STARZ COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY
Second Semester 2018

Assignment One
Introduction to Database (ENRG 286)
Section 1

Instructor
Mr. Jethro B. Johnson
Student
DARLINGTON MEHLUE
ID: 2877

Submitted: MARCH 28, 2019

 Table of Content
1----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Introduction
2---------------------------------------------------------------------------- Discuss the history of database
3---------------------------------------------------- Discuss at least five (5) DBMS for each data model
4-------------------------------------------- Discuss the roles of data with examples or within contexts
5----------------------------------------- Do questions 1 & 2 of the ER Modeling Exercises document
Introduction

The lack of the ability to communicate, and share information, technology had offered a
great assistance.

The modern ages of Today, through information technology, allows us to live , communicate,
share information which springs up in actuality a life full of much stress and struggle.

The introduction of database has bring forth a easy way of living especially for the industrial
and the Enlightenment area in which all record and information is kept and obviously outlined
and declared, in as much as we have taken a deep drift and aspirations in the information
technology age which excites and tends to make life worth living easily. Moreover, with such
progressive development, it is with great importance that we all need a proper data collection
and organization for our businesses and entity. Nevertheless, it has not only become just a
business necessity but as a way of keeping-recording data (information) for future references,
to be presented to serve an assigned purpose to mankind.
1. Discuss the history of Database.

Ans: Databases are mundane, the epitome of the everyday in digital society. Despite the
enthusiasm and curiosity that such a ubiquitous and important item merits, arguably the
only people to discuss them are those with curiosity enough to thumb through the dry
and technical literature that chronicles the database’s ascension. Which is a shame,
because the use of databases actually illuminates so much about how we come to terms
with the world around us. The history of databases is a tale of experts at different times
attempting to make sense of complexity. As a result, the first information explosions of
the early computer era left an enduring impact on how we think about structuring infor-
mation. The practices, frameworks, and uses of databases, so pioneering at the time,
have since become intrinsic to how organizations manage data. If we are facing another
data deluge (for there have been many), it’s different in kind to the ones that preceded
it. The speed of today’s data production is precipitated not from a sudden appearance
of entirely new technologies but because the demand and accessibility has steadily risen
through the strata of society as databases become more and more ubiquitous and
essential to aspects of our daily lives. And turns out we’re not drowning in data; we
instead appear to have made a sort of unspoken peace with it, just as the Venetians and
Dutch before us. We’ve built edifices to house the data and, witnessing that this did
little to stem the flow, have subsequently created our enterprises atop and around
them. Surveying the history of databases illuminates a lot about how we come to terms
with the world around us, and how organizations have come to terms with us.

 Unit Records & Punch Card Databases

The history of data processing is punctuated with many high water marks of
data abundance. Each successive wave has been incrementally greater in
volume, but all are united by the trope that data production exceeds what
tabulators (whether machine or human) can handle. The growing amount of
data gathered by the 1880 US Census (which took human tabulators 8 of
the 10 years before the next census to compute) saw Herman Hollerith kick
start the data processing industry. He devised “Hollerith cards” (his
personal brand of punch card) and the keypunch, sorter, and tabulator unit
record machines. The latter three machines were built for the sole purpose
of crunching numbers, with the data represented by holes on the punch
cards. Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine Company was later merged with three
other companies into International Business Machines (IBM), an enterprise
that casts a long shadow over this history of databases.

 Punch Card Proliferation, Paper Data Reels & Data Drums

The revolution of data organization that punch cards instigated soon trans-
lated to domains other than governance, with companies eager to gain a
competitive edge turning to this revolutionary means of restructuring their
 administration and services. From 1910 to the mid-1960s, punch cards and
tabulating mechanisms were the prerequisite components of any office
environment. All the while IBM continued to corner the market on large-
scale, custom-built tabulating solutions for enterprise. Storage media diver-
sified: In addition to punch cards, businesses began to incorporate reels of
punched tape (which had long been used in textiles and player pianos) and
later magnetic tape (just like audio cassette tapes, but with 1s and 0s in lieu
of waveforms). These developments shared a common feature—the
manner in which the data was recorded was instrumental in determining
how it could then be accessed. Or in contemporary computer science
parlance: Information retrieval was wholly dependent on how data is mate-
rially organized. Images (above) indicate clever mechanical means of quickly
retrieving punch card information. In contrast, data tape required that one
spool through to a particular location in order to retrieve a desired record.

