hundred years ago, the West later.’
European sailors and traders began to Look at a globe to check whether
search for new routes to India. This was
T
Columbus’s thinking was correct.

because both the routes mentioned above
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passed through countries ruled by the Arabs Columbus set out with three ships in
who were often at war with the Europeans. 1492 to cross the Atlantic Ocean. After
Further, most of the trade in the three months of sailing, he saw land ahead.
Mediterranean Sea was controlled by
Columbus thought that he had reached India.
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Italian merchants who did not let in traders

Actually, he was still far from India; he had
of other countries. That is why the sailors
reached the country which we now call the
of the other countries began to look for
routes to India that did not have to pass West Indies. These are a group of islands
through the Mediterranean Sea or the Arab near America. In fact, Europeans did not
ruled countries. know of America before Columbus. In a
way, he ‘stumbled’ onto America. Soon,
Looking at the map, can you tell Europeans realized that Columbus had not
what the new route could be? reached India but a new unknown continent.
Of course, these maps did not exist in After that, several Europeans went to
those days and people had just begun to America to trade, conquer and settle there.
The ships of those times had sails to harness wind-power. They sailed with ease with the
winds blowing westwards towards America. Were they the Westerlies? No, they were not
the Westerlies which blew towards Europe. These were different winds, which blew from
the south of Europe towards the south-west direction. They blew throughout the year and
took ships from south-west Europe to the east coast of America. They are called ‘Trade
Winds’ (Map 7).
A
The Westerlies blow from the south- west to the north-east to the south-west. In other
words, the two winds blow in opposite directions all through the year (both these winds are
AN
shown on Map 7). This helped Europeans to travel to and from America easily. They could
go to America using the Trade Winds.
G
Look at Map 7 and answer the following questions :
N
Which winds would help the sailors to return to Europe from America?
LA
Could the sail driven ships use the Trade Winds to return to Europe? Give reasons.
After Columbus, the Europeans discovered several sea routes. They could now sail not
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only to America but also to different parts of Africa, India and Australia. They traded with
these countries and amassed immense wealth, which was used to develop industries in
Europe.
T
You will read about the industrial revolution in Europe in greater detail in a later chapter.
ER
Keywords :
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1. Peninsula
2. Island
3. Bay
4. Currents
5. Gulf
6. Climate

1. The Atlantic Ocean has a great impact on the climate of Europe as well as on the lives and livelihood
of the people of Europe. Collect relevant information and write an essay on the theme.
2. Answer these questions with the help of the maps given in the chapter:
• Which of the following is not a landlocked (surrounded by land) country – (Hungary / Romania
A
/ Poland / Switzerland)?
AN
• Which mountains lie between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea – (Alps / Caucasus
Mountains)?
• Which countries are on the shores of the Arctic Ocean – (Russia / Germany / Sweden / Norway)?
G
• Can a ship sail from the Black Sea to the Atlantic Ocean? If yes, trace the route it will have to
take. N
LA
3. Why are harbours built in deep gulfs or bays?
4. Why are the winters less severe in Western Europe than in Eastern Europe?
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5. Name four countries on the coast of the Black Sea.
6. How do the Westerlies benefit the people of Western Europe?
7. What are the characteristics of the Mediterranean climate? Name the countries which
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have a Mediterranean climate.

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8. What are the factors that limit European agriculture?
9. Name the important crops of southern Europe.

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10. How can you say that the trade and cultural relations have developed among the countries due
to the discovery of new sea routes by European sailors?
11. “However, as times changed, ...... trading with them” Read the above paragraph in page no: 56
and comment on it.
12. How is agriculture similar or different in Europe from that of our country?

6
CHAPTER
Africa
A
AN
To the west of India lies a large continent.On this continent, there are extensive
deserts, dense forests, long and broad rivers, numerous large lakes and grasslands
stretching over thousands of miles. There are certain wild animals which we do not
G
find in our country. The world’s largest gold and diamond mines are located here.
The name of this continent is Africa. Perhaps, you will be surprised to know that
N
Africa is the cradle of the humankind. Human beings first evolved in Africa and then
moved to other continents.
LA
TE
T
ER
Fig 6.1 Equatorial forest in Uganda Fig 6.2 Savanna in Kenya

SC
Fig 6.3 The city of Cairo by the River Nile

Look for Africa on the world map There are long and narrow valleys in the
and name the oceans that surround high plateaus. There are several large lakes
it. Which are its neighbouring in these valleys.
continents? Identify two lakes in Africa other
than Lake Victoria and write down
Africa - A Vast Plateau their names.
Look at the physical map of Africa. Do Locate the following rivers on a
A
you see any large plains in the interior of map of Africa. Use map 6 to locate
AN
the continent? Only on the coast do we find the countries of Africa. Which
a narrow plain? The rest of the continent is countries do the following rivers
a vast plateau of varying height. Look for flow through, and which oceans do
the valleys of the Nile and the Congo. There they empty themselves into?
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are also several mountains on this plateau. River Country Ocean
The highest peak in Africa is Mount
Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. N Nile
Niger
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Look at Map 1 and answer the Congo
following questions: Zambezi
Map 1: Relief map of Africa
TE
What is the
average height Mediterranean
ASIA
of the narrow Atlas Sea
mountains
coastal plains?
T
River N
SAHARA DESERT
What is the
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River Niger
height of a
ile
River
major portion Chad
of the plateau? River Volta
SC
o
ng
The height of r Co Lake Victoria
v e
Ri Kilimanjaro Park
the high plateaus
Lake Tanganyika
in the south and Lake Nyasa
Za
Plain 0 -200 Mts

R i bezie
east of Africa is
m
ve
r
Plateau 200-1000 Mts.

…...............
Hills 1000 Mts and
above
Kalahari
In the north are THE Desert
the ............... ATLANTIC THE INDIAN
OCEAN OCEAN
Mountains.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Africa 59

There is a region in the north where no Climate
rivers are to be seen. This is the Sahara
Desert which receives very scanty rainfall. If you look at Africa on the globe you
will find that the Equator passes through
There is only one river, Nile, which crosses
its middle. Thus, Africa is divided into
the Sahara Desert. northern and southern parts.
Look for some of the large lakes on the
Try to recognise the Tropic of
A
plateau. Lake Victoria is the largest lake in Cancer on the wall map of Africa
Africa. It is one of the largest fresh water
AN
and label Map 2. To the south of
lakes in the world. The Nile originates from the Equator is the Tropic of
this lake. Capricorn. Locate it and write its
name in the correct place on the
The region where Nile has its source
G
map.
receives such heavy rainfall that there is
Does the Equator pass through the
the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile also flows
N
enough water to flow across the desert into
middle of any other continent?
LA
through Egypt. Most of Egypt is a desert. The zone between the Tropic of Cancer
and Tropic of Capricorn is the hottest region
The Nile has helped civilization to
of the world. There is hardly any winter
develop in this desert. Egyptian civilization
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here. This is also known as the Tropical

is several thousand years old. The waters region.
of the Nile have helped to irrigate the fields
of Egypt for thousands of years (look at Locate this zone on the map of
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Map 3). Africa, colour it and label it as the

Map 2: Africa - Out line ‘Tropical Region’. Colour the zone
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north of the Tropic of Cancer and

south of the Tropic of Capricorn in
different colours.
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These zones – south and north of the

tropics experience summer as well as
winter. They are called ‘Temperate
Equator
Regions’.
So far we have been talking only about

summer and winter. However, regions that
are hot but receive heavy rainfall have a
different climate from hot regions that get
scanty rainfall.
Map 3: Distribution of
Rainfall in Africa
A
AN
G
High rainfall
N
Medium rainfall
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Low rainfall
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Map 4: Natural
Vegetation in Africa
T
ER
SC
Equatorial forests
Broad leaved trees and grass
Savanna
Soft grass of high plateau
Mountainous vegetation
Desert vegetation

Regions with Heavy Rainfall Study Map 2 and 4 and answer:
A large part of Africa, on both sides of Zones of heavy rainfall have ......
the Equator, receives heavy rainfall. Look vegetation.
at the regions with heavy rainfall on Map Zones of moderate rainfall have
3. They are in Central and Western Africa. ….. vegetation.
They have dense forests due to heavy Zones of scanty rainfall have …..
rainfall and warm climate. vegetation.
A
Regions with Moderate and Scanty Pictures of different areas of Africa
AN
Rainfall have been shown in the beginning of the
Look for regions with moderate rainfall chapter. Somewhere, there are dense
in Map 3. It surrounds the zone of heavy forests, in another area, trees and grass
G
rainfall. In the region with moderate grow together, elsewhere there are grasses
rainfall, it rains only in the summer, whereas and shrubs, and in still other areas, there is
no vegetation at all.
regions.
N
it rains throughout the year in the equatorial
The People of Africa
LA
As in our country, dry and wet seasons People with different languages,
are distinct in the zones of moderate rainfall lifestyles and habits live in different
in Africa. Due to moderate rainfall, tall regions of Africa. Since ancient times,
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grasses grow in this region. In some places, people have lived in small tribes, carrying
these grasses are so tall that even elephants out hunting gathering, animal husbandry and
can hide in them! Some trees also grow agriculture. Hunters have inhabited the
between the grasses. This region is known as equatorial regions and the deserts.
T
the ‘Savanna’. Look at this region in Map Pastoralists inhabited the high plateaus and
4. Different kinds of wild animals inhabit this Savanna, grazing their animals on the
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region. You will read about them later. extensive grasslands. Agriculture has long
A very large part of Africa is extremely been carried out on river banks as well as
arid (dry), where the rainfall is scanty or on the margins of forests. There are several
cities on the coasts where traders from
SC
there is no rainfall at all for several years.

distant countries come to trade.
Locate these arid zones in Map 3.
Almost half of the northern part of
Africa is an arid region and is called the
Sahara desert. Thorny bushes and short
grasses grow in some parts of this desert.
In other parts, there are large stretches of Fig 6.4
sand, bare hills and rocks, stones and Boabab tree
pebbles. In the south, there is another arid
region called the Kalahari Desert.
Africa, Europe and Asia Look at the map to answer these questions:
For a long time, people from other How can one reach India from
continents were largely ignorant about Africa? Which ocean has to be
Africa. Europeans were familiar only with crossed?
the northern coastal regions of Africa while Are Asia and Africa connected by
the Indian and Arab traders knew about the land?
eastern coast.
A
Look at the world map and guess The African Coast
AN
how Europeans would have reached While studying Europe, you must have
the northern coastal areas. How can noticed its broken coastline. You have read
one reach Africa from Europe? about the gulfs and bays of Europe. Try to
Which sea has to be crossed to recall how these helped the Europeans in
G
reach Africa?
their ocean travel.
Apart from these coastal areas, neither
the Europeans nor the Indian or Arab traders
N Now look at the African coast. Do
you see a broken coast or a smooth
LA
had much knowledge about the interior parts
of Africa. coastline?
Do you find many bays and gulfs
About 500 years ago, Europeans began
here, as in Europe? Name a bay and
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their attempts to reach India by the sea

a gulf near Africa from Map 6.
route by going around Africa. Traversing the
Atlantic Ocean, they used to stopover on the
islands of St. Madiera and Azores. They were Initially, when Europeans tried to go
inland, many African tribes came in direct
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apprehensive about going south of these

islands. They thought it would be so hot conflict with them. Europeans indulged in
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further south that the sea would be boiling. unfair trade, tried to enslave the African
Then, in 1498, a Portugese sailor named people and sold them abroad. They wanted
Vasco da Gama went around the southern tip to establish their rule over Africa and
of Africa and reached India. exploit its resources. Hence, the African
SC
people resisted the efforts of foreigners

to establish themselves in their land.
Slave Trade
In the 16th century, many Europeans
began migrating to America and started
cultivation there. There was plenty of land
in America, but not enough people to work
on the fields. To fill the gap, the slave trade
Fig 6.5 Cape of Good Hope in South Africa from Africa began.
Africans several days to reach America. Many slaves
were captured did not survive the journey due to illness
and enslaved and malnutrition.
mainly from the Even in America, inhuman treatment was
coastal areas of meted out to them. Despite working hard,
Guinea as well
they were not given proper food or living
as eastern
quarters. In this manner, millions of
A
Africa. The
Africans were enslaved and taken to North and
captured people
South America and the nearby islands. Lakhs
AN
were brought to
of people died after they were made slaves.
the coast and
sold to the In the 16th and 17th centuries, numerous
Fig 6.6 A Slave companies were engaged in slave trade.
Europeans. In
G
exchange for the slaves, the African tribal Eventually, the slave trade ended in the 19th
leaders accepted guns, iron objects, liquor century and the slaves were declared free
and clothes. N
The slaves were greatly oppressed. Many
citizens in America in 1860.
European Colonies
LA
of them died by the time they reached the Earlier, you had read that Europeans
ports. The ships were stuffed with slaves. had reached India by going around Africa.
There were no proper arrangements for Subsequently, these Europeans started
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food or medicine. In those days, it took halting at African ports. Slowly the
Map 5: European colonies in Africa in 1913
Portuguese, Dutch,
English, French and
Germans gained a
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foothold in the interior and

Ethiopia colonized these areas. The
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political map of Africa at

the close of the 19 th
century is given in Map 5.
Liberia The regions colonized by
SC
the European colonies

Belgium have been indicated on this
Britain map.
France Can you locate the
Germany countries that
colonised Africa on a
Italy
map of Europe?
Portugal
Which European
Spain countries colonized
Independent Sudan and Zaire?

Can you point out any area of Africa Locate the areas where these crops
which was not colonised? grown on the map of Nigeria (as
Along with attempts to build their per map 4).
colonies in Africa, the Europeans continued Plantations were started by the British
to explore the interiors of the continent. who were not satisfied with the quantity of
They travelled to the source of the Nile in
wild products collected from the forests.
the north. In the west, they explored the entire
A
They wanted to produce more and export
valley of the Niger and in the south, they moved
them.
AN
northwards from Cape Town. They explored
the region around the river Zambezi. Plantations made many things easy for
The Europeans exported African timber, them. First of all, it was no longer difficult
minerals etc. on a very large scale to Europe. to go into the forest and locate the trees. It
G
In fact, the gold and diamond mines in was easy to look after the trees since they
southern Africa are still under the control were all in one place. Harvesting the
of European companies. Zambia and
Zimbabwe have priceless mines of copper.
N produce became much easier. Therefore,
the production increased. Nigerian people
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This mineral has long been an important started working in these plantations, while
export item. the British were their managers. In this way,
The Europeans did not stop with
commercial agriculture of palm, cocoa and
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exporting the resources of Africa. They

rubber began in Nigeria.
established plantations to grow tea, coffee,
rubber, tobacco etc. These products were Not only this, a number of processing
also exported to Europe. units were also set up near plantations, such
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as units to separate seed from the cocoa

Plantations in Nigeria
fruit, to dry it, extract oil from palm fruit,
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You may be fond of eating chocolates. extract milk from rubber plants and so on.
They are made of cocoa, which grows in
Most of the profit from trade of palm,
Nigeria. In southern Nigeria, apart from
cocoa and rubber went to the British. The
SC
cocoa, there are also rubber plantations.

Nigerian people worked there only as
Oil-bearing palm trees are also found there.
Oil is extracted from its fruit. People reach agricultural labourers. Even in India, during
these forests after crossing the Niger by the British times, plantations of tea and
boat to collect palm fruit. Earlier, all these coffee were started for trade purposes.
trees were found in wild forests. When the Nigeria was under the British rule until
demand for them increased, patches of 1960 when it won independence. After that,
forest were cleared and these trees were the plantations and trade in plantation
planted there. Cocoa, rubber, palm and palm products have gradually come under the
oil are being exported and this enables control of the Nigerians and they are able
Nigeria to earn foreign exchange. to benefit from these.
Independent Africa Nigeria. Since 1958, mineral oil has been
exported from Nigeria. Oil refineries have
During the last century, African
been set up at Harcourt and Vari port.
countries gained independence from the
This industry is mostly in the hands of
control of European powers. New nations
foreign companies to this day. The Nigerian
came up with their own governments. Of
government has only a small share in this
course, many Europeans are still settled in
industry. This is the same with many other
African countries. But slowly, the African
A
minerals mined from Africa.
people are acquiring control over their land,
The foriegn companies do bring in new
forests, mines, and agricultural production
AN
technologies and investments into the
and benefiting from them.
mining and processing industries, thus
Minerals of Africa creating employment for the local people.
The continent is very rich in minerals However, they use cheap labour to make
G
like coal, copper, tin etc. Besides, it is huge profits which are taken away from the
perhaps the largest producer in the world African people. Most of these companies
of precious minerals like gold and
diamonds. One of the main aims of
N are also careless about environmental
protection and have caused immense
LA
Europeans in Africa was to exploit these damage to the natural environment. This has
resources by using servile labour of the affected the quality of land and life of the
Africans. Many of these countries and their people adversly.
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companies control most of the mineral

Familiarise yourself with the
resources of even the independent African
countries of Africa, by colouring
countries till date.
and labelling - Map -7.
For example, mineral oil or petoleum
T
is the most important natural resource of

Keywords :
Nigeria. The Dutch companies established
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control over the oil mining and refining in 1. Colonies 2. Slave 3. Plateau

SC
1. From Europe, which sea does one have to cross to reach northern Africa?
2. State three difficulties that the Europeans faced in reaching the interior parts of Africa.
3. Name the two large deserts of Africa.
4. Two political maps of Africa have been given in the chapter. Compare the two to find out which
European country controlled the present day countries of Nigeria and Zimbabwe.
5. Name two countries of Africa where equatorial forests are found.
6. What goods did Europeans trade with Africa? What kind of agricultural produce did they
promote for trade purpose?
7. Who benefited from the slave trade? Why did America need slaves?
8. How can you say that the slave trade is highly heinous?
9. Read the last para of this lesson and comment on it.

Map 6: Countries of Africa
TUNISIA
O
CC
A
RO
MO
AN
ALGERIA
H A RN
LIBIYA
RA
S A STE
EGYPT
WE
IA
N
TA
RI
G
U
A MALI
M NIGER
ERITHRIA
SENEGAL
BURKINA
N CHAD SUDAN
DJIBOUTH
LA
GUINEA FASO
NIGERIA
CAMEROON
LI AL SOUTH ETHIO-
BE CENTR EP SUDAN PIA
AN R
RI AFRIC IA
TE
A BENIN AL
A M
TOGO
AND SO
COAST GHANA DEMO- UG KENYA
IVOIRE EQUATO- RAWANDA
CRATIC REP
RIAL BURUNDI
T
SIERRA CONGO
GUINEA
GABON TANZANIA
LEONE
ER
GUINEA MALAWI
BISSAU REP. OF
CONGO AN-
MOZAMBIQUE
THE GOLA
ZAMBIA
R
GAMBIA
SC
SCA
ZIMBABWE
GA
NAMIBIA
DA
BOTSWANA
MA
The Atlantic Ocean SWAZILAND

SOUTH LESOTHO
AFRICA
The Indian Ocean

First, label this map with the help of Map 6. Then colour all the countries with different
colours. Take care not to colour two neighbouring countries with the same colour.
Map 7: Countries of Africa
A
AN
G
N
LA
TE
T
ER
SC

7
CHAPTER
Handicrafts and
Handlooms
A
PART - I
AN
Basket Maker of Andugula What are the tools used by the
Polaiah is a basket maker from Andugula basket makers?
village in Madugula Mandal, Ranga Reddy
G
Each bundle of date palm spines costs
district. He is about 35 years old. He Rs.120. Polaiah and other basket makers
belongs to Yerukala, a tribal community. usually bring 10 bundles for two months.
His family has been weaving baskets
for generations. Bagyamma, his wife, also
N Polaiah’s family makes 25 baskets from
LA
one bundle. Ten bundles of spines would
works as a basket maker. They have three give them about 250 baskets. It takes 30
children. Polaiah’s father along with 25 minutes to make a basket. He weaves
other families came to the city about 30 baskets from 10 am to 5 pm with a few
TE
years ago as the demand for baskets had breaks to eat and rest.
declined in their native village. He sells
baskets on the pavements of Chaderghat
in Hyderabad.
T
Polaiah uses the spines of wild date

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palm (eatha chettu) leaves to make

baskets. Using a knife, he shaves off the
leaves and keeps them in hot sunshine to
dry them. The raw material, wild date
SC
palm leaves, are brought in bundles from

Andugula, their native village. His
relatives in Andugula collect the spines
Fig 7.1 Basket shop with bamboo products
from bushes around their villages and sell
them to basket makers like Polaiah. Polaiah sells each basket for Rs. 20.
Andugula is about 60 km from Hyderabad. Sometimes, customers ask for a bigger
basket for family rituals. These are sold at
What do you understand about raw a higher price depending on the amount of
material in the context of basket raw material used. He sells baskets
making? Who collects them? throughout the year. In two months, he can

is true for many involved in traditional
activities. However, they often have to live in
urban areas without basic amenities.
Urban Slum
Polaiah lives in a slum, which does not
have proper drainage, so it emits foul smell
and breeds mosquitoes and flies. There is
A
no electricity connection or safe drinking
AN
water. Polaiah’s hut is made of bamboo,
mats and recycled plastic bags and tarpaulin.
During the rainy season, their roofs often
leak and the huts are flooded. Sometimes
G
the Municipal Corporation officials evict
Polaiah and other basket maker families.
N Despite struggling hard, people like
Polaiah have been denied voting rights in
LA
the city. In fact, they have been denied ration
Fig 7.2 Basket weaving cards as they don’t have any proof of identity
or proof of residence.Thus, they cannot
sell Rs.5000 worth of baskets. The cost
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either participate in the democratic

price is Rs. 1200 excluding the
processes of the city or avail the facilities
transportation charges of Rs.100 for every
meant for the poor.
visit to his village. So, the income of his
family is Rs.3700 for 2 months. He does Basket Makers
T
not earn sufficient money to meet his People of Yerukula tribe are usually
family’s expenditure. To supplement his involved in basket making and live in
ER
income, Polaiah buys and sells bamboo different parts of Telangana and Andhra
products like trays and stands. Pradesh. They are called ‘Yerukula’ after
Basket making is a craft work that
SC
involves the use of wild date palm leaves,

cane and bamboo which are found in
forests. There has been depletion of
forests due to their extensive
exploitation for big industries. This
affects the livelihoods of people who
have traditionally depended on forest.
Further, the demand for such products
has reduced considerably. This forces
them to move out of rural areas and
migrate to urban areas for survival. This Fig 7.3 Basket weaving
70 Production, Exchange and Livelihoods Social Studies

their women’s traditional profession of Do you think people like Polaiah
fortune telling ‘Eruka chepputa’ (Sodhi). should be given ration card and
People of this tribe speak ‘Yerukula basha’ allowed to vote in Hyderabad?
. Words from Telugu, Tamil and Kannada
languages are used in this language. By now, you have learnt that goods such
as baskets made of bamboo and etha chettu
Choose the correct option: require simple production – using very few
A
a. Forests are depleting largely materials mostly made of natural
because of the usage by (basket resources. There are many other goods
AN
weavers / big industries). which require raw material to be processed
b. Polaiah buys bamboo items from in a more complex way with complex tools.
(a trader in mandi/a village in Cloth materials made of cotton and silk are
Andugula). examples of such goods. Cloth can be
G
manufactured today either in hand-operated
Make a table showing Polaiah’s
looms or by power looms or in large mills.
expenditure for raw material and
income from the produce. N We will study here how it is produced by
handloom weavers.
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PART - II
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Handloom Weavers in means, no other producers of handloom

Pochampally sarees in the world can sell sarees in the
name of “Pochampally Ikkat Sarees”. Only
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Pochampally is a small town in Yadadri those sarees that are produced in

district in Telangana. The weavers here Pochampally and its surrounding villages can
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produce unique sarees called Ikkat sarees, be sold with this brand name. These sarees
which are world famous. Ikkat is a term are sold in India and abroad at high prices.
used for the particular style in which cloth To make silk sarees, you need raw
SC
is dyed, also often referred to Bandhini or material like silk yarn, colours and cotton
Pochampally itself. They are high quality thread. They are not produced by weavers.
silk sarees containing simple geometrical They buy them from the market. Silkworms,
designs and available mostly in three from which silk yarn is made, grow on
colours and shades. There are nearly mulberry leaves. Rearing of silkworms is
10,000 weaving families in 100 taken up by small farmers. Cotton is
neighbouring villages involved in this craft. produced in farms and is made into thread
Pochampally sarees have a unique design either in factories or as a household craft.
and colour which is quite distinct from Colours are often made in factories.
other silk sarees. That is why it is the first Weavers buy yarn and colours from the
handloom cloth patented in India. This market.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Handicrafts and Hanlooms 71

Tools: after the other. Only when the colouring is
Weavers own the wooden loom, which completed, the thread can be used for
is the main tool required for weaving. Apart weaving.
from it, they also use small knives. For Dyeing yarn
weavers, it is also important to know the
For dyeing, the silk yarn is taken off, but
plan of the design to weave the saree. If
when it becomes dry, it is stretched, partly
you look at a saree, you will notice that opened and tied again for dyeing. This
A
there are very intricate designs on them. process is repeated several times. For
These designs are marked on special making sarees in different colours and
AN
sheets of paper with specific notations. shades, different methods of dyeing are
Weavers follow them without making followed. The red and brown shades,
errors. With years of practice, they even between white and black colours, are
develop new designs. printed using alizarin dyes. For this, the
G
yarn is first soaked in a mixture of castor
Look at a saree and draw any of the oil and alkaline earth, then dried, soaked
common designs on them in the
box below.
N again, dipped in alizarin paste and finally
boiled till it becomes red. For the brown
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shades, iron filings are added to the colour.
Dissolving iron filings in vinegar produces
black colour.
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Warp and Weft

You will notice that cloth has threads
passing from top to bottom and
sideways as shown in the picture
T
below. Warp is the yarn that goes from

ER
top to bottom and weft is the yarn that

go from left to right.
SC
Stages of Weaving a Saree

There are different stages of weaving
Weft
a saree. The first is preparing the yarn. Silk

yarn is wound on a bobbin. These yarns are
then marked with the design. These
markings of the designs help the weaver
to identify what colours need to be dyed
into which part of the yarn. Dyeing the yarn
is a long repeated process. Each colour
needs to be dyed separately and dried one
Warp

Let us look at the account
of a visit to a weavers’ house
in Pochampally to know more
about ikkat cloth materials.
Jagathayya is a resident of
Pochampally. All of his family
members – he, his wife, his
A
son and daughter-in-law work
as weavers. When we visited
AN
his house, we found all
members in the family
engaged in different tasks.
G
While he was winding yarn,
his son Murali was engaged
in weaving on the maggam
(pit loom) set up inside the
N Fig 7.4 At pit loom - weaving a saree
LA
house. Other tools such as
Chitkasu (is a curved frame
made for weft ikkat with pegs
TE
on which the weft threads are

grouped and tied for dyeing),
panni (reed), Acchu (head
shaft), thread and rubber
tubing were used for different
T
tasks in producing ikkat

ER
sarees. Most of the tools are

made of wood. Since he has
grown old, Jagathayya
spends most of the time
SC
winding yarn and his son

weaves on the loom.
Jagathayya’s wife and
daughter-in-law do bobbin
winding. Jagathayya’s grand
children are studying in
schools. There is some work
like warping done collectively
by group of weavers on Fig 7.5 Winding thread
streets / outside the house.

a member. Jagathayya
gets all the raw material
at a time to weave eight
sarees. The whole family
has to work for 12-15
hours a day for nearly 50
days to weave 8 sarees.
A
They get about Rs.1200
per saree for the work.
AN
Weaving saree is a
hereditary occupation for
Jagathayya’s family. The
G
income Jagathayya’s family
makes from weaving ikkat
Fig 7.6 Bobbin winding sarees is insufficient to run
N the family.
LA
His son Murali brings all the raw
Between March and May, Jagathayya’s
material – dyed silk yarn, zari and design
family is able to weave only for a few hours
from master weaver and sometimes
a day. If the temperature is high, the thread
from cooperative society of which he is
TE
will get cut. The whole family works only

till afternoon during these days. Women
are distressed as they have to do not only
weaving but also the household chores like
T
cooking food, fetching water and preparing

children to go to school etc.
ER
Earlier, Jagathayya’s family used to

weave only for the cooperative society. The
cooperative societies provide financial
SC
assistance through insurance in case of

unexpected illness or death in the weaver’s
family. They also help in getting loans for
construction of houses. Now-a-days, the
cooperative society does not give
sufficient work, so they have to look for
additional sources of income to run their
families. Since a master weaver in
Pochampally agreed to give work and
remuneration, Jagathayya’s family began
Fig 7.7 Marking design weaving Ikkat sarees for the master weaver.
Jagathayya has not given up the
membership of the cooperative
society with a hope that it will
improve its functioning in the
future.
Weaver’s Problems and
Cooperative Societies
A
Telangana is one of the states
AN
in India which have a large number
of handlooms. During the last few
decades, handloom weavers have
G
been facing a serious problem.
They face a stiff competition
from power loom and mill made
clothes - these clothes are
N
LA
cheaper as they are produced on
machines and also because they
use synthetic yarn which is
TE
cheaper than cotton or silk. Even Fig 7.8 Weaving in process

though it is popular due to its high are produced in far away centres. This gives the
quality and unique beauty, the middlemen an important position in the
Pochampally saree seems to be handloom industry and they try to get the largest
T
expensive. The weavers also do share of the saree price.

not get good rates due to middle
ER
men’s involvement.
The buyers are spread all over
the world and weavers do not have
SC
any direct contact with them.

Fashions in cities change fast and
it is difficult for the weavers to
know what kind of designs are in
demand. Therefore, they have to
rely on middlemen to know about
the designs in vogue and change
their designs accordingly. They
also have to depend on
middlemen to the raw material
like cotton or silk yarn as they Fig 7.9 Warping

In order to overcome these problems, A large amount of handloom cloth
the weavers are encouraged to form material in Telangana is produced and
cooperative societies. The cooperative marketed by master weavers and merchants.
societies are meant to help the weavers in The master weavers and merchants procure
buying raw materials at low prices and all the raw material, supply it to weavers
arrange for marketing of their cloth. This and collect the woven cloth. Then they sell
reduces their dependence upon middlemen
this material to wholesale cloth merchants.
A
and traders. The cooperative societies
They pay a stipulated amount as wages for
should help the weavers by training in new
the weaving work. Many master weavers
AN
designs.
also provide loans to weavers to set up a
However, now-a-days, a large section of
loom, buy other tools and thus restrict them
weavers in Telangana do not get sufficient
from weaving sarees for other master
work from cooperative societies. In some
G
cooperative societies, weavers are not weavers. They also decide the wages for the
given any role in decision making regarding work done by the weavers. Since they are
the procurement of raw material and the
sale of cloth and dress material. They do
N interested in raising their own incomes, it
is natural for them to look for ways to pay
LA
not provide opportunities for weavers to less to the weavers. So, the cooperative
produce sarees to suit the changing societies should provide work and save the
preferences of consumers. This has once distressed weaving families from the
TE
again pushed the weavers into the clutches master weavers.

of the middlemen and traders.
List the raw materials and tools
used to make Ikkat sarees.
T
Why has Jagathayya’s family begun

ER
to weave for a master weaver?
Keywords :
SC
1. Raw materials
2. Ikkat
3. Patent
4. Tie & Dye
5. Warp - Weft
Fig 7.10 Folding the Ikkath Saree 6. Co-operative societies

1. Do you think people earn enough money from work like basket making and weaving?
2. Prepare a list of goods which could have substituted the basket. Discuss with your parents
before preparing the list.
3. Many new products have replaced handicrafts – identify them and find out where they are
produced. Discuss how this could affect the lives of handicraft persons.
A
4. Why did Polaiah’s family come to Hyderabad? Why does he have no right to vote in Hyderabad?
5. You may find crafts persons like Polaiah producing goods other than baskets. Meet two such persons,
AN
collect the following details and discuss them in the class. One sample is given below.
Sl. Name of the Goods One or two important raw
Source of raw materials
No. crafts person produced materials used
G
1 Polaiah Baskets Spokes of date palm leaves Andugula – native village
2
3
N
LA
6. Why do you think patenting Pochampally Ikkat saree weaving would help weavers in Pochampally?
7. Should weavers procure raw materials, weave Ikkat sarees and sell them directly to the people? What
are the challenges in it?
TE
8. Prepare a flow chart depicting the organisation of production in basket making and handloom
textile weaving.
9. Mention the differences between basket making and Ikkat saree weaving and fill in the following
table:
T
Work Raw materials used Tools used How goods are sold
ER
Basket making
Handloom weaving
10. List the various handicrafts with location in Telangana and prepare a chart.
Discussion: Invite any one artisan available in village/locality, to your school and discuss
SC
their profession.
Project:
1. Invite a craftsperson to your classroom or plan visit to a their work place. Make a wallpaper
showing different processes of their production.
2. Meet different artisans in village/locality, fill in the following table and discuss in the class.
Sl. Name of the Profession Continuing/ If discontinued, If continued,
No. artisan discontinuing reasons whether they are
satisfied

8
CHAPTER
Industrial Revolution
A
AN
In the previous chapter, you learned about the various ways in which things
are made by artisans. We also read that many of them are not able to compete with
machine-made products and that many people have stopped practising their
professions. In this chapter, we shall explore how machines have come to dominate
G
the way in which products are made and how they impact the lives of people.
Increasing Control of Traders

N produced by a large number of producers
LA
who were controlled by traders. There was
From 1500 BCE to 1800 BCE, trade
no system as in a factory - that is, the
between countries in America, Europe,
different stages of producing cloth did not
Africa and Asia increased manifold. Textile
happen in the same place but in different
TE
trade too began to expand. Now, European households. Each trader engaged 20-25
traders began to use putting out system – craftspersons at each stage of production.
that is, they gave advance to small farmers
and artisans to produce textile goods. Sometime later, the traders brought the
T
During this period, income from farming craftspersons under one roof so that they
could explain their requirements and
was low and many peasants lost their farms
ER
organise the production more effectively.

and grazing lands. Therefore, textile work
They set up small workshops called
helped them to make a living.
manufactories. The craftsmen brought their
Under putting-out system, a cloth trader own tools and worked with raw materials
SC
in Britain purchased cotton from a supplier given by the trader. Then, the trader took
and carried it to the spinners. Then, the yarn the product and sold it in the market. In
was taken by the trader to the next stage of this way, slowly, the control of the trader
production - the weavers. The cloth was over the craftpersons increased. This phase
then taken to the fullers and finally, to the is called ‘proto-industrialisation’ – a phase
dyers who gave it colour. These different in which more and more people entered
activities could be done in different parts craft production, traders established
of the country. But, the finishing work was control over the workers, and a large
done in London before it was sold in other market for craft products developed across
countries. Thus, textiles goods were the world.

