Design of

Water
Distribution
Network

Submittes to:
Sir Shams Tabraiz
Group Investigators
Zainab bibi
13-ENV-22
Omaya Tariq
13-ENV-10

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DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

DEDICATION

We dedicate these humble efforts to our sweet

parents whose love
Prayer and financial support enabled us to
Complete this project of water distribution
network

ZAINAB BIBI
OMAYA TARIQ

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“Gratitude is a feeling which is more eloquent than words, more than

silent than silence”

All praise and thanks for ALLAH ALMIGHTY The most gracious and Merciful, real
bless of the universe, whom I never heard ‗Nay, whenever I knocked at His door,
who gave me the ability to contribute a drop of awareness and cognition from the
existing ocean of knowledge and wisdom. I offer my countless salutation on the
‗HOLY PROPHET MUHAMMAD‘ (PBUH) the entire source of guidance for
humanity as a whole forever.
We pay thanks to all our teachers and professors. We are extremely thankful
to our Advisor MR.SHAMS TABRAIZ who not only helped us in selecting this
project but also worked hard with us in each and every field of this project in short
we may not be able to complete this project without his kind support.
It is a fact that we would not be successful in our aim without the sincere
prayers, help and Encouragement of our Parents, Brothers, sisters and Friends.
ZAINAB BIBI
OMAYA TARIQ

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 ABOUT PROJECT

Project Title WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Internal Guide Mr. Shams Tabriz

Team Size Two Person

Prepared By Zainab Bibi 13-ENV-22

Omaya Tariq 13-ENV-10

Project Submitted University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila

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 INDEX

Ch No. CONTENTS Page No.