 File Systems

The file system was conceived as an overarching organizational paradigm

that closely resembled that of a filing cabinet. Records were treated as
discrete objects which could be placed in folders (or directories). These
folders could themselves be placed in other folders, creating a hierarchy
that terminated in a single directory which contained all records and child
folders. One such early file system, the Electronic Recording Machine
Accounting (ERMA) Mark 1, was developed to keep track of banking records
and adopted an organizational schema similar to Library Classification
systems. In this way every record (or book) was categorized broadly by
topic, each of which were enumerated; those topics could then be further
partitioned, at which point the subdivision was indicated by appending a
secondary values.

 Database Management Systems

1960s, navigational DBMS

As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose

database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems
had come into commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and
Charles Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data Store
(IDS), founded the "Database Task Group" within CODASYL, the group
responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL. In 1971, the
Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became
known as the "CODASYL approach", and soon a number of commercial
products based on this approach entered the market. The CODASYL
approach relied on the "manual" navigation of a linked data set which was
formed into a large network. Applications could find records by one of three
methods:

1. Use of a primary key (known as a CALC key, typically implemented by

hashing)
2. Navigating relationships (called sets) from one record to another
3. Scanning all the records in a sequential order

Later systems added B-trees to provide alternate access paths. Many

CODASYL databases also added a very straightforward query language.
However, in the final tally, CODASYL was very complex and required
significant training and effort to produce useful applications. IBM also
had their own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management
System (IMS). IMS was a development of software written for the Apollo
program on the System/360. IMS was generally similar in concept to
CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation
instead of CODASYL's network model. Both concepts later became
known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed, and
Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation was The Programmer as
Navigator. IMS is classified as a hierarchical database. IDMS and Cincom
Systems' TOTAL database are classified as network databases. IMS
remains in use as of 2014.

1970s, relational DBMS

Edgar Codd worked at IBM in San Jose, California, in one of their

offshoot offices that was primarily involved in the development of hard
disk systems. He was unhappy with the navigational model of the
CODASYL approach, notably the lack of a "search" facility. In 1970, he
wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database
construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking A
Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks. In this paper, he
described a new system for storing and working with large databases.
Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form
records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea was to use a "table" of fixed-length
records, with each table used for a different type of entity. A linked-list
system would be very inefficient when storing "sparse" databases where
some of the data for any one record could be left empty. The relational
model solved this by splitting the data into a series of normalized tables
(or relations), with optional elements being moved out of the main table
to where they would take up room only if needed. Data may be freely
inserted, deleted and edited in these tables, with the DBMS doing
whatever maintenance needed to present a table view to the
application/user. In the relational model, records are "linked" using
virtual keys not stored in the database but defined as needed between
the data contained in the records. The relational model also allowed the
content of the database to evolve without constant rewriting of links
and pointers. The relational part comes from entities referencing other
entities in what is known as one-to-many relationship, like a traditional
hierarchical model, and many-to-many relationship, like a navigational
(network) model. Thus, a relational model can express both hierarchical
and navigational models, as well as its native tabular model, allowing for
pure or combined modeling in terms of these three models, as the
application requires. For instance, a common use of a database system
is to track information about users, their name, login information,
various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach, all
of this data would be placed in a single record, and unused items would
simply not be placed in the database. In the relational approach, the
data would be normalized into a user table, an address table and a
phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these
optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually
provided.