Beginning of Industrial such machines. Then came the long awaited
Revolution - 1750-1850 BCE invention – a machine which could spin a
Many changes took place during this large amount of yarn in a short time.
However, these machines were very heavy
period. Around 1750, machines and steam
and the artisans thought, ‘It is so tiring to
power began to be increasingly used to
turn these machines with our hands or feet.
produce goods, to move goods and people
How nice would it be if these machines
from one place to another. Several people
A
could turn by themselves!’ This dream also
living in villages moved to towns and cities came true with the famous invention of
AN
for work. Today, we use many machines and James Watt’s steam engine.
machine-made goods in our daily life. This
was the beginning of the ‘machine age’ in
James Watt’s Invention
Britain. James Watt was an English craftsman
G
who invented machines. He noticed that
As the demand for cloth, and other
steam had so much strength that it could
handicrafts increased multiple times, many
artisans wondered how they could increase
the production to keep up with the demand.
N move enormous weight. To tap this energy,
he made a machine which would run with
LA
the help of steam and would not need men
Some of them began to think,‘These days, or animals to drive it.
there is a great demand for our cloth, but He showed his invention to an
we are unable to produce more cloth to
TE
industrialist called Boulton and the two

meet this demand. Besides, the cloth made entered into a partnership to make such
in our looms is expensive. If we can make machines. Boulton invested the necessary
machines that can spin the yarn faster and money and paid a salary to Watt . Watt made
weave cloth faster, we will be able to the steam engine. They made an agreement
T
produce more cloth at a lower price. Then

Rod
ER
more people would buy our cloth and we connecting

could earn more money.’ piston and
As a result of the pressure of trade and the wheel
work, several people attempted to make

SC
Fig 8.2 This is one of the steam engines

made by James Watt. The piston under the
Fig 8.1 Spinning Jenny - A new pressure from the steam pushes the rod up
machine to spin yarn. and down which, in turn, turns the wheel.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Industrial Revolution 79

between them to share the profits: two The Experience of a 19th
thirds to Boulton and one third to Watt. Century Child Worker
Together, they made a large number of
In the 19th century, the industrial
steam engines, sold them and made huge
workers of Europe had to face several
profits. Once it was established that
hardships. Let us read about the
machines could run on steam, such
experiences of a child employed in an
machines were made for all kinds of work
A
English coal mine.
– spinning, weaving, making iron tools,
driving vehicles and ships etc. “I have been working in these mines
AN
since I was four. Workers hew coal with
How did the need for self-driven
pickaxes and fill the large wagons with
machines emerge in England?
it. Our job is to push these loaded wagons
Do you think the agreement
G
to a point from where horses or mules can
between the scientist-inventor and haul them. This is a very difficult job.
the capitalist fair ? Give reasons.
Factory System of Production

N Hauling the loaded wagons through
water and slush, and over very steep
LA
slopes, leaves us very tired. We have to
Between 1750-1850, a new system work in this way for more than 12 hours
called the ‘factory system’ emerged. In a day. By the time we return home, we are
place of simple tools and manual power,
TE
so tired that we don’t even feel like

new machines and steam power came to be eating. Yesterday, I fell asleep on my way
used increasingly. Production was now to home. My mother searched for me and
carried out in a place called ‘factory’, carried me home.”
unlike what we read earlier, where
T
production took place in houses. Hundreds

ER
of workers were brought together to work

in these large factories. Machines became
important in place of minor tools and
handlooms. They produced goods on a very
SC
large scale.
All the facilities needed for production
were owned and managed by individuals
called capitalists. They invested money on
workers, raw materials, machines, etc. and
owned them. Unlike in guild system,
workers worked for wages and did not own
the things they produced.
The early factories were dreadful places Fig 8.3 Children pushing a cart inside a
to work. coal mine.

Several movements were started to we are too tired to work. But the factory
enforce a ban on employing children in owner uses whips to goad us to keep
factories and mines in such pathetic working.
conditions. In response to these
These days, new machines are being
movements, child labour was banned both
introduced constantly. Since they can do
in Europe and US after 1936.
the work of several workers in the same
Inside Early Factories time, fewer workers are required. Every
A
Major changes swept the industries with time a new machine is introduced, many
the coming of machines. Machines could
AN
of us are thrown into the street.”
be worked on by even unskilled persons.
Most of these workers had no other
Thus, skilled artisans were no longer
option as they had been expelled from their
required. In their place, a large number of
lands and if they were small craftsmen,
G
women and children were employed and
made to work for meagre wages. their shops had closed down. Gradually,
Machines cost a lot of money, and workers of factories and mines formed
ordinary artisans could not afford them.
N their own organisations to fight against the
conditions of work. In the beginning, they
LA
Only wealthy merchants could set up
mechanised factories. demanded for 8 or 10 hours working day,
This is what the workers had to say about higher wages, disallowing children under
their plight: 14 years of age from being employed in
TE
“Every day, we come for work at 6 am. mines or factories etc. Over time, the
and work till 8.30 pm. The lunch break is struggles and their conditions were
only for an hour. By the end of the day, improved.
T
ER
SC
Fig 8.4 Redrawing of an illustration of inside of a factory.

Fig 8.5
Fig 8.5, 8.6 & 8.7
A
AN
Look at these
illustrations. They are
G
called etching. There
were no photograph,
N but the artists tried to
show the details in
LA
them. They were
made during the time
of Industrial
revolution There is
TE
also a redrawn
illustration on the
Fig 8.6 previous page in
colour. How are these
T
pictures different?
ER
Which illustration
shows more detail?
Fig 8.7 Do you notice
children in these
SC
illustrations? What
detials of a factory do
you see in them?

Who were employed to work on construction of roads. Within another
machines? decade, bitumen-based binding, which we
Do you know any factory nearby? see in our areas as tar(mac) roads,were
Compare its conditions of work built. This was further followed by the use
with that of English factories of of motor cars.
150 years ago. In the early 20th Century, an aircraft
was developed by Wright Brothers and
A
The factories too have changed by now. today, air transport is the fastest means of
Almost all the work has become automated,
transport.
AN
with machines directed by computers. They
require very few people and little manual Trade in Industrial Products
work to run them. Industrial production increased so much
Sources of Energy and that it was not possible to sell all the
G
Industrial Development products in their own countries. The
factory owners began to sell them in other
You have seen that energy is needed to
run machines in a factory. Energy is
N countries too. Machine made goods were
cheap and durable. Hence, the demand for
LA
available from coal, electricity, petroleum, them increased all over the world. This gave
and so on. Initially, industries depended
a boost to the industries in England and
upon the energy from coal and steam.
other countries. However, the interesting
TE
Subsequently, they started using several

thing about them is they did not have the
other sources of energy like thermal and
raw materials required for the production
hydroelectricity, petroleum, natural gas,
nuclear energy and solar energy. of these goods. For example, the cotton
needed for producing cloth was grown in
T
Transport Revolution India and America. English traders

The invention of steam engine boosted
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purchased these raw materials from India

the shipping industry. It also reduced the and other countries and sold them to factory
cost of transportation to one third of the owners. Subsequently, the traders
cost of road transport. Yet people looked purchased the finished products and sold
SC
for better means of transportation. The next

them in countries like India, America, etc.
big thing in the context of transport was
adaptation of steam engine to locomotives. In order to serve the interests of their
George Stephenson’s locomotive pulled own trade and industry, the Europeans
heavy loads along a 64 kilometre track from sought to subjugate these countries. Other
Liverpool to Manchester at a speed of 46 countries like France, Germany, Spain,
kilometers per hour. Portugal, Belgium, Holland etc, which
In 1840s, John Loudon McAdam devised considered themselves as mother
a method of laying the road using broken countries, conquered colonies in Asia,
stones. This created a hard surface, which Africa, Australia and America (‘Colonies’
was an important advancement in the are those countries whose resources are

used for the benefit of another country). which were cramped and had little
These European countries exploited the sanitation or other facilities. Accidents,
colonies in other continents and grew diseases and epidemics were common.
wealthy in the process. Look at the map Most workers’ residential areas lacked
given below showing the European proper ventilation, health and sanitation
countries and their colonies around the facilities. Slums became common scenario
world in 1800.(map1) in towns and cities especially near the
A
factories and mines. At the same time,
Urbanisation and slums distinct quarters came up for the rich and
AN
Industrial revolution led to gradual shift the powerful. These areas well provided in
of people from villages to towns. Industries terms of open spaces, sanitation, water
and other urban activities gave livelihood supply, roads and other facilities. Slowly,
people fought for their civic rights and the
G
to many people. As people moved to towns
which were newly emerging, they settled conditions of the workers quarters also
improved.
down in makeshift houses and shelters
N
LA
TE
T
United Kingdom
France
ER
Portugal
Spain
Netherlands (Dutch)
Turkey
Independent Kingdoms & Countries
SC
Map 1: A world map showing colonies of European countries in 1800. Do you notice at this time
most colonies were coastal areas including in India. Look at the map of Africa on page 61 and
describe the change?
Keywords :
1. Revolution 5. Nuclear Energy
2. Production 6. Urbanisation
3. Factory 7. Child worker
4. Organisation 8. Slums

1. Correct the false sentences:

Under the putting-out system,
a. Spinners took cotton to the weavers.
b. Unlike in guild system, traders controlled what product was to be
A
made.
c. All the work was done by the same group of people.
AN
Under the Guild system,
a. All small farmers were allowed to learn weaving.
b. Weavers determined the prices and quality of the products.
G
2. Putting out system is better than factory based production of textiles. Do you agree? Give
reasons for your answer.
N
3. If Kruthika argues, “Railways in India were built only for the benefit of the people by the
LA
colonial rulers”, how can you counter this statement?
4. How will the increase in the wages of workers affect industrial production?
5. Why did factory owners pay low wages and force workers to work for longer hours?
TE
6. Why do you think the working conditions in factories should be improved?

7. Why is it necessary for government to enact laws to improve the working conditions?
8. Why are children not allowed to work in factories?
9. Transport system helps the industry – justify this statement in the context of Industrialisation.
T
10. Locate the following countries in the world map.

ER
a) England b) Portugal
c) France d) Spain
11. Read the para ‘Urbanisation and slums’ of page 84 and comment on it.
SC
Project:
1. You may recall the chapter on agriculture and trade in Class VI. Compare the nature of farmers
and traders in Telangana with traders in Britain or Europe. You can use a few criteria and
tabulate.
2. Do you know any child working in a factory or shop? If you find, how do you respond?

9
CHAPTER
Production in a Factory –
A Paper Mill
A
Handicraft production is done at home by small families with the help of some
AN
simple tools. In contrast, factories produce goods on a large scale with the help of
machines and a large number of workers. Let us find out how production is organised
in large factories.
G
two paper mills in Telangana - Sirpur
Have you ever visited any factory?
Describe it.
N Kagaznagar (Komrambheem district) and
Bhadrachalam (Bhadradri district).
LA
Draw a picture of the factory you Mark the two districts in a map of
visited and using your imagination, Telangana. Why do you think are
describe the activities inside a they located there?
factory in 300 words.
TE
Raw Materials
We use so much of paper in our day to The material required to produce a
day lives. Do you know how is the paper commodity is called raw material.
T
found in books, records, registers, progress Factories require a large quantity and a
reports and newspapers made? There are continuous supply of raw material.You will
ER
SC
Fig 9.1
Factory from outside

Paper mills engage
contractors to supply bamboo
and other raw material. A few
decades ago, contractors
employed tribal people (like
those living in Penugolu hills you
read about in Class VI) to cut
A
bamboo from forests. Due to
excessive cutting in the past,
AN
there are no bamboos trees
Fig 9.2 Lorries waiting with bamboo loads available in forests near the paper
find dozens of lorries supplying raw mills now.
G
material to factories every day. Paper mills Hence, these mills are looking for
generally use wood from bamboo, alternative raw materials like subabul, trees
eucalyptus and subabul trees. Subabul wood
is most widely used now. Besides wood, a
N which are grown in villages. This led the
government to encourage people to grow
LA
number of chemicals like common salt and subabul trees on farmland. Now-a-days,
caustic soda are also used in the different paper mills bring wood from distant places.
stages of paper-making. Scrap paper is also
TE
recycled in paper mills. What are the most important raw

Factories use heavy machinery that is run material required for the paper
on electricity. For example, the paper mill industry?
shown in the figure 11.1 requires nearly 25 Would you consider electricity as
T
Mega Watts of electricity every year. More a raw material? Give reasons.
than half of the electricity requirement is Discuss with your teacher a few
ER
met through the factory’s own power mills or factories you know about
generators. Besides electricity, the mill and fill in the table.
requires a large quantity of clean water
throughout the year.
SC
Fig 9.3 Bamboo lifter

Paper mills and
Disappearance of
Bamboo
Although raw material for
paper is available in the forests, it
is not very easy to procure. Paper
mills are generally established
near forests where bamboo and
other soft wood trees are
available.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Production in a Factory - A Paper Mill 87

S.No. Product Name of the industry Raw Material
1 Shoe/Chappel Footwear industry Leather / rubber / canvas
2
3
4
A
Do you think if we use more paper, we need to cut more forests or reduce the area
AN
under cultivation? Discuss.
When we visited the paper mill, we (i) Chipping: In the first stage, large
found 4-5 lorries with loads of subabul pieces of wood are cut into small chips with
G
wood waiting outside the mill gate.They the help of large machines. They can cut a
would be allowed to enter the mill only lorry load of wood into chips in about 30
after 9.30 a.m. There were separate gates
– one for the workers and the other large
gate for the vehicles. We had to take prior
N minutes. There are about 15 to 20 workers
in this section. The chips are then separated
LA
according to size. The big chips are again
permission from the paper mill authorities cut into smaller chips. Work goes in this
to visit the mill. way throughout the day. Can you imagine
Process of Paper-making how many trees have to be cut to run a paper
TE
mill for just one day i.e. 24 hours?

Inside the factory compound, we saw a
lifter crane lifting subabul wood from a (ii) Making of wood pulp: The small
lorry and placing it on an iron platform. A wood chips are sent to fibre line section.
T
conveyor belt took the wood to the cutting In this section, the wood chips are boiled
machine. Paper is actually made in five with some chemicals in large vessels.
ER
stages. This paper mill has separate Through this process, the wood chips are
sections for each stage which uses different turned into a pulp of thin fibres (like cotton
machines and raw materials. The stages are fibres). The liquid pulp is then whitened
as follows:
SC
Fig 9.4 Labourer at chipping machine Fig 9.5 Labourers at setting machine

Work in Batches
The paper in the form of rolls
and sheets is preserved in
godowns. Each roll is labeled with
a Batch / Lot no., weight etc. What
is a batch? When a lorry load of
wood is brought into the factory,
A
the entire quantity of wood is
given a batch number. This batch
AN
is then sent to different sections
Fig 9.6 Pulping machine (Fiber line) one after the other. Raw material
of one batch would be processed
G
using chemicals. It then becomes creamy. together at each stage. For example, when
We found the liquid pulp in milky white batch No. 201 is being cut into small
colour without any dust particles.
(iii) Spreading the pulp: The liquid pulp

N pieces, simultaneously the previous batch
(No. 200) would be in the section for
LA
making pulp and batch No. 199 would be in
is spread on thin screens over a cylinder. the spreading section and so on. As soon
This is an important stage as the width, as No. 201 is cut into pieces, it would be
length and thickness of the paper is set at sent to the next section and No. 202 would
TE
this stage. The pulp dries up as the water come up for cutting into pieces.
drains out and evaporates due to heat. Once
Papers produced in one batch would have
this is done, the pulp is forwarded through the same inputs and processing, so their
the conveyer belt.
T
quality will be the same. The batch system

allows a factory to produce continuously
(iv) Pressing, drying and rolling: The
ER
throughout the day. It also allows the

drying pulp is pressed by rollers to
managers to trace any mistake in the product
smoothen it. When the pulp dries up
by checking what went wrong with a particular
completely, we get a sheet of paper which
batch.
SC
is then rolled up.

Working Hours and Shifts
(v) Cutting: The paper is cut in the This paper mill runs 24 hours a day. The
cutting machines according to the size workers work in three shifts of eight hours
required. Paper is made into rolls and sheets each. They are ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ shifts. In each
as well. It is then packed and sent to shift, about 800-900 workers are at work.
godowns. A Shift: 6 AM to 2 PM
B Shift: 2 PM to 10 PM
The production work takes place C Shift: 10 PM to 6 AM (Night Shift)
continuously in all the sections Night shift workers get a special
simultaneously. allowance. Workers change their shift
cyclically. Workers of each shift have to Why is there a security guard at the
move from A shift to B and then to C every gate? Enact how the watchman
week. There is also a general shift for the behaves. Which persons or
administrative staff which is from 9.30 am vehicles does he allow or not allow
to 5 pm. Administrative staff look after the inside the factory?
management, accounts, trade and sales of the
product and workers’ welfare activities etc. Working in Paper Mill
A
Selling the Paper A factory employs a large number of
workers of different kinds - some work on
AN
This paper mill has marketing depots in machines, some help them, some take care
different cities. It also sells paper to other of electrical fittings, some help in
countries such as Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, transporting the materials etc. Some of
Nepal, Malaysia, Singapore, Nigeria and them are highly qualified engineers while
G
South Africa. The paper is sold through others may have education from ITI and
these depots. polytechnic colleges. Still others may be
Developed railways and roadways make
it is easy to transport wood and paper to
N illiterate doing manual work like cleaning.
A factory also employs people on different
LA
and from the mill. terms and conditions.
Why is it necessary to put the Label Some are regular ‘permanent’ workers
/ Batch no. on the paper rolls? of the factory, while some others may be
TE
Why do you think does the paper employed as casual workers when the need
mill work round the clock? arises; still others are employed as contract
Compare this with agricultural workers. Let us look at this in detail.
field work. Suraj is a permanent worker in the paper
T
Fill in the blanks in the flow chart mill. You can see him in his uniform - blue
shirt and khaki pant in the pressing section.
ER
given below:
Liquid
Wood is Wood is
wood pulp
brought cut into
SC
is cleaned
into the small
and colours
mill. chips
are added
Pressing,
rolling,
and
finishing

He has been working in this mill for He is a contract labourer. He is usually
more than 10 years and gets a salary of Rs. asked to help in unloading the trucks or in
15,000 per month. As a regular employee, packing and loading the paper. Last year, a
he gets a number of benefits like Provident
labour contractor came to his village in
Fund (that will be paid to him when he
Maharashtra and promised him a job in this
retires from service), medical insurance
etc. In addition, if, for any reason, his mill. Workers like Chandu are paid a lower
employment is terminated or he cannot salary than permanent workers (about
A
work due to an accident, he will be paid a Rs.8000 a month). They do not get
AN
compensation by the factory. He will also allowances, medical help, bonus and paid
get an increment in salay every year. If he holidays. However, they get work
or his family members become sick, he throughout the year and may become
takes them to nearby Employees State
permanent workers after two or three years.
G
Insurance (ESI) dispensary and gets
medicines free of cost. He pays a small The women who work in this factory
amount and the paper mill pays some
amount for availing this facility. Suraj gets
regular holidays – one day every week, on
N usually clean the floors and paste lables on
the paper packets. Tara is working as a casual
LA
worker in this factory. Workers who are
festivals, and some additional leaves. He
is also given allowances to buy the uniform employed on and off are called ‘Casual
and get it washed. In due course, Suraj gets Workers.’ Tara comes every morning to the
TE
bonus too, an additional amount paid to factory to see if there is work. Usually they
workers when the paper mill earns profits. employ her for four or five days in a week to
There are about 1800 such permanent clean the floors of the factory. In the section
workers in the mill. where wood is chipped, there is a lot of wood
T
Chandu is not a permanent worker but dust and chips all over the floor. All this has
he comes daily and works in the factory.
ER
to be cleaned and the machines are to be

dusted properly. She
is paid about Rs.100-
150 on a daily basis.
SC
Though she has been

working for more
than three years,
she earns only Rs.
2500 a month. She is
not eligible for any
of the facilities that
are available to
permanent workers
Fig 9.7 Paper cutting machine
like Suraj.
Usually factory owners
try to reduce their costs by
employing casual workers
even for regular work.
Sometimes, they bring new
machines which require
fewer workers. In such
A
situations, the workers and
their unions resort to
AN
agitations and then bargain
with the managers to
improve their lot.
G
Besides the workers, Fig 9.8 Inside the factory
the mill also employs a
number of accountants, clerks and managers
who are paid better salaries. The senior
N Who Owns the Paper Mill?
LA
This mill does not have a single owner.
managers who are usually from the families
Some people got together to form a
of the owners of the mill get very high
company which owns this mill. These
salaries along with a number of allowances
TE
people invested large amounts of money

like free housing and free education for
and also borrowed money from the banks
children.
Fill the table comparing Suraj, Chandu and Tara’s work :
T
S.No. Name Work Experience Income Other Benefits

ER
1 Suraj
2 Chandu
3 Tara
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Why do you think does a factory to set up this factory. They appoint the
employ people on different terms managers, other administrative staff and
- regular, temporary and casual regular employees. The workers, managers
labourers? and administrative staff are paid salaries but
not the owners. The owners share amongst
What are the problems faced by
temporary/casual workers? themselves whatever money is left after
paying wages and other costs of running
Why do you think people from this paper mill. That is, they get all the
faraway places come to work in the profits from the factory. They also bear the
paper mills in Telangana?
losses, if any.
Can you summarise the main Pollution
features of factory production
When we were going to the other
using the following points?
side of the paper mill, we found some
1. Machines: unpleasant smell in the area. This was
2. Raw Materials: due to the use of chemicals. After
3. Energy and Water: coming out of the paper mill, we talked
to a few residents living nearby. They
A
4. Production: said that this stench was usual and it was
5. Workers: common to find dust released from the
AN
6. Managers: industry settle on the leaves of plants,
7. Market: in the farms, trees in the nearby area
and on garden plants. The mill also
8. Owners:
draws a lot of fresh water from the river
G
Some factories are owned not by but lets out waste water containing
poisonous chemicals, which eventually
individual owners or group of owners but
by the government. These are run by the
N joins the river.
Only last year, the paper mill got an
LA
government for the welfare of all people
effluent treatment plant to which all the
Most factories need raw materials in waste water is sent. This machine
such large quantities that natural resources removes contaminants (substances
TE
like forests, rivers and mines are rapidly causing harm to living organisms
exhausting. They also give out smoke and through air, water, soil and food) and
pollute the rivers and surrounding land with produce environmentally safe water
their chemical effluents. Thus, there is a (treated effluent) and solid waste
T
suitable for disposal or reuse (which

need to develop methods to control the
is normally used as a fertilizer).
damage they cause to the environment.
ER
Besides this, the paper mills use treated

Factories provide employment to a effluent to water their gardens. Some
large number of people. However, the farmers use this for irrigation too.
workers who work in these factories often There are a large number of
SC
find the work very tedious and many of factories in our state and country,
them become sick due to exposure to dust which produce diverse articles of use.
and chemicals. They also get paid very They produce them in large quantities
little. They are also often forced to live in in a short time.
slums with poor facilities.
One of the major challenges before us
is to find out how to balance our need for
various kinds of goods and the ill effects
of the factory system and how to make the
life of workers comfortable and dignified. Fig 9.9 Rolls of papers

Keywords :
1. Production process 6. Bonus
2. Conveyor Belt 7. Pollution
3. Fiberline 8. Working hours
4. Label 9. Raw material
5. Allowance
A
1. Imagine that you wish to start a leather or textile factory. What are the aspects you will have to
AN
consider for setting up a mill?
2. Explain the process of paper-making in your own words.
3. Do you think this paper mill will stop working one day? If it does, what will be the impact on
G
the labourers’ lives?
4. Imagine a world without paper. What alternatives will you use instead of paper?
N
5. What are your suggestions to stop the pollution caused by industries?
6. Organise a debate in the classroom on the pros and cons of the paper mill.
LA
7. List the benefits and income received by a regular employee of the paper mill. Contrast them
with that of a temporary employee and a casual worker.
8. Compare the production of baskets by craftspersons and production of paper with reference
TE
to the following points: (i) Workplace (ii) Tools/machines (iii) Raw materials (iv)Workers (v)
Market (vi) Owners.
9. There is a paper mill at Sirpur Kagaznagar in Komrambheem district. Why do you think it is
not established in the district headquarters? Discuss.
T
10. Locate the following countries on the world map.

a) Sri Lanka b) Singapore c) Nigeria
ER
d) South Africa e) Nepal

11. Read the third para of page 91. Do you think that the factories are taking care of their workers
health? Why?
SC
Project:
You might have noticed some factories in your area causing pollution. Or imagine that a factory in
your locality is causing pollution. Write a letter to the editor of a local newspaper and discuss the
contents in the classroom.

10
CHAPTER
Importance of Transport
System
A
In our daily lives, we use various modes of transport to go from one place to another. How
AN
people use transport facilities, roads, waterways, railways and airports and why people
make different choices to use transport services are discussed in this chapter. Besides
these, we will also read about why and how people depend on transport for their source
G
of earning and how markets use transport. You will learn more about the other means of
transport such as railways, waterways and airports in higher classes.
N
You already know a lot about transport systems.
LA
Fill the table below with the given words. Some words could be placed more than
once. Give reasons for your choice.
TE
Pilgrims, Car, Fish, Cattle, Grain, Bullock-cart, Petroleum, Workers, Ship,

Helicopter, Tanker, Lorry, Cycle, Tourists, Iron-ore, Goods Train, Mangoes .
Mode of Vehicles Some products/groups of people –
Transport used that could be using
T
Roads
ER
Railways
Waterways
Airways
SC
Transport System in Telangana a road network called National Highway

No. 44 runs through Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
If we look for a big picture about the
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra
transport system in the state, we would note Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. While
the following : the state government maintains the roads
Roads: In India, most roads are built and connecting small towns and districts,
maintained by the government. There are Panchayats are responsible for the village
different types of roads. Some roads are roads. These roads are made of gravel.
National Highways which are built across Corporations and Municipalities are
different states in the country. For instance, responsible for urban roads. Roads laid

along the inter-
national boun-
daries are called
border roads.
Roadways play an
important role in
connecting the
people in remote
A
areas with the main
cities.
AN
Railways: One
fifth of travellers in Fig 10.1: In 1932 road transport was
India use trains. introduced under the Nizam with 27
Railways are mainly vehicles. You can also see the logo of
G
the then transport company
used to transport
goods like coal,
Telangana has a well developed railway

N
iron ore, fertilizers, cement, food grains etc.
Use of Roads for production
and sale of goods
LA
network connecting all the districts.
Railways transport goods to and from sea Most people in Telangana depend on
ports. roads for travel. Transport facilities
TE
Airways: There is one International available to villages in Telangana vary. In

Airport in Telangana. The International 2001, nearly three fourth of the villages had
Airport is situated in Hyderabad transport facilities.
(Shamshabad). The International Airport is
meant for travel from Telangana or In earlier chapters, there were
T
neighbouring states to foreign countries. descriptions about farmers, fisher folk, and
industries which depend upon transport for
ER
This airport also connects Hyderabad with

other cities & states within India. various reasons. Farmers take their produce
Waterways: Almost all the goods traded to Rythu Bazar. Fisher folk need to take the
by Indian traders are transported to other catch to the buyers before it gets spoiled.
SC
countries through its ports. Port cities or Paper industry uses lorries to get raw
towns are thus major trading centres. The state material. Industries that produce goods
of Telangana does not have any coast lines or depend on the transport system to reach
ports. Andhra Pradesh has 15 ports out of their consumers. Let us take the example
which Visakhapatnam is the largest. Rivers of cotton. Cotton produced by farmers
such as Godavari, Krishna and Penna in moves from fields to factories. Since there
Andhra Pradesh and their canals are used as
are different processes through which cloth
waterways. Seaports are also crucial as most
is produced, it has to move from one place
of our foreign trade is done through them.
to another until the finished product is
Locate the major airports and port made. Markets are thus dependent on
cities on the map of India. transport facilities.

Read the following paragraph and
solve the problem given below:
Farmers residing in Satyampally
sell their paddy mostly in the nearby
town, Nayapet, which is about 7 km
away from the village. Bullock cart
operators can transport about 10 paddy
A
bags at a time and charge Rs. 50 per
bag. Tractor owners charge Rs. 20 per
AN
bag. Each tractor can carry about 30-
40 bags. Lorries charge Rs.10 per bag
and can carry about 150 -170 bags in a Fig 10.2 Transporting Animals
trip. In the case of long distances,
G
Employment in Transport
trucks charge more. For example, to Activities
transport paddy from a wholesale
trader in Nayapet to the district head
quarter, which is about 100 - 120 kms
N There are two people who operate a bus-
a driver and a conductor. For the overall
LA
maintenance of transport facilities in a
away, truck operators charge Rs. 50 per state, hundreds and thousands of people are
bag. They charge Rs. 800-1000 per required. For example, the Telangana State
tonne to transport goods for 500 Road Transport Corporation is a
TE
kilometres. government owned transport service which

There are three farmers in the employs about 64,000 people to run about
village. They cultivated paddy and 10,000 buses. These employees maintain
produced 25 bags, 50 bags and 75 bags accounts, repair buses, or work in the bus
T
respectively. They wish to sell their depots. Some employees issue bus passes
paddy in the Agriculture Yard in a and tickets in bus stands or work as checking
ER
nearby town, which is 25 kilometres inspectors.

away. What mode of transport would Majority of the vehicles running on
you suggest and why? Telangana roads, that is about, three fourth
of them, are two wheelers. The functioning
SC
Find out the fares for travelling in of transport system also requires many
the following types of buses and support activities – petrol/diesel pump
time taken to travel between any two stations, repairing shops, shops selling
locations you are familiar with. transport vehicles and spare parts.
Type of bus Fare Time taken

Pallevelugu / Gramani
Express
Deluxe
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Importance of Transport System 97

Do you think the difference in these fares is justified? Give reasons.
Along with the difference in fares, there are also differences in facilities and journey
time. However, in your opinion, how would most people prefer to travel? If you
were responsible for increasing the facilities in them, which type of bus would you
give preference to?
Transport Services and Choices
A
People could use a particular mode of
AN
transport depending on the facilities
available and affordability. Sometimes,
options to use different types of transport
are possible. For example, it is possible to
G
travel by bus, train or flight to Bangalore.
For centuries, ships were an important
mode of travel to far away countries to take
people as well as goods. But today, there
N
LA
Fig 10.3 Old and new modes of transport
are fewer people travelling by ships,
If the cost of travel is high, people may
whereas goods are mostly transported by not be able to move from one place to
them.
TE
another. For example, if the wages in one

It is possible that some of you come to place are higher than in another place,
school by buses. People who are employed people earning low incomes may wish to
in factories, offices, households, shops etc. move to get higher incomes. But if the
T
also depend on transport. Every city may transport cost is high, they may not show
not have easy access to public transport such interest in moving to that place.
ER
as buses, so the people depend on their own The cost of travel, especially for people
vehicles or hired vehicles like auto- who earn lower income, is too much, as
rickshaws or taxies. they have to put away a larger share of their
SC
earnings for it. Cycling and walking may

not be possible to travel long distances. In
big cities, it also becomes important to
have enough place for people to walk or
ride a bicycle. Even when there are
pavements, you may find them occupied by
shopkeepers. Sometimes the height of the
road and pavement could be so different that
persons who use wheelchairs cannot use
them and take the risk of riding them along
Fig 10.4 Railway workers the motorised vehicles.