Ch.1 IMPORTANCE OF WATER 10

1.1 Water Requirements 10

1.2 Importance of water in human body 10

1.3 Purposes of water supply scheme 11

1.4 objective 11

1.5 Strategies 12

1.6 Key principals 12

1.7 Administration 13

1.8 Finance 13

1.9 Development impact 13

1.10 Planning activities 13

Ch .2 Water Supply scheme 14

2.1 Component of water supply scheme 14

2.1.1 Collection works 15

2.1.1.1 Ground water source 16

2.1.1.2 Surface water source 16

2.1.1.3 Reservoirs 16

2.1.1.4 Advantage of ground water 18

2.2 Treatments works 18

2.2,1 Tyoes of impurities 18

2.3 Transmission works 20

2.4 Distribution works 21

2.4.1 Requirements for good distribution system 21

2.4.2 Layout of water distribution system 22

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 2.4.3 Dead end system 22

2.4.3.1 Advantages of dead end system 22

2.4.3.2 Disadvantages of dead end system 23

2.4.4 Grid iron or looped system 23

2.4.4.1 Advantages of looped system 23

2.4.4.2 Disadvantages of looped system 23

2.4.5 Method of water distribution system 23

2.4.5.1 Gravity distribution 24

2.4.5.2 Direct pumping 24

2.4.5.3 Pumping with storage 25

2.4.6 Type of supply 25

2.4.7 Over head tank 26

2.4.8 Fire system 26

2.4.9 Distribution reservoir 27

2.4.10 Type of pipe 28

2.4.11 Valves and their types 30

2.4.12 Types of well 32

2.4.13 Intake structures 33

Per Capita wayer consumption
Ch.3 Water demand 34

3.1 Per capita water consumption 34

3.2 Different demand of water 34

3.3 fire
Fire demand 36
demands
3.3.1 Direct system 36

3.3.2 Indirect system 37

3.4 Factors affecting water consumption 37

3.5 Variation in water demand 40

3.6 Average daily demand 41

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3.7 Maximum daily demand 41

3.8 Peak hourly demand 41

3.9 Yield, safe yield, draft 41

Ch. 4 Design criteria 42

4.1 Definition of design criteria 42

4.2 Components of design criteria 42

component
4.2.1 Design population 43

4.2.1.1 Method for estimation of future population 43

4.2.2 Design period 50

4.2.3 Minimum velocity 52

4.2.4 Maximum velocity 52

4.2.5 Minimum residual pressure 52

4.2.6 Per capita water demand 52

4.2.7 Flow 52

4.2.8 Diameter 52

4.2.9 Roughness coefficient 53

4.2.10 Mass diagram (volume of reservoir) 56

Ch.5 Hydraulics of water supply scheme 58

5.1 Hazen William equation 58

5.2 Hydraulics radius 58

5.3 Hydraulic gradient 59

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5.4 Head loss 59

5.5 Design of branched system 61

5.6 Hardy- cross method 61

5.7 Test applied after construction of WDN 64

5.7.1 Leakage test 64

5.7.2 Disinfection test 65

Ch.6 Case study of bahria town phase-6 66

6.1 Design criteria 67

6.1.1 Calculation of per capita water demand 67

6.1.2 Design population 68

6.1.3 Minimum residual pressure 68

6.1.4 Velocity of water in pipe 68

6.1.5 Roughness coefficient 68

6.1.6 Demand multiplier 68

6.2.1 Draw pipeline, node 68

6.2.2 Over head tank 68

6.2.3 Demand on each node 69

6.3 Application of hardy cross method(EPANET) 71

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Water Supply Scheme
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C HAPTER # 01

IMPORTANCE OF WATER
Water is important for living things including plant, soil, commercial, industrial and public use its
most important use is as a fire hydrant.
Water is synonymous to life as living object cannot live without water. People are wasting water
on daily basis no one can understand the needs and importance of water. We feel it greater
importance when water get scarce due to pollution because fresh and clean water is a limited
resource as water portion on earth is mostly consist of 97% saline water. It is consumed only
when undergoes desalination which is an expensive process. Due to human activities drought and
contamination conditions further limits the excess to water so people have to take step to reduce
water use, avoid waste and save much water as possible. Water plays an important role in
religion, mythology and art. Water in many religions cleanness the soul through the holy water.
The moment of ocean has a direct effect on atmosphere. The atmosphere is envelope of gas that
keeps organism living in planet. Ocean and atmosphere interact to give as weather. In the United
State it is mandated by the law that citizen should be given clean and abundant water.

WATER REQUIREMENTS:

 5,700 liters per day per person available

 Each person requires
 2 liters per day to drink
 100 liters per day for house hold needs
 500-2000 liters per day for agriculture for industry and energy.

IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN HUMAN BODAY:

75% of human body is consists of water so it is clear that water has a prime importance on earth.
Adult body contains 42 liters of water on average. If the water lose is about 2.7 liters then he can
suffer from dehydration, and shows symptoms of irritability, fatigue, nervousness, dizziness,
weakness, headache, and finally reach a stage of pathology. 50% of diseases cause by unhygienic
water. 3.4 million people‘s died due to water born diseases caused by unhygienic water. Water
born diseases more affect the children because they have low immunity. Human body primarily

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water. Water provides a medium for blood formation. It helps the food to move through digestive
tract and removes waste from each cell.

HYDRATION:

Water hydrate the body by serving the purpose of lubricant to moistened and to protect eyes,
brains, and spinal cord. The digestive system use water for bold saliva and digestive fluid to help
in the transportation of nutrients and removal of waste product. Water helps the food to move
through intestine which is important in preventing constipation.

ELECTROLYTE:

Water provide medium for electrolytes to circulate throughout your body. Electrolyte are the
minerals sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, these provide transportation of
glucose and amino acids in and out of cell. Each electrolyte is balance by equal but opposite
charge of another to manage the flow of nutrients to cells and waste from cells.

TEMPERATURE REGULATIONS:

Water has a chemical property to absorb and release heat to maintain the temperature of
environment. Body temperature must be maintains within a narrow range and water removes
excesses heat from the body through the evaporation of sweat.

PURPOSES OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEME:

Establish the purpose of the water supply. Why is the water supply needed? Who will use the
water and for what activities? What is the problem with the current situation and how will the
proposed water supply project alleviate the problem?

OBJECTIVES:

Set broad objectives, or goals, first for the operational phase and then for the project phase. It is
important to look at operational objectives first, and use these to establish the objectives for the
project phase; otherwise there is a risk that the water supply system will operate inefficiently,
even if the project phase was completed successfully. The objectives of a water supply project
should include the following:

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 The provision of water for domestic consumption and personal hygiene in terms of the
Water Services Authority‘s by-laws.

 The improvement of the quality of the existing supplies

 The improvement of the availability of water to the community
 Community involvement and commitment.
 The improvement of public health.
 The improvement of the living standards of the community.
 The development of local technical, financial and administrative skills.
 The improvement of the economic potential of the community

STRATEGIES:

An overall strategy is needed to guide the project through various stages into the operational
phase.