Linking the information back together is the key to this system. In the
relational model, some bit of information was used as a "key", uniquely
defining a particular record.

Late 1970s, SQL DBMS

IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's

concepts as System R in the early 1970s. The first version was ready in
1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data
could be split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is
optional) did not have to be stored in a single large "chunk". Subsequent
multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by
which time a standardized query language – SQL– had been added.
Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and
superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version
of System R, known as SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (DB2). Larry
Ellison's Oracle Database (or more simply, Oracle) started from a
different chain, based on IBM's papers on System R. Though Oracle V1
implementations were completed in 1978, it wasn't until Oracle Version
2 when Ellison beat IBM to market in 1979. Stonebraker went on to
apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres,
which is now known as PostgreSQL. PostgreSQL is often used for global
mission critical applications (the .org and .info domain name registries
use it as their primary data store, as do many large companies and
financial institutions).
1980s, on the desktop

The 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing. The new

computers empowered their users with spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3
and database software like dBASE. The dBASE product was lightweight
and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box. C. Wayne
Ratliff, the creator of dBASE, stated: "dBASE was different from
programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty
work had already been done. The data manipulation is done by dBASE
instead of by the user, so the user can concentrate on what he is doing,
rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading,
and closing files, and managing space allocation. dBASE was one of the
top selling software titles in the 1980s and early 1990s.

1990s, object-oriented

The 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming, saw a

growth in how data in various databases were handled. Programmers
and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects. That
is to say that if a person's data were in a database, that person's
attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age, were now
considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data.
This allows for relations between data to be relations to objects and
their attributes and not to individual fields. The term "object-relational
impedance mismatch" described the inconvenience of translating
between programmed objects and database tables. Object databases
and object-relational databases attempt to solve this problem by
providing an object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL)
that programmers can use as alternative to purely relational SQL. On the
programming side, libraries known as object-relational mappings
(ORMs) attempt to solve the same problem.

2000s, NoSQL and NewSQL

XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database

that allows querying based on XML document attributes. XML databases
are mostly used in applications where the data is conveniently viewed
as a collection of documents, with a structure that can vary from the
very flexible to the highly rigid: examples include scientific articles,
patents, tax filings, and personnel records. NoSQL databases are often
very fast, do not require fixed table schemas, avoid join operations by
storing denormalized data, and are designed to scale horizontally. In
recent years, there has been a strong demand for massively distributed
databases with high partition tolerance, but according to the CAP
 theorem it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously
provide consistency, availability, and partition tolerance guarantees. A
distributed system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same
time, but not all three. For that reason, many NoSQL databases are
using what is called eventual consistency to provide both availability and
partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency.
NewSQL is a class of modern relational databases that aims to provide
the same scalable performance of NoSQL systems for online transaction
processing (read-write) workloads while still using SQL and maintaining
the ACID guarantees of a traditional database system.