Umar and Ibrahim study in the same Travelling safety
class. They live in different places
but the distance from their house Road travel now-a-days has become
more risky. The road accidents, deaths, and
to school is three kilometers.
injuries affect low income families as many
Ibrahim comes to school in city bus
of those killed or injured tend to be
whereas Umar travels by school
cyclists, pedestrians or pavement dwellers.
bus. What could be reasons for
A
Accidents can occur not on roads alone.
these students to travel by different There is risk involved in other means of
AN
bus services? transport too. In places where roads and
railways cross (level crossing), there are
Congestion and Pollution often gates to stop the vehicles while the
Most cities in our
G
country are now
experiencing congestion
and traffic blocks. If the
public transport system is
N
LA
not efficient, people buy
private vehicles, which can
further increase the traffic
TE
blockages in urban areas

Fig 10.5 A train that climbs
because the roads may not
the mountains in Ooty
be broad enough to
accommodate all these
T
vehicles. Let us try to understand this with

ER
the help of an example. The number of trains are passing. These are called railway
people living in six big cities in India gates. However, if there are no such gates
increased by two times during 1981 to at level crossings, it is important for people
2001 whereas the number of motor and vehicles to stop and look in both the
SC
vehicles went up by eight times during the directions before crossing the railway line.
same period.
Motorcycles and cars are used in a big Road Safety Week
way. This has led to the increased use of In the first week of every year, the Road
petrol and diesel, which has increased air Transport departments all over the country
pollution. To reduce pollution, we should celebrate Road Safety Week. On this
consume less of these petroleum products. occasion, they give guidelines to the people
Public transport is more efficient in this to follow traffic rules. The government-run
aspect as it carries more people with companies such as the Telangana State
minimum cost. Road Transport Corporation conduct
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Importance of Transport System 99

awareness campaigns among drivers and give Contact the nearest traffic police
them training to drive safely. They also go office or driving school in your
to schools, to organise essay writing, debate locality or a person who has a
and other competitions for students and driving licence. Find out about
encourage them to travel safely following how drivers are trained. Identify
traffic rules. Every person using the transport the details of symbols & signs
system – roads, railways or airways and those displayed in the driving school
A
working in them are required to follow premises.
specific safety rules. This will reduce the Discuss the basic rules and
AN
deaths, injuries and other casualties that occur regulations in using roads and
due to transport. how to travel safely on roads. In
your classroom, display a list of
G
traffic rules & symbols.
Keywords :
N 1. Safety travelling 7. State Highway
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2. Roadways 8. Village / Rural
roads
3. Airways 9. Urban roads
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4. Waterways 10. Border roads

5. Railways 11. TSRTC
6. National Highway 12. Congestion
Fig 10.6 Visakhapatnam port
T

1. How is the transport system essential for producing agricultural goods? Illustrate with examples.
ER
2. How is the use of buses different from trains?

3. Why is it important to provide transport facilities to villages?
4. Why do you think are waterways important for a country?
SC
5. How does the transport system become a means of livelihood?

6. What will happen if there is a rise in transport cost for goods made in factories? Illustrate with an
example.
7. Write a few slogans on ‘Prevention of road/rail accidents’.
8. Congestion and traffic blocks occur due to the use of vehicles in a big way. What measures do you
suggest to prevent this?
9. Draw outline map of Telangana State and locate Hyderabad.
Discussion: Organise a demonstration/discussion with the Police Inspector/Constable to the
students on the topic “ Road accidents-preventive measures”.
Project:
Interact with a driver and obtain information about the dangers and other aspects of his job.

11
CHAPTER
New Kings and Kingdoms
A
PART - I
AN
Many new dynasties emerged after the Locate the Gurjara-Pratiharas,
seventh century. Map 1 shows the major Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas and
Chahamanas (Chauhans).
ruling dynasties in different parts of the
G
Can you identify the present day
subcontinent between the seventh and states over which they exercised
twelfth centuries. N control?
LA
TE
T
ER
SC
Map 1: Major Dynasties of Northern, Central and Eastern India, c.700-1100 CE

The Emergence of New Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century,
Dynasties Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, defeated
his Chalukya overlord and performed a
By the seventh century, there were many
ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the
influential landlords or warrior chiefs in
golden womb). It was thought to lead to the
different regions of the subcontinent.
Existing kings often acknowledged them as “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya,
their subordinates or samanthas. They even if he was not a kshatriya by birth.
A
were expected to bring gifts for their kings Do you think being born in a
AN
or overlords, be present at their courts and particular varna was important in
provide them with military support. As order to become a ruler during this
samanthas gained power and wealth, they
period?
declared themselves to be maha-
G
samantha, maha mandaleshvara (the In other cases, men from enterprising
great lord of a “circle” or region) and so families used their military skills to carve
on. Sometimes, they asserted their
independence from their overlords.
N out kingdoms. For instance, the Kadamba
Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara
LA
One such instance was that of the Harichandra were brahmins who gave up
Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initially, they their traditional professions and took to
were subordinate to the Chalukyas of
arms, successfully establishing
TE
kingdoms in Karnataka and

Rajasthan respectively.
Prashastis and Land

T
Grants
ER
The invocation part of an

inscription is Prashasti.
Prashastis contain details about the
ruling family such as their
SC
predecessors and the period to

which they belonged. They also
contain encomiums of rulers and
their achievements. But they tell us
about how rulers wanted to depict
themselves, for example valiant,
victorious warriors. These were
composed by learned brahmins, who
Fig 11.1 Wall relief from Cave 15, Ellora,
showing Vishnu as Narasimha, the man-lion. It occasionally helped in the
is a work of the Rashtrakuta period administration.
102 Political Systems and Governance Social Studies

The “achievements” of Kings often rewarded brahmins and
others who served them by grants of land.
Nagabhata
These were recorded on copper plates,
Many rulers described their which were given to those who received the
achievements in prashastis. land.
One prashasti, written in Sanskrit and In the twelfth century, a long Sanskrit
found in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, poem containing the history of kings who
A
describes the exploits of Nagabhata, a ruled over Kashmir, was composed by an
Pratihara king, as follows: author named Kalhana. He used a variety
AN
The kings of Andhra, Saindhava (Sind), of sources, including inscriptions,
Vidarbha (part of Maharashtra) and documents, eyewitness accounts and
Kalinga (part of Odisha) fell before him earlier histories, to write his account.
Even as a prince … Unlike the writers of prashastis, he was
G
often critical about rulers and their
He won a war over Chakrayudha (the
policies.
ruler of Kanauj) …
He defeated the king of Vanga (part
N What was given with the land?
LA
of Bengal), Anarta (part of Gujarat), This is a part of the Tamil section of a
Malva (part of Madhya Pradesh), Kirata land grant given by the Cholas:
(forest peoples), Turushka (Turks), Vatsa, We have demarcated the boundaries of
Matsya (both kingdoms in north India) the land by making earthen embankments,
TE
Find these areas in Map 1. as well as by planting thorny bushes.

This is what the land contains: fruit-
bearing trees, water, land, gardens and
orchards, trees, wells, open spaces, pasture-
T
land, a village, anthills, platforms, canals,

ER
ditches, rivers, silt-laden land, tanks,

granaries, fish ponds, bee hives, and deep
lakes.
He who receives the land can collect
SC
taxes from it. He can collect the taxes

imposed by judicial officers as fines, and
the tax on betel-leaves, woven cloth,
vehicles etc.
He can build large rooms, with upper
storeys made of baked bricks, he can get
large and small wells dug, he can plant trees
Fig 11.2 This is a set of copper plates recording a grant and thorny bushes, if necessary, he can also
of land made by a ruler in the ninth century, written get canals constructed for irrigation. He
partly in Sanskrit and partly in Tamil. The ring holding
the plates together is secured with the royal seal, to
should ensure that water is not wasted, and
indicate that this is an authentic document that embankments are built.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 New Kings and Kingdoms 103
List all the possible sources of Warfare for Wealth
irrigation mentioned in the You may have noticed that each of these
inscription, and discuss how they ruling dynasties was based in a specific
might have been used. region. At the same time, they tried to
control other areas. One particularly prized
Administration in the Kingdoms area was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga
valley. For centuries, rulers belonging to
Many of these new kings adopted high-
the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala
A
sounding titles such as maharaja-adhiraja
dynasties fought for control over Kanauj.
(great king, overlord of kings), As there were three “parties” in this long-
AN
tribhuvana-chakravarti (lord of the three drawn conflict, historians often describe it
worlds) and so on. However, in spite of as the “tripartite struggle”.
such claims, they often shared power with
Look at Map 1 and suggest reasons
their samanthas as well as with the
G
for the rulers wanting to control Kanauj
associations of peasants, traders and
and the Ganga valley.
brahmins.
In each of these kingdoms, resources
were obtained from the producers – that
N Mahmud Ghazni :
One of the rulers, Sultan Mahmud of
LA
is, peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans and Ghazni, Afghanistan, ruled from 997
traders were made to surrender a part of Common Era (CE) to 1030 CE, and
what they produced and sold. Sometimes, extended control over parts of Central Asia,
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these were claimed as “rent” due to a lord Iran and the north-western part of the
who asserted that he owned the land. subcontinent. He raided Northern India
many times and plundered and destroyed
Revenue was also collected from traders.
wealthy temples, including that of Somnath
These resources were used to finance the in Gujarat. Much of the wealth that Mahmud
T
king’s establishment, as well as for the looted was used to build the capital city at
construction of temples and forts. They were Ghazni.
ER
also used to fight wars, which were in turn Sultan Mahmud was also interested in
expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth finding out more about the people he
in the form of tribute, and access to land as conquered, and entrusted a scholar named
well as trade routes.
SC
Al-Biruni to write an account of the

The functionaries for collecting subcontinent. This Arabic work, known as
revenue were generally recruited from the Kitab al-Hind, is an important source
ruling families, and positions were often for historians. Al-Biruni consulted Sanskrit
hereditary. This was true about the army as scholars to prepare this account.
well. In many cases, close relatives of the Chahamanas (Chowhans)
king held these positions. Chahamanas, later known as the
Chauhans, ruled over the region around
In what ways was this form of
Delhi and Ajmer. They attempted to expand
administration different from the their control to the west and the east, where
present day system? they were opposed by the Chalukyas of

Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western
Uttar Pradesh. The best-known Chahamana Look at Map 1 again and discuss
ruler was Prithviraja III (1168 CE-1192 why the Chahamanas may have
CE), who defeated an Afghan ruler named
wanted to expand their territories.
Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 CE, but
lost to him the very next year, in 1192 CE.
A
AN
PART - II
The Cholas From Uraiyur to Thanjavur
G
How did the Cholas rise to power? A
Let us take a look at Southern India now.
Chola rule is one of the well documented
N
minor chiefly-family known as the
Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta.
LA
in the history of the South. Let us see how They were subordinates to the Pallava kings
they became successful rulers. of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged
to the ancient chiefly-
family of the Cholas
TE
Map 2: The Chola kingdom and its neighbours

from Uraiyur,
captured the delta
from the Muttaraiyar
in the middle of the
T
ninth century. He built

the town of Thanjavur
ER
and a temple for

goddess Nishum-
bhasudini there.
SC
The successors of
Vijayalaya conquered
neighbouring regions
and the kingdom grew
in size and power. The
Pandyan and the
Pallava territories to
the south and north
were made part of this
kingdom. Rajaraja I,
considered the most
the specialists who
worked in the temple
and very often lived near
it – priests, garland
makers, cooks,
swee-pers,
musicians,
A
dancers etc. In
other words,
AN
temples were
not only places
of wor-ship, but
also the hub of
G
economic,
social and cultural
Fig 11.3 The temple at Gangaikonda-

N life as well.
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Cholapuram. Notice the way in which the roof Amongst the
tapers. Also, look at the elaborate stone crafts associated
sculptures used to decorate the outer walls with temples, the Fig 11.4 A Chola
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making of bronze bronze sculpture.

powerful Chola ruler, became the king in images was the Notice how carefully it
985 CE and expanded his control over most most distinctive.
is decorated
of these areas. He also reorganised the
Chola bronze
administration of the empire. Rajaraja’s son
images are considered to be the finest in
T
Rajendra I continued his policies and even

the world. While most images were of
conquered the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and
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deities, some images of devotees were

countries of Southeast Asia, developing a
made as well.
navy for these expeditions.
Agriculture and Irrigation
Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture
SC
Many of the achievements of the Cholas

The big temples of Thanjavur and were made possible through new
Gangaikonda-Cholapuram, built by Rajaraja developments in agriculture. Look at Map 2
and Rajendra, are architectural and again. Notice that the river Kaveri branches
sculptural marvels. off into several small streams before
Chola temples often became the nuclei emptying into the Bay of Bengal. These
of settlements which grew around them. streams overflow frequently, depositing
They were also the centres of craft fertile soil on their banks. Water from the
production. Temples were also endowed streams also provides the necessary
with land by rulers as well as by others. The moisture for agriculture, particularly the
produce of this land went into maintaining cultivation of rice.
A
AN
G
N
Fig 11.5 A ninth century sluice gate in Tamil Nadu. It regulated the
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outflow of water from a tank into the channels that irrigated the fields
Although agriculture had developed The Administration of the Empire

earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was
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only from the fifth or sixth century that this How was the administration
area was opened up for large-scale organised? The king had a council of
cultivation. Forests had to be cleared in ministers to help him. He had a strong army
some regions; land had to be levelled in and navy. The empire was divided into
T
other areas. In the delta region, mandalams or provinces, further sub-

embankments had to be built to prevent divided into valanadus and nadus.
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flooding and canals had to be constructed Settlements of peasants, known as ooru,

to carry water to the fields. In many areas, became prosperous with the spread of
two crops were grown in a year. irrigated agriculture. Groups of such
SC
In many cases, it was necessary to water villages formed larger units called nadu.
the crops artificially. A variety of methods The village council and the nadu performed
were used for irrigation. In some areas, several administrative functions including
wells were dug. In other places, huge tanks dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
were constructed to collect rainwater.
Remember that irrigation works require Rich peasants of the Vellala caste
planning – organising labour and resources, exercised considerable control over the
maintaining these works and deciding on affairs of the nadu under the supervision
how water is to be shared. Most of the new of the central Chola government. The Chola
rulers, as well as people living in villages, kings gave some rich landowners titles like
took an active interest in these activities. muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving
three kings), araiyar (chief) etc. as markers organised. The sabha had separate
of respect, and entrusted them with committees to look after irrigation works,
important offices of the state at the centre. gardens, temples etc. Names of those
eligible to be members of these
Types of land committees were written on small tickets
of palm leaf; these tickets were put into an
Chola inscriptions mention several earthenware pot from which a young boy
A
categories of land: was asked to take out the tickets, one by
vellanvagai one for each committee.
AN
land of non-brahmin proprietors Inscriptions and texts
brahmadeya Who could be a member of a sabha?
The Uttaramerur inscription lays down:
G
land gifted to brahmins
shalabhoga All those who wish to become members
land for the maintenance of a school

N of the sabha should be owners of land
from which land revenue is collected.
LA
devadana, tirunamattukkani
They should have their own homes.
land gifted to temples
They should be between 35 and 70 years
pallichchhandam
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of age.
land donated to Jaina institutions
They should have the knowledge of the
We have seen that brahmins often re- Vedas.
ceived land grants or brahmadeya. As a They should be well-versed in
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result, a large number of Brahmana administrative matters and be honest.

ER
settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley If anyone has been a member of any
as in other parts of South India. committee in the last three years, he
Each brahmadeya was looked after by cannot become a member of another
an assembly or sabha of prominent committee.
SC
Brahmana landholders. These assemblies Anyone who has not submitted his
worked very efficiently. Their decisions accounts, including details of his
were recorded in detail in inscriptions, relatives, cannot contest the elections.
often on the stone walls of temples. Do you think women participated
Associations of traders known as in these assemblies? In your view,
nagarams also occasionally performed are lotteries useful for choosing
administrative functions in towns. members of committees?
Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in
While inscriptions tell us about kings
Chingelput district, Tamil Nadu, provide
and powerful men, here is an excerpt
details of the way in which the sabha was

from the Periyapuranam, a twelfth- drums were hanging; and under the
century Tamil work, which informs us coconut palms, in little hollows on the
about the lives of ordinary men and ground, tiny-headed female dogs lay
women. after whelping. The red-crested cocks
On the outskirts of Adanur was a small crowed before dawn calling the brawny
hamlet of Pulaiyas, studded with small Pulaiyar (plural) to their day’s work; and
huts under old thatches and inhabited by by day, under the shade of the kanji tree
A
agrarian labourers engaged in menial spread the voice of the wavy-haired
occupations. In the thresholds of the huts Pulaiya women singing as they were
AN
covered with strips of leather, little husking paddy …
chickens moved about in groups; dark
children who wore bracelets of black Describe all the activities that were
iron were prancing about, carrying little taking place in the village.
G
puppies … In the shade of the marudu
(arjuna) trees, a female labourer put her Keywords :
baby to sleep on a sheet of leather; there
were mango trees from whose branches
N 1. Samantha
4. Sabha
2. Temple
5. Kingdom
3. Nadu
6. Sultan
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1. Who were the parties involved in the “tripartite struggle”?
TE
2. What were the qualifications to be a member of a committee of the sabha in the Chola empire?
3. Which two major cities were under the control of the Chahamanas?
4. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful?
T
5. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance?

ER
6. What kind of irrigation works were developed in the Tamil region?

7. What were the activities associated with Chola temples?
8. Contrast the “elections” in Uttaramerur with the present-day panchayat elections.
SC
9. Collect the pictures of ancient temples and make an album.

10. Read the first two paragraphs of the section titled ‘Agriculture and Irrigation’ and comment on
them.
Project:
1. Look at Map 1 and find out whether there were any kingdoms in Telangana.
2. Compare the temple shown in this chapter with any present-day temple in your neighbourhood.
3. Find out more about taxes that are collected now a days. Are these in cash, kind, or labour
services?
12
CHAPTER
The Kakatiyas - Emergence

of a Regional Kingdom
A
You may have listened to many ballads and stories about the bravery and martial skill of
AN
Brahma Naidu, Balachandrudu and the 66 heroes. You may also have participated in
Jataras dedicated to Sammakka and Sarakka - they fought against armies of kings to
protect the rights of the tribal people. You might have enjoyed the popular story of Katama
G
Raju who fought with the Kings of Nellore in defence of the right of animal herders.
Find out from your parents and

elders about the stories of the
N Nagulapadu, Pillalamarri, Palampet,
Kondaparthi, Bhuthpur) which tell us about
LA
Palnati Virulu, Sammakka-Sarakka the activities of the kings, queens, chiefs,
and Katama Raju. Relate these farmers, herders and traders. There are also
stories in the class. a number books written about them in
TE
Sanskrit and Telugu. Vidyanatha wrote

All these stories relate to the period
Prathaparudra Yashobhushanam during
from 1000 to 1350 CE. This was a very
the Kakatiya rule. Some works were also
important period in our history. In the
written after the end of their rule
previous chapter, we read about the new
(Vinukonda Vallabharaya’s Kridabhi-
T
ruling families that emerged all over India.

ramamu, Ekamranatha’s Prataparudra
These rulers sought to establish small
ER
Charitramu).
kingdoms over agricultural villages and to
enable their herder-followers to settle
down as agriculturalists. These ambitious
warriors and kings fought against each other
SC
constantly. Amidst this situation, the

Kakatiya kingdom arose in Warangal.
This was also the time when the first
books in Telugu were written. According
to the tradition, Srimad-Andhra Maha-
bharatam is the first poetic work in Telugu
which was composed by Kavitrayamu, the
Trinity of Poets - Nannaya, Tikkana and Erra
Pragada between 1000 and 1400 CE.
Fig 12.1 Kirti Torana entrance of Svayambhu
We have a large number of inscriptions Siva Temple - built by Kakatiya kings in
(Bayyaram, Thousand Pillars temple, Warangal.

Having read the above Map 1: Orugallu Fort
passage, can you identify the
two important sources of
information about the Kakatiya
kings?
Stone wall
According to inscriptions and and Moat
A
literature, the Kakatiyas traced
their lineage to certain Durjaya.
AN
They also adopted Telugu as the
favoured language of the court.
Inner Rampart
Most of their inscriptions are in
Telugu and they called
G
themselves as ‘Andhra Rajas’.
They also sought to bring
together the three regions in
which Telugu was spoken - the
N Outer Rampart
LA
present coastal regions,
Telangana region and
Rayalaseema region. In this
TE
manner, the Kakatiya kings tried to build a Kakatiyas emerged as independent rulers
Telugu regional consciousness. To some after the fall of the Western Chalukyas.
extent, they were also successful, as even
During Rudradeva’s rule (1158-1195
to this day, they are remembered fondly in
CE), the capital was shifted from
T
these regions.
Anmakonda (Hanumakonda) to Orugallu
Important Kakatiya Rulers (Warangal). The new city was laid out with
ER
Prola II 1116 - 1157CE a plan to accommodate the growing city

Rudradeva 1158 - 1195CE population and to address the needs of an
imperial capital. Rudradeva built a big fort,
Ganapati Deva 1199 - 1262CE
SC
a tank and a temple called Thousand

Rudramadevi 1262 - 1289CE Pillared Temple in Anmakonda
Prataparudra - II 1289 - 1323CE (Hanumakonda) .
The early members of the dynasty began Look at the map of Orugallu Fort. You
their career as warriors and samanthas of can see an outer fort wall with four gates.
Rashtrakuta and Chalukya kings who were This wall protected the agricultural lands
ruling in Karnataka. They held the posts of and several water tanks within it. In this
village heads called Rattadi and through area, there were huts of many artisans like
their military skills became army chiefs, basket weavers. After crossing these, we
samanthas etc. and gradually gained come to the centre where there was another
control over Anmakonda in Telangana. The moat and a fort wall made of mud.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 The Kakatiyas - Emergence of a Regional... 111
Further towards the centre was another the samantha chiefs attempted to become
moat and fort wall made of stone. The city independent but the Kakatiya kings sent
buildings and palaces were within this stone armies to subdue them.
wall. It had four gates opening out into the Rudrama Devi
east, west, north and south. From each gate, Have you heard of a brave woman ruler
a main road went to the centre of the city, by the name of Rudramadevi? She was a
where there was a temple of Svayambhu Siva. powerful and successful ruler who
A
This temple too had four gates in the four impressed one and all with her abilities.
directions. Rudramadevi ruled from Orugallu (modern
AN
The city itself was divided into several Warangal) and belonged to the famous
quarters or vadas. People of one Kakatiya family. She ruled from 1262 CE
profession lived in one distinct vada. to 1289 CE for nearly 27 years. In our
country, there have been very few women
G
Can you draw a rough map of your rulers. In distant Delhi too, there was a
village or town and compare it with woman ruler called Raziya Sultana some
the map of Orugallu?
What are the main differences
N years before. But her nobles did not like to
be ruled by a woman and had killed her. A
LA
between modern towns and the famous traveller from Italy, called Marco
cities of the past, like Orugallu? Polo visited Rudramadevi’s kingdom and
Use the scale shown on the map to said that she was fearless, dressed herself
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find out the breadth of the outer wall like a man and rode horses with ease. In
from East to West. fact, in inscriptions, Rudramadevi was
known as Rudradeva Maharaja. Like Raziya
Also, find out the breadth of the city
within the inner stone wall from
T
north to south.
ER
If you have ever been to Warangal,

describe it to your classmates.
Svayambhu Siva was the family god
of the Kakatiyas. Why do you think
SC
did they build a temple and not a

palace or market place in the middle
of the city?
As Kakatiya kings became powerful,
they were able to persuade many chiefs to
accept them as their kings. The Kakatiyas
protected their samantha subordinates
from other warriors and chiefs. They took
also the samanthas with them when they Fig 12.2 Rudramadevi - Riding the Horse.
went to conquer other kingdoms. Many of (Modern representation in Hyderabad)

Sultana, she too faced the opposition of many several steps to control these chiefs. But
important chiefs who had been under her Kayastha Ambadeva, one of her sub-
father, but Rudramadevi succeeded in ordinates revolted against her. In the war
subduing them. Rudrama and her grandson that took place at Chandupatla, in Nalgonda
Prataparudra faced many revolts and took district, Rudrammadevi lost her life.
A
AN
G
N
LA
TE
Fig 12.3 A segment of the inner earthen wall with its (dry) moat at right
T
ER
SC
Fig 12.4 Aerial view of the eastern gateway in the city’s inner stone wall, showing
the ‘bent entrance’ (Vankadari) and open courtyard (anganam). The doorway at
right is the ‘great city gate’ leading to the royal avenue (raja margambu)
Nayankara System
Rudramadevi and Prataparudra
encouraged several skilled
warriors who were not from any
powerful family but were very
loyal to the queen and the king.
They gave them high positions
A
and the title of Nayaka. They were
given the authority over several
AN
villages from where they could
collect taxes. These villages were Fig 12.5 The remains of the great temple dedicated to Lord Siva
called their Nayankara. Each
nayaka had to maintain a stipulated amount Encouragement to Agriculture
G
of army from the income they got from and Temples
their nayankara for the service of the king.
The Kakatiyas brought large tracts of
But they did not keep these villages
permanently as they could be transferred
N land under cultivation by building tanks and
digging wells. Apart from the members of
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at the will of the king to a new place. These
Nayakas depended upon the queen or the the royal family and other feudal families,
king and remained loyal to them. They were the rich sections of the society such as
also probably used to subdue the rebellious merchants and artisans participated in
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chiefs. This arrangement was called expanding agriculture through the

Nayankara system. construction of tanks. This enabled the
Read here a portion of an inscription by extension of cultivation to the difficult
a nayaka of Rudramadevi : terrains of Telangana and Rayalaseema.
T
“In the year (1270 CE), on the occasion The Kakatiyas also extensively
of Sankranti, Bollinayaka, the guardian
ER
patronised temples by donating to them.

of the gate for Kakatiya Rudradeva Women members of the royal family like
Maharaja, gave ten measures of land to Muppamamba, and Mailamma made land
the temple servants of
SC
God Kalyana Keshava Fig 12.6 Ramappa Temple

of Kranja village in
his own nayankaramu
for the merit of his
master Rudradeva
Maharaja.”
Why do you think
Bollinayaka was
calling Rudrama-
devi as Rudra-
deva Maharaja?

grants. Women of “This Abhaya Shasana has been
other rich sections granted by Ganapatideva to sea traders
also made gifts of going back and forth to all continents,
land, tanks, cash, countries and towns. In the past, kings
cattle, jewellery forcibly seized all the cargo such as gold,
etc. to temples and elephants, horses, jewels, etc. when sea
going vessels were caught in storms,
brah-mins. By
wrecked and cast on shore. But We for the
A
promoting
sake of our reputation and punya and out
agriculture, they Fig 12.7 Sri Ahita gaja of pity for those who have incurred the
AN
derived in-come in kesari - Gold coin issued grave risk of a sea voyage, give up all
the form of taxes by Kakatiyas
but the customary tax.”
and agricultural produce.
The inscription goes on to mention the
Trade tax he would collect from the traders on
G
different articles of trade.
Warriors, chiefs and kings derived a
large portion of their income by taxing
traders, especially those who engaged in
N • How did the kings treat the traders
earlier?
LA
• What was the guarantee granted by
overseas trade from the ports. Read a
Ganapatideva to the traders?
portion of an inscription issued by Kakatiya
king Ganapatideva in a place called • Why do you think, Ganapatideva
TE
Motupalli: gave this protection to foreign

traders?
Marco Polo, who visited one of

these ports said, that the exports were
T
diamonds and the best and the most delicate

clothes, which looked like the tissue of a
ER
spider’s web. He further said, “There is

neither a king nor a queen in the world who
would not be glad to wear them”.
SC
The End of the Kakatiyas

Sometime around 1190 CE, a new
kingdom was established in Delhi. The new
kings were called Delhi Sultans and they
originally came from Turkistan. They had a
powerful army and were able to defeat
most of the kings of North India and the
Deccan before long. Sultan Mohammad bin
Tugluq was able to defeat Kakatiya
Prataparudra in 1323 CE. Thus ended the
12.8 Motupalli Pillar Inscription Kakatiya dynasty.
Some years later, two new kingdoms were founded in Karnataka called Bahamani and
Vijayanagar Kingdoms about which we will study in the next chapter.
Palnati Vira – Heroes who cut across caste barriers
Palanati Virula Katha written by Srinatha around 1350s helps us to understand how collectives of
warriors must have been formed. The leading character in the story, Balachandrudu, has a small
war band of devoted companions from diverse backgrounds. One is a brahmin while the others – a
A
blacksmith, a goldsmith, a washerman, a potter and a barber – are drawn from the service and artisan
communities. Balachandrudu and his cohorts are so committed to each other that they are called sodarulu
AN
(brothers). Just before they set out for battle, Balachandrudu’s mother prepares a meal for all the “brothers”.
But she serves this food to each one on a different kind of plate (earthen, bronze, leaf, etc.) and is
rebuked by her son for making such a distinction, who says that caste must be set aside when one goes
to war. And so the “brothers” all eat from each other’s plates, in defiance of the convention but in
G
recognition of their joint fate
Keywords : N
LA
1. Warriors 2. Nayankara System 3. Samanthas 4. Artisans

TE
1. Compare the warriors of those times with what you know about the modern armies. What
differences do you see between them?
2. Kings and chiefs built irrigation tanks to improve agriculture in the Kakatiya times. What would they do
if they ruled now?
T
3. How do you think were the Kakatiyas able to gain control over the chiefs?
ER
4. Why do you think did the Kakatiyas not appoint powerful chiefs as Nayakas?
5. Why was it difficult for women to rule in those days? Is it different today? How?
6. In those days, powerful people had their own land and were able to tax other farmers, traders and
artisans. Can powerful people do this now? Give reasons.
SC
7. Read the para under the title ‘Nayankara System’ on page 114 and comment on it.
8. ‘Women too manage the adminstrative affairs effectively’– Do you support this statement? Why?
Project:
1. Prepare a short presentation of any of the three stories in the form of a play.
2. Collect some popular stories that originate from your village or town, prepare a chart and
present the same in the class.
3. Visit an old temple of your area, find out about who built the temple, when etc. and look for
any inscriptions in it.

13
CHAPTER
The Kings of Vijayanagara
A
AN
In the previous chapter, we read about warriors and chiefs who had established
control over villages and how the Kakatiyas tried to bring them under their control
and built a kingdom. The efforts of the Kakatiyas ended when the Delhi Sultans
conquered Warangal. But soon, another kingdom was built by a family of warriors
G
who laid the foundations of a large empire called Vijayanagara or Karnataka.
Vijayanagara means the ‘City of

N over large parts of the present day
LA
Victory’. It was located on the banks of Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
Tungabhadra River in Karnataka. According These kingdoms were ruled by Sultans and
to history, it was founded by two brothers warriors, many of whom came from Iran
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named Harihara Raya and Bukka Raya and Arabia. All these kingdoms were
around 1336 CE with the blessings of a sage constantly at war with each other, trying to
named Vidyaranya. The kings of enlarge their own kingdoms. They also
Vijayanagara worshipped Sri Virupaksha tried to recruit the local warriors and chiefs
T
(Shiva). The Vijayanagara empire lasted for about whom we read in the last chapter. With
above 300 years though it was not ruled by their help, they tried to establish control
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kings of the same family. After the family over the villages and towns and collect
of Harihara Raya and Bukka Raya of revenue from the farmers and traders.
Sangama dynasty, Saluva, Tuluva and Araviti
Some Important Kings
families ruled the empire one after the
SC
of Vijayanagara
other. Some of those kings spoke the
language Kannada. But Sri Krishna Harihararaya 1336-1357CE
Devaraya gave due importance of Telugu Bukkaraya I 1357-1377CE
language. Harihararaya II 1377-1404 CE
On the north of the Tungabhadra river, Devaraya II 1426-1446 CE
some new kingdoms called the Bahamani Saluva Narasimharaya 1486-1491CE
kingdoms arose. Initially, it was one large Krishnadevaraya 1509-1529 CE
kingdom with its capital in Gulbarga. Later Achyutaraya 1529-1542 CE
on, between 1489 and 1520 CE, it broke Aliya Rama Raya 1543-1565 CE
up into five smaller kingdoms. Of these
Venkatapati Raya 1585-1614 CE
five kingdoms, Bijapur and Golconda ruled
How do we know?
We know much about Vijayanagara
Empire from inscriptions, books and
buildings of that period. We get insights
into the daily life, the administration and
the social organizations of the kingdom. Of
A
particular value are the detailed accounts
left by travellers from several countries –
AN
Nicolo Conti from Italy who visited
Vijayanagara in 1420 CE, Abdul Razzak the
Persian trader who visited in 1443 CE, the
Portugese traveller Domingo Paes, who
G
visited it in 1520 CE and Nuniz who wrote
in 1537 CE.
The City of Vijayanagara
N
LA
The city of Vijayanagara was built on the
banks of the river Tungabhadra next to the
Fig 13.1 Bronze images of
ancient temples of Pampadevi and Sri
Krishnadeva Raya and his two wives
TE
Virupaksha. Abdul Razzak says that the city installed in Tirumala Temple.
had seven rings of fortifications. Some of
these have been found by archaeologists. Why were vegetables, fruits and
Read the description of the city by horses sold in the evenings?
T
Portugese traveller, Paes: Archaeologists are of the opinion that the

city had four separate divisions – the first one
ER
“The king has made a very strong city,

fortified with walls and towers… These devoted to temples, situated on rocky hills;
walls are not made like those of other the second one on the valley, where crops were
cities, but are made of strong masonry… raised using water from irrigation
SC
and inside, very beautiful rows of channels; the third, a royal centre in which
buildings with flat roofs… royal palaces and residences of important
nayakas were located and the fourth one,
You have a broad and beautiful street allocated for the residences of ordinary
full of fine houses… and these houses townsfolk. Each area was separated from the
belong to merchants, and there you find others as shown in the map.
all sorts of rubies and diamonds, and
emeralds and pearls… and clothes of Compare Vijayanagara with
every sort on the earth… In the evening Warangal to point out the
you have a fair where they sell horses, similarities and differences
vegetables, fruits, wood, etc.” between them.