KEY PRINCIPLES:

As a general guide, design of all water services distribution network infrastructure take into
account the following core principles:

 Regulatory framework - planners must be aware of the regulatory framework and its
potential impact on options and implementation programs relating to the provision of water
supply and sewerage services. The regulatory framework includes legislative drivers relevant to
the water services businesses as well as quasi regulatory requirements applied by local
governments within the SEQ water service area;
 Planning and design process – planning and design should follow an iterative process which
seeks to balance infrastructure, operation and maintenance, financial, and environmental aspects
to achieve the defined outcomes;
 Option Analysis – design should include a comprehensive and rigorous identification of all
options to meet the defined outcomes. These options are to include non-asset solutions; and
 Stakeholder involvement - key stakeholders should be identified and involved at all stages of
the process.

BY-LAWS:

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Note should be taken of the by-laws of the Water Services Authority. The following aspects are of
particular importance where Water Services Development Plans are incomplete or unclear:

Administration:

The community should be involved in the planning, implementation and maintenance phases of
the project (preferably through an independent committee of community representatives).

Finance:

Subsidisation of the scheme by bodies outside the community is restricted to the provision of the
basic level of service prescribed in government policy documents. The community must also be
able to bearthe operational costs involved. There are, however, exceptions to the rule, which can
be found in the policy documents. No water supply system should be planned in the absence of a
tariff structure and expense-recovery mechanism, agreed to by the client community. The client
community must be able to pay for its basic operation and maintenance, with due regard to the
free basic water policy of the National Government.

DEVELOPMENT IMPACT:

Maximum use should be made of local manpower and materials, with training given where
appropriate. Where possible, local contractors and entrepreneurs should be employed. However,
the technologies employed – including labour-based construction methods – should be cost-
effective.

HEALTH:

The improvement of the quality of services should be driven by increased community awareness
of health related problems and their causes. For example, improvements in living standards and
public health in a community may be impossible to achieve unless hygiene education is provided
and sanitation improvements are made concurrently with an improvement in water supply.

PLANNING ACTIVITIES:

The objectives, strategy and policies must provide sound guidelines for formulating and executing
the activities, tasks and sub-tasks required to reach the given set of objectives. The completion of
an activity should result in an objective being met.

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C HAPTER # 02

WATER SUPPLY SCHEME

COMPONENTS OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEME:

There are four main components of water supply scheme components:

1. Collection works
2. Treatment works
3. Transmission work
4. Distribution work

Figure 1 Components of water supply scheme

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 Figure 2 Uptake and distribution

1) COLLECTION WORKS:

„In collection works we manage source that can provide enough quantity water for
future and for future‟

In collection work a quantity/amount of water is arranged for a community. The design of this
system is for next 25 years according to the budget, it means the life of system is based on budget.

A water supply system cannot service its customers unless there is a continuous supply of water
to meet domestic consumption needs in the broadest sense and water needs for structural fire
protection. So in collection work we count/people of community and supply them water from the
source according to their needs.

In this system untreated or raw water is collected from either the ground water (A unit of rock or
an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water) or
from the surface water (stream, river, wetland or ocean). We sort out the sources which can
provide required amount of water.

TYPE OF WATER SOURCES:

There are two main types of sources:

 Ground Water Source

 Surface Water Source

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GROUND WATER SOURCE:
Ground water generally will be considered the most readily available source of water because it
can be tapped from below the water table beneath the earth. In contrast, surface waters may not
be readily available. In many cases, impounding reservoirs provide adequate water for large
communities. The water then must be piped some distance to service the community. The
quality of the water also may need to be considered when investigating surface waters because of
pollution, which may render available water unusable for potable water supplies, even if complete
treatment is provided. So are first preferences is Ground Water because in ground water there are
less impurities.

Ground water generally will be considered the most readily available source of water because it
can be tapped from below the water table beneath the earth. In contrast, surface waters may not
be readily available. In many cases, impounding reservoirs provide adequate water for large
communities. The water then must be piped some distance to service the community. The
quality of the water also may need to be considered when investigating surface waters because of
pollution, which may render available water unusable for potable water supplies, even if complete
treatment is provided. But this is not true for all the cases, although are first preferences is ground
water but sometimes it may get contaminated for example in Kasoor, tanneries Chromium Salt
concentration is higher because this salt is used in made leather.