2. Discuss at least five (5) DBMS for each data model

Ans: To adequately discuss in detailed five DBMS for data models we must firstly take in to
considerations Types/Kinds of data models; however, there are four primary types of Data
models but there are also many others-they can be named as follow:
1. Hierarchical Data Model- represents and displays data as a hierarchical tree structure. Each
branch of the hierarchy represents a number of related records; has in a Parent-Child
relationship one record is the host for the other. The relationships among data in this type of
data model are established in such a way that one data item is present as the subordinate of
another one or a sub unit. DBMS for this Data model are:
-IBM IMS the IMS (Information Management System) DBMS Database component stores data
using a hierarchical model, which is quite different from IBM's later released relational
database, DB2. In IMS, the hierarchical model is implemented using blocks of data known as
segments. Each segment can contain several pieces of data, which are called fields.
-Windows Registry is a hierarchical database that stores low-level settings for the Microsoft
Windows operating system and for applications that operates to use the Windows Registry
DBMS.
- MS Word this application is an office suite that is used most as a DBMS rarely to
create/represent Hierarchical data.
2. Relational Data Model- represents data as relations or tables. Better still, can be stated as it
is an approach to managing data using a structure and language consistent with first-order
predicate logic, first described in 1969 by Edgar F. Codd, where all data is represented in terms
of tuples, grouped into relations. DBMS for this Data model are:
- SQL Server this is a software from Microsoft corporation. It’s a relational database
management system. The enterprise software programs and websites use this database
software for storing and retrieving digital data.
- Oracle is an object-relational DBMS which is written in assembly language, C, C++. The DBMS
stores data logically in the form of table spaces and physically in the form of data files.
- Microsoft Access is a database management system (DBMS) from Microsoft that combines
the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software-
development tools.
- MySQL it is an open-source relational database management system. It is written in C and C+
+.
- PostgreSQL is an object-relational database management system (ORDBMS) with an
emphasis on extensibility and standards compliance. It can handle workloads ranging from
small single-machine applications to large Internet-facing applications (or for data
warehousing) with many concurrent users; on macOS Server, PostgreSQL is the default
database; and it is also available for Microsoft Windows and Linux (supplied in most
distributions).
3. Network Data Model represents data as record types. This model also represents a limited
type of one to many relationship called a set type as well as representing it in the relationships
among data in the database are of type many-to-many. The relationships among many-to-many
appears in the form of a network. DBMS for this Data model are:
- Integrated Database Management System CA IDMS is primarily a network database
management for mainframes. One of the sophisticated features of IDMS was its built-in
integrated data dictionary. The IDD was primarily developed to maintain database definitions. It
was itself an IDMS database. The language used to interface with this database was called Data
Dictionary Definition Language (DDDL).
- RDM Server this is an embeddable, heterogeneous, client/server DBMS supporting both C/C+
+ and SQL APIs for programming flexibility. The databases can be disk resident and/or memory
resident.
- Integrated Data Store this DBMS was designed in the 1960s at the computer division of
General Electric. It was released in 1964, it wasn’t easy to use or implement applications with
IDS, because it was designed to maximize performance using the hardware available at that
time.
- TurboImage is one of several names used to refer to a database developed by Hewlett
Packard and included with the HP3000 minicomputer. It is the primary reason that the HP300
was a success. It is a reliable, simple, fast database for mainframe computer realtime operating
system made by Hewelett-Packard.
3. Entity-Relational Data Model (ER model for short) describes interrelated things of interest in
a specific domain of knowledge. A basic ER model is composed of entity types (which classify
the things of interest) and specifies relationships that can exist between instances of those
entity types graphically. DBMS for this Data model are:
-MS Word this application is an office suite that is used most as a DBMS often to
create/represent ER model.
-Corel Draw is a software for graphics and designs; however, it is used by Database
administrators to illustrate ER modeling in summits, jobs interview, etc.
-Paint 3D is a Windows system base software that is sometimes used for data presenting such
as ER modeling data.
-Adobe Illustrator is an adobe product basically use for enhancements of data (files, images,
texts, drawing, designing, etc.) but is rarely used for ER modeling.
4. Flat File Data Model the flat (or table) model consists of a single, two-dimensional array of
data elements, where all members of a given column are assumed to be similar values, and all
members of a row are assumed to be related to one another. For instance, columns for name
and password that might be used as a part of a system security database. Each row would have
the specific password associated with an individual user. Columns of the table often have a type
associated with them, defining them as character data, date or time information, integers, or
floating point numbers. This tabular format is a precursor to the relational model. DBMS for this
Data model are:
- MS Excel (Spreadsheet) is an interactive computer application for organization, analysis and
storage of data in tabular form.
- Word processor is an electronic device or computer software application that performs the
task of composing, editing, formatting, and printing of documents.
- WebDNA is a server-side scripting, interpreted language with an embedded database system,
specifically designed for the World Wide Web. Its primary use is in creating database-driven
dynamic web page applications.
-Word Pad a Windows base application that is also rarely in places of Excel, and other data
table creating application tools.
-