Vijayanagara rulers invested a lot
of money in building their military
Fort
power. They imported a large number
Anegondi
of horses from Arabia and Iran, which
Tun
r
came in ships to their ports on the

ve
gab
had
Ri
ra
west coast. They recruited a large
army and built many strong forts. One
A
Bridge
of the important rulers, Devaraya-II
re l of Vijayanagara, started recruiting
ltu n a
AN
Temples
r i cu C a Muslim fighters to serve him and to
Ag a t i o n
Irr
ig train his soldiers in the new modes
a of warfare. He also permitted the
e
Mosque r
A construction of Mosques in the
G
n
a capital city where the muslim
b
r soldiers were garrisoned. In those
U
N days, guns and cannons had been
newly introduced. The Vijayanagara
LA
kings started using guns and cannons
in their forces. The combination of
Tower Gate
Outer firearms and cavalry (horse-riders)
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Rampart
Pattabhirama made them one of the most powerful
Temple
armies in India.
Map 1: Vijayanagara City Horses in those days were
important for fast movement
T
Why do you think do the modern of troops. What do you think

ER
cities not build fort walls of this kind? has taken their place today?
Elephants were slow moving
Armies and Military Leaders but powerful in attack. What do
You would have heard and read about great you think has replaced them
SC
wars being fought today and also about today?

the powerful armies. ‘Captains of the Troops’ - the
What makes the armies of
Amaranayakas
countries powerful? The entire kingdom was actually
controlled and administered by the
What kinds of arms and weapons
commanders of these armies. Let us find
do modern armies use?
out who they were and what they did. Read
the following account left by Domingo
Let us find out how it was in Vijayanagara
Paes about Vijayanagara during Krishnadeva
times.
Raya’s period:
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 The Kings of Vijayanagara 119
“This king has a
million fighting
troops, which include
35,000 cavalry (horse
riders) ready to be
dispatched to any
quarter whenever
A
necessary... He is the
most feared king in
AN
these parts…
The captains of
these troops are the
G
nobles of his kingdom
Fig 13.2 Stone Chariot at Hazara Rama Temple
and they hold the city,
the towns and the villages of the kingdom. the king in return for these villages?
There are captains among them who have
a revenue of about a million gold coins,
N Did the king depend only on the
LA
troops sent by the captains?
others two hundred, three hundred or five
hundred thousand coins. The king fixes The ‘captains’ mentioned here were the
for each, according to his revenue the nayakas. These nayakas held amara revenue
TE
number of troops which he must maintain, assignments – that is, they were given charge
on foot, on horse, and elephants. These of some villages and cities whose revenue
troops are always ready for duty they could collect and use. They had an
whenever and wherever they may have obligation to maintain a certain number of
T
to go. Besides maintaining these troops, troops for keeping the revenue of such
each captain has to make his annual assignments. They also administered the
ER
payment to the king. areas under their control. They had judicial
Besides the troops supplied by the powers too (the power to judge criminals
captains, the king has his own troops and give punishments). This was quite
similar to the system of the Delhi Sultanate,
SC
whom he pays.”
whose nobles or amirs were given similar
Answer the following questions revenue assignments called Iqtas.
after reading the above passages
Most of the amaranayakas were
carefully:
Telugu warriors. They recruited their
Why was Krishnadevaraya the most
soldiers, usually from among their own
feared king?
villagers or kinsmen, and trained them.
Who controlled the towns and
These armies were loyal to the Nayakas
villages of Vijayanagara Empire?
rather than to the king. Many powerful
Did all of them get equal income?
nayakas like Saluva Narasimha or Narasa
What did the captains have to do for
Nayaka controlled vast areas and at times,

could even challenge the Vijayanagara the Vijayanagara armies successfully
kings. In fact, some of them were so against the Bahmani sultans and also against
powerful that when a king died, they took the Gajapatis of Odisha. He also subdued
control of power in their own hands and several chiefs who had revolted in
themselves became kings. Karnataka, Andhra and Tamil regions. This
Let us compare gave him control over the entire region on
the south of river Krishna and especially,
You read about how the villages were
A
the control over the ports of the eastern
administered in Chola kingdom by councils
coast.
of landholding villagers and how the king
AN
During this period, the Portugese had
collected revenue from villages with the
established their power over some ports of
help of these councils. Things had begun
the western coast like Goa. Krishna-
to change in Vijayanagara Empire as the
devaraya established friendly relations with
G
power of the armies and nayakas increased.
them in order to get exclusive supply of
You saw that the control over villages and
horses and firearms from them. He also
town was given over to these nayakas.
What impact do you think it would
N employed Portugese troops in his wars.
Every year, on the Vijayadashami day, the
LA
have had on the villagers? Discuss
King organised elaborate festivities and
in your class.
worship, which concluded with a massive
In the VI class, you read about how parade of his armies. On this day, all the
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villages and towns are administered chiefs and amaranayakas of the empire
in our country today. Can you brought their tributes to the King.
compare this with the Vijayanagara Krishnadevaraya paid special attention
system and point out the to the temples of his kingdom and
T
differences? personally visited many of them like

Tirupati, Srisailam and Ahobilam. He also
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Krishnadevaraya - The Ruler donated to a large number of temples.

Krishnadevaraya ruled from 1509 CE to Krishnadevaraya’s inscriptions state that
1529 CE. He was a great general who led he had distributed the great treasure gained
SC
Fig 13.3 Relief on Hazara Rama Temple. Can you write a story based on this image?

unable to fight the Vijayanagara individually,
by 1565 AD, all the five Bahmani kingdoms
joined together and defeated Rama Raya in
Rakkasi tangadi war also known as Tallikota
war. They looted and destroyed the city of
Vijayanagara. The emperors who succeeded
him shifted their capital to Chandragiri near
Tirupati, but never regained the glory of
A
earlier times. While a part of the empire
AN
came under the control of the Sultans, the
chiefs and Nayakas became independent in
other parts.
Qutub Shahis of Golkonda,
G
1512 – 1687
N Qutub Shahis - Timeline
Quli Qutub Shah (1512-1543)
LA
Fig 13.4 Gopuram of Ekambareshwar Jamshed Quli (1543-1550)
Temple in Kanchipuram. Ibrahim Qutub Shah (1550-1580)
Mohd Quli Qutub Shah (1580-1612)
in his successful wars to all the major
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Mohd Qutub Shah (1612-1626)

temples of southern India. Towering temple
Abdullah Qutub Shah (1626-1672)
gateways called ‘Raya gopuram’ were built
in many of these temples in his honour. Abul Hasan Tanashah (1672-1687)
This generosity assured that his name would In the previous chapter, we read about
T
be remembered for long among the people the Kakatiya kingdom in the Telangana
of south India. He also built some beautiful region. After the end of the Kakatiya
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temples in Vijayanagara city. kingdom, some of their subordinate

Krishnadevaraya was also a patron of nayakas established independent kingdoms.
Telugu literature and he himself composed Of these,the Velama kingdoms of
the poetic work Amuktamalyada on the life Rachakonda and Devarakonda were very
SC
of Andal, the Tamil Bhakta poetess. His strong and challenged the authority of the
Vijayanagara emperors and the Bahamani
court was adorned by eight poets known
kings. Around the year 1512, Quli Qutub
popularly as “Ashtadiggajas”. They are
Shah who was a governor of the Bahmanis
Allasani Peddana, Mukku Thimmana,
in Telangana region declared indepen-
Dhurjati, Ramaraja Bhushana, Tenali
dence and established the Qutub Shahi
Ramakrishna, Pingali Surana, Ayyalaraju dynasty of Golconda. Quli Qutub Shah
Ramabadhrudu and Madayagari Mallana. extended his rule by capturing forts at
The power of the Vijayanagara kings grew Warangal, Kondapalli, Eluru, and
further during the time of Krishnadevaraya’s Rajahmundry. The main part of Golconda
successors Achyutadeva Raya and Aliya State was Telangana. His successors ruled
Rama Raya. As the Bahamani rulers were up to 1687.
A
AN
G
N
LA
TE
Map 2: Qutb Shahi Dynasty

Sultan Ibrahim Qutub Shah (1550–80) The Qutub Shahi rulers quickly
patronized Telugu literature, supported understood the regional ecology and
Brahmins and temples and engaged in decided to continue the Kakatiaya pattern
T
large-scale irrigation works like the of irrigation system to widen the agrarian
ER
Kakatiya kings. Famous Telugu poets of base in core region of Telangana. Since they
Ibrahim Qutub Shah’s period were lived in captial Golkonda built Husssain
Singanacharyudu, Addanki Gangadharudu, Sagar Lake in 1562 during the reign of
Kandukuru Rudrakavi and Ponnaganti Ibrahim Qutub Shah. It was named after Sufi
SC
Telaganarya were patronized by Ibrahim Saint Hazrat Hussain Shah Wali who helped
Qutub Shah. Ibrahim Qutub Shah was to design it. It was developed as an artificial
praised by poets as “Malkibha-rama.” He lake that holds water perennially fed into
also took into his service many nayaka Musi river. It became main source of
chieftains who proudly claimed descent drinking water to Hyderabad. Another tank
from warrior-supporters of the Kakatiyas, at Ibrahim Patnam was also built by him. It
especially those serving Pratapa Rudra. is however well known that puranapul was
Ibrahim allowed them considerable also built across river Musi.
autonomy in the agrarian sphere while also Ibrahim’s son Mohmmed Quli was a great
entrusting them with the command of great visionary and was responsible for the
forts. planning and building of Hyderabad city.
Mir Momin Dynasty. He appointed Kancharla
Astarabadi,was the Gopanna (also known as Ramadasu) as
Architect of the Tahasildar (head of the revenue
City of Hyderabad department) of Palvancha county.
during his time. As Ramadasu was accused that he diverted
the Prime Minister the public funds to construct Lord
of Quli Qutb Shah Rama temple in Bhadrachalam and got
A
he played an the jewellery for the idols of Rama, Sita
important role in and Lakshmana. Tani Shah found
AN
preparing the Ramadasu guilty of diverting of public
layout plan for the funds and put him in jail and released
Charminar along him after realisation.
with that of the Fig 13.5 Charminar During the Qutub Shahi period,
G
new capital city. Mohammad Quli Qutub Golconda was known all over the world for
Shah built Mecca Masjid and Jama its famous diamonds. At that time,
Masjid. It was built on the model of the
grand mosque of Mecca. Quli Qutub Shah
N Machilipatnam became a major port from
where trade was carried out with South East
LA
commissioned bricks to be made from the Asia, China, Persia, Arabia and Europe.
soil brought from Mecca, and used them Great caravans travelled from the coastal
in the construction of the central arch of region to Golconda carrying merchandise,
TE
the mosque, thus giving the mosque its gold and silver from different countries.
name. A room in the Mosque also contains The tombs of the seven QutubShahi
hair of Prophet Mohammed. QuliQutub rulers in the Ibrahim Bagh are located close
Shah also constructed the Charminar, the to the famous Golkonda Fort in
T
most recognizable symbol of Hyderabad. Hyderabad. The tombs mark a unique

He was also an accomplished poet in architectural style which is a mixture of
ER
Persian and Urdu. The Deccani Urdu Persian and Hindu. Shah Jahan, theMughal
acquired the status of literary language Emperor was impressed by the architecture
due to his contributions. of the QutubShahi tombs and built the
Hayat Bakshi Begum was the daughter TajMahal with white Marble. The tombs are
SC
of Muhammad QuliQutub Shah. She built structures with intricately carved

Hayat Bakshi Mosque located in stonework and are surrounded by
Hayathnagar, near Hyderabad.She was also landscaped gardens.
known as MaaSaheba, Masab Tank is a Right from the times of Ibrahim Qutub
distorted version of Maa-Sahaba Tank. Shah, the Mughals were keen on conq-
Abdulla Qutub Shah was a lover of poetry uering this wealthy kingdom and even-
and music. He invited and honoured tually succeeded under Aurangazeb when he
Kshetrayya, the famous padam writer to his captured the fort of Golconda in the year
court. Abul – Hasan Tana Shah was the last 1687.
and the most popular ruler of Qutub Shahi The Mughals did not follow the inclusive

policy of the Qutub Shahis and removed
the local people from positions of power
and brought in more people from outside.
They also tried to extract maximum
revenue from this region and adopted the
system of revenue contract. Under this
system, the government auctioned the
A
right to collect revenue from a region to
the highest bidder. These were usually the
AN
locally powerful people or moneylenders
and they oppressed the peasants and Fig 13.6 Golconda Fort
artisans to get maximum income. This
caused widespread distress, including Find out about the famous diamond
G
famines, migration and depopulation. mines of Golcunda kingdom and
the trade in these diamonds.
Look at the map of Qutub Shahi
kingdom and identify Golconda,
N Keywords :
LA
Machilipatnam, Bhadrachalam etc. 1. Amara Nayaka
Why do you think did the economy 2. Amir
of Golconda kingdom prosper under 3. Iktha
TE
Qutub shah while it declined during 4. Archeological Scientists

the early Mughal rule? 5. Raya Gopuram

T
1. Why did the kings of Vijayanagara live in a separate quarter and not in the middle of the city
ER
as in Orugallu?
2. Why were the amaranayakas very powerful?
3. Compare the amaranayakas with the old chiefs of Kakatiyas. Were they different or similar and in
SC
what way?
4. Why was the Vijayanagara army dependent on imports from the western coast?
5. Krishnadeva Raya fought against several enemies in order to consolidate his kingdom. Make a list
of all of them.
6. What services were rendered to Telugu literature by the Vijayanagara Kings?
7. Locate the following in the India map.
a) Humpi b) Bijapur c) Tirupati
d) Golkonda e) Kanchi f) River Tungabhadra
8. Discuss the support of various kingdoms to Telugu literature?
9. Describe the art and architecture of the Qutub Shahis rules.

14
CHAPTER
Mughal Empire
A
AN
A new dynasty called Mughals began with the invasion of
Babar in 1526 CE. They created an empire between 1550 CE
and 1707 CE and expanded it from around Delhi to all over the
G
entire subcontinent. Their administrative arrangements, ideas
of governance and architecture continued to influence rulers
N
long after their decline. Now, every year, the Prime Minister of
LA
India addresses the nation on Independence Day from the A Coin with the
ramparts of the Red Fort in Delhi which was once the residence picture of
of the Mughal emperors. Jahangir
TE
Who were the Mughals? leave his ancestral throne due to an invasion
The Mughals were from ruling families by another ruler. After years of wandering,
of Central Asian countries like Uzbekistan he seized Kabul in 1504 CE. In 1526 CE,
T
and Mongolia. Babur, the first Mughal he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim
emperor (1526 - 1530 CE), was forced to Lodi and captured Delhi and Agra.
ER
Fig 14.1 Red Fort

SC

Important Mughal emperors - Major campaigns and events
Babur 1526-1530 CE (Left)
1526 CE – defeated Ibrahim Lodi and established
control over Agra and Delhi.
A
(Right) Humayun 1530-1556 CE
Sher Khan defeated Humayun, forcing him to
AN
flee to Iran. In Iran, Humayun
received help from the Safavid Shah. He
recaptured Delhi in 1555 CE but died in an
accident the following year.
G
N
Akbar 1556-1605 CE (Left)
LA
Akbar was 13 years old when he became
the emperor. He rapidly conquered Bengal,
Central India, Rajasthan and
Gujarat.Thereafter, he also conquered
TE
Afghanistan, Kashmir and portions of the

Deccan. Look at his empire in Map 1.
Jahangir 1605-1627 CE (above)

Shah Jahan 1627-1658 CE
T
Military campaigns started by

(Left Below) Mughal Akbar continued. No major
ER
campaigns continued in the conquests.

Deccan. He faced many
revolts by nobles and chiefs of his empire. In 1657-1658 CE, there
was a conflict over succession amongst Shah Jahan’s sons.
Aurangzeb was victorious and his three brothers were killed.
SC
Shah Jahan was imprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra.
(Right) Aurangzeb 1658-1707 CE
Tried to conquer Assam but faced a large
number of revolts all over his kingdom from
Afghanistan, Assam, Rajasthan, Punjab,
Deccan, etc. Guru Tej Bahadur, Govind Singh,
Shivaji and his own son, Akbar revolted
against him. Shivaji succeeded in establishing
an independent Maratha kingdom. Aurangzeb
conquered Bijapur in 1685 CE and Golconda
in 1687 CE. His death was followed by a
succession conflict amongst his sons.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Mughal Empire 127

Relationship of the Mughals refused to accept Mughal authority for a
with other Rulers long time. Once defeated, however, they
were given their lands back as assignments.
Around the time when Mughals came to Mughals also employed the method of not
India, there were several kings and chiefs removing their opponents after defeating.
in all parts of the country. The Mughals This helped them to extend their influence
sought to bring them under their control. over many kings and chieftains. As a
They allowed the older rulers and chiefs political strategy Mughals married
A
to continue to rule over large parts of their princesses of the local rulers. Jahangir’s
old kingdoms and collected revenues from
AN
mother was the daughter of the Rajput ruler
them. But these rulers could not wage wars of Amber (modern Jaipur). Shah Jahan’s
against each other and had to keep an army mother was the daughter of the Rajput ruler
ready for the use of the Emperor. of Jodhpur.
G
Mughal rulers campaigned constantly
against rulers who refused to accept their
Mansabdars and Jagirdars
As the empire expanded to encompass
authority. But, as the Mughals became
powerful, many other rulers had to
surrender their sovereignty. Some Rajput
N different regions, the Mughals recruited
diverse kinds of people. From a small
LA
kings also entered into matrimonial nucleus of Turkish nobles, they expanded
alliances with them. But many resisted as to include Iranians, Indian Muslims,
well. The Sisodiya Rajputs of Chittor Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and other
TE
Map 1: Akbar’s Reign 1605AD

Kabul
Kashmir
T
Qandahar
ER
Multan
Panipat
Delhi
Amber Agra
Ajmer Fatehpur Sikri
SC
Sindh Chittor Alahabad
Malwa
Bengal
Gondwana
Berar
Odisa
Ahmednagar
Golconda
Bijapur

A
AN
G
Fig 14.2 A mansabdar on march with his sawars (A miniature painting)
groups. Those who joined the Mughal

service were enrolled as mansabdars (or
N branded and then received money to pay
them as salary.
LA
rank holder). They worked directly under A mansabdar’s son could not become
the control of the emperor, who could a mansabdar automatically. That is the
allocate any work for them to do – like transfer of power was not hereditary. The
TE
guarding his palace, governing a province, emperor decided whether to appoint the son
conquering a new kingdom or suppressing as a mansabdar or not. In fact, he even
a rebellion. took over all the property of the
mansabdar on his death.
The Mughals designed a political system
T
Mansabdars received their salaries as

in which the mansabdars could not act
revenue assignments called jagirs, which
independently but had to follow the orders
ER
were somewhat like Vijayangara

of the emperor. You may remember that the Amaranayakas. But unlike the
Nayakas in Vijayanagara empire could Amaranayakas, most mansabdars did not
become independent and powerful enough actually reside in or administer their jagirs.
SC
to declare themselves the kings. The They could only collect the revenue due
Mughals prevented this by constantly from their jagir villages and send them to
transferring the mansabdars from one the emperor. This was collected for them
place to another every two or three years. by their servants while the mansabdars
Thus, a mansabdar could not get settled themselves served in some other part of the
and powerful in any one place. country. The jagir was administered by
other officials directly under the emperor.
The mansabdar’s military responsi-
These officials tried to ensure that the
bilities required him to maintain a specified jagirdars’ agents did not collect more
number of horse riders or cavalrymen. The from the farmers than permitted. The jagirs
mansabdar brought his cavalrymen for too were constantly transferred every two
review, got them registered, their horses or three years.

In Akbar’s reign, these jagirs were
carefully assessed so that their revenues
were roughly equal to the salary of the 1
mansabdar. By Aurangzeb’s reign, there
was a huge increase in the number of
mansabdars, which meant a long wait
before they received a jagir. These and
A
other factors created a shortage in the
number of jagirs. As a result, many
AN
jagirdars tried to extract as much revenue 2
as possible while they had a jagir.
Aurangzeb was unable to control these
developments in the last years of his reign
G
and the farmers, therefore, suffered
tremendously.
Zabt and Zamindars N Fig 14.3 Details in a miniature from Shah
Jahan’s reign showing corruption during
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The main source of income available to
his father’s administration 1. A corrupt
Mughal rulers was taxes on the produce of officer receives a bribe and 2. A tax
the peasantry. Akbar’s revenue minister, collector punishes poor peasants
Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of
TE
crop yields, prices and areas cultivated for basis, that is, sons succeeded when the
a period of ten-years, 1570-1580 CE. On fathers died. They too had contingents of
the basis of this data, tax was fixed in cash armed followers. They received a share of
for each crop. Each province was divided the revenue collected by the jagirdars from
T
into revenue circles with its own schedule the area and also some dues from the
of revenue rates for individual crops. This farmers and others. They often acted as
ER
revenue system was known as zabt. It was representatives of the local people in
prevalent in those areas where Mughal dealing with the Mughal officials.
administrators could survey the land and In some areas, the zamindars exercised
keep very careful accounts. This was not a great deal of power. The exploitation by
SC
possible in provinces such as Gujarat and Mughal administrators could drive them to
Bengal. rebellion. Sometimes zamindars and
In most places, peasants paid taxes peasants allied in rebelling against the
through the rural elite i.e., the headman or Mughal authority. These zamindar-peasant
the local chieftain. The Mughals used one revolts challenged the stability of the
term – zamindars – to describe all the Mughal Empire from the end of the
intermediaries, whether they were local seventeenth century.
headmen of villages or powerful chieftains. What was the difference between
The zamindars were not appointed by the a mansabdar and a zamindar?
Mughal Emperors but existed on hereditary Who was under the greater control

of the emperor? people. Akbar wanted to bring together
Compare the position of a Nayaka people of diverse faiths. This eventually
and a mansabdar. gave Akbar the idea of sulh-i kul or
“universal peace”. This idea of tolerance did
A Closer Look at Akbar’s not discriminate among people of different
Policies religions in his kingdom. Instead, it
focused on a system of ethics – honesty,
The broad features of administration justice, peace – that was universally
A
were laid down by Akbar and were applicable. Abul Fazl helped Akbar in
elaborately discussed by his friend and
AN
framing a vision of governance around this
member of his court, Abul Fazl in his book idea of sulh-i kul. The Emperor would work
the Akbar Nama. for the welfare of all subjects irrespective
While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri (near of their religion or social status. This
G
Agra) during the 1570s, he initiated principle of governance was followed by
important discussions on religion with the Jahangir and Shah Jahan as well. Aurangzeb
Muslim scholars, Hindu scholars, Jesuit
priests who were Roman Catholics, and
N deviated from this policy and tried to
project himself as favouring only Sunni
LA
Zorastrians. He was interested in the Muslims. People of other religions felt
religion and social customs of different anguished by this policy of Aurangzeb.
Sulh-i kul
TE
Jahangir, Akbar’s son,

described his father’s
policy of sulh-i kul in the
following words:
T
“As in the wide expanse of

the divine compassion, there is
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room for all classes and the

followers of all creeds, so …
in his Imperial dominions,
which on all sides were limited
SC
only by the sea, there was

room for the professors of
opposite religions, and for
beliefs, good and bad, and the
road to intolerance was closed.
Sunnis and Shias met in one
mosque and Christians and
Jews in one church to pray.
He consistently followed the
Fig 14.4 Akbar holding discussions with learned principle of ‘universal peace’
individuals of different faiths in his ibadat khana (sulh-i kul).”

The Mughal Empire in the 17th wealth. The inequalities were glaring.
Century and thereafter Documents from the twentieth year of Shah
Jahan’s reign inform us that the highest
The administrative and military ranking mansabdars were only 445 in
efficiency of the Mughal Empire led to number out of a total of 8,000. This small
economic and commercial prosperity. number – a mere 5.6 per cent of the total
International travellers described it as the number of mansabdars – received 61.5
fabled land of wealth. But the same visitors per cent of the total estimated revenue of
A
were also appalled at the state of poverty the empire as salaries for themselves and
AN
that existed in contrast to the greatest their troopers.
Sardar Sarvai Papanna
Sarvai Papanna, who belongs to the Warangal district, fought
against the Mughal rule in Telangana. He lived during the period
G
of Aurangzeb. He supported the lives of many poor people who
were backward and downtrodden.
N
Papanna occupied the telangana area from Mughal rule between
1687 to 1724 CE, and built a fort in Khilashapur which was also
LA
considered the capital city in Warangal district.
Having seen the oppressions and atrocities committed by Mughals
during that time, he raised a small army and trained them in
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guerrilla attacks.
Papanna, controlled the forts at Bhuvanagiri,
Kolanupaku of Nalgonda, Thatikonda, Cheriyala of
Warangal, Huzurabad, Husnabad of Karimnagar. He
constructed his first fort in Sarvaipeta with the aim
T
of expanding his rule. He constructed forts in

Thatikonda, Vemulakonda and Shahpuram. Existing
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check Dam constructed during the rule of Papanna in

Thatikonda shows that he was a development oriented
king to develop the region under his control.
Papanna mostly raised the funds for war and army by guerrilla attacks on Subedar,
SC
Zamindars and landlords. Upon hearing the news of Papanna's popularity, Aurangzeb
advised Rustum-dil-Khan to suppress Papanna. Rustum-dil-Khan then sent Khasim Khan
first to Papanna and then to conquer shahpura fort. Having Khasim Khan defeated and
slayed by Papanna, Rustum-dil-Khan himself entered the war and it went on for almost
three months. Rustum-dil-Khan finally fled from the war and Papanna lost his friend
and close associate, Sarvanna in this war.
After the death of Aurangzeb, in 1707 C.E., the then Deccan Subedar Kambaksh
Khan started losing the control of Deccan. Having seen the weak administration of
Kambaksh Khan, Papanna attacked Warangal for on April 1 in 1708 C.E. However in a
long battle at Thatikonda later at Khilashapur he escaped. He was caught and beheaded in
1712 C.E.

The Mughal emperors and their After the weakening of the Mughal
mansabdars spent a great deal of their Empire in 1720s , the Mughal Governors
income on salaries and goods. The scale asserted their independence. One of them
of revenue collection left very little for was the Subedar of the Deccan, Chin Qulich
money for investment in the hands of the Khan, also known as the Nizam-Ul- Mulk.
primary producers – the peasant and the He was the founder of the Asaf Jahi dynasty
artisans. The poorest amongst them had of the Hyderabad State in 1724. Nizam-
barely enough resources for existence and
A
Ul- Mulk ruled for 24 years (1724-1748).
could hardly invest in tools and supplies to The Asaf Jahi rulers were ten kings, who
AN
increase productivity.
ruled from 1724 to 1948. Among them
The wealthier peasantry and artisanal seven kings got the title ‘Nizam’ from the
groups, the merchants and bankers profited Moghals. Nazar Jung, Muzafar Jung and
in this period. Sabath Jung were not received the title
G
The enormous wealth and resources ‘Nizam’. The Nizams constantly fought the
commanded by the Mughal nobility made Marathas and the rulers of Mysore to carve
them an extremely powerful group of
people in the late seventeenth century. As
N the independent state of Hyderabad. Due
to these reasons, they became dependent
LA
the authority of the Mughal emperor slowly
on the British and lost their independent
declined, his subordinates emerged as
status.
powerful centres of power in the regions.
They constituted new dynasties and held They undertook the
TE
command of provinces like Hyderabad and colonial modernisation

Awadh. Although they continued to under the influence of the
recognise the Mughal emperor in Delhi as British Officials. The
their master, by the eighteenth century the British loved the
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provinces of the empire had consolidated Hyderabad culture.

their independent political identities. During late 19th Century
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Hyderabad embarked on Salar Jung

Asaf Jahis of Hyderabad
development. Salar Jung was the
1724-1948 PrimeMinister of the Nizams between
SC
Asaf Jahis - Timeline 1853 and 1883, who imbibed colonial

Nizam-ul-Mulk - 1st Nizam (1724-1748) development schemes. (You will read more
Nasar Jung - (1748-1751) about him in the next lesson).
Muzafar Jung - (1751-1751) The sixth Nizam, Mir MahabubAli
Salabat Jung - (1751-1762)
Nizam Ali Khan - 2nd Nizam (1762-1803) Khan’s period marked with a number of
Sikandar Jah - 3rd Nizam (1803-1829) reforms. The Asafia Library, Victoria
Nasir-ud-Dowla - 4th Nizam (1829-1857) Memorial Orphanage, Mahabubia Girls
Afzal-ud-Dowla - 5th Nizam (1857-1869) School were established. During the Musi
Meer Mahaboob Ali Khan (1869-1911)
- 6th Nizam floods in 1908 he personally supervised the
Mir Osman Ali Khan (1911-1948) relief operations, offered prayers to the
- 7th Nizam god and provided shelter to the victims.

However, the VII Nizam determined to protect the fuedal power structure despite the popular
movement for liberal administrative reforms. (About his achievements you will read more
in class-8).
Keywords :
1. Mansabdar 2. Jagirdar 3. Zabt
A
4. Elite 5. Zamindar 6. Sulh-i-kul
AN
1. What was the relationship between the mansabdar and his jagir?
G
2. What was the role of the zamindar in Mughal administration?
3. N
How were the debates with religious scholars important in the formation of Akbar’s ideas on
governance?
LA
4. Why did the Mughals allow the earlier rulers to continue in their old kingdoms as before?
5. Why was the policy of sulh-i kul important for the Mughals to control their vast empire?
TE
6. Read the first para under the title ‘Zabt and Zamindars’ on page 130 and comment on it.
7. Collect and fill in the table with the particulars of the Moghal emperors.
S.No. Name of the emperor Ruling period Important features

T
1
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2
3
4
SC
5
6

15
CHAPTER
Establishment of the British

Empire in India
A
AN
Aurangzeb was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers. He established control
over a very large part of the territory that is now known as India. After his death in
1707 CE, many Mughal governors (subedars) and big zamindars began asserting
their authority and establishing regional kingdoms.
G
Consequently, Delhi could no longer function as an effective centre. By the second
N
half of the eighteenth century, however, a new power was emerging on the political
horizon – the British. Did you know that the British originally came to India as a
LA
small trading company? How then did they become the masters of a vast empire?
TE
East India Company Comes to

East
In 1600 CE, the East India Company
acquired a charter from the ruler of England,
T
Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right

to trade with the East. This meant that no
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other trading group in England could

compete with the East India Company.
With this charter, the Company could
SC
venture across the oceans, looking for new

lands from which it could buy goods at a
cheap price, and carry them back to Europe
to sell at higher prices.
Mercantilism
Mercantile is a business enterprise that
makes profit primarily through trade.
Trading companies in those days made
profit primarily by excluding competition,
so that they could buy cheap and sell at Fig 15.1 The headquarters of East
higher rates. India Company in London

The royal The problem was that all the companies
charter, however, were interested in buying the same goods.
could not The fine qualities of cotton and silk
prevent other produced in India had a big market in
European Europe. Spices like pepper, cloves,
powers from cardamom and cinnamon too were in great
entering the demand. Competition among the European
A
Eastern markets. companies inevitably pushed up the prices
By the time the at which the goods were purchased. Trade
AN
first English was carried out with arms and trading posts
ships sailed were protected through fortification. This
down the west effort to fortify settlements and carry on
coast of Africa, profitable trade led to intense conflict with
G
Fig 15.2
VascodaGama round the Cape
the local rulers.
of Good Hope,
and crossed the Indian Ocean, the
Portuguese had already established their
N Armed Traders
European traders formed their own
LA
presence in the western coast of India, and companies to trade in India. The English
had their base in Goa. It was Vasco da Gama, traders formed the English East India
a Portuguese explorer, who had discovered Company while traders from France formed
TE
this sea route to India in 1498. By the early the French East India Company. Both
seventeenth century, the Dutch (Holland) companies fought against each other for
too were exploring the possibilities of trade many years to capture the trade in India. Each
in the Indian Ocean. Soon the French made efforts to drive the other away. They
T
traders arrived on the scene. brought armies

from England and
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France to help them

in their fight. The
kings of England
SC
and France also

backed their
respective comp-
anies and helped
them in many ways.
The companies
acquired land in
India and built their
own forts to wage
battles against each
Fig 15.3 A drawing of Machilipatnam from 1676 other.