SURFACE WATER SOURCES:

The water which is found above the surface of the earth is called surface water such as creeks,
lakes, rivers, oceans etc.

Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation, and naturally lost through discharge to the
ocean, evaporation and sub-surface seepage.

Natural surface water system can be augmented by importing surface water from anther
watershed through a canal or pipeline.

RESERVOIR:
A reservoir is an enlarged natural or artificial lake, storage pond or impoundment. The purpose of
reservoir is the storage of water. They can be constructed in river valley using a dam. The term
reservoir can also be referred to as an underground reservoir which occurs naturally such as water
wells or oil wells etc

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There are two main types of reservoir:

 Ground water reservoir

 Surface water reservoir

GROUND WATER RESERVIOR:

Ground water reservoir is in the form of tube well. A tube well is a type of water well and it is
designed in such a way that it is 100-2000 millimeters (3.9-7.9) wide stainless pump or pipe is
bored into an ground water. The pipe lower end is fixed with strainer and pumps at the top lifts
water for irrigation. The depth of well depend on the depth of water table. Tube well is
constructed. For underground water reservoirs design capacity is 5 years. If overhead tank is
present in water supply system then we will design our collection work on maximum daily
demand. If it is peak hour then our reservoir will balance the needs. If there is average demand
then tube well will supply the water to the houses and also fill the overhead tank. For maximum
demand only tube well will supply the water to the communities and if there is peak hourly
demand then tube well and overhead tank both will supply water to the communities.

Figure 3 Bored well

The ground water reservoir can be further divided into confined and unconfined reservoir:
a) Confined reservoir

b) Unconfined reservoir

When a well is constructed into an unconfined aquifer, the water level in the well remains,
temporarily, at the same altitude at which it was first found in drilling

• CONFINED RESERVOIR :water is closed within the two impermeable layers.

 UNCONFINED RESERVOIR: water is not confined, there is a permeable layer also

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SURFCAE WATER RESERVOIR:
Surface water reservoir is in the form of dams. It is a structure constructed in a surface water
source for drawing water. For surface water reservoirs design period is 50 years. A water works
intake is a structure placed in a surface water source to draw water from them There are proper
intake structures for the surface water. There are many pipes in it for various qualities of water for
different purposes.

ADVANTAGES OF GROUND WATER AS COMPARED TO SURFACE

WATER:

1. Ground water requires only tertiary treatment for the removal of heavy metals. But surface
water requires primary, secondary and tertiary treatment.
2. Groundwater is cheaper than constructing Compounding reservoir
3. Ground waters have uniform temperature throughout the layer but surface water does not
have. In surface water reservoirs there is a certain layer below which the temperature of water
changes. That layer is called THERMOCLINE LAYER.
4. In ground water only only boring is required to pull water.
5. Fewer impurities are present in ground water because it is naturally filtered through strata.

2) TREATMENT WORKS:

Depending upon the types of impurities a design need treatments. In this work water is treated
according to its requirement or its usage. For surface water more treatment is required and for
ground water less treatment is required because surface water is more liable to contamination. The
major objective of water purification is to make water safe for different purposes. Treated water is
used for drinking purposes and irrigation purposes etc. treatment can be done at any point either at
the intake structure or after the transmission lines.

Raw water may contains different types of pollutants. There are different types of impurities
present in raw water.

Types of impurities

a) Physical impurities( colour, turbidty, temperature, taste, odour,)

b) Chemical impurities( PH, acidity, alkalnity, hardness etc)
c) Microbiological impurities( bacteria , viruses)

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 d) Radiological (radium, radan, barium)

PHYSICAL IMPURITIES:

In surface the chances of physical impuities are more. These impurties in physical treatment can
be removed by screeing,settling, sedimentation, filtration, distillation.

For floating particles ——> screning,

For suspended particles ——> settling,

For haevy metal ions ——> reverse osmosis, ion exchange process, membrane filtration.

CHEMICAL IMPURITIES:

The chemical impuriies can be removed by coagulation, dinfection.

MICROBIOLOGICAL IMPURITIES:
The microbiological impurities can br removed by ozonaton, chlorination, UV disinfection. They
can also be removed by slow sand filters and biologically active carbon.

Figure 4 Slow sand filtration

If fecal coliform is used as an indicator for the treatment, then it is the strong possible of presence
of pathogens. Fecal coliform are very senstive means they require suitable/favourable conditions,
in which they can grow easily. So if they are present then the chances of the present of other
sensitive bacteria is more. The fecal coliform are present in very high concentration in human
faeces. So if coliform are present, it indicate presences of sewage.