3. Discuss the roles of data with examples or within contexts

Ans: The roles of Data are:

To Identify
Data helps to identify in many instances. For a context where I am a Database administrator of
an office equipment cooperation, and I want to identify which the company’s office equipment
is being mostly bought by schools with the lowest profits. I would refer to the data which is the
sale transaction ledger or the receipt books of all the office equipment that are sold to Schools
with low profits; to know/identify such office equipment.
To explain
in the case where I am a data analyst for school institution and my school has a board. I could
use the data (grade sheets) to explain to the board why we need to revise the school’s
curriculum in order to improve the students’ performance.
To administer
since to administer means to manage. In this same case of being a school’s data analyst I could
refer to some of the attendance and other statistics of the students to make sure they are in
class and serve as a better administrator by asking the teachers to improve their lessons and
use a different approach. In that sense I am using the data (attendance and students’ statistics)
to administer the school better.
To plan
Using data to plan is one of the most common usage of data. Like for the first scenario as a
database administrator; I could use the office equipment’s sale transactions ledger to plan the
flow of sales of the kind of office equipment for each fiscal period.
To monitor
Data helps to monitor in many cases. In the context where I am a building project manager I
would need to collect data on the amount of materials being used by the builders to know and
monitor how the project is going.
To analyze
Data would help me analyze in the instance where I am a student taking a chemistry test, I
would have to use the data given in the test question to analyze it into the formula in order to
work the problem.
To implement
In the case of me being a building constructor, I would need to refer to my plan and estimate to
build a house and make sure I use the right amount of equipment.
To make decisions
Data collected from surveys sometimes help government and major organizations make
decisions on how to organize their budget and use their funds. It helps them to make major
decisions on probably cutting down staff or adding to their workforce.

4. Do questions 1 & 2 of the ER Modeling Exercises document

Q1: What is the cardinality and existence of each of the following relationships in just the
direction given? State any assumptions you have to make.

1. Husband to wife1:1
2. Student to degree:1
3. Child to parent1:N
4. Player to team1:N
5. Student to course. M:N

Ans: 1. Husband to Wife is a One to One cardinality degree relationship. By custom

(worldwide perspective and basically Christians) One man to a wife.
2. Student to Degree is One to Many Cardinality degree relationship. Like for instance, at
Starz College here we are many students chasing a degree (BSc in IT).
3. Child to Parent is a one to many cardinality degree relationship; simply cause a child is
birth by two individuals, has in, a child is of singularity and parents are of plurality.
4. Player to team is a one to many cardinality degree relationship; because a team is one
unique entity that incorporates many players…many players plays for a team.
5. Student to Course is a many to many cardinality degree relationship; as many
students plans many courses……

Q2: For each of the following pairs of rules, identify two entity types and one relationship.
State the cardinality and existence of the relationship in each case. If you don’t think enough
information is available to define either of these, then state an assumption that makes it clear.
Draw the ER diagram.

1. A department employs many persons. A person is employed by, at most, one

department.

Department 1 Employs M Person

 2. A manager manages, at most, one department. A department is managed by, at most,
one manager.

Manager 1 Manages 1 Department

3. An author may write many books. A book may be written by many authors.

Author M Writes M Book

4. A team consists of many players. A player plays for only one team.

Team 1 Consist of M Player

5. A lecturer teaches, at most, one course. A course is taught by exactly one lecturer.

Lecturer 1 1 Course
Teaches
6. A flight-leg connects two airports. An airport is used by many flight-legs.

Flight leg M M Airports

connects

7. A purchase order may be for many products. A product may appear on many purchase
orders.

M M
Purchase Consists of Products
order
8. A customer may submit many orders. An order is for exactly one customer.

1 M
Customer Gives Order

Bibliography

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database#Database_management_system

Database Designs-2nd Edition by Adrienne Watt and Nelson Eng

https://a_brief_history_of_Databases.avant.org

and the notes.