The wealth that was accum-
ulated in this way was one of the
most important factors that
enabled England to develop
industries and establish their
dominance in the world.
This was the time when England
A
as well as some other European
countries like Spain, Portugal,
AN
France, Holland and Germany were
acquiring colonies in North and
South America, Africa, and Asia.
The colonies contributed to the
G
power and wealth of these
European countries.
The Mughal emperors as well as
many rajas and nawabs began to
N
Fig 15.4 Mughal Emperor Shah Alam granted
LA
realise how dangerous it was to let Robert Clive the right to rule Bengal
such traders maintain armies, build they also tried to check the growing military
forts, fight battles and use military force strength of the companies.
TE
to establish their economic power in their

For example, in 1764 CE, Nawab
kingdoms.
Anwaruddin Khan of Arcot (in northern
As long as the Mughal empire was
Tamil Nadu) sent his army to fight against
strong, it had not been possible for the
the French company. However, to
European companies to establish their own
T
everyone’s astonishment, the small French

military power in India. In fact, Emperors
army managed to defeat the large army of
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Shahjahan and Aurangzeb had fought and

defeated the European companies on a the Nawab. The European traders became
number of occasions. However, some years bolder after this victory and felt that they
after the death of Aurangzeb, the different could do whatever they wanted in India
because of the strength of their armies.
SC
provinces of the empire became almost

independent and were ruled by their How were the European armies different
respective governors. Thus Bengal, Awadh from the armies of Indian rulers in the
(Lucknow) and Hyderabad became 1700’s? The soldiers of European armies
independent kingdoms which only were better trained and received higher and
nominally acknowledged the Mughal more regular salaries. They also had better
Emperor as their supreme. cannons and guns. The European armies
Once the Mughal empire broke up into held parades and drills every day. With such
these small kingdoms, the companies found regular exercise, Indian soldiers enrolled
their chance to assert their power. Though in these armies also became quite skilled
the rajas and nawabs wanted more trade, in battle.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Establishment of the British Empire in India 137
Growing European Interference The companies also began to acquire
in the Kingdoms of India small parts of kingdoms as ‘gifts’ from the
local rulers. They would collect land tax
The companies used their military
from the villages and towns in these areas
advantage to increase their profits from
and use the money for their trading
trade. On many occasions, when they saw
activities. They also used this money for
two Indian rulers fighting among
maintaining and improving their army.
themselves, they would take sides and get
A
involved in the fight. They would lend their Slowly, the English Company began
emerging victorious over the French
AN
army to one side to help them defeat their
rivals. But, in return, the companies would Company in the struggle for dominance in
demand and extract many trade concessions India.
from the rulers. The rulers also ‘gifted’ the Misuse of the Company’s
G
companies large amounts of money in Power
return for their military help. This money
The Indian rulers soon found that the
helped the companies increase their trade
even more.
N burden of giving ‘gifts’ to the English East
LA
For example, Dupleix, a governor of the India Company and bearing the expenses of
French East India Company, helped its army was becoming very heavy. They
Muzaffar Jang to become the Nizam of were also troubled by many other activities
of the company.
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Deccan. In return, Muzaffar Jang gave the

French some territories near Pondicherry Some Indian rulers exempted the
and the town of Machilipatnam. He also company from paying taxes on many of the
gave Rs. 50,000 to the Company, Rs. goods it purchased from their kingdoms.
50,000 to the French troops, and Rs. However, people began taking advantage of
T
20,00,000 and a Jagir worth Rs. 1,00,000 these concessions. For example, employees
ER
per year to Dupleix. of the company

would do their own
Fig 15.5 Local boats bring goods from ships in
private trading. But
Madras, painted by William Simpson, 1867
they would show
SC
their own goods as

belonging to the
company to escape
paying taxes.
In this way, while
the company got
richer, its emplo-
yees and officers
also made a lot of
money in India and

returned home wealthy. Many Indian traders The English East India Company also
and seths helped the company in its trade. forced the Nizam of Hyderabad to hand
They too showed their goods as belonging over the coastal Andhra Pradesh districts
to the Company to escape paying taxes. (Krishna, East Godavari, West Godavari,
Thus, there was much looting and Srikakulam, Vijayanagaram, Prakasam
swindling taking place in the kingdoms Visakhapatnam and Guntur) between the
under the Company. So proud was the years 1765-1768. These were known as the
A
Company of its military strength that it ‘Northern Sarkars’ of the Madras province
began working with great impudence. It of the company. In return, the English
AN
forced craftsmen to sell their goods at low agreed to maintain an army contingent for
prices. In the areas it had acquired, the the use of the Nizam. In fact, this army was
company tried to squeeze revenue from the used more to control the Nizam rather than
peasants beyond reasonable limits. When to help him.
G
the rulers protested against such practices, Many rajas and nawabs understood the
the English fought against them. They even
went to the extent of dethroning the kings
and anointing successors who would be
N British plot and fought hard against them.
They included Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan
LA
of Mysore, the Maratha Sardar Mahadaji
only too willing to remove any obstacles
Shinde, Nana Phadnawis and others. But
in the way of their trade.
their kingdoms were small. One by one,
Traders need money to buy the
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they lost them to the English.

goods they sell to others. List three Among those who played an important
sources of money that helped the role in the British success on the
English to buy goods in India. battlefield were Generals Robert Clive,
What advantages did the Indian
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Warren Hastings and Lord Wellesley.

rulers get from the English? Slowly, large parts of India came under the
ER
The English Impose their Rule direct rule of the English. In many places,
the rajas and nawabs continued to rule, but
The English gradually began to feel that
they were under the sovereignty of the
they could make fuller and freer use of India
English. An English official (known as the
SC
for trade if they themselves ruled the country.

So they starting removing the nawabs and ‘resident’) would be assigned to stay in the
rajas and started ruling themselves. court of these kings or nawabs so that the
In 1757 CE, the English defeated British government could keep an eye on
Sirajuddaula, the Nawab of Bengal, at a how they ran their kingdoms.
place called Plassey and established their
While carrying on trade with India,
rule over Bengal. The Battle of Plassey is
why did the English East India
an important event in the Indian history.
Company start thinking of
After that, the English started conquering
establishing its rule over the
many other kingdoms of India, big and
country?
small.
Map 1 INDIA Map 2 INDIA
About About
1770 AD 1830 AD
A
AN
G
N
LA
TE
Map 3 INDIA
About Maps showing expansion of the
1857 AD British territorial power in India.
T
Look at these maps along

ER
with a present day political

map of India. In each of
these maps, try to identify
the different parts of India
SC
that were not under the

British rule.
How far did English rule
spread by 1857? Make a
list of those areas where
Indian kings still ruled in
1857.

Discontent with English Rule English began implementing in their areas.
As a result, many tribal people lost their
The English had to fight with many kings
rights over jungles and land. You will read
and nawabs to establish their rule. You will
more about this in the later years.
learn more about their policies and
Many Hindus and Muslims feared that
administration in later years. They
constantly faced resistance from the the English would destroy their faiths and
people of India. convert them to Christianity.
A
The royal families resisted them The English faced their toughest battle
because the English would anoint or in 1857 when, for a few months, their rule
AN
was uprooted over almost the entire
remove rulers as and when it suited their
purposes. northern Indian region. This revolt was
started by Indian sipahis or soldiers, who
Farmers and landowners resisted them were soon joined by royal families,
G
because the English imposed very high
landowners, farmers, tribal people and
taxes on them and collected the taxes very
craftsmen. The royal families who joined
strictly. So they lived in constant fear of
failing to pay the taxes and losing their lands
N the revolt include Nana Sahib, the adopted
son of the peshwa, Tantia Tope, his general,
LA
as a result.
the Begum of Awadh, and Rani Lakshmi Bai
Tribal people also offered resistance, of Jhansi. Hindus and Muslims fought
because of the new rules and laws that the together against their common enemy.
TE
The Revolt of 1857 Meerut was widespread and on this day, the
soldiers opened fire on their English
Place: The military cantonment at Meerut,
officers. The rebellious soldiers marched
where the British army had camped
towards Delhi that very night.
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Date: Sunday, May 10, 1857

The sun was about to set when the Indian
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soldiers began firing their guns on their

English officers. These were the same 2)
soldiers who had helped the English to
conquer the kingdoms of India. They were 1)
SC
now fed up with the behaviour of the

English. They were not getting their salaries
on time and they were not treated with 3)
respect in the British army. On top of this,
Fig 15.6 A - Loading a gun
the sipahis suspected that the cartridges for
their new guns (rifles) were coated with cow 1) The soldier was supposed to tear open the
and pig fat to keep them dry. They felt that paper case with his teeth.
their religious faith was being violated. 2) He would pour the gun powder into the
Based on this suspicion, a similar uprising rifle.
had occurred at Barrackpur, near Kolkata 3) He would then ram the bullet wrapped in
in March 1857. The sense of discontent at paper into the rifle.
Place:
Meerut town
Date: Sunday
night - Monday,
May 10-11,
1857
News of the sipahi revolt spread
A
like wildfire in Meerut. A wave of
people came from the bazaar and
AN
began attacking the bungalows of
the English. Policemen joined the
mobs and before long, the
bungalows and offices of the
G
English were set an fire. Many Fig 15.7 A view of Sipahi revolt at Meerut in 1857
English people were killed.
N By daybreak, the sipahis of Meerut
LA
had crossed the Yamuna and reached
Place: Delhi, the Lal Quila
Delhi. They entered the Lal Quila where
Date: Monday, May 11, 1857 Badshah Bahadur Shah Zafar of the
Mughal dynasty was imprisoned by the
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English. They declared him their badshah

and persuaded him to reject the
sovereignty of the British. ‘Drive out the
English and bring back Mughal rule’ was
T
the clarion call of the rebels.

ER
SC
Fig 15.8 A view of Delhi in

1857 showing the pontoon
bridge the soldiers used to
cross the Yamuna.

The Revolt Spreads
No sooner did this call go out,
revolts against the English
erupted in many places. Sipahis
went on a rampage in the
cantonments at Aligarh,
Mainpuri, Bulandshahar, Attock
A
and Mathura. The English were
badly shaken. Their situation
AN
was, indeed, very delicate.
Fig 15.9 Jhansi Lakshmi Bai - Fighting with the
There were a mere 45,000 English Britishers
officers and soldiers in India. Against this, Hyderabad was not silent as it suffered
G
the number of Indian soldiers in their army under the colonial policies. Among others
was two lakh and thirty two thousand! It was Turrebaz Khan was a revolutionary who
these very sipahis who revolted. So, who
would now protect the lives and property
N fought against the British in Hyderabad
State during the revolt of 1857. He, with
LA
of the English residents in the towns? The the support of Moulvi Allauddin, mobilized
Indian sections of their army could not be 6,000 people and attacked the British
relied on. Consequently, many English Residency, present day Women’s College,
soldiers were held back to protect the Koti. He revolted at a time when the Nizam
TE
English families. As a result, the revolt supported the British. However the
could not be suppressed immediately and movement was suppressed and Turrebaz
it spread from place to place. Khan was executed.
Many royal
T
families, whose
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kingdoms had
Turrebaz Khan
been taken away
by the English,
joined the revolt.
SC
Among them
were the former
Nawab of Awadh
and the Maratha Discuss why the idea of the Mughal
FIg 15.10 Nana Saheb peshwa Nana
empire brought the rebelling Indian
Sahib. Armies of people together.
rebel sipahis and rulers from different When you oppose something, you
corners of the country marched towards need an alternative in its place.
Delhi. People were helping them for driving Think of an example from your
out the English so to establish their rule in experience that brings out this need
their respective provinces. of an alternative.
Revolt in Every Village In every town or region, different groups
of rebels fought separately against the
The flames of revolt spread from kasba English. They did not fight together. There
to kasba and village to village in Uttar was no combined and well-planned effort.
Pradesh and Bihar. The peasants and So the English were able to tackle the
zamindars took up arms together and had rebels one by one in each area.
the English and their officers on the run.
The rebels also faced a shortage of
They stopped paying taxes to the British
A
modern arms. The guns and cannons,
government. They tore up railway lines,
cartridges and gunpowder they required
burnt down police stations, courts, post &
AN
were brought from outside India.
telegraph offices and uprooted the Consequently, the rebels had to fight with
telegraph wires. All these were the new old guns, arrows, spears and swords. How
services that the English had introduced in long could such weapons last in a contest
G
India. As defeat stared the English in their against the more modern arms?
faces, the Indian people became more and
Even then, the speed with which the
more courageous in their fight against the
British rule.
N revolt spread frightened the English. So
they behaved with greaterr cruelty
LA
The rebels looted the houses and burnt whenever they suppressed a rebel group.
the documents of many moneylenders. They killed the rebels in a most inhuman
These moneylenders had become very ways and hanged their bodies from trees in
TE
powerful in the villages with the help of the villages so that the village folk would
English laws. ‘understand’ the consequences of revolt.
The Revolt is Suppressed They tied some rebels to the mouths of
cannons and blew them to bits. Many rebels
Despite the widespread success of the
T
went into hiding, moving from place to

revolt, the English slowly gained control
place to avoid being caught by the English.
over the situation.
ER
Many of them even went to places like

The rebels fought bravely. But, there Nepal to hide.
were two major weaknesses among them. The English deported Emperor Bahadur
Shah Zafar to a far away location in Rangoon
SC
and it was there that the last Mughal

emperor died. The revolt of 1857 was the
biggest revolt to challenge the might of the
English. After suppressing it, their hold
over India became stronger and they ruled
the country for the next 90 years.
Choose the correct alternative:
a) The rebels of 1857 CE wanted to
(restore/remove)_________
Fig 15.11 Hanging the rebels. Mughal rule.

b) The weakness of the English army The pundits and maulvis were assured
was that most of its soldiers were that the British government would not
(Europeans/Indians)_________. interfere in matters relating to Indian
What were the weaknesses of the religions and would let the old traditions
rebel Indian armies? continue. There was also a promise that
Indians would be included in the
After the Revolt government. The truth is that the English
had seen their Indian empire being snatched
A
It took the English more than a year to
suppress the revolt of 1857. During this away in 1857. Now, they directed their
AN
period, they changed many of their policies efforts towards giving all kinds of
and adopted new ones. In 1858, Queen concessions to the elite powerful Indians,
Victoria of England made an important to conciliate them and ensure that they
declaration. She said Indian kings should continued to support the English.
G
rule their own kingdoms without anxiety Hyderabad State and the British
because the English would not try to As with other kingdoms of the time,
dethrone them.
In this way, they established a close
N Hyderabad too came under the influence
of the English East India Company.
LA
collaboration with the royal families of Eventually, the British placed their Resident
India. Similarly, the zamindars, too, were in Hyderabad who oversaw the entire
given many concessions and were assured administration of the state. The Nizam had
TE
that their property would be protected. to appoint his Prime Minister or Dewan on
T
ER
SC
Fig 15.12 Bahadur Shah Zafar and his sons being arrested by Captain Hodson. After Aurangzeb,
there was no powerful Mughal ruler, but Mughal emperors continued to be symbolically important.
When rebellion against British rule broke out in 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar, the Mughal emperor
at the time, was seen as the natural leader. Once the revolt was suppressed by the company, he was
forced to leave the kingdom, and his sons were shot down in cold blood.
the advice of the Resident and with the from the farmers by district officials. The
approval of the British Governor General. Judicial reforms included the creation of
All the departments had to be headed by Supreme Court, High court and District
ICS (Indian Civil Services) officers courts. Separate Civil and Criminal courts
selected by the British. In this way, the were also established. To facilitate
British were able to gain complete control transport, Salarjung improved the railways
over the Nizam’s state. They gradually and roads. Important railway lines connected
A
pushed the state to adopt the administrative Hyderabad to Wadi, Madras to Sholapur and
system and policies followed by the British Madras to Bombay. English Medium
AN
in other areas too. schools, like Dar-ul-Ulm at Chadarghat in
If you go to Hyderabad, you will see the 1855, City College, Deccan Engineering
famous Salarjang Museum which houses College in 1870 and Madarsa-i-Aliya were
the various articles collected by Salar Jang also established.These reforms helped
G
who was one such Diwan of Hyderabad. He Hyderabad to emerge as a modern state in
introduced many reforms and contributed line with the rest of the country.
to the economic development of the
Hyderabad state. He divided the kingdoms
N Keywords :
LA
1. Royal Charter 2. Subedar
into Subhas and districts after removing the
3. Sole right 4. Demand
old Deshmukhs etc. He abolished the
revenue farming system and instead 5. Jagir 6. Cantonment
TE
organised direct collection of revenue 7. Colonies 8. Maulvies

1. Why did the European trading companies maintain armies in India? What role did these armies
T
play in the business of the companies?

2. How could the European armies defeat the Indian armies in the 1700’s and 1800’s?
ER
3. Collect the information of 1857 revolt and fill in the table with the particulars.
S.No. People participated in the revolt People stayed away from the revolt
SC
4. In 1857, which soldiers felt their religious faith was being violated, and why?
5. In what ways did people revolt against the British in 1857?
6. What did the people who revolted in 1857 want to achieve?
7. What complaints of the rebels did Queen Victoria tried to address in her 1858 declaration?
8. What are the similarities and differences between the ways the Mughals and the English came to
power in India?
9. Locate the sea route of Vascodagama from Portugal to India in the map.
10. Write a short note on the need of Unity to avert foreign invasion.
11. Express your dissatisfaction towards the rule of Britishers.

16
CHAPTER
Making of Laws
in the State Assembly
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So far, we have been reading about how people managed their public affairs – how
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they ruled or were ruled. We studied about tribal societies which were small and which
managed all their public affairs through consultation in meetings and had a headman
who carried out the decisions. In kingdoms and empires, we saw how these matters were
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decided by Kings and their officials, how kings fought with each other to gain control over
more people and lands. We also saw how chiefs and warriors controlled the lives of people
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and levied taxes on them at their will. They used the money to build large palaces
for themselves, to fight wars and also to build some public utilities like tanks, canals and
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temples or mosques. We also saw how the British established their power so as to exploit
the resources of our country and how this was resisted by our people.
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Today, we do not have any kings or warriors ruling us. We became independent of the
British rule more than 70 years ago. So how do we rule ourselves now? You know that there
are MPs, MLAs, Ministers, Chief Ministers and higher officials. Are they like the kings of
olden times? Can they do what they please? No, modern governments are run according to
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laws. No one is above the law and all ministers and officials have to function according to
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laws. But who makes the laws?

How are the laws made? Are
they made as per the whims of
the rulers? No, the laws are
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made by the Legislative

Assemblies and the
Parliament. The Constitution
of India lays down how these
bodies can make laws. They
make laws according to some
procedures. In this chapter, we
will read in detail about how
state legislatures make laws. Fig 16.1 Telangana -Assembly

Here is a news item - let us try to understand what is being said in it about Andhra
Pradesh Prohibition of Smoking and Health Protection Act 2002
Bill for ban on public smoking passed

HYDERABAD, MARCH 27. Our Special Correspondent
The Andhra Pradesh State metres of educational Supreme Court directions
A
Legislative Assembly on institutions, sale to those given on November 2, 2001.
Wednesday passed a bill below 18 years and Those contravening Sections
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providing for prohibition of prohibition of advertisement 5, 6 and 10 relating to ban on
smoking in places of public of cigarettes. Others spoke of smoking in public places and
work or public use and in public the effect it would have on the public service vehicles and
service vehicles. It also provides livelihood of tobacco farmers display of no smoking board,
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for conviction and levying of fines and pan shop owners. The would be punishable with a
ranging from Rs. 100 to Rs. Minister allayed their fine, which may extend to Rs.
1,000 on those who contravene
the provisions.
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apprehensions. 100 and for second or
subsequent offence with a fine
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The Minister said the of Rs. 200 which may extend
Some of the concerns expressed legislation was necessary in to Rs. 500.
by the Opposition members view of the harmful effects of
Adapted from The Hindu
include implementation of ban smoking on the health of
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March 27-02
on sale of cigarettes within 100 people and in pursuance of the
Newspaper articles are often written 3) The legislation was in order to

with the assumption that they are read _________ the directions from
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by adults. So first, find out the Supreme Court (silence, punish,

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meanings of the words – follow, dismiss).

conviction, allayed, appre- 4) The bill was passed in the ______
hension, pursuance, contra- (Supreme Court, Ministry,
vening, implementation. Collectorate, Assembly).
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In the context of the above news Does the newspaper article suggest
item, fill in the following that everyone had the same opinion
1) A _____ was passed to prohibit about the bill?
smoking in public places (bill, What are the provisions for
custom, law, rule). punishment mentioned in the
2) Prohibition of smoking does not newspaper?
include _______ (place of work, The Constitution of India provides for
public vehicles, private garden, bus a Legislature for every State. The
stand). legislature of every State consists of the

Governor and one or two Houses. The of Members of the Assembly. State
legislatures in the State are either Assembly members (MLAs) are elected
bicameral (consisting of two Houses) or by the people just as panchayat members
unicameral (consisting of one House). The are elected.
Lower House is always known as the
Legislative Assembly and the Upper House, The normal tenure of the Legislative
wherever it exists, as the Legislative Assembly of every State is for five years
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Council. At present, very few States have but it may be dissolved earlier by the
bicameral legislature. Governor. Likewise, its term can be
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extended by one year at a time by the
Legislative Assembly
Parliament during a National emergency.
This is the most important body for
making laws in a state. State Governaments The State Legislature must meet at least
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are responsible for implementing these twice a year and the interval between any
laws and formulating policies for the two sessions should not be more than six
welfare of the state, is largely composed N months.
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Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Making of Laws in the State Assembly 149
In Telangana, laws are made by the state legislature, which has two chambers:
Chamber Member Short Form

Legislative Assembly Member of Legislative Assembly MLA
Legislative Council Member of Legislative Council MLC
Assembly Constituency have completed twenty five years of age.
A
He or she should not hold any office of
Each member of assembly is elected
profit under the State or Central
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from a constituency. The number of
government and should possess such other
constituencies in a state will depend upon
qualifications as may be prescribed by law.
its population. Telangana State has 119
constituencies . A constituency in Telangana In elections, political parties play a
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has about 1,70,000 voters. You may major role. All political parties and
remember that all men and women of 18 candidates come out with election
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years of age or above have the right to vote.
They have to get their names registered as
manifestos. These manifestos are
descriptions of programmes that they
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voters in the area where they live. All voters intend to undertake and promises that are
of one constituency will vote to elect one relevant to the local context. The candidates
member for the Assembly. and their supporters conduct campaigns by
holding meetings and visiting the voters
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Each constituency comprises of a

door to door.
number of villages, towns and cities. A big
city like Hyderabad is divided into thirteen Make a list of the active political
constituencies. Look at the map of parties in your area and in your
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Telangana. You can see that districts which state along with their symbols
have larger population have more
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constituencies while those with less Imagine that you were to contest
population have fewer constituencies. elections from your district,
prepare an Election Manifesto
Election of MLA – your promises to the people of
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Election Commission can cunduct the the constituency.

Election of all state assemblies Usually, Some people feel that contesting
election to the state legislative assembly in elections requires spending
are held once in every five years. Persons huge amounts of money, which is
aspiring to become MLAs contest these possible only for very rich people.
elections. Various political parties field Do you agree with this?
their candidates. There are also individuals If, only rich people are able to
who contest the elections but do not belong contest elections, how will it
to any political party. They are known as affect the decisions taken in the
“Independents”. To contest elections, a Assembly?
person must be a citizen of India, and should

Fig 16.2
A
AN
G
N
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Here are some images (Fig 16.2 ) from a calendar published by Election
Commission. They show different aspects of elections in India from different times.
Based on these images, discuss with your teacher or elders the changes that have
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occurred during the last many years.
On the election day,

people vote one by one.
The officer in the booth
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is responsible for
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checking the identity of

the voters. In most
cases, the Election
Commission has given
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Voter Identity Cards to all

the voters. These cards
have to be shown to Fig 16.3 Model Voter Id & E.V.M.
the officer. The voters do
not reveal whom they voted for; it is a secret ballot. Election Commission uses Ballot
Boxes or Electronic voting machines in Election Process for casting votes.
Why do you think voting has to be kept a secret?
Examine the Photo Identity Card of your parents and prepare an imaginary Identity
Card for you with all the details.
After voting, all votes are counted on a Formation of Government
scheduled date and candidate who secures
the highest number of the votes is declared Look at Table 1. It shows the results
elected. after an assembly election.
Suppose, on a constituency, We see that the “Political Party A” got
1,50,000 votes were polled. 75 winning candidates. This party has a
Following is the number of votes majority. Majority in any assembly is more
A
polled for various candidates. Who than half of the seats. If any law has to be
do you think will be declared as made, they can easily get it passed, as more
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elected? than half the members will support it.
The majority members will elect one
Ellamma 45,000 member among themselves as their leader.
Raghavulu 44,000
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He or she will be made the Chief Minister
Narasimha 16,000 of the state by the Governor. The Chief
Minister will select the MLAs from the
Gulam Mohammad
Badeyya
20,000
15,000
N party to be ministers. Together, they will
be called the Cabinet (or ministry). In
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Pooja 10,000
popular terms, the Cabinet is also called
To what extent do you think this the ‘Government’. The Cabinet is
winning candidate really represents responsible for implementation of the
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the opinions and needs of the laws, for preparing and passing new laws
people of the constituency? and welfare schemes in the Assembly.
Find out with the help of your
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teacher:
The name of your Table Political No. of Candidates
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constituency______________ 1 Party Elected

Identify three other constituencies
in your district ________ 1 Political Party - A 75
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___________________________
The name of the MLA__________ 2 Political Party - B 17
_________________________ 3 Political Party - C 10

Identify the reserved
4 Political Party - D 7
constituencies in your district
_________________________ 5 Political Party - E 6
Name the members of the family
6 Political Party - F 4
who voted in the last elections
________,____ Total 119

Look at Table 1 showing results of Council of Ministers
another assembly elections in The Chief Minister allots different
another state with 119 ministries to the members of the Cabinet
Constituencies. Which party could - he or she makes someone the Finance
have formed the Government? Minister, the Education Minister or the
Home Minister, and so on. The Minister
directs the policies in the departments
A
under his or her charge. These policies
are implemented according to the rules
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by officials of the departments. The
ministry is responsible for preparing
policies and plans which are then
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submitted to the Assembly for approval.
After the approval of the Assembly, the
N ministry formulates rules and methods for
implementing them and takes action to
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implement them.
Website of Telangana Election Commission
http://ceotelangana.nic.in/ While each ministry works
independently, major policies are decided
If the seats among various
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upon by the cabinet. So, if anything goes

parties are distributed as in Table wrong, cabinet and especially the Chief
3, how could a new government be Minister is held responsible for it. The
formed? Discuss with your teacher. cabinet also takes credit for the good work
done during their tenure.
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Table Political No. of Candidates The State Assembly

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3 Party Elected
All the MLAs together elect a person
1 Political Party - Abcd 45 as the Speaker. The Speaker conducts the
Assembly meetings – he or she decides
2 Political Party - Mnop 33
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what should be discussed, when and who

3 Political Party - Wxyz 26 will speak and in what order. If any one
4 Political Party - Stuv 15 disobeys, Speaker has the power to punish
them.
Total 119
As mentioned above, the Assembly has
to approve all the laws, policies and
In case, no single party gets more than
levying of taxes by the government.
half of the seats, two or more political
Before giving approval, the members
parties come together to form a
discuss the proposals very carefully and
Government. It is called coalition
different points of views are expressed.
Government.
Thus, the benefits and ill-effects of such
measures are discussed in great detail. The Making of Laws
These are also reported through newspapers
and TV to the public. How do the assemblies make laws?
Usually, laws are drafted by the ruling party
The MLAs also keep track of all the
as it alone has the majority support in the
developments in their constituencies and
place the problems of the people before Assembly to pass them. However, on some
the Assembly. The minister of the issues, a member can also propose a law
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concerned department has to make and it can be adopted if the majority
enquiries and find suitable solutions. The supports it. Let us look at the procedure
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ministers and the cabinet, including the for making a law in detail.
Chief Minister, are answerable to the Before a law is passed, the proposed law
Assembly – that is, they have to answer any
is called a ‘Bill’. After being passed by both
questions raised by a member with regard
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to their work. If the answer is not the chambers and after the approval of the
satisfactory, the members may force the Governor, it becomes a law and is called
concerned minister to resign. N an ‘Act’ of the state legislature.
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Legislative Council of Telangana
Untill 2014, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh formed a single state. The state of Andhra
Pradesh had two houses. The second house is called the Legislative Council. It has been in
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existence in two spells from 1958-1985 and from 2007 till today. It is a permanent house.
Telangana Legislative Council consists of 40 members. Members of this house, known
as MLCs are elected for six years. After every two years, one-third of its members retire.
To contest in this house, a person should be a citizen of India and above 30 years of age.
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He or She should not hold any office of profit under the State or Indian government and
must possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by the Parliament. The
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Composition is as follows:
14 members (1/3) are elected by the MLA’s.
14 members (1/3) are elected by the members who were elected to
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Local Bodies like panchayats and municipalities.

3 members (1/12) are elected from Graduates.
3 members (1/12) are elected from Teachers.
6 members (1/6) are nominated by the Governor.
In order to make any law in the state, it has to be approved by both the houses.
Governor :The Governor of a state is appointed by the President of India. Her/his job is
to ensure that the state government functions according to the Constitution of India.
The Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other members of the council of ministers.
The constitution vests in the Governor all the executive powers of the State government.
Find out who is the governor of Telangana.

System of Reservation
It has been observed that it is very difficult for weaker sections of the population, like
the dalits or adivasis, to fight and win elections. As such, very few of them get elected to
the assemblies. In order to ensure that they are adequately represented in the Assemblies,
the Indian Constitution reserve certain constituencies for the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes.
Reserved Constituencies in Telangana State Legislative Assembly:
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Total Number of Constituencies : 119
Constituencies Reserved for SCs : 19
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Constituencies Reserved for STs: 12
Nominated Person from Anglo Indian Community : 1
Many people feel that similar reservation of seats for women too should be ensured.
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What do you feel?
The minister who brings the Bill will
Discussions in the Assembly
describe in detail the reasons for the new
law in the Assembly. There will be a lot of
N Let us read an imaginary example of
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the discussions that can take place in the
discussion and sometimes opposition from
Legislative Assembly.
different MLAs. There could be
suggestions to improve the provisions in the MLA (1) : Honourable Speaker, due
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Bill. A small committee consisting of both to lack of rain for the past three years, the
ruling party and opposition members is set groundwater level in my constituency has
up to discuss these suggestions. After taking decreased too much. The Government has
all such aspects and necessary changes into not taken any steps in this regard. Moreover,
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account, it will be first approved by the there has been an increase in the number
Cabinet. Then, it will be placed before the of borewells. I wish to know from the
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Assembly for voting. If more than half the Honourable Minister the steps being taken
members of the Vidhan Sabha accept the for underground water conservation.
bill, it will be passed
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and taken to the 5

Vidhan Parishad. If
the Vidhan Parishad
passes it, then it will
1 6
be sent to the 3
Governor for
4
approval. After his or
her approval, the bill 2
will be called an
Act and published in
Fig 16.4
gazettee.
MLA (2): Hon. Speaker, yes it is true. Minister: Hon’ble Speaker, the
The situation in my constituency is no better. Government has great concern for the
The work of the officials is not satisfactory. health of the people. It has taken up all the
The people have to walk a long distance remedial and protective measures in the
to fetch drinking water. drought prone mandals. Development of
MLA (3): Hon. Speaker, the tanks, plantation of trees, and banning sand
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Government should provide money to mining are some of them. The Government
strengthen the bunds of the tanks, remove takes into consideration the suggestions
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the silt, and should take suitable steps to of the honourable members and also
store the rain water during rainy seasons. seeks the support of all for the successful
Moreover, trees should be planted on the implementation of the programme.
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bunds to prevent breaching of the tank
bunds. What would be your response on
the above issue if you were an
MLA (4): Hon. Speaker, the
Government is aware of the situation. It has
N MLA?
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already taken up the necessary measures What is the difference between the
to prevent further damage. The Mandals role of a ruling party MLA and an
affected by the depletion of groundwater opposition party MLA?
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have been identified.

MLA (5) : Hon. Speaker, the
The Government of India passed
opposition should appreciate the steps
two acts for the protection of
taken and should offer constructive
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children. They are :

suggestions.They should not unnecessarily
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criticise the Government. Bunds were built 1) POCSO Act - 2012 (Protection of
children from sexual offences Act,
on the hill slopes in my constituencies and
2012. This act ensures children’s well
as a result, there has been considerable being and safety.
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rise in the level of groundwater in my

constituency. Government officials are 2) The Juvenile Justice (care and
Protection of childern) Act, 2015.
within the reach of the people.
MLA (6) : Hon. Speaker, the Industrial This act ensures protection to the
units in my area are discharging polluted children in conflict with law and those
in need of care and protection (orphans
water into the river and it has adverse
and others). For such children the act
effects on the health of the people. I would
provides education, health, nutrition,
like to know the steps being taken by the counselling etc., to help them assume
government in this regard since drinking a constructive role in the society.
water is a serious issue in my constituency.