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RADIOLOGICAL IMURITIES:

Depending upon their state they may be radium, radon, UV which gives alpha particles on decay.
They can also be removed by chlorination, UV radiation process.The concntration of radiological
particles in drinking water must be zero.

The standards of water safe for drinking by governments or by international standards. Turbidity
should be less than 5 NTU

Figure 5 Process involved in water treatment works

3) TRANSMISSION WORKS:
The design period for transmission work is for 25 years. It is designed on average work.The
transmission lines carry water from the intake e.g stream, river, oceans and carry that water to the
city. The material for pipe line is selected by considering ground fabrication, corrosion resistance,
durability, abrasion through chemicals, pipe are being tested as in case of water supply and waste
water project of Bangalore. Most appropriate coating is advised both internally and externally. If
necessary, catholic protection is given. The installation cost should also be less and economical.

In this we made pumping stations which supply water to the communities. If the source is far
away then intermediate pumping stations are used.

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 Figure 6 Transmission lines of water

4) DISTRIBUTION WORKS:

These are the pipes which carry water after transmission lines and provide water within the city.
Water distribution system consists of an interconnected series of pipes, storage facilities, and
components that convey drinking water and meeting the fire protection demand for domestic,
Commerical, industrial, fire fighting purposes. The purpose of distribution system is to deliver
water to consumer with appropiate quality, quantity, and pressure. Distribution system is used to
describe collectively the facilities used to supply water from its source to the point of usage.

REQIUREMENTS OF GOOD DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

a) Mantainance of the distribution system should be easy and economical.

b) It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure
head.
c) Pressures should be greater enough to adequately meet fire fighting demand.
d) Adequate water pressure at the consumers taps for a sufficient rate of flow (i.e pressure should
be greater enough to meet the consumers demand)
e) The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during the repair
of any section of the system.
f) All the distribution pipes should be perferably laid one metre away or above the sewer lines.
g) It should be fairly water tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.
Water should remain available during breakdown periods of pipeline. System of distribution
should not such that if one pipe bursts, it puts a large area without water. If a particular pipe
length is under repair and has been shut down, the water to the population living in the down
stream side of this pipeline should be available from he other pipelines.

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LAYOUT OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:
The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of the road.

There are two main types of layout which are:

1.Dead end (for improper planned area) or tree system

2. Grid iron or looped (for properly planned area)

DEAD END SYSTEM:

It is suitable for old towns and cities having define no pattern of roads.

Figure 7 Dead end distribution system

ADVANTAGES OF DEAD END SYSTEM:

a) Relatively cheap and simple
b) Short pipelines are required.
c) Less or no cutt off valves are required
d) Can be extended easily.
DISADVANTAGES OF DEAD END SYSTEM:

a) In this system water can be particular point only through one route. So supplies fire fghting
can not be divided from any other pipe.
b) The area receiving water from a pipe under repair is without water untill the work is complete.
c) It is difficult to maintain chlorine residual at the dead end of the pipe.
d) Stagnation of water occur.

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e) Any damage or repair in any pipe line will completely stop water supply in the area and lead
to inconvenient for consumer.

GRID IRON OR LOOPED SYSTEM:

It is suitable for cities with retangular layout, where water mains and branches are laid in
rectangles.

Figure 8 Grid iron system

In grid pattern, all the pipes are interconnected with no dead ends. In such a system, water can
reach any point from more than one direction and consists of
 Reservior
 Main line
ADVANTAGES OF GIRD IRON OR LOOPED SYSTEM:

a) Water remain in continuous circulation and does not remain stagnant.

b) Water reaches from different places so the size of pipe is reduced.
c) In the case of a breakdown in some section, water is available from some other section.
d) Well pressure is available in the pipe.
e) Water reacher all the pipes with minimun head loss.
DISADVANTAGES OF GIRD IRON OR LOOPED SYSTEM:

a) Hard and lengthy to solve.

b) Calculation is very tedious job.
c) It is costier than branched system.

METHODS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

For efficient distribution system adequate water pressure required at various points. Depending
upon the level of source, topography of the area and other conditions the water may be forced into
distrbution system by following ways:

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1) Gravity Distribution.
2) Direct pumping
3) Pumping with storage.