Keywords :
1. Manifesto 2. Cabinet 3. Speaker
1. Name a few areas related to the day to day lives of ordinary people on which laws should be
made.
2. Your school belongs to the department of School Education. Find out some laws which are
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applicable to your school (students, teachers, headmaster/ principal/ PTA).
3. There is a law that no child in the age group of 6 to14 should remain out of school. What
AN
steps should be taken to implement this law? Discuss among yourselves with the help of your
teacher.
4. Read the para under the sub heading ‘The making of laws’ and answer the question given
below. Suppose you are a member of the Telangana Legislative Assembly, which issue will
you raise for the making of law and why? Explain with an example.
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5. Suppose there is a state under the name of Purabgarh with MLA seats of 368. After an election, different
political parties got seats as shown below:
Party A
Party B
=
=
89
91
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Party C = 70
Party D = 84
Others = 34
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Total = 368
Read the above table and answer the following questions:
a) Of the 368 seats, how many seats are needed for getting a majority to form the government in the state?
b) Which is the single largest party?
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c) Can the single largest party form the government? If not, what can be the alternatives to form the
government?
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d) How would a coalition government be different from a one party government?

6. At present, very few States in our country have a bicameral legislature. Can you name them?
7. Locate the Assembly constituencies of your district in your district map (Take the help of map.1).
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8. Write an imaginary dialogue for the following picture in the context of the chapter.
17
CHAPTER
Implementation of Laws
in the District
A
In the previous chapter, we read about how laws are made and how welfare
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and development programmes are carried out. But how are they implemented? Do
you think people elect those who implement laws? Do you think once the laws are
made, people implement them themselves? In these chapter, we would read about
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how these things are done.
i. Building dams and canals N

ii. Supplying electricity to houses
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iii. Running ration shops
iv. Running trains
v. Printing currency notes
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vi. Collecting taxes from people

vii. Preventing child labour, child sexual abuse and educating all children
viii. Defending the borders of the country
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ix. Identifying those below the poverty line and implementing schemes
for their benefit
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x. Preventing people from stealing from other people’s houses
You may have heard of many kinds of government functionaries.

Can you name a few and discuss what they do?
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We saw in the last chapter that there are in all parts of the state. At the same time,
various departments of the government to the entire state is divided into a number of
carry out various kinds of activities. These districts and most departments have their
departments are under the control of offices for the implementation of the
ministers, but they have a large number of government’s laws and plans. There are 31
officials who carry out the orders of the districts in Telangana.
government. Some of these officials are
posted in the state capital like Hyderabad What is the name of your district
from where they plan the implementation and where is its headquarters?

Each district has a District Collector and Each file deals with the activities of
Magistrate who coordinates the work of all different departments. She reads them and
the departments in the district. Let us learn writes her comments or orders on them. It
more about their work. is about 3.00 PM when Manisha Nagle
The District Collector & finishes looking at the files. From 3.00 PM.
to 4.30 PM everyday, she meets the people
Magistrate of Nallavaram of the district. People from all the villages
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Here is an imaginary district of come to meet her with their problems.
Nallavaram. This district has the following Some farmers of Mallepalli Mandal had
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Mandals - Garipalli, Mallepalli, Narasapet, come to discuss the problem of absence
Gurthur. The office of the district of irrigation in their village. Their tanks
magistrate of the Nallavaram is in were dry for two years. The crops failed
Nallavaram town. this year. They wanted to know if their loans
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Garipalli could be waived and if they could get some
Nallavaram repair work on tank bund. In the
N neighbouring villages, tank bunds were
repaired. They wanted such work to be done
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in their village as well.
Manisha Nagle told them that since their
village was not in the state list of drought
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affected areas they could not get any loan

waiver. Collector suggested that they
approach the MLA and present their
Gurthur problems. She promised to instruct the
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Narasapet Mallepalli concerned department to attend to the tank

bund of the village.
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Fig 17.1 Nallavaram District

At 5.00 A.M., on the next morning, the
The district magistrate, Manisha Nagle, Collector received a phone call from a town
reaches her office at 10:30 every morning. in Narasapet Mandal. The cotton stored at
At 11:30 today, there is a meeting of the
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the ginning mill caught fire in the night.

officers of all the departments in the office. People were trying to put out the fire. The
The heads of all the departments have come fire service had already reached the area. It
for the meeting. The Collector asks the was necessary to ensure that fire did not
head of each department about the progress spread to the neighbouring areas. Nagle
of the work during the previous month. She immediately left for Narasapet Mandal. She
also asks them about the problems they face called the Superintendent of Police and the
in the work. The meeting continued till civil surgeon and asked them to go along.
about 2 O’clock in the afternoon. The Collector reached Narasapet at
After the meeting, Manisha Nagle goes around 7.00 AM and went straight to the
through the files. There is a stack of files. cotton ginning mill. A lot of cotton had
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Implementation of Laws in the District 159
Fig 17.2 District Collector
at the cotton factory.
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and asked them to take strict actions during
the next few weeks and report to her at the
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next monthly meeting. Manisha Nagle
reached Nallavaram only after it was dark.
Nallavaram is an imaginary district. But
what you saw the Collector of Nallavaram
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doing is the work that they are expected to
been destroyed but the fire was now under do in every district.
control. The Municipal Chairperson and the
police officers were also there. The
N What explanation did the Collector
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Collector asked them about the extent of give for not waiving the loan for the
damage. The Chairperson told her that two farmers?
labourers in the mill had suffered severe Who were the other officials
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burns and had been admitted to the hospital. mentioned in the incidents?
A few houses nearby had also been burnt Who were the non-officials
down. mentioned in the above incidents?
Nagle announced a compensation of ten
Tahsildar (MRO) and Village
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thousand rupees each to the owners of the

houses, which were burnt and promised to Revenue Officers
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inquire into the causes of fire. The You may have noted that Nallavaram
Collector then visited the injured labourers district is divided into different Mandals.
at the hospital. She also announced a relief There are many villages in each of these
payment of twenty thousand rupees each to Mandals. In the map, you can see that
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the two labourers. Nallavaram is divided into many Mandals.

On the way back, she visited the Many villages together form a Mandal. Just
Municipal Office. It was pointed out that like in the district headquarter, there are
due to encroachment in many parts of the different offices at the Mandal. There are
city, the fire engine arrived late. Sidewalks Mandal Officers of Development, Revenue,
on the roads were encroached by shop Education, agriculture, and so on.
keepers. Many houses and other offices had
Find out your Mandal in the district
illegally extended their boundary walls
map.
beyond the permitted limits. This was
leading to traffic jams in many parts of the Find out some of the Mandals in
town. She talked to the Municipal Officials your district map.

Among others, the
Revenue Officer keeps the
land records. If you live in
a village or own land, you
may know that your parents
have some record for the
land that is owned by them.
A
Land all over the country is
measured and this
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information is kept in these
offices. They also have
maps of the land showing
land owned by different
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people, showing crops, Fig 17.3 Villagers verifying the land records at
tanks, drainages, wells, ‘mee seva kendra’
neighbouring plots, roads,
hillocks, and so on. These documents
N historically been important in our
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become extremely useful. If there is a
dispute between the boundaries of land agricultural development. We also have
owned by two individuals, maps and written perennial rivers and forest areas. Yet today,
documents can be used for settling it. Or, we find that in many parts of Telangana,
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if someone buys or sells the land, this borewells are dug up to 1,500 feet or more.
information needs to be written in this In the long run, it may not be viable to have
office as well. These maps also have such system of irrigation, or drinking water.
records of the forest or uncultivated Andhra Pradesh Water, Land and
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grazing lands. So if someone encroaches Trees Protection Act, 2002

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into these lands, they can be evicted. It is important to protect these

It is the responsibility of the Village resources for the benefit and survival of the
Revenue Officer and Mandal Revenue next generations. In this connection, the
Officer to keep track of these records of Government of Andhra Pradesh enacted the
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the land. For this purpose, ‘mee seva’ Andhra Pradesh Water, Land and Trees
services are utilized and various certificates Protection Act in 2002. It is being
are being issued by this centre. They also implemented since 19-04-2002. Some of
have the responsibility for updating and the features of this law are:
issuing ration cards. a. Permission from Mandal Revenue
How Laws are Implemented? Officer is essential to drill/ dig new
To understand this, first we need to wells.
understand an actual law. In the previous b. Specific depth and distance should
chapters, we have read about the be maintained between the wells to
significance of groundwater and how it has avoid unnecessary competition.
c. Steps to prevent wastage of rain After the law was passed, government
water. formed an authority to implement the act.
It was called the Water, Land and Trees
d. Industrial units should have waste Protection Authority or WALTA. If you
water treatment plants. look carefully, in order to implement a law
e. Protection of drinking water. like this, it is necessary that different
departments of the government work
f. In the regions affected by together. You can note that the forest
A
groundwater depletion, sand department has to be taken into account,
quarrying from river beds is
AN
because forests are important for saving
prohibited. water and the department in charge of
Industry to ensure that the factories are not
g. Social forestry to be taken up on
polluting water.
large scale.
G
So we can build a table such as the
h. Cutting trees without permission is following to show how different persons
prohibited. When one tree is cut,
two saplings should be planted.
N in the government could be responsible for
implementing the law:
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Department Subject
Groundwater Department Registration of Rigs, Sand Mining, classification

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of Groundwater basins, etc.
Municipal Administration & Construction of Rain-water harvesting

Urban Development Department structures, tree planting, permission for
construction of new buildings.
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Mines and Geology Department Monitoring Sand Mining in water bodies

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Forest Department Granting permission for felling trees

Now, if this law is properly implemented, what will it mean? Considering the
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following possibilities, can you identify which departments will be responsible if their
activities are to be evaluated – it is possible that there are more is one department which
looks at them:
Satyavathi is a farmer who wants to dig a new bore well, but there is another bore
well in her neighbouring land. What are the rules she has to follow?
Padmanabham wants to build a new house and and wants to get sand from the river
bed near the house. For this, whose permission is required?
Apparao is a contractor who wants to start a stone quarry near the forest. From
which departments should he take the permission.

Thus, in a democratic country like ours Keywords :
there are different roles played by elected 1. Magistrate
representatives and appointed government
officials. In many ways, these are different 2. Tahsildar
from the way kings and priests dictated
different aspect of our lives. That is not to 3. Law implementation
say that all the different forms of
A
marginalisation, disparities and discrimi- 4. VRO
nation have been removed from the society.
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But we can work towards achieving them. 5. Ginning
G
1. Make a list of activities done by the District Collector.
2. Correct the following statements :
a.
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Law is implemented by the elected representatives.
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b. The Collector is in charge of a Mandal.
c. People approach the Mandal Development Officer to solve the problems of the entire district.
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d. Tahsildar keeps the record of land revenue.

3. Read the first two paragaphs of (page 160) Tahsildar and Village Revenue officers and answer
the question given below.
Why do you think are the land records kept at village and mandal levels?
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4. Compare the roles of people who make laws with those who implement them in the following
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aspects:
a) has to contest elections; b) are part of different departments of government;
c) responsible for making laws; d) responsible for implementing laws;
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e) usually elected for 5 years; f) are appointed into jobs;
Member of Legislative Assembly Persons in Administration
5. Here is another brief description of Manisha Nagle. Read this carefully and compare it with
the text given under the head “Mansabdar’s and Jagirdars” in chapter 14 and “Captains of the
troops’ - The amaranayakas” in Chapter 13 and fill the following table.
Manisha Nagle has been the Collector of Nallavaram for the last 5 months. Earlier, she worked as the
Deputy Secretary in the Ministry of Public Health Department in the state capital. It is possible that she
may be transferred as a Collector of another district or taken back to the State Secretariat. She is an
employee of the Indian Government. Often, some of them have to go to Delhi and work for the
central government.All the officers like Manisha Nagle are selected through an examination conducted
by the government.
A
Item Government Amara Nayakas Mansabdars
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employees
Process of selection
G
Paid through
N
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6. Colour the mandals surrounding your mandal in your district map.
Discussion:
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Organise a programme of “student’s interaction with revenue officials” (Tahasildar/Mandal

Revenue Inspector/Village Revenue Office) about - “The implementation of Laws”.
Project:
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1. Interview your teacher, or any government school teacher to get the following details:
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When was she or he appointed?
To which department of the government does she/he report?

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Has the teacher been transferred?
How are they promoted or punished? Who is responsible for their salaries?
If they have any complaints about their working conditions, whom do they report them
to?
2. What has been their experience in implementing the new rules/ programmes like ensuring enrollment
of children, mid-day meals; or any other program? Make a presentation of your findings in the
classroom.

18
CHAPTER
Caste Discrimination and

the Struggle for Equality
A
AN
Caste system has created one of the major forms of inequality in our country. For
centuries, people have fought against this discrimination and our constitution too strives
to end it. Elimination of caste discrimination has been one of the major aims of our
G
governments. Let us read how caste system works and what steps have been taken to
end caste discrimination.
N
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A large number of people in our country are valued more than the others. Activities
think of themselves as belonging to some like cleaning, washing, cutting hair, picking
caste or the other. They even put the names garbage are seen as tasks that are of less
of their castes as a part of their own names. value and people who do this work are seen
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Usually, people of a caste follow some as dirty or impure. This belief is an

common customs and worship a particular important aspect of the caste system. In the
deity. Many people who follow the caste caste system, communities/ groups of
rules marry only within their own caste. In people were placed in a social order where
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olden days, people of one caste followed the each caste was either above or below the
same profession or work, though these day, other. Those who placed themselves at the
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this tradition has been changing fast. Thus, top of the ladder called themselves upper
you can see that caste system creates some caste and saw themselves as superior. The
bonds among a particular group of people groups who were placed at the bottom of
and separates them from the other groups. the ladder were seen as unworthy and were
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called “untouchables”. Caste rules were set

To what extent are the above true
and did not allow the so-called
statements in your area and to what
“untouchable” to take on work other than
extent are have they changed? Discuss.
what they were meant to do. For example,
However, the caste system has also given some groups were only allowed to pick
rise to great inequalities and discrimination garbage and remove dead animals from the
in our society. Let us see how this happens. village. But they were not allowed to enter
People are engaged in different kinds of the homes of the upper castes, take water
work like teaching, carpentry, pottery, from the village well or enter the temples.
weaving, fishing, farming etc. to earn their Their children could not sit next to the
livelihood. However, certain kinds of jobs children of other castes in school. Thus,

upper castes acted in ways which did not that we were bound for Koregaon and
give the so-called “untouchables” the same that we were waiting for father or his
rights as they enjoyed. servant to come, but that neither had
turned up and that we did not know how
In what ways do you think did the to reach Koregaon. We were well-
caste system promote inequality dressed children. From our dress or
among people? talk, no one could make out that we were
children of the untouchables. Indeed,
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When some people are not allowed to
do what they want to do – like get the station master was quite sure we
AN
education, or take up jobs of their choice, were brahmin children and was
we can say that they are facing extremely touched at the plight in which
discrimination. Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar, one he found us in. As is usual among the
of the greatest leaders of India, shares his Hindus, the station master asked us
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first experience of caste-based discrimi- who we were. Without a moment’s
nation, which took place in 1901 when he thought, I blurted out that we were
was just nine years old. He had gone with
his brothers and cousins to meet his father
NMahars (Mahar is one of the
communities which are treated as
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in Koregaon which is now in Maharashtra. untouchables in the Bombay
Presidency). He was stunned. His face
Let us read more about this incident :
underwent a sudden change. We could
see that he was overpowered by a
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strange feeling of repulsion. As soon as

he heard my reply, he went away to his
room and we stood where we were.
Fifteen to twenty minutes elapsed;
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the sun was almost setting. Our father

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had not turned up nor had he sent his

servant, and now the station master had
also left us. We were quite bewildered,
and the joy and happiness, which we felt
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Dr B.R. Ambedkar at the beginning of the journey, gave

(1891-1956) way to a feeling of extreme sadness.
Chairperson of the committee for After half an hour, the station master
drafting of the Constitution of India and returned and asked us what we proposed
the first Union Law Minister of India. to do. We said that if we could get a
bullock-cart on hire we would go to
“Long did we wait, but no one turned Koregaon, and if it was not very far we
up. An hour elapsed and the station would like to start straightway. There
master came to enquire. He asked us for were many bullock-carts plying for hire.
our tickets. We showed them to him. He But my reply to the station master that
asked us why we tarried. We told him we were Mahars had gone round among
166 Social Organisation and Inequities Social Studies

the cart men and not one of them was in a discriminatory manner. So, clearly,
prepared to suffer being polluted and caste based discrimination is not only
to demean himself carrying passengers limited to preventing dalits from
of the untouchable classes. We were undertaking certain economic activities but
prepared to pay double the fare but we it also denies them the respect and dignity
found that money did not work. The given to others.
station master, who was negotiating on An example of discrimination in
A
our behalf, stood silent, not knowing
what to do.
schools
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Source: Dr B. R. Ambedkar, Writings and Omprakash Valmiki is a famous dalit
Speeches, Volume 12, Edited Vasant Moon, writer. In his autobiography, Joothan, he
Bombay Education Department, Govt. of writes, “I had to sit away from the others
Maharashtra. in the class, and that too on the floor. The
G
mat ran out before reaching the spot I sat
Despite the children offering on. Sometimes I would have to sit way
money, the cartmen refused them.
Why?
N behind everybody, right near the
door…sometimes they would beat me
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How did people at the station without any reason.” When he was in
discriminate against Dr Class IV, the headmaster asked Omprakash
Ambedkar and his brothers? to sweep the school and the playground. He
How do you think Dr Ambedkar
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writes, “The playground was way larger

felt as a child when he saw the than my small physique could handle and
station master’s reaction to his in cleaning it, my back began to ache. My
statement that they were Mahars? face was covered with dust. Dust had
Have you ever experienced gone inside my mouth. The other children
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prejudice or witnessed an in my class were studying and I was

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incident of discrimination? sweeping. The headmaster was sitting in his

How did this make you feel? room and watching me. I was not even
Imagine how difficult it would be if allowed to get a drink of water. I swept
people could not move easily from one the whole day,…From the doors and
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place to the other, how insulting and windows of the school rooms, the eyes of
hurtful it is to have people move away, the teachers and the boys saw this
refuse to touch you or allow you to drink spectacle.” Omprakash was made to sweep
water from the same source as they do. the school and the playground for the next
couple of days and this only came to an end
This small incident shows how a when his father, who happened to be passing
simple task of going from one place to by, saw his son sweeping. He confronted
another in a cart was not accessible to the teachers and then walking away from
the children – even though they could pay the school holding Omprakash’s hand, he
the money. All the cart men at the station said loudly for all of them to hear, “You
refused to take the children. They acted are a teacher…So I am leaving now. But
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Caste Discrimination and the Struggle ... 167
remember this much Master…(He) will Had caste system always been
study right here…in this school. And not there?
just him, but there will be more coming
after him.” No, there was a time when there was no
caste system. We saw the lives of hunter
Why do you think Omprakash gatherers and tribes. They did not have any
Valmiki was treated unequally by caste system. Some aspects of the Varna
his classmates and the teachers? system emerged in the later Vedic period
A
If you were in his place, how would in which the four major Varnas – Brahmana,
AN
you feel? Write four lines about it. Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra are
mentioned. Later on, many new aspects like
When people are treated unequally, their untouchability and restrictions on marriage,
dignity is violated. The dignity of eating together etc. emerged. It was said
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Omprakash Valmiki was violated because that the lower castes should serve and obey
of the way in which he was treated. By the higher castes. These ideas spread all
picking on him and making him sweep the
school because of his caste, Valmiki’s
N over India including Telangana in the times
of the kingdoms you studied in chapters 11
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schoolmates and teachers hurt his dignity and 12. As these ideas spread, many people
badly and made him feel as if he was less criticised them. Thinkers like Buddha,
than equal to all other students in the Mahavira, Ramanuja, Basava, Kabir,
Vemana, etc. criticised the idea of some
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school. Being a child, Valmiki could do

very little about the situation that he was people being superior to others by birth.
They felt that all people, irrespective of
in. It was his father who, on seeing his son
their birth or profession, can perform good
sweep, felt angry by this unequal treatment
deeds and attain salvation. You will read
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and confronted the teachers. about them in greater detail in later

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Today many teachers have been making chapters.

special efforts to ensure equality of Striving for Equality
students in the school. They not only
You read about the establishment of
encourage dalit students to learn but also
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British rule and the beginning of struggle

ensure their participation in all school
against it. The struggle for freedom from
activities like welcoming guests, leading British rule also included within it the
prayers, and making speeches in important struggle of large groups of people who not
functions. Such teachers also ensure that only fought against the British but also
all children sit and eat the midday meals fought to be treated more equally. Dalits,
together and serve food and water to each women, tribals and peasants fought against
other. the inequalities they experienced in their
Have you seen such efforts in your lives.
school or nearby schools? Share those In the nineteenth and the twentieth
experiences with the entire class. centuries, several social reformers fought
to create a new social system based on decade later, after an influential discussion,
freedom, equality, brotherhood, human at Pune, they formed Youth League of
dignity and economic justice. They include Ambedkarites, with the objective of getting
Jyotirao Govindarao Phule, Savitri Bai educated dalit youth to propagate awareness
Phule, Periyar E.V. Ramasami Naickar, Sri. about the exploitation based on caste. This
Narayana Guru and Ayyankali. We shall read was later renamed as Hyderabad State
about some of them in class 8. Depressed Classes Association.
A
During the colonial period in the The leaders of this organization went
Telanagana region too, social mobilization from place to place and organized meetings
AN
emerged. Some of the important people among the people to make them aware of
involved in it were P.Venketaswamy, caste oppression, the movements taking
Eshwari Bai, T.N. Sadalakshmi, place in the country for the emancipation
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C.S. Ethirajan, Arigay Ramswamy, of the dalit castes and the need to organize
M. Venkataswamy, B.S. Venkatarao etc. Let and defend themselves. Some of them also
us look at the struggles of one of them.
B.S. Venkatrao (1896-1953)

N promoted religious reform so that the dalits
were freed of the casteist superstitions.
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They constructed houses and library in
Bathula Venkatrao was born in the Ghasmandi area and named it Audi
Ghasmandi, Hyderabad. He was popularly Nagar. Across the Hyderabad city, they also
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known as Rao Saheb. His father, Bathula constructed 18 temples for the dalits.
Sayanna, was a domestic servant of the B.S. Venkatrao’s contribution to the dalit
Europeans. B.S. Venkatrao studied upto upliftment in Hyderabad was recognised by
ninth class and was well versed in English, Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar who invited him
Urdu, Persian and Marathi apart from
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to preside over the Bombay Presidency

Telugu. He worked as a sculptor in Pune Mahar Conference in 1936 at Bombay. The
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before joining the Public Works

conference was attended by 10,000 people
Department of the Nizam’s Government.
and unanimously resolved to support the
He rose to a very high position in the
movement initiated by Dr.B.R. Ambedkar.
government of the Nizam prior to
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independence. On 1 April 1947, the Hyderabad

Assembly debated on the resolution moved
Having experienced untouchability and
its impact on the suppressed classes, he was by Palayam Pillai, recommending to the
determined to eradicate it. The Adi-Dravida President-in-Council for a grant of twenty
Sangham was formed with this objective in lakh rupees for the uplift of the suppressed
1922 with the assistance of people like classes of the State. Shri Venkatrao moved
M. Govindrajulu and M. Venkataswamy. Its an amendment to the resolution raising the
main objective, included abolition of the grant to one crore rupees. The House
Devadasi system and bringing unity agreed to make a recommendation to the
amongst the dalits. Later, they formed the Prime Minister for the grant of one crore
Adi-Hindu Mahasabha in April 1927. A to the fund. Accordingly, the Nizam
constituted the depressed classes welfare be treated equally. In addition to laws, the
fund and sanctioned one crore rupees for government has also set up several
the same. The Nizam honored him by schemes to improve the lives of
awarding the title of Khusru-E-Deccan. communities and individuals who have
He was elected to the Rajya Sabha by been treated unequally for several
the State Legislative Assembly after 1952. centuries. These schemes help to ensure
greater opportunities for them.
Equality after Independence
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One of the steps taken by the
When India became a free nation in government includes the mid-day meal
AN
1947, our leaders too were concerned scheme. This refers to the programme
about the different kinds of inequalities introduced in all government elementary
that existed. The people who wrote the schools to provide wholesome cooked
Constitution of India, a document that laid lunch to all the children. Tamil Nadu was
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out the rules by which the nation would the first state in India to introduce this
function, were aware of the ways in which scheme, and in 2001, the Supreme Court
discrimination had been practised in our
society and how people had struggled
Nasked all the state governments to begin
this programme in their schools within six
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against this. Many leaders of these months. This programme has many
struggles, such as Dr.Ambedkar, had also positive effects. These include the fact
fought for the rights of the dalits. that more poor children have begun
attending school. Teachers reported that
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So, these leaders set out a vision and

goals in the Constitution to ensure that all earlier children would often go home for
the people of India were considered equal. lunch and then not return to school. But
This equality of all persons is seen as a now with the midday meal being provided
key value that unites us all as Indians. in school, their attendance has improved.
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Everyone has equal rights and Their mothers, whose work ways
opportunities. Untouchability is seen as a interrupted to feed their children at home
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crime and has been legally abolished by during the day, now no longer need, to do
the law. People are free to choose the so. This programme has also helped
kind of work they wish to do. Government reduce caste prejudices because both
lower and upper caste children in the
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jobs are open to all. In addition, the

Constitution also placed responsibility on school eat this meal together. In Telangana,
the government to take specific steps to in almost all the rural schools, mid-day
realise this right to equality for poor and meal is prepared by the members of
other such marginal communities. women self help groups, who are
The two ways in which the government invariably from deprived classes, and in
has tried to implement the equality that is quite a few places, dalit women have been
guaranteed in the Constitution is through employed to cook the meal. The mid-day
laws and through government programmes meal programme also helps to reduce the
or schemes to help the disadvantaged hunger of poor students who often come
communities. There are several laws in to school and cannot concentrate on studies
India that protect every person’s right to because their stomachs are empty.
Can you list three benefits of the is because people refuse to think of them
mid-day meal programme? as equal even though the law requires it.
How do you think this programme One of the main reasons for this is that
might help promote greater attitudes change very slowly. Even though
equality? people are aware that discrimination is
against the law, they continue to treat
While government programmes play an people unequally on the basis of their caste,
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important role in increasing equality of religion, disability, economic status and
opportunity, there is much that needs to be sex. It is only when people begin to believe
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done. While the mid-day meal programme that no one is inferior, and that every person
deserves to be treated with dignity, the
has helped increase the enrolment and
present attitudes can change. Establishing
attendance of poor children in school, there equality in a democratic society is a
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continues to be a big difference in our continuous struggle. Individuals as well as
country between schools attended by the various communities in India should
rich and schools attended by the poor. Even
today, there are several schools in the
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Keywords :
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country in which dalit children like
1. Untouchability
Omprakash Valmiki, are discriminated
against and treated unequally. These 2. Scheme
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children are forced into unequal situations 3. Constitution

in which their dignity is not respected. This 4. Autobiography

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1. What is the difference between being punished for a mistake and being discriminated against?
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Was the child Ambedkar being punished or discriminated against?

2. Though there are many castes in the society, on what occassions do you find equality among
them?
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3. Our Constitution abolished the practice of untouchability and declared it a crime. Do you think
it has been fully abolished in practice?
4. How can your school help in ending caste based inequalities?
5. Read the paragraphs “The two ways ............. for them” (p.no.170) comment on it.
Project :
1. Find out about a government scheme in your area. What does this scheme do? To whom this
scheme intended to benefit.
2. Discuss with your parents or grandparents about how caste system functioned earlier to find
out what has changed and what has not. Prepare a report and present it in the class.
19 Livelihood and Struggles
CHAPTER
of Urban Workers
A
In Chapter 9, we read about workers in a paper mill. Most paper mill workers were
AN
like Anand – they get high wages, bonus (share of profit of the company), Provident
Fund (savings for future) and other allowances. They also get healthcare and housing
facilities. Such workers constitute only a small section of all the workers in India. We
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also learnt about other kinds of workers in the same paper mill - Umar and Pushpa,
who get low wages and do not get any other allowances or facilities required for a
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decent living. Most workers in India are like Umar and Pushpa. In this chapter, we will
learn about why and how workers negotiate with their employers for a decent life
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through their organisations and laws. We will also learn about an organisation working
for those who work on their own.
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We have learnt that government makes government. Let us look at the conditions
laws in the interest of the people. Laws are of workers in such factories closely.
also made to protect the welfare of workers
Working as ‘Permanent Workers’
employed in fields, factories, private and
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government offices. Factories which are in Factories

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properly registered with the government are Read the following accounts of two
expected to follow these laws and provide factories in Kothur, which is a new
better wages and other facilities required industrial town, located about 30
for workers. Governments also have kilometres from Hyderabad in
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Labour Departments, which have the Mahabubnagar district. This was recorded
responsibility to ensure that these laws are in 2002.
followed. If the laws are not followed, Fibrotex (not a real name), a large scale
workers can file cases in courts. At times, factory producing fibre glass was setup in
factories protect the welfare of only a 1976. In 2002, out of 570 workers, 140
section of workers who are called the were permanent workers; 60 workers were
‘Regular Workers’ or ‘Permanent Workers’ employed on casual basis and they were
and those known as ‘Casual’ or ‘Contract called badli workers, i.e. they replaced
workers’ are not looked after. permanent workers in case of their absence
However, there are many factories which and about 300 workers were employed daily
do not get properly registered with the on contractual basis.
(A permanent worker cannot be dismissed Trade Union
without a proper procedure and a payment
of compensation while other workers can A Trade Union is an organisation
be removed easily.) formed by workers to protect their
This factory has a Trade Union. Initially, interests. If every single worker has to
it was set up with the encouragement of the negotiate with the employer separately,
company, which wanted a union that would
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they will not be in a strong position.
be more agreeable to its policies. Soon, the
However, if all of them negotiate
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Union developed into a strong workers’
organisation as workers participated in the together, their position will become
union actively. It negotiated with the stronger. Trade Unions negotiate on the
management to fix wages etc. behalf of all workers with government
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All workers get wages fixed through and the employers. They seek to ensure
agreements with the union and medical proper wages, other benefits and decent
facilities through Employees’ State
Insurance (ESI) and Provident Fund (PF).
N working conditions for their members.
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Collectively, with their member workers,
The Trade Union secured other benefits also
– health checkup in big private hospitals, they secure social security benefits,
leave in case the workers become sick, medical facilities, houses, Provident
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safety-wear in the work place, safe drinking Fund and pension for working. If any
water in the factory, educational allowance worker is harassed or is in need of help,
for workers’ children, conveyance
the Trade Union takes up his or her cause.
allowance and also Leave Travel Allowance
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Unions adopt a variety of measures like

(LTA). They also get loans from the
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company when needed and the company has negotiations, filing cases in the law
also provided quarters for them to live in. courts and even strikes or stoppage of
The company also took interest in training work to pressurise the employers in
workers who have been working for long
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democratic principles.
in the factory, sending them to foreign
countries to improve production quality. The details of workers’ salaries
The Trade Union also made agreements (in 2002) in Fibrotex are as follows:
with factory owners to regularize contract
Permanent
As worker
you can see, mostRs.4500
of the benefits are
- 10,000
labourers after a definite period of work.
per month
The Trade Union of Fibrotex was quite
active in the town as well. This had helped Badli workers Rs.3000 - 4000
many other small Trade Unions in other
factories to grow their bargaining power Contract / casual Rs.58 per day for
labourers eight hours
with their employers.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Livelihood and Struggles of Urban Workers 173
available only to the 140 ‘Permanent About 56 of them were women. These daily
Workers’. About 360 workers, called workers were engaged by a labour
badlis and contract workers, get low contractor who was told everyday by the
salaries along with PF, ESI. manager as to how many workers to engage.
These workers mainly came from nearby
What is the difference between a
villages and were usually illiterate. The
permanent worker and a badli
women workers had to work for about 12
A
worker?
hours a day and were paid just Rs.30
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Calculate the difference between whereas the men were paid Rs.42 for the
the monthly salary of a permanent same work. This is much below the
worker and casual labourer. minimum wage fixed by the government for
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Invite one or two factory workers there kind of factories. The managers do
who are getting ESI and PF benefits not allow the workers to form any Trade
to class and collect more details
about how these facilities are made
NUnion and threaten that they will close down
the factory if any union is formed.
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available to her / him and the steps These days, a large number of companies
a worker has to follow to get these are adopting policies similar to this
benefits. You may also invite a company, reducing the number of regular
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parent of any of your classmates workers and replacing them with contract
also to talk about these things. and casual workers.
KRS Medicines Factory

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Why was no Trade Union allowed

This company (not a real name) mixes to form in KRS Medicines
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and packs medicines for another big Factory?

medicine company. It employed about 118
Why do you think were there more
workers of whom about 104 workers were
women in the ‘contract worker’
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employed as daily casual workers. That is

category rather than in the category
only 14 workers were regular and
of ‘permanent workers’?
permanent and were used for the skilled
work of mixing the chemicals to prepare Is it fair to pay women workers less
the medicine powder. They were paid about than men for the same kind of
Rs. 1500 to Rs 2500 per month and had a work?
security of employment. They also got ESI Do you think it would have been
and PF. The remaining 104 workers who different if the workers had been
were engaged on a daily basis mainly did educated and literate?
the packaging and labelling of the medicine.

Working on Construction Sites
and Brick Kilns
Bindhani, her
husband and ten year
old daughter work in a
brick kiln in a village in
A
Ranga Reddy district.
AN
She comes from a
village in Odisha where
they have a small plot
G
of land. They had taken
a loan of Rs. 20,000 and
could not repay it. They
were at the verge of
N Fig 19.1 Construction Labour
LA
selling their land when a contractor who Bindhani wakes up around four o’clock
was recruiting workers for brick kilns in in the morning to prepare some kanji. Her
TE
Telangana approached them. He offered husband is still sleeping as he worked till

2 o’clock in the morning. She wakes her
them an advance of Rs.10,000 so that they
daughter up and both of them get ready
could repay a part of their debt. They
to work. They have to fetch water and mix
would have to work for six months in a
T
sand and clay and prepare the clay for

brick kiln and they would also be paid making bricks. They begin work around
ER
additional wages and provided with a hut 5 AM in the morning and work non-stop
to live in. The work would start in till about 9 o’clock when they take a break
December and end in June when they for tea. By then, her husband too joins
SC
could return to work on their land. That them and he puts the clay in moulds. Once
is how Bindhani and her family came to the clay has been shaped into bricks, the
work in the kiln. They are not alone. About daughter smoothens them and marks the
seal of the company on the bricks. These
two lakh such workers from Odisha come
are then allowed to dry, then loaded on
to Telangana to work in brick kilns. It is
bullock carts and taken to kilns for
also common to see thousands of worker baking. The work goes on continuously
families from Telangana go to other states till about 2 o’ clock in the night. Bindhani
like Karnataka and Maharashtra to work and her husband work for nearly 14 to
in kilns of those states. 16 hours. They don’t want to stop work
because they are paid
according to the
number of bricks they
make. They are paid
about Rs 108 per
every thousand bricks
they make. They
A
normally manage to
make about 1000
AN
bricks a day. If they fall
ill, they will not be able
Fig 19.2 Cotton Pickers
to earn anything. In
G
this way, they work day and night for Such is the story of lakhs of brick
nearly six months – on some days they makers and other labourers who engage in
just can’t work as they grow too tired or
ill. They usually eat broken rice and dal
N different activities all over the world. They
LA
are given advance by a contractor; they are
and on some days some vegetable. At the
taken to far off states whose languages they
end of the six month, they often just
manage to clear the advance they got and do not know; they work day and night for
TE
actually have to go back empty handed. five to six months with their family and
Sometimes, they manage to take home children and earn just enough to clear the
about four or five thousand rupees. advance they had taken. In some cases, even
when people are too tired to work, they are
T
Can you calculate how many days

forced by the contractor to work. They live
will it take them to clear the
ER
like bonded slaves. Whenever these

advance of Rs 10,000 they got
workers bring their plight to the
from the sardar (Contractor)?
government, government officials
What is the average wage for one
SC
person per day in this work? intervene and ‘free’ these ‘bonded
Why are there no Trade Unions in labourers’ from brick kilns and contractors
brick kilns? and send them home. Since they have no
Do you think that the government other employment opportunity at home,
should help workers to form Trade they are again forced to take advances from
Union among brick kiln workers? the contractor and come back to the kilns
In what way can the government again. There are no Trade Unions that fight
help brick kiln workers to improve for their rights as they are migrant workers
their working conditions? spread out in a number of sites.

What kind of machines, tools and 5. Work security: so that when they fall
sources of power are used in brick ill or meet with an accident, they can
production? get proper care and get paid for the
period of illness.
What kinds of skills are needed for
this job? How are they acquired? 6. Skill improvement: so that they can
improve their skills and capabilities
Why do you think are they made to while at work.
A
work in distant states?
7. Collective voice: so that they can
AN
Ensuring Workers’ Rights - form unions to express their problems
and needs without fear and negotiate
A Global Concern
with the employers as a group rather
Ever since the Industrial Revolution than as individuals.
G
about which you had studied in Chapter 8,
workers all over the world have been
fighting for a dignified life and a just share
of their produce. They have fought for
several kinds of securities and rights:
N
LA
1. Right to productive and safe
employment: so that every worker can
work according to his or her skill and
TE
capacity and work under safe conditions

without endangering their health.
2. Right to leisure and rest: so that they
have time to rest from their tiring work Fig 19.3 Knife Sharpeners
T
and also have time to attend to other

Over the last two hundred years, workers
cultural and social interests.
ER
all over the world have fought to get these

3. Right to employment security: so rights recognized, even though they may not
that every worker knows that he/she has be implemented in all places. In most
an employment which will ensure her/ countries, the governments have agreed that
SC
him a livelihood and will not be these are basic needs of workers and made
arbitrarily thrown out of work. If it is laws that ensure workers these rights.
inevitable for a company to remove a
worker, he or she should be paid Read the previous sections again and
adequate compensation for the loss of
colour the whole box (in the next page)
work.
against rights and benefits available to
4. Income security: so that every worker workers. If only a part of workers are
has adequate and regular income to covered, shade a part of the box depending
take care of the needs of their families on the proportion of coverage. Cross mark
and savings for living a dignified life the box if no right/ benefit is available.
in their old age.
S.No Rights Fibrotex KRS Medicine Brick Kilns
Factory
1. Right to Productive and Safe
Employment
2. Right to Leisure and Rest
3. Right to Employment Security
A
4. Income Security
AN
5. Work Security
6. Skill improvement
7. Right to Collective Voice
G
Informal Work and
Workers in Towns
In Telangana and other Indian
N
LA
states, towns and cities are
becoming bigger and bigger.
People are rapidly shifting from
TE
villages to these towns. But many

of them do not get sufficient
regular employment there and do
a variety of odd jobs. They sell
vegetables or other items, make
T
and sell snacks, work in tea stalls,

ER
or small factories, stitch clothes,

load and unload in markets, work
as domestic maids etc. Many of
them produce goods at home –
SC
weaving clothes, papads, pickle,

doing embroidery, etc. and are
engaged through ‘puttingout’
system. Most of these activities
do not get registered with the
government. Workers of these
kinds can be called informal
workers and the nature of such
work is called informal work.
What is common about all
these areas of employment is that Fig 19.4 Workers laying cables

they require very little capital or skill Most of them do not have any Trade
training but the employment is both Unions to defend their rights. As we
irregular and very low paying. As such, these mentioned earlier, the number of such
workers are in a very vulnerable position. workers is constantly increasing in the
Unlike ‘permanent workers’ in factories country. They are increasing not only
and offices who get employed and paid because people are moving in from villages,
but also due to the closing down of large
regularly, these workers do several jobs in
A
factories and mills. The workers of these
a day - they may distribute newspaper in
factories now have to join the ranks of the
the morning, work in a tea shop during the
AN
casual workers.
day time and cook in some houses in the
night. This keeps them busy throughout the Looking at these problems, some trade
day without any rest. In most cases, all unionists of Gujarat formed what is
considered the largest trade union of the
G
members of their families, including
informal workers in the world. Let us find
children, work to earn. So, the children
out more about it.
usually remain uneducated. When faced
with financial problems, they try to cut
N Self Employed Women’s
LA
their expenditure by taking children out of Association (SEWA)
schools or cutting down on food or
medicines. Even after all this, they are not In 1971, a small group of migrant
TE
able to meet their needs. They are forced women cart-pullers in Ahmedabad’s cloth
to take small loans from friends and market approached Textile Labour
relatives and at times, from moneylenders. Association (TLA) to help them in
improving their housing facilities. TLA was
Almost all of them are heavily indebted to
the oldest and the largest textile workers’
T
these moneylenders and often have to work

union with which Mahatma Gandhi was
for them.
ER
closely associated. The Union helped these

women to form SEWA in
1971, which later became a
Trade Union in 1972.
SC
Since then SEWA grew

continuously, with women
working in different
occupations becoming its
members. SEWA members
have no fixed employee
employer relationship and
depend on their own labour
for survival. They barely have
Fig 19.5 Road Laying Work
any assets or working capital.
Any self-employed women can become About 13 lakh workers in 9 states in India
a member of SEWA by paying Rs.5 as are now members of SEWA. SEWA also
membership fee. The SEWA helps self- runs a bank cooperative for its members and
employed women in addressing their provides health insurance facility. SEWA
grievances, improving their work culture also helps its members in marketing their
and to become financially self-reliant in produce and ensuring them fair wages. Do
running their businesses. Hawkers/ you think such organisations could be of
A
vendors selling vegetables, fruits, fish, some help in improving the conditions of
eggs, food items, household goods, new hundreds of women who are self-employed
AN
and old clothes, workers working in in selling vegetables on roadsides, in
houses like weavers, potters, bidi and market places and on the streets in
agarbatti workers, papad rollers, Telangana?
readymade garment workers, artisans;
G
manual labourers and service providers Keywords :
like agricultural labourers, construction
workers, contract labourers, handcart
pullers, head-loaders, domestic workers,
N 1. Compensation 5. Casual Worker
LA
2. Provident Fund 6. E.S.I.
laundry workers, cattle rearers, salt
workers, gum collectors etc. can became 3. Badli Worker 7. Regular Worker
members of SEWA.
TE
4. Wages

1. Compare the condition of a worker in brick kiln, a permanent worker and a contract worker in
T
a factory.
2. Can you make a list of jobs done by casual and self employed workers in your area?
ER
3. Make a list of different types of unions discussed in this chapter. Fill in the table:
Sl. Company in which
Type of labour Main problems Suggested solution
SC
No. union was working

1.
2.
3.
4. Talk to a Trade Union member (leader) and find out why did he/ she join the union, what are
their rights and duties as a union member.
5. Write a letter to the Labour officer of your Locality, complaining about the conditions of
workers at their work places.

20
CHAPTER
Folk - Religion
A
AN
Discuss the following questions in your class.
1. Which gods / goddesses are worshipped in your area?
2. Which saints, pirs and babas do your family respect?
G
3. Which animals and trees are worshipped by people?
4. Do you know how people worship?
N
5. How are the deities worshipped and who performs the worship?
LA
6. In which languages are the deities addressed by the worshippers?
You may have listened to conversations Who are these popular deities and how,
like the following: when and by whom are they worshipped?
TE
Lakshmi: In recent months, my children There are a large number of village

have been falling ill repeatedly. deities – some of them belong to particular
Sammakka: My husband also had castes, or particular villages or even
been unwell for one month. particular families. Some of the more
T
Yellamma: I think our goddess common goddesses are as follows:

ER
Muthyalamma is angry with us. We should Pochamma: Pochamma is the most

offer her a special worship to appease popular folk goddess of Telangana. In many
her. Let us take Bonalu and sacrifice a villages, there is a small shrine dedicated
cock to the Goddess. to her. This is diffferent from the temples
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*** of Gods like Rama or Shiva. A very simple

temple is built under a neem tree with a
Ramaraju: My daughter is very weak
goddess in the form of a stone inside. In
and does not eat properly.
modern towns and cities, these temples are
Suresh: Why don’t you go to the Pir built with some architecture and with a
Baba’s dargah and ask the Maulvi to tie stone idol inside.
a tawiz ? She will become all right.
In villages, people of all castes go to the
Many people in our country worship and shrine with bonalu on special occasions.
pay reverence to gods in large temples, They wash the deity and clean the shrine
churches or mosques. On the other hand, area. There are no priests and people pray
people also worship many village deities. according to their customs and traditions
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Folk - Religion 181
A
AN
Fig 20.1 & 20.2 Here are two idols of Pochamma.
G
with flowers, etc. in their own language:
“Mother, we have seeded the fields, now
you must ensure good crop.” “My daughter N
is sick, you must cure her.” “Mother, keep
LA
away all infectious diseases and evils from
our family.” They offer a part of the bonam
and sometimes also offer a chicken or a
TE
sheep.
Maisamma: She is believed to protect
the cattle. Among the cattle sheds, a niche
is whitewashed and decorated with
T
“Kumkuma” and called as ‘Maisamma

ER
Goodu’. In many places, Katta-Maisamma

is also worshipped as a goddess of water
in the form of a small stone on the tank
bund. People believe that she will ensure
SC
Fig 20.3 Maisamma

that the tank is full. Thus, the crops would
flourish due to her blessings. other names. It is believed that she guards
the boundaries of the village and will not
Gangamma: She is a water goddess who allow any disease or evil to enter the village.
protects fishermen who go out into the sea. People mainly pray to her to prevent
It is believed that the poor and the orphans epidemics like cholera.
are protected by the goddess Gangamma.
Potharaju: The farmers of Telangana
Yellamma: Yellamma is also called as believe that Potharaju looks after their
Poleramma, ‘Maridamma’, ‘Renuka’ agricultural lands and crops and protects the
Mahankali, Jogamma, Somalamma and by crops from dreadful diseases, thieves and
182 Religion and Society Social Studies

A
AN
Fig 20.4 Yellamma Fig 20.5 Potharaju
G
animals. The farmers keep a small stone It is a general practice to offer animal
painted in white in a corner of their fields. sacrifice in most of the folk festivals. This
The worship of Potharaju is very simple.
Prayers are offered to the deity when the
N results in the killing of thousands of such
animals. To prevent this, the sacrifice of
LA
crop is harvested. He has sisters who are any animal or bird in any religious worship
called by various names like Peddamma. is banned in Telangana.
Beerappa and Katama Raju: They are Community Worship of Folk Deities
TE
worshipped by cowherd and shepherd Many of the folk gods and goddesses
communities. They are considered were actually local heroes who either died
protectors of cattle and sheep. Have you fighting in defence of their people or were
heard of the story of Beerappa and themselves wronged by the powerful people
T
Akkamankali – how Beerappa, a poor of their times. Common people believed

shepherd, worked and fought to marry
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that such persons attained special powers

Kamarathi and how his sister helped him? to help people or cause problems if not
Have you heard of the story of Katama Raju worshipped. Two such folk heroines who
who fought against the kings of Nellore for laid down their lives in defence of the tribal
SC
the grazing rights of the animal herders? people were Sarakka and Sammakka in
You may have participated in the whose honour a Jatara is conducted.
worship of many of these village and Sammakka and Sarakka (Medaram) Jatara:
community deities and may also have It is a celebration by the tribal people
been to some of the temples of Shiva of Taadwai mandal in Jayashankar District
or Vishnu. Can you compare how the at Medaram village. People from
worship is conducted in these Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,
places? What are the similarities and
Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Chattisgarh, and
differences? Discuss them in the
Jharkhand assemble to celebrate the jatara.
class.
Nearly one crore people attend it.

The Story: ‘Medaraju’, was a
contemporary of the Kakatiya king
Rudradeva (Prataparudra-I). He ruled
Polavasa kingdom located at present in
Jagityal district. He married his daughter,
Sammakka, to ‘Pagididda Raju’, who ruled
Medaram. The couple had three children;
A
Saralamma, Nagulamma and Jampanna. As
a part of extension of his kingdom,
AN
Rudradeva declared war on Medaram.
Pagididdaraju’s entire family led the men Fig 20.7 Scene from Medaram Jatara
and women of the tribe in the fierce battle. The Medaram Jatara is organised once
All of them got killed in the battle. in two years. It is a three day fair.
G
Jampanna also fought bravely till his last Sammakka and Sarakka are the formless
breath and died in ‘Sampenga Vaagu’ to goddesses. Caskets representing them are
prevent the Kakatiya army from crossing
the stream. Hence, it is called ‘Jampanna
N brought from the forests in an elaborate
procession, brightly decorated and placed
LA
Vaagu’. Sammakka and Sarakka fought on the platform under a tree. At that time,
against the army and sacrificed their lives devotees feel the spirits or the goddess
for the sake of their tribe. possesses them. The people offer
TE
The tribal people of the entire region ‘bangaram’, jaggery, to the goddess.
honoured them for their courage and Moharram (Peerilu) and Urs
sacrifice and to this day, the people celebrate
The Muslims also pay their respects to
the Medaram Jatara in their honour.
the heroes who fought against evil. One
T
Fig 20.6 Installation of goddess such festival is Moharram, which comme-

morates the battle of Karbala (in Iraq) in
ER
Sammakka on the platform

which the grandson of Prophet Mohammad
was killed. Processions (Peeri) with
decorated Tazias are taken out in which
SC
people of all communities participate. A

peeri is prepared with bamboo strips in a
dome shape. It is covered with glittering
clothes. A bamboo pole is fixed in the dome
to handle the peeri and at the top, metallic
crescent or palm shape is attached to it.
Finally, it is garlanded with flowers and
coconuts.
Similarly, Urs or anniversaries of
Muslim saints, who lie buried in various
parts of the state, are celebrated. People

A
AN
Fig 20.8 Ajmeer Dargah Fig 20.9 Jahangeer Peer Dargah
visit the dargahs in large number, offer Aurangazeb visited this dargah, he came to
G
flowers and chadars( sheets on the grave) know the holiness and appointed Ibrahim
and listen to the singing of Qawwalis. They as a quazi of this dargah. This quazi
believe that they will receive the ‘barkat’
or blessings of the pir or saint. People who
N developed it as a place of pilgrimage.
Everyday numerous visitors around
LA
seek some specific blessings like children Hyderabad visit this dargah. Devotees from
different states visit on Thursdays and
or job, etc. come to the dargahs and pray
Sundays when special offerings are made.
there.
Every year annual Urs celebrations held for
TE
Dargah is generally built on the tombs three days beginning on the Thursday
of Sufi saints who propagated Sufism. The coming after Sankranthi festival. Offerings
tomb or dargah of a sufi saint becomes a of sandal wood paste (Gandhapu Puja) on
place of pilgrimage to which thousands of the first day, offering of lights (Deeparadana)
T
people of all faiths throng. Often, people on the second day and Qawwali programme
attribute sufi masters with miraculous on the third day. Visitors from not only
ER
powers (Karamaths) that could relieve different parts of India but also from abroad
others of their illnesses and troubles. attend the Urs Celebrations, Thousands of
Jahangeer Peer Dargah - A devotees including Hindu and Muslim
religions offer flowers, sweets and chadars.
SC
Symbol of Religious Tolerance

Jahangeer Peer dargah is located in This dargah has become a symbol of
Kothur mandal of Ranga Reddy district. It religious tolerance.
is said that in the late 15th century two Bonalu
brothers from Iraq named Sayyed Bonalu is one of the folk festivals
Gousuddin and Sayyad Buranoddin came popular in the Telangana state. The
here, then it was a forest area, spent in the Godesses are worshipped and offered food,
devine thought for some years and ended which is later shared among the family
their lives. Some of their followers members.
constructed a small dargah on their tombs. Women folk participate in the
In 17th century when Mughal emperor procession carrying ‘Ghatams’ or

Palnati Veeras, Mailara and many mother
goddesses in Warangal.
You many have noticed by now that the
folk deities are worshipped quite
differently from the Gods in large temples,
mosques or churches.
Most of these deities are worshipped by
A
all people irrespective of their caste or
religion or economic status. For example,
AN
even Muslim farmers participate in many
of the rituals of village gods. Similarly,
Fig 20.10 Bonalu people of all religions throng to the dargahs
G
ornamented pots filled with flowers on to seek the blessing of the peers. They tie
their heads. The women devotees also carry strings on a tree or on the walls of the
N
brass vessels or clay pots filled with cooked
rice and decorated with neem leaves. The
dargah making a vow in return for the
wishes granted. They request the pirzadas
LA
male dancers who accompany them are to prepare tawiz for them to drive away evil
known as Pothurajus, who lead the spirits.
procession by lashing whips and holding
The intermixing of Village deities
neem leaves.
TE
and High Religious traditions

If you have participated in any of In India, there has been a constant
these jataras or urs or bonalu, process of interaction between different
describe them in your class and kinds of people and their religions leading
T
discuss their important features. to intermixture of traditions. Thus,

How are these festivals different religious beliefs which originate in folk
ER
from the worship of village deities worship and folk wisdom are gradually
or worship in large temples or adopted by higher religions and the folk
mosques? religious beliefs also adopt a lot from the
SC
The antiquity of Folk Traditions higher religions.

Many historical books tell us that such Thus, high religious traditions too
folk gods were worshipped in very old worship peepul tree, snakes and the mother
times too. We learn about the worship of goddess. This is how the integration of
nagas (snakes), trees, yakshas and snakes, trees animals, and birds in the
yakshinis even some 2500 years ago. The present Puranic religion took place.
Palnati Virula Katha written by Srinatha Gradually, the village deities became part
around 1450s mentions the worship of of the worship of deities like the Buddha,
Potharaju. In turn, Vallabharaya’s Shiva or Vishnu or Durga. You can see
Kridabhiramamu written around the same snakes, lions, nandi, and trees being
time describes in detail the worship of the worshipped as part of their worship too.

In the case of Islam, this took a different “Without personal experience, the mere
form. The high religion of Islam believes repetition of scriptures will not remove
in strict monotheism or worship of one and fears just as darkness is never dispelled by a
only God – Allah. However, the folk mere painted flame.”
followers of Islam began to revere Sufi
“The six tastes are diverse, but taste is
saints and believed that worshipping at the
one; various are the creeds regarding the
darghas would solve their problems. So, a
truth, but truth is one; and saints differ
A
very strong tradition of pilgrimages to
among themselves, while he on whom
darghas and urs developed in which people
they meditate is one.”
AN
of all faiths participate.
“Bald heads, matted hair, daubing
Folk Wisdom and Higher Religion ashes, recitations, religions dress! No
Many saints like Kabir, Yogi Vemana and man is a saint who is not pure in heart.”
G
many sufi saints who came from the Such ideas and wise sayings became
common people expressed their deeper part of ordinary people’s thinking.
religious ideas. They also combined the
ideas preached by the higher religions with
N Keywords :
LA
that of the common people. Read the 1. Folk Deities 2. Jatara
following lines of Yogi Vemana who lived
3. Urs 4. Peeri
about 300 years ago and composed poems
of great wisdom in Telugu. 5. Bonamu
TE

1. What are the common elements in the worship of most of the village deities?
2. When people go to towns and settle there, do they continue to worship their old village deities?
T
How do they do it?

ER
3. Do you think the way people worship the village deities is changing now? What kind of changes
do you see?
4. Point out the main places of important jataras and urs in Telangana Map?
5. Read the paragraph “Most of these ........ spirits.” of page 186 and comment on it.
SC
6. Collect the following particulars by talking to the people of different religions of your area.
S.No. Name Religion practised God worshipped Festivals celebrated
Project :
1. Get detailed information from your grand parents about any Jatara of your area. Prepare a report.
2. Collect stories about any of the folk deities of your area and prepare a small booklet about it.

21 Devotional Paths
CHAPTER
to the Divine
A
AN
You may have seen people perform rituals of worship, or singing bhajans, kirtans or
qawwalis, or even repeating the name of God in silence. Haven’t you noticed that some
of them are so moved that they burst into tears? Such intense devotion or love of God
G
is the legacy of various kinds of bhakti and Sufi movements that have evolved since the
eighth century. In class VI, you had read about the Bhakti poems of Alvars and Nayanars
N
who worshipped Vishnu and Siva respectively. Soon kings and chiefs built large temples
for these gods, made land grants, and other gifts to perform various rituals. Temple
LA
worship became elaborate, complex and expensive. Specially trained priests performed
the rituals. People belonging to some castes were not allowed to enter the temples.
Soon, a reaction set in against such rituals and inequalities. New ideas on devotion to
TE
god emerged. Read on to know more about them.

T
Philosophy and Bhakti Ramanuja, born in South India in the

eleventh century, was deeply influenced by
ER
Shankara, one of the most influential

theAlvars. According to him, the best means
philosophers of India, was born in Kerala of attaining salvation was through intense
in the eighth century. He was an advocate devotion to Vishnu.Vishnu, in his grace, helps
of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness
SC
the devotee to attain the bliss of union with

of the individual soul and the Supreme God, him. Ramanuja also ensured a place for people
which is the Ultimate Reality. He taught that of lower castes in temple worship. He
Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was propounded the doctrine of
Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness
formless and without any attributes. He
according to which the soul even when
preached about renunciation of the world united with the Supreme God remained
and adoption of the path of knowledge to distinct. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatly
understand the true nature of Brahman and inspired the new strand of bhakti, which
attain salvation. developed in North India subsequently.

Basavanna’s Virashaivism The Saints of Maharashtra
We earlier noted the connection From the thirteenth to the seventeenth
between the bhakti movement and temple centuries, Maharashtra saw a great number
worship. We now see another level of of saint-poets, whose songs in simple
bhakti movement called Virashaivam. This Marathi continue to inspire people till date.
movement was initiated by Basavanna and The most important among them were
A
his companions like Allama Prabhu and Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram
Akkamahadevi in 12th century in as well as women like Sakkubai and the family
AN
Karnataka. They have represented the ideas of Chokhamela, who belonged to the
about caste and the treatment of women “untouchable” Mahar caste. This regional
arguing strongly for the equality of all tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a
human beings.
G
form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur, as
These are vachanas or sayings attributed well as on the notion of a personal god
to Basavanna: N residing in the hearts of all people.
LA
The rich
Will make temples for Shiva.
What shall I,
TE
A poor man
Do?
My legs are pillars,
T
The body the shrine,

ER
The head a cupola

Of gold.
Listen, O Lord of the meeting rivers,
SC
Things standing shall fall,

But the moving ever shall stay.
What were the major ideas

expressed by Basavanna?
What is the temple that Basavanna

is offering to God?
Fig 21.1 A fireside gathering of ascetics.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Devotional Paths to the Divine 189
These saint-poets rejected all forms of You made us low caste,
ritualism, outward display of piety and Why don’t you face that fact, Great Lord?
social differences based on birth. In fact, Our whole life – left-over food to eat.
they even rejected the idea of renunciation
You should be ashamed of this.
and preferred to live with their families,
You have eaten in our home.
earning their livelihood like any other
How can you deny it?
person, while humbly serving fellow human
Chokha’s (son) Karmamela asks
A
beings in need. A new humanist idea
emerged as they insisted that bhakti lay in Why did you give me life?
AN
sharing others’ pain. As the famous Gujarati
saint Narsi Mehta said, “Vaishnavas are Discuss the ideas related to social
those who understand the pain of others.” order expressed in these
This is an abhang (Marathi devotional compositions.
G
hymn) of Sant Tukaram:
Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis
He who identifies
with the battered and the beaten,
N Many religious groups of this period
LA
criticised the rituals and other aspects of
Mark him as a saint, conventional religion and social order
For God is with him. using simple, logical arguments. Among
He holds them were the Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas
TE
Every forsaken man and Yogis. They advocated renunciation of

Close to his heart, the world. To them, the path to salvation
He treats lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate
A slave Reality and the realisation of oneness with
T
As his own son. it. To achieve this, they advocated intense

ER
Says Tuka, training of the mind and body through

practices like yogasanas, breathing
I won’t be tired
exercises and meditation. These groups
to repeat again,
became particularly popular among low
SC
Such a man castes. Their criticism of conventional

Is God religion created the ground for devotional
In person. religion to become a popular force in
northern India.
Why do you think Tukaram Islam and Sufism
considers the friends of the poor The saints had much in common with the
and suffering as the real devotees Sufis, so much so that it is believed that
of God? they adopted many ideas from each other.
Here is an abhang composed by Sufis were Muslim mystics. They rejected
Chokhamela’s son: outward religiosity and emphasised love and

devotion to God and compassion towards trained to look at the world in a different
all fellow human beings. way. They developed elaborate methods of
Islam propagated strict monotheism or training using zikr (chanting of a name or
submission to one God. It also rejected idol sacred formula), contemplation, sama
worship and considerably simplified rituals (singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of
of worship into collective prayers. At the parables, breath control, etc. under the
same time, Muslim scholars developed a guidance of a master or pir. Thus emerged
A
holy law called Shariat. The Sufis often the silsilas, a genealogy of Sufi teachers,
rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of each following a slightly different method
AN
behaviour demanded by Muslim religious (tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice.
scholars. They sought union with God much A large number of Sufis from Central
as a lover seeks his beloved with a disregard Asia settled in Hindustan from the eleventh
for the world. Like the saint-poets, the Sufis century onwards. This process was
G
too composed poems expressing their strengthened with the establishment of the
feelings, and a rich literature in prose, Delhi Sultanate, when several major Sufi
including anecdotes and fables, developed
around them. Among the great Sufis of
N centres developed all over the
subcontinent. The Chishti silsila was
LA
Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi. among the most influential orders. It had a
Like the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis, long line of teachers like Khwaja
the Sufis too believed that the heart can be Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin
TE
Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid

of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin
Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz
Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
T
The Sufi masters held their

ER
assemblies in their khanqahs or

hospices. Devotees of all
descriptions including members of
the royalty and nobility, and ordinary
SC
people flocked to these khanqahs.

They discussed spiritual matters,
sought the blessings of the saints in
solving their worldly problems, or
simply attended the music and dance
sessions.
Often, people attributed Sufi
masters with miraculous powers that
could relieve others of their illnesses
and troubles. The tomb or dargah of
Fig 21.2 Mystics in ecstasy. a Sufi saint became a place of
pilgrimage to which thousands of people Thallapaka Annamacharya (1408 – 1503)
of all faiths thronged. was a popular saint-composer of Andhra
Pradesh and is revered as ‘pada kavita
If you have ever been to a Dargah, pitamaha’. Annamayya dedicated his life
describe it to your friends in the to composing and singing the glories of
class. How do people show Lord Venkateswara of Tirupati. His
respects to the Pir and what do they compositions were mostly extempore in
A
pray for? spoken dialect, unlike the classics of the
age, which were written in the classical
AN
New Religious Developments in (Grandhika) style. In ‘Annamacharya
India Charitramu’, it is said that Annamayya
composed thirty two thousand keertanas
The period after the thirteenth century on Lord Venkateswara.
G
saw a new wave of the bhakti movement in
In his keertanas, he took up subjects
North India. This was an age when Islam,
Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of
bhakti, and the Nathpanths, Siddhas and
N such as morality, dharma and righteousness.
He was one of the first few who opposed
LA
the social stigma towards the untouchable
Yogis influenced one another. We saw that castes in his era. In his sankeertanas,
new towns and kingdoms were emerging, “Brahmam Okkate Parabrahmam
and people were taking up new professions Okkate...” and “E Kulajudainanemi
TE
and finding new roles for themselves. Such Evvadainanemi...”, he describes that the
people, especially crafts persons, peasants, relationship between God and human beings
traders and labourers; thronged to listen to is the same irrespective of the later’s color,
these new saints and spread their ideas. caste and financial status, in beautiful yet
T
Some of them like Kabir and Baba Guru powerful usage of words.
ER
Nanak rejected orthodox customs and

beliefs. ‘·+<äHêq ÄVæ≤ ` ‘·+<äHêq|ü⁄¬s
Poets like Bammera Potana,
‘·+<äHêq uÛÑﬁ≤ ` ‘·+<äHêq
SC
Annamacharya, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu,

ÁãVü≤àyÓTTø£ÿf… |üsÁ¡ ãVü≤àyÓTTø£ÿf… |üs¡
Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing
beliefs and practices but wanted to make ÁãVü≤àyÓTTø£ÿf… |üs¡ÁãVü≤àyÓTTø£ÿf… ...
them accessible to all.
ì+&Üs¡ sêE ìÁ~+#·T ìÁ<äj·TT H=ø£fÒ
Potana, who lived the life of a peasant n+&ÉH˚ ã+≥T ìÁ<ä n~j·TT H=ø£fÒ ...
in the village Bammera near Warangal,
composed the famous Mahabhagavatamu
yÓT+&Ó’q ÁãVü≤àDT&ÉT ` yÓT≥TºuÛÑ÷$T jÓTTø£fÒ
in Telugu. Potana was called a ‘Sahaja #·+&Ü\T&ÉT+&˚{Ï dü]uÛÑ÷$T jÓTTø£fÒ ...
Kavi’, a natural poet. He wrote lucid poetry - Annamacharya Keertana
to express his natural devotional feelings.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534) Tulsidas conceived of God in the form
was a Vaishnava saint and social reformer of Rama. Tulsidas’s composition, the
in eastern India (present day Bangladesh and Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi (a
West Bengal). Chaitanya was a notable language used in eastern Uttar Pradesh), is
proponent of the Vaishnava school of important both as an expression of his
devotion and as a literary work. He was a
Bhakti yoga (meaning loving devotion to
contemporary of Shankaradeva of Assam
Krishna/God) based on the philosophy of
A
(late fifteenth century) who emphasised on
the Bhagavata Purana and Bhagavad
devotion to Vishnu, and composed poems
Gita. He propagated community singing of
AN
and plays in Assamese. He began the
Bhajans and dancing with devotion. He practice of
worshipped the forms of Krishna and setting up
popularised the chanting of the ‘Hare namghars or
G
Krishna’ mantra. houses of
Kancherla Gopanna (1620 - 1680), recitation
popularly known as Bhakta Ramadasu, was
a 17th century devotee of Sri Rama and a
N and prayer, a
practice that
LA
continues to
composer of Carnatic music. He is among
date.
the famous vaggeyakaras (same person
This trad-
being the writer and composer of a song)
TE
ition also
in the Telugu language. He is renowned for
included
constructing a famous temple for Sri Rama
saints like
at Bhadrachalam. He composed devotional Fig 21.3 A painting
Dadu Dayal,
lyrics dedicated to Rama, which are of Mirabai.
T
Ravidas and
popularly known as Ramadaasu Mirabai. Mirabai was a Rajput princess
ER
Keertanalu. He wrote Dasarathi married into the royal family of Mewar in

Shatakamu, a collection of nearly 108 the sixteenth century. Mirabai became a
poems dedicated to Lord Rama. disciple of Ravidas, a saint from a caste
considered “untouchable”. She was devoted
SC
@ rs¡T>∑ qqT <äjT· #·÷#Ó<yä √, Çq e+XÀ‘·eÔ T sêe÷ to Krishna and composed innumerable
Hê ‘·s¡e÷ uÛÑe kÕ>∑s¡MT<äqT, q[q <äﬁ‚ø£åD sêe÷ bhajans expressing her intense devotion.
Áos¡|òüTTq+<äq d”‘ê s¡eTD≤, Á•‘·»q b˛wüø£ sêe÷ Her songs also openly challenged the norms
ø±s¡TD≤´\j·T uÛøÑ Ô£ es¡<ä ìqT, ø£qï~ ø±qT|ü⁄ sêe÷... of the “upper” castes and became popular
with the masses in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
- Ramadasu Keertana A unique feature of most of the saints is
that their works were composed in regional
languages and could be sung. They became
Can you name some vaggeyakaras immensely popular and were handed down
and their Keertanas? orally from generation to generation.
Usually the poorest, the most deprived Kabir believed in a formless Supreme
communities and women transmitted these God and preached that the only path to
songs, often adding their own experiences. salvation was through bhakti or devotion.
Thus, the songs, as we have them today, are Kabir drew followers from both Hindus and
as much a creation of the saints as of Muslims.
generations of people who sang them. They
have become a part of our living popular Here is a composition of Kabir:
A
culture. O Allah-Ram present in all living beings
Have mercy on your servants, O Lord!
Have you listened to any such old
AN
Why bump your head on the ground,
bhajans in your mother tongue?
Find out who composed them. Why bathe your body in water?
Write down some of them and You kill and you call yourself “humble”,
But your vices you conceal.
G
discuss their meaning in the class.
Twenty-four times the Brahmana keeps
A Closer Look: Kabir the ekadasi fast,
Kabir, who probably lived in the
fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, was one of
N While the Qazi observes the Ramzan.
Tell me why does he set aside the eleven
LA
the most influential saints. He was brought months
up in a family of Muslim julahas or To seek spiritual fruit in the twelfth?
weavers settled near the city of Benares
Hari dwells in the East, they say
TE
(Varanasi). We have very little reliable

And Allah resides in the West,
information about his life. We get to know
Search for him in your heart, in the heart
of his ideas from a vast collection of
of your heart;
verses called sakhis and pads said to have
There he dwells, Rahim-Ram
been composed by him and sung by
T
wandering bhajan singers. Some

ER
of these were later collected and

preserved in the Guru Granth
Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak.
Kabir’s teachings were based
SC
on a complete, indeed vehement,

rejection of the major religious
traditions. His teachings openly
ridiculed all forms of external
worship of both Hinduism and
Islam, the pre-eminence of the
priestly classes and the caste
system. The language of his
poetry was a form of spoken
Hindi, widely understood by
ordinary people. 21.4 A painting of Kabir working on a loom.