GRAVITY DISTRIBUTION:
It is possible when source of water, lake, well etc. are at high elevtion as compared to community.
In this case water will flow under gravity very luckily the planner find source at higher elevation.
There will be no pumping unit. OHT is required. Water flows under the gravity.

Figure 9 Gravity distribution system

DIRECT PUMPING:
In this method pump frces water directly into the main as consumption varies. As pressure
fluctuating into the main. If pumping is done electrically then increase of consumption or problem
in pump. So OHT tank is preferrable in this case.

Figure 10 direct pumping

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PUMPING WITH STORAGE:
It is the common method of water distribution is used in plain areas. Water is pumped to elevated
storage tanks. The excess water is stored in tank and be consumed at maximum demand. This
method helps in equalizing the pumping rate and maintain uniform pressure in the system. The
stored water provides a sources for fire flow and ensures a reliable general purpose when power
failure occurs. In storage tank water is stored to equalize pumping rate, supply and demand and to
fulfill the demand of emergencies. Elevated storage tanks are to constructed to minimize pressure
variations. Capacities of tanks depends on flow demand. Consequently, this method generally is
economical because the pumps may be operated at their rated capacity. Since stored water
supplements the supply used for fire and system breakdowns, this method of operation is fairly
reliable.

Figure 11 PUMPING WITH STORAGE

TYPES OF SUPPLY IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

There are two main types of supply.

a) Continuous supply
b) Intermittent supply

CONTINUOUS SUPPLY:

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In this case water is available for 24 hours. So the system is always under pressure. So there is no
chance of infilteration i.e, negative pressure cannot occur and as a result the quality of water is
better. As the supply is continuous, so there is more consumption of water and less chances of
contamination. If the supply of water is cut off for half an hour daily, then supply cannot be called
as continuous supply. There are fewer chances of losses in this flow.

INTERMEDIATE SUPPLY:
In this case, water is supplied at regular intervals throughout the day. For example water may be
supplied for a few hours in the morning and few hours in the evening. As it is not continuous
supply so the consumption is less. Due to negative pressure, the quality of water is not so good
compared to the case of continuous supply. But the main advantage of this system is that wastage
of water is reduced. The disadvantage of this supply is that no fire flow when supply is off and
when the tap is remained open then air enters the pipe and then we close the tap. The water behind
it applies a pressure due to which there are chances of pipe bursting.

COMPONENTS OF WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORK:

There are many components of water distribution system, whish are:

OVER HEAD TANK:

Overhead tank is a water storing tank. Water is stored in it for the time
when there is less supply of water directly from transmission lines. In
water distribution network 60% cost is for overhead tank construction.
Overhead tank is used for emergency and for the balancing of
pressure. If community demand is average and collection network is
designed on maximum daily demand then overhead tank remains fill. For peak hourly demand
overhead tank provides the water for balancing the water needs. Storage capacity of overhead
tank is 1/10th of average demand. Dofferent are used in makig OHT which are:
A) plastics (polyethylene, polypropylene)

B ) fiberglass

C) concretestone, steel which may be welded or bolted, carbon, or stainless

FIRE SYSTEM:
This includes the systems designed to overcome the fire. They are:

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 Direct system (Fire hydrants)

 Mobile system (mobile vehicles like fire extinguishers)

Fire hydrant:
Fire hydrants are the devices or the systems which are used during emergency or fire. It is an
active fire protection measure, and a source of water provided in most urban, suburban and rural
areas with municipal water service to enable firefighters to tap into the municipal water supply to
assist in extinguishing a fire. Buildings near a hydrant may qualify for an insurance discount since
firefighters should be able to more rapidly extinguish a fire on the insured property.

All fire hydrants shall have one 4.5-inch pumper nozzle and two 2.5-inchhose nozzles with the
city's standard threads; shall have a main barrel valveopening of not less than 5.25 inches; and
shall be placed on mains of not less than six inches in diameter. Six-inch gate valves shall be
placed on all fire hydrant leads. All fire hydrants shall have a valve at the main with flange to
flange fittings.

Figure 12 FIRE HYDRANT

DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRE:
Distribution reservior are also called service reservoir are the storage reservior which store the
treated water for supplying water during emergencies and also help in absorbing the hourly
fluctuations in the normal water demand.

Functions of distribution reservoir:

1) To absorb the hourly variation in demand
2) To maintain constant pressure in the distribution main.
3) Water stored can be supplied during emergencies.