Guru Nanak
We know more
about Guru Nanak
(1469-1539 CE) than
Kabir. Born at Talwandi
(Nankana Sahib in
Pakistan), he travelled
A
widely before
AN
establishing a centre at
Kartarpur (Dera Baba
Nanak on the river Ravi).
Irrespective of their
G
form creed, caste or
gender, his followers
ate together in the
common kitchen
N
LA
(langar). The sacred
space thus created by
Guru Nanak was known
TE
as dharmsal.
The number of Guru Fig 21.5 Guru Nanak as a young man, discussion with holy men.
Nanak’s followers
increased through the sixteenth century bliss but rather the pursuit of active life with
under his successors. They belonged to a a strong sense of social commitment. He
T
number of castes, but traders, himself used the terms nam, dan and isnan
ER
agriculturists, artisans and craftsmen for the essence of his teaching, which
predominated. This may have something to actually meant right worship, welfare of
do with Guru Nanak’s insistence that his others and purity of conduct. His teachings
followers must be householders and should are now remembered as nam-japna, kirt-
SC
adopt productive and useful occupations. karna and vand-chhakna, which also
They were also expected to contribute to underline the importance of right belief and
the general funds of the community of worship, honest living, and helping others.
followers. Thus, Guru Nanak’s idea of equality had
The ideas of Guru Nanak had a huge social and political implications. This might
impact on this movement from the very partly explain the difference between the
beginning. He emphasised on the history of the followers of Guru Nanak and
importance of the worship of one God. He the history of the followers of the other
insisted that caste, creed or gender was religious figures of the medieval centuries,
irrelevant for attaining liberation. His idea like Kabir, Ravidas and Dadu whose ideas
of liberation was not that of a state of inert were very similar to those of Guru Nanak.
Keywords :
1. Advaita 5. Bhakti
2. Salvation 6. Yogasanas
3. Alvars 7. Bijak
4. Nayanars 8. Abhang
A
AN
1. Describe the beliefs and practices of the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis.
2. What were the major ideas expressed by Kabir? How did he express them?
G
3. What were the major beliefs and practices of the Sufis?
4.
5.
N
Why do you think many teachers rejected prevalent religious beliefs and practices?
What were the major teachings of Guru Nanak?
LA
6. For either the Virashaivas or the saints of Maharashtra, discuss their attitude towards caste.
7. Why do ordinary people still remember Mirabai?
TE
8. Read the second para under the title ‘A closer look: Kabir’ on page 194 and comment on it.
9. Write about a festival celebrated by the people in your area.
Project :
T
1. Visit any dargahs, gurudwaras or temples associated with saints of the bhakti tradition and
ER
describe what you saw and heard about them.
2. Get information about other works of the saint-poets mentioned in this chapter. Find out whether
they are sung, how they are sung and what the poets wrote?
SC

22
CHAPTER
Rulers and Buildings
A
Figure 22.1 shows the first balcony of Between the eighth and the eighteenth
AN
the Qutb Minar. Qutbuddin Aybak had centuries, kings and their officers built
constructed this monument in Delhi two kinds of structures: the first were
around 1199 CE. Notice the pattern forts, palaces and tombs – safe, protected
created under the balcony by the small and grandiose places of rest and the
G
arches and geometrical designs. Can you second were structures meant for public
find two bands of inscriptions under the activity including temples, mosques,
balcony? These are words written in
Arabic. Notice that the surface of the
N tanks, wells, caravan serais and bazaars.
Kings were expected to look after their
LA
minar is curved and angular. Placing an subjects, and by making structures for
inscription on such a surface requires their use and comfort, rulers hoped to win
great precision. Only the most skilled their praise. Construction activity was
TE
craftspersons could perform this task. also carried out by others including
Remember that very few buildings were merchants. They built temples, mosques
made of stone or brick 800 years ago. and wells. However, domestic
What would have been the impact of a architecture – large mansions (havelis)
T
building like the Qutb Minar on observers of merchants – has survived only from
in the thirteenth century? the eighteenth century.
ER
Figure 22.1: Qutb

Fig 22.1 Minar is five storeys
high. The band of
inscriptions you see
SC
are under its first

balcony. The first
floor was
constructed by
Qutbuddin Aybak
and the rest by
Iltutmish around
1229. Over the
years, it was
damaged by
lightning and
earthquakes and
repaired by later
kings.
Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Rulers and Buildings 197

A
Fig 22.2b Corbelled
AN
technique used in the
Fig 22.2a Screen in the Quwaat al-Islam
construction of an arch.
mosque, Delhi.
Engineering Skills and This style of supporting the roofs
Construction required placing pillars near each
G
other and large open halls could not
Monuments provide an insight into the be built. Can you figure out why?
technologies used for construction. Take
something like a roof for example. We can
N Temple Construction in the Early
LA
make it by placing wooden beams or a slab Eleventh Century
of stone across four walls. But the task
becomes difficult if we want to make a The Kandariya Mahadeva temple
large room with an elaborate dedicated to Shiva was constructed in
TE
superstructure. This requires more Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh 999 CE by

sophisticated skills. King Dhangadeva.
Between the seventh and tenth centuries, Fig. 22.3b is the plan of the temple of
architects started adding more rooms, the Chandela dynasty. An ornamented
T
doors and windows to buildings. Roofs, gateway led to an entrance and the main
h a l l (mahamandapa) where
ER
doors and windows were still made by

placing a horizontal beam across two dances were performed. The
vertical columns, a style of architecture image of the chief deity was
called “trabeate” or “corbelled”. Between kept in the main shrine
SC
the eighth and thirteenth centuries, the

trabeate style was used in the construction
of temples, mosques, tombs and buildings
attached to large stepped-wells.
Visit some old temples or Masjids

near your place and look for
examples of trabeate style (style
in which the roof is supported by
beams placed on pillars). Fig 22.3a The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple of
lord shiva in Khajuraho.
198 Culture and Communication Social Studies

(garbha-griha).
This was the place
for ritual worship
where only the
king, his
immediate family Fig: 22.5a A ‘true’ arch.
and priests gath- The ‘keystone’ at the
centre of the arch
A
ered. The Khaju-
transferred the weight of
raho complex the superstructure to the
AN
contained royal base of the arch.
temples where
common people
were not allowed
G
to enter. The Fig: 22.5b
temples were True arch;
Fig: 22.3b The decorated with
Kandariya Mahadeva e l a b o r a t e l y
N detail from
the Alai
Darwaza
LA
Temple of carved sculptures. (early
lord Shiva ground plan. fourteenth
The Rajaraje-
century).
shvara temple at Thanjavur had the tallest Quwwat al-
TE
shikhara amongst the temples of its time. Islam

Constructing it was not easy because there mosque,
were no cranes in those days and the 90 Delhi.
tonne stone for the top of the shikhara was
T
too heavy to lift manually. So, the

architects built an inclined path to the top
ER
of the temple, placed the boulder on rollers A new way of building

and rolled it all the way to the top. The path Two technological and
started more than four kilometres away so stylistic developments
that it would not be too steep. The path are noticeable from the
SC
was dismantled after the temple twelfth century:

was constructed. (1) The weight of the
superstructure above the
doors and windows was
sometimes carried by
arches. The roof too
used this principle and
was converted into vaults
and domes. This
architectural form is
Fig: 22.4 Brihadishwara Temple at Tanjore
called “arcuate”.

Compare Figures 22.2a and 22.2b Do you think these new techniques
with 22.5a and 22.5b. could be used to build large halls
and tall buildings?
(2) Limestone cement was increasingly
used in construction. This was very high Building Temples, Mosques and
quality cement, which, when mixed with Tanks
stone chips hardened into concrete. This
A
made construction of large structures Temples and mosques were beautifully
easier and faster. Arches, domes and constructed because they were places of
AN
limestone mortar were used extensively in worship. They were also meant to
the buildings after 1190 CE. Take a look at demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion
the construction site in Figure 22.6. of the patrons. Take the example of the
Rajarajeshvara temple. An inscription
G
Describe what the labourers are mentions that it was built by King
doing, the tools shown, and the Rajarajadeva for the worship of his god,
means of carrying stones. N Rajarajeshvara. Notice how the name of the
ruler and the god are very similar. The king
LA
took the god’s name because it was
auspicious and he wanted to appear like a
god. Through the rituals of worship in the
TE
temple, one god (Rajarajadeva) honoured

another (Rajarajeshvara).
You may recall that the Kakatiya capital
city – Orugallu was so designed as to have
T
the temple of Svayambhu Shiva at the

centre. This was built by the Kakatiyas to
ER
proclaim their power and status as

independent kings.
The largest temples were all constructed
SC
by kings. The other, lesser deities in the

temple were gods and goddesses of the
allies and subordinates of the ruler. The
temple was a miniature model of the world
ruled by the king and his allies. As they
worshipped their deities together in the
royal temples, it seemed as if they brought
the just rule of the gods on earth.
Fig: 22.6 A painting from the Akbar The kings and nobles endowed the
Nama (dated 1590-1595), showing the temples with land, gold and jewels so that
construction of water gate at Agra Fort. the worship of the gods could be carried
As each new dynasty came to
power, kings wanted to
emphasise their moral right to be
the rulers. Constructing places of
worship provided rulers with the
chance to proclaim their close
Qibla - Direction relationship with God,
A
towards Mecca
especially important in an age of
rapid political change. Rulers
AN
also offered patronage to the
learned and pious, and tried to
Fig 22.7 Plan of the Jami masjid built by Shah Jahan in
transform their capitals and
his new capital at Shahjanabad 1650-1656.
cities into great cultural centres
G
out on a grand scale. By 1200 CE , most of that brought fame to their rules and realm.
these temples had become elaborate It was popularly believed that the rule
institutions, which employed hundreds of
artisans, dancers, musicians, priests,
N of a just king would be an age of plenty when
the heavens would not withhold rain. At the
LA
administrators, servants etc. They collected same time, making precious water available
taxes from the villages, lent money on interest by constructing tanks and reservoirs was
to traders, organised fairs and markets to highly praised. Sultan Iltutmish won
TE
which buyers and sellers of goods came. universal respect for constructing a large
Several religions of Shaiva and Vaishnava reservoir just outside Dehli-i kuhna. It was
sects were established around these called the hauz-i Sultani or the “King’s
temples. These temples thus became Reservoir”.
centres of political and economic power.
T
Rulers often constructed tanks and

Kings and rulers wanted to associate their
reservoirs – big and small – for use by
ER
names with these temples by organising

ordinary people.
their coronation ceremonies in the temples
and by giving expensive and elaborate gifts
to them and adding to the constructions.
SC
Muslim Sultans and Badshahs did not

claim to be incarnations of god but Persian
court chronicles described the Sultan as the
“Shadow of God”. An inscription in the
Delhi mosque explained that God chose
Alauddin as a king because he had the
qualities of Moses and Solomon, the great
law-givers of the past. The greatest law-
giver and architect was God Himself. He
created the world out of chaos and Fig 22.8 Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple)
introduced order and symmetry. with the holy tank in Amritsar.

You have read about both, the shrines Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was a
of village gods and elaborate temples contemporary of Rajendra I. During his
and mosques – why do you think are campaigns in the subcontinent, he also
they so different? attacked the temples of defeated kings and
looted their wealth and idols. Sultan
Mahmud was not a very important ruler at
Why were Temples Destroyed?
that time. But by destroying temples –
A
Since the kings built temples to especially the one at Somnath – he tried to
demonstrate their devotion to God and their win credit as a great hero of Islam. In the
AN
power and wealth, it is not surprising that political culture of the Middle Ages, most
when they attacked one another’s kingdoms, rulers displayed their political, might and
they often targeted these buildings. In the military success by attacking and looting
early ninth century, the Pandyan king the places of worship of the defeated rulers.
G
Shrimara Shrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka and
defeated the king, Sena I (831-851). The In what ways do you think were the
Buddhist monk and chronicler Dhammakitti,
noted: “he removed all the valuables... The
N policies of Rajendra I and Mahmud
of Ghazni a product of their times?
LA
statue of the Buddha made entirely of gold How were the actions of the two
in the Jewel Palace... and the golden images rulers different?
in the various monasteries – all these he
seized.” The blow to the pride of the Imperial Style of the
TE
Sinhalese (Srilankan) ruler had to be Vijayanagara Period

avenged and the next Sinhalese ruler, Sena
The city of Vijayanagara was developed
II, ordered his general to invade Madurai, the
by the Rayas to act as the imperial capital
capital of the Pandyas. The Buddhist
T
of the entire South India. Thus, they wanted

chronicler noted that the expedition made a
it to reflect all the important imperial
special effort to find and restore the golden
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building traditions. They built large temples

statue of the Buddha.
Similarly, in the early eleventh
century, when the Chola king
SC
Rajendra I built a Shiva temple in his

capital, he filled it with prized statues
seized from defeated rulers. The list
included: a Sun-pedestal from the
Chalukyas, a Ganesha statue and
several statues of Durga; a Nandi
statue from the eastern Chalukyas; an
image of Bhairava (a form of Shiva)
and Bhairavi from the Kalingas of
Odisha; and a Kali statue from the
Palace of Bengal. Fig: 22.9 Virupaksha Temple in Hampi.

A
AN
Fig 22.10a Lotus Temple. Fig 22.10b Queen’s Bath.
for Sri Virupaksha, Ramachandra, Krishna was built by Krishnadevaraya to mark his
and Vitthala using a style that had been accession. It was decorated with delicately
G
developed by Chola and Pandya emperors carved pillars. He is also credited with the
of Tamil Nadu. This included the Vimanas construction of the eastern Gopuram.
and the Gopurams. The Rayas paid special
attention to the Gopurams, which were now
N These additions meant that the central
shrine came to occupy a relatively small
LA
built on a scale and height as never before. part of the complex.
It consisted of a first floor usually built The halls in the temple were used for a
of solid granite and a series of upper floors variety of purposes. Some of the halls were
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made of brick and chunam. These spaces in which the images of gods were
structures of immense scale must have placed to witness special programmes of
been a mark of imperial authority that often music, dance, drama etc. Others were used
dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, to celebrate the marriages of deities. And
and signaled the presence of the temple yet others were meant for showing the
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from a great distance. They were also replica of deities, which were distinct from
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probably meant as reminders of the power those kept in the small central shrine.
of kings, able to command the resources, While the Vijayanagara rulers built these
techniques and skills needed to construct temples on the Tamil Nadu model, they
these towering gateways. Other distinctive also built elaborate secular royal buildings,
SC
features include mandapas or pavilions and which were modelled on the style and
long, pillared corridors that often ran techniques of the Sultanate architecture.
around the shrines within the temple The famous Lotus Mahal (named so by
complex. Let us look closely at the British visitors), Queen’s Bath and the
Virupaksha temple. Elephant Stables are examples of this style.
The Virupaksha temple was built over You can notice the use of arches and domes
many centuries while inscriptions suggest in these buildings. They were covered with
that the earliest shrine dated to the ninth- chunam plaster and decorated with
tenth century. It was substantially enlarged elaborate floral and bird designs. It appears
with the establishment of the Vijayanagara that the kings and their nobles lived in these
Empire. The hall in front of the main shrine buildings and displayed their wealth and

cosmopolitan taste. However,
these buildings did not just
copy the designs of the
sultanate buildings. They
combined designs and
features of southern temples
with the arches and domes.
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The best example of this style Fig 22.10c Elephant stable.
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is in the Lotus Mahal, which
was probably a palace where the kings held Why do you think did the emperors
their meetings. of large kingdoms try to use
different styles of buildings?
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The most impressive remain of
Vijayanagara, the Mahanavami Dibba, is a
Gardens, Tombs and Forts
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high platform of 55 feet, that is, as tall as a Under the Mughals, architecture became
more complex. Mughal emperors were
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five floor building, and spread over 11000
personally interested in literature, art and
Sq.feet in area. Its height was increased at
architecture. In his autobiography, Babur
least three times during two hundred years.
described his interest in planning and laying
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The sides of the platform were covered with out formal gardens, placed within
sculptures of various kinds. It did not have rectangular walled enclosures and divided
a complete building on the top. The into four quarters by artificial channels.
platform was covered by cloth shamiana or These gardens were called chahar
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pandal supported by wooden pillars. The baghs, four gardens, because of their
Vijayanagara kings held their Navaratri Puja symmetrical division into 4-quarters.
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and Dussera court on this platform. All their Beginning with Akbar, some of the most
subordinate chiefs, nayakas and officers beautiful chahar baghs were constructed
by Jahangir and Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agra
paid their tributes to the Emperor in these
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and Delhi.
programs. Ambassadors from Europe and
There were several important
other sultanates also attended the festival. architectural innovations
during Akbar’s reign. For
inspiration, Akbar ’s
architects turned to the
tombs of his Central Asian
ancestor, Timur. The
central towering dome
and the tall gateway
Fig 22.10d Mahanavami dibba (pishtaq) became

important aspects of Mughal architecture, It was during Shah Jahan’s reign that
first visible in Humayun’s tomb. The tomb was the different elements of Mughal
placed in the centre of a huge formal chahar architecture were fused together in a
bagh and built in the tradition known as “eight grand harmonious synthesis. His reign
paradises” or hasht bihisht – a central hall witnessed a huge amount of construction
surrounded by eight rooms. The building was activity especially in Agra and Delhi. The
ceremonial halls of public and private
constructed with red sandstone, edged with
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audience (diwan-i-khas or diwan-i-
white marble.
aam) were carefully planned. These
AN
courts were also described as chihil
sutun or forty-pillared halls, placed
within a large courtyard.
Shah Jahan’s audience halls were
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specially constructed to resemble a
mosque. The pedestal on which his
N throne was placed was frequently
described as the qibla, the direction in
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which Muslims pray, since everybody
faced that direction when court was in
session. The idea of the king as a
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representative of God on earth was

suggested by these architectural
features.
The connection between royal justice
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and the imperial court was emphasised

Fig: 22.11 A painting of Babur supervising
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by Shah Jahan in his newly constructed

workers laying out a chahar bagh in Kabul.
court in the Red Fort at Delhi. Behind
Note how the intersecting channels on the path
create the characteristic chahar bagh design. the balcony of the emperor’s throne,
there were a series of pietra dura inlays
SC
that depicted the legendary Greek god
Fig: 22.13 A reconstruction from a map of

the river-front garden city of Agra. Note
Fig: 22.12 Tomb of Humayun, Can you see the how the garden palaces of the nobles are
water channels? placed on both banks of the Yamuna. The
Taj Mahal is on the left.

edge of the river and the garden was to its
south. In the new city of Shahjahanabad that
he constructed in Delhi, the imperial palace
commanded the river-front. Only specially
favoured nobles – like his eldest son Dara
Shukoh – were given access to the river.
All others had to construct their homes in
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the city away from the River Yamuna.
You are an artisan standing on a tiny
AN
wooden platform held together by
bamboo and rope fifty metres
above the ground. You have to place
G
an inscription under the first
Fig: 22.14 Tajmahal in Agra. balcony of the Qutb Minar. How
Orpheus playing the flute. It was believed
that Orpheus’s music could calm ferocious
N would you do this?
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beasts until they resided together
peacefully. The construction of Shah
Jahan’s audience hall aimed to
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communicate that the king’s justice would

treat the high and the low as equals where
all could live together in harmony.
In the early years of his reign, Shah
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Jahan’s capital was at Agra, a city where the

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nobility had constructed their homes on the

banks of the river Yamuna. These were set
in the midst of formal gardens constructed
in the chahar bagh format. The chahar
SC
bagh garden also had a variation that

historians describe as the “river-front
garden”. In this garden, the dwelling was not
located in the middle of the chahar bagh
but at its edge, close to the bank of the river.
Shah Jahan adapted the river-front
garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal, the
grandest architectural accomplishment of Fig: 22.15 Decorated pillars and struts holding
his reign. Here, the white marble the extension of the roof in Jodh Bai palace in
Fatehpur Sikri. They follow the architectural
mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the traditions of the Gujarat region.

Around the same time as the Mughals, the Qutb Fig: 22.16a Tomb of Hayath Bakshi Begum
Shahi rulers of Golconda (Hyderabad) engaged
in extensive building activities. These included
construction of Husain Sagar lake, the Golconda
fort, a large number of gardens with water channels
and fountains, and beautiful tombs for themselves.
The famous Charminar and Mecca Masjid were
A
built during their rule. They blended Persian,
AN
Mughal and Deccani styles.
G
N
LA
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Fig: 22.16 View of Qutb Shahi Tomb

Keywords :
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1. Inscriptions 2. Monuments
ER
3. Dynasty 4. Architecture
Fig: 22.16b The archways at the Qutb
5. Coronation Ceremony Shahi Tombs.
SC
1. How is the “trabeate” principle of architecture different from “arcuate”?

2. What is a shikhara?
3. What are the elements of a Mughal chahar bagh garden?
4. How did a temple communicate the importance of a king?
5. Read the second para of introduction part of page 198 and comment on it.
6. Is there a statue or a memorial in your village or town. Why was it placed there? What purpose does it
serve?
7. Visit and describe any park or garden in your neighbourhood. In what ways is it similar to or
different from the gardens of the Mughals?
8. Locate the following in the map of India.
a) Delhi b) Agra c) Amritsar d) Tanjavur e) Humpi f) River Yamuna
ACADEMIC STANDARDS (AS)
Time should be spent in making sure that children comprehend the passages given in text. In
between questions are useful in this context. These questions are of different types that would
include the aspects reasoning, cause and effect, justification, mind mapping / concept mapping,
observation, analysis, thinking and imagination, reflection, interpreting etc. The key concepts
have been discussed subconceptwise in every chapter with examples and also given in the
A
form of keywords.
AN
1) Conceptual understanding (AS1) : Promoting learning of basic concepts through inquiry,
discussion, reflection giving examples through case studies interpreting, observation etc.
2) Reading the text (given), understanding and interpretation (AS2) : Occasionally there
G
are case studies about farmers, labourers in factory, or images that are used in text which do
not directly convey the concept. Time should be given for children to grasp the main ideas,
interpret images etc.
N
3) Information skills (AS3): Textbooks alone cannot cover all different aspects of social studies
LA
methodology. For example, children living in an urban area can collect information regarding
their elected representatives or children living in the rural area can collect information about the
way irrigation / tank facilities are made available in their area. This information may not exactly
TE
match with that of the textbooks and will have to be clarified. Representing the information that
they have collected through projects are also an important ability. For example if they collect
information about a tank – they may decide to draw an illustration or map etc along with written
material. Or represent the information collected through images or posters. Information skill
T
includes, collection of information tabulation / records and analysis.

ER
4) Reflection on contemporary issues and questioning (AS4): Students need to be encouraged

to compare their living conditions along with that of different regions or people from different times.
There maynot be a single answer to these situations of comparison. Giving reasons for certain happening
process and justification of informatic and interpretative.
SC
5) Mapping skills (AS5) : There are different types of maps and pictures used in the textbook. Developing
ability related to maps as abstract representation of places is important. There are different stages of
developing this ability, from creating a map of their classroom to understanding height, distance as
represented in a map. There are illustrations, posters and photographs used in the textbook, these
images often relate to the text and are not merely for visual effect. Sometimes there are activities like
‘write a caption’ or ‘read the images’ that are about architecture etc.
6) Appreciation and Sensitivity (AS6) : Our country has vast diversity in terms of language,
culture, caste, religion, gender etc. Social studies does take into consideration these different
aspects and encourages students to be sensitive to these differences.
208 Academic Standards

Culture and Communication Social Studies
Appendix
This additional Information and the maps are to be used wherever
necessary.
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World Political Map
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India Physical Map
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World Outline Map
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Telangana Political Map
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Telangana State Symbols
Sl. No. State Symbol Common Name Telugu Name
1. State Animal Spotted Deer Jinka
2. State Bird Indian Roller Pala Pitta
3. State Tree Jammi Chettu Jammi
4. State Flower Tangedu Tangedu
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State Animal State Bird State Tree State Flower State Logo
National Symbols of India
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National Flag : National Symbol : Lion
Capital - Adopted from the
Designed by
Sri Pingali Venkaiah
N Emperor Asoka’s dharma stupa
established at Saranath.
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National Tree : National Flower :
Banyan tree Lotus
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National National Fruit :

Language : Hindi Mango
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National River : National Animal :

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Ganges Royal Bengal Tiger

Jana
National Anthem : gana National Bird :
Written by Sri mana... Peacock
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Ravindranath Tagore.
National Song : Vande Mataram National Aquatic
Written by Sri Bamkim Chandra
Animal : Dolphin
Chaterji
National Heritage
National Calendar : Animal : Elephant
Based on Shaka
Samvatsara ( Chaitra Indian Standard Time (IST) :
masam to Phalguna Based on 82 1/2 degrees East
masam). We follow the Longitude. Our local time is
Gregorian Calendar 5hrs.30min. ahead of Greenwich
officially. mean time(GMT).

Timeline of Satavahana Kings Timeline of Chola Kings
(230 BCE - 225 CE) (900 CE - 1279 CE)
Vijayalaya 850 CE - 871 CE
Srimukha 271 BCE - 248 BCE Aditya Chola 871 CE - 905 CE
Krishna 248 BCE - 230 BCE Parantaka - I 905 CE - 907 CE
Satakarni - I 230 BCE - 220 BCE Rajaraja - I 985 CE - 1016 CE
Satakarni - II 184 BCE - 128 BCE Rajaraja Chola 1016 CE - 1044 CE
Rajadhi Raja 1044 CE - 1052 CE
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Hala 42 CE - 51 CE
Veera Rajendra 1064 CE - 1069 CE
Goutamiputra Satakarni 62 CE - 86 CE
Kuluthonga Chola 1070 CE - 1121 CE
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Vasishtaputra Pulomavi 86 CE - 114 CE Rajaraja - II 1173 CE - 1178 CE
Sivasri Satakarni 114 CE - 128 CE Kuluthonga Chola -III 1178 CE - 1219 CE
Yagyasri Satakarni 128 A.D. - 157 CE Rajendra - III 1256 CE - 1270 CE
Telangana Fact Sheet
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Telangana Area : 1,12,077 sq km
Density : 307

Latitude extent
Longitudeval extent N :
:
15046’ N - 19047’ N
770 16’ Eastern longitude
81030’ Eastern longitude
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Country : India
Region : South India
Formed on : June 2nd, 2014
Capital : Hyderabad
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No. of Districts : 31
(Adilabad, Komarambheem, Bhadradri, Jayashankar, Jogulamba, Hyderabad, Jagitial, Janagoan,
Kama Reddy, Karimnagar, Khamma, Mahabubabad, Mahabubnagar, Manchiryal, Medak,
Medchal, Nalgonda, Nagarkurnool, Nirmal, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy, Peddapalli, Rajanna,
Sanga Reddy, Siddipet, Suryapet, Vikarabad, Wanaparthy, Warangal Urban, Warangal Rura,
Yadadri.)
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Official Languages : Telugu, Urdu

No.of Assembly seats : 119
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No.of Council seats : 40
No.of Lok sabha seats : 17
No.of Rajya sabha seats : 7
Important Rivers : Godavari, Krishna, Manjira, Musi
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No. of Zilla Praja Parishats : 9

No. of Mandal Praja Parishats : 443
No. of Municipal Corporations : 6
No. of Municipalities : 38
No. of Revenue Mandals : 464
No. of Gram Panchayats : 8778
Total Population (as per 2011 census) : 351.94 Lakhs
No. of Males : 177.04 Lakhs
No. of Females : 174.90 Lakhs
Sex Ratio (No. of Females per 1000 Males) : 988
Density of Population (per Sq.k.m.) : 307
Literacy Rate : 66.46%
Male Literacy Rate : 74.95%
Female Literacy Rate : 57.92%

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C

Sri C.N. Subramanyam, Prof. G. Omkarnath, Dept. of Economics,

Dr. C. Dayakar Reddy, Asst. Prof. Sri Rammurthy Sharma,

Textbook Development Committee

Smt. B. Seshu Kumari, Director, Sri B. Sudhakar, Director,

Hyderabad. Telangana, Hyderabad.

Dr. N. Upender Reddy,

% Published by Government of Telangana, Hyderabad. 5

i Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21

First Published 2012

of School Education, Hyderabad, Telangana.

This Book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. Maplitho,

Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card

Free Distribution by Government of Telangana 2020-21

Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 ii

Sri Vanguri Gangi Reddy, SA, ZPHS Kondurg, Mahabubnagar.

Smt. Hemakhatri, IGNIS, Hyd. (Proof reading)

Dr. Racharla Ganapathi, S.A., ZPHS Ladella, Warangal.

Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 iv

Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 vi

Theme - II: Production Exchange and Livelihoods

Theme -III: Political Systems and Governance

11. New Kings and Kingdoms 101-109 September

15. Establishment of the British Empire in India 135-146 November

16. Making of Laws in the State Assembly 147-157 December

17. Implementation of Laws in the District 158-164 December

Theme - IV: Social Organisation and Inequities

Theme - V: Religion and Society

Theme -VI: Culture and Communication

Revision & Annual Examinations March

Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!!

- Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao

I shall always strive to be worthy of it.

I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,

To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.

In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.”

Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 viii

Fig 1.4 Ice covered continent -

some of them in class VI.

Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Reading Maps of Different Kinds 3

Let us see how this is done.

Fig 1.6 Heights in Nimpur Village

Contour Lines constructed. If we have to lay roads in an

6. Read the para ‘Contour Lines’ on page 5 and

6 Diversity on the Earth Social Studies

Rain and Rivers

Discuss the following in the class: in

good drinking water and where do you consequences.

vapour became water drops and stuck to

Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 7

When will the evaporation be more,

evaporation would take place – from

explain how vapour

8 Diversity on the Earth Social Studies

atmosphere is known as humidity.

rise, we feel uncomfortable. We

Winds and Clouds

Free Distribution by Govt. of Telangana 2020-21 Rain and Rivers 9

10 Diversity on the Earth Social Studies