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 Locations and height of Distribution Reservoir:
It should be located as close as possible to the center of demand and water level in the reservior
must be at sufficient elevation to permit gravity flow at an adequate pressure.

Types of Reservoir:
Depending upon the elevation there are two main tyoes of reserviors.
a) Surface reservoir
b) Elevated reservoir

Surface Reservoir:
o They are also called ground reservoir.
o Mostly circular ar rectangular tanks.
o Underground reservoir are preffered when the size is large.
o These reservoir are contructed are high natural grounds and are usually made of stones, bricks,
plain or reinforced concrete cement.

Elevated Reservoir:
o It is also referred to as overhead tanks are required at distribution area which are not governed
and controlled by the gravity system of distribution.
o These are rectangular, circular, elliptical in shape
o If the topography of the town not suitable for under gravity, the elevated tank or reservior are
used.
o These tanks may be steel or RCC.

TYPES OF PIPES:
There are different types and sizes of pipes. They may be classified into three groups according to
the material used in their manufacturing.

• Metallic pipe

The pipes such as CI Pipes, Steel pipes and GI Pipes.

• Cement Pipes:

The pipes such as Cement Pipes, Asbestos cement (AC) pipes, cement concrete pipes.

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• Plastic Pipes:

The pipes such as Un-plasticized PVC (UPVC ) pipes, Polythene Pipes (low denisity).

Material of pipe:

Material of the pipe depends upon us. Different materials have different roughness coefficients. We
can use PVC pipe or HPVC pipe. Roughness coefficient for PVC is 150 and for HPVC is 140

Area of the pipe:

Area of the pipe depends upon the diameter of the pipe, which is changed accordingly with respect
to discharge and velocity. It should be such that the velocity is in the range 1 to 1.5m/s3.3.6.

Earth cover:

Earth cover of 1m should be present above the pipe to keep it intact with the soil and to make it
safe from atmospheric attacks. The minimum cover depends upon the type of traffic.

PVC Pipes:
PVC stands for polyvinyl Chloride. This type of pipe has a wide variety of plumbing uses from
drainage pipe to water mains. It is most commonly used for irrigation pipping, home and building
supply piping. PVC is also very common in pool and spa system. PVC is often white but it can also
come in a wide variety of colour.

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Cement Pipes:
Main advantage of cement pipes in place of metallic pipes is their corrosion resistance. These
pipes are bulky, heavy and require careful transportation and handling. The layout process of
these pipes is costlier than steel pipes.

Asbestos Cement (AC) Pipes:

These pipes are light in weight and easy in transportation and layout. They have smooth internal
surface and are not affected by corrosion (rust). The pipes are extensively used for water supply
systems. Holes can be drilled in these pipes. These pipes are not costlier.

Steel Pipes:
Steel is used for water mains because of its high tensile strength , it is particularly advantageous
where the distribution system may be subjected to impact pressures from railroad tracks ,
highways , industrial machinery and such or in areas where the danger of earthquake is great.

Figure 13 STEEL PIPES

VALVES AND THEIR TYPES:

Valves are used to flow water whenever we want. A valve is a device which can be opened or
closed to different extents to vary its flow. So, movement of water can be controlled through a
pipeline. Valves are of various types which are as follows:

Gate Valves

Gate valves are used in high-pressure applications such as water feed lines from an elevated water
tower. Gate valves are used to open and close straight-line flow but rarely (if ever) to regulate
flow. The water is either on or off. Gate valves come in various materials for use with different
media. Stainless-steel gate valves can remain hygienic for potable water but are relatively
expensive. Cast-iron or galvanized gate valves can control the flow of waste water when sanitary
concerns are not important.

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Altitude valves
Many water utilities employ devices called altitude valves at the point where a pipeline enters a
tank. When tank level rises to a specified upper limit, the valve closes to prevent any further flow
from entering, thus eliminating overflow. When the flow trend reverses, the valve reopens and
allows the tank to drain or to supply the usage demands of the system.

Globe Valve
A globe valve uses a plug-and-aperture design to regulate flow. Globe valves can handle large
volumes of water and control the flow variably from off to total flow. A globe valve is used to
control water flow between a treatment facility and an elevated water tank. Water usage will drain
the water tank at different rates. The pump used to raise the water to the tank will require flow at
different rates. The globe valve regulates the amount of water necessary to maintain proper levels
to the pump and up into the tank.

Globe valves can also be used for handling waste-water flow into different holding tanks. Water
from the sewer line is piped into treatment facilities, and flow is controlled depending on a
particular facility's capacity.

Isolation valves

Perhaps the most common valve in the water distribution system is the isolation valve, which can
be manually closed to block the flow of water. As the term ―isolation‖ implies, the primary
purpose of these valves is to provide means of turning off a portion of the system. Well designed
water distribution systems have isolation valves throughout the network.

Butterfly valve
A butterfly valve uses a flat disc rotating in the valve. The disc rotates 90 degrees from fully
closed to fully open. The butterfly valve is used to control water with heavy levels. The open disc
offers little obstruction to the flow and reduces opportunities for clogging and reduced flow
Butterfly valves can also be used as pressure-release valves in potable water holding tanks and
reservoirs. The rotating disc can be opened quickly to allow water to drain before problems occur
due to increased weight and pressure from overfill.

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Directional valves
Directional valves, also called check valves, are used to ensure that water can flow only in one
direction through a pipeline, Any water flowing backwards through the valve causes it to close,
and it remains closed until the flow once again begins to go through the valve in the
forwarddirection.

Air release valves and vacuum breaking valves

Most systems include special air release valves to release trapped air during system operation, and
air/vacuum valves that discharge air upon system start-up and admit air into the system in
response to negative gauge pressures. These valves are often found in system high points

Pressure reducing valves

Pressure reducing valves (PRVs) throttle automatically to prevent the downstream hydraulic from
exceeding a set value, and are used in situations where high downstream pressures could cause
damage.

Figure 14 Pressure reducing valves

Check valve/non-returning valve/reflux valve:

Check valve is used when flow is unidirectional and are generally used to prevent reversal flow,
when pumps are shut down

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 .

Figure 15 check valve

TYPES OF WELL:
There are three types of well, which are as follows:
• Ordinary well or tube well (unconfined aquifer)
• Artesian well (confined aquifer)
It is a well in which water rises above the level at which it is encountered because of pressure in
it.
• Flowing well (confined aquifer)
INTAKE STRUCTURE :
Water works intake is a structure placed in a surface water source to draw water from surface
water source.
It is used to draw water from lakes, ponds etc in which there is wide fluctuation in water level.
Design considerations for intake structure:
1. It is found that water should be drawn from 30-35cm below water source because at the top
their can be impurities like oil, greese and floating material.
2. It should be protected from flood.
3. Availability of power for pumps.
4. It should be located upstream of reservior area to avoid disposal of use of inhabitants.
5. Entrance velocity should not be greater than 1.5cm/sec.
6. Velocity within pipe should not exceed 60-90cm/sec
7. Avoid disposal of use of inhabitnats.
8. To find area of openings of stainer or mesh for water to enter.
Q = AV
9. Effect of seasonal variation on water quality in the water body should be kept in mind whle
placing the intake structure

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C HAPTER NO # 03

WATER DEMAND
PER CAPITA WAYER CONSUMPTION:
‗The amount of water consumed by one person in one day and it is based on yearly average not
on single particular day consumption‘.

q=
Where;
Q = flow required (number of liters used in gallons)
P = population of community
q = liter per capita per day (lpcd)

Different demands Of Water:

The different demands of water are:
 Domestic demand
 Commercial and industrial demand
 Public demand
 Fire demand

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  Loses and wastes.

Domestic demand:
As This include the water required in private building for drinking, bathing, cooking, sprinkling in
lawn, sanitary purpose is 200 lpcd (with fully flushing system)135 lpcd (for weaker section and
LIG)
Its range is from 100-400 lpcd, and it varies according to the living standards of communities and
many other factors. It is generally 50% of total water consumption of communities.

Further breakdown:

Different domestic use Percentage water demand

Flashing for toilets 41%
Washing and bathing 37%
Kitchen 6%
Drinking 5%
Washing of cloths 4%
House cleaning 3%
Sprinkling in lawn 3%
Car washing 1%

Commercial and Industrial demand:

In the cities having population more than 25,000, commercial water consumption is expected to
be 15% of the total. The water demand for industries which are earlier existing or likely to be
started in future is:
As per IS: 50 lpcd (for normal industries)
450 lpcd(industries cities)
The water requirements in industries also depend upon the processes in industries.
Industries employers water requirement= (12.2 m3) /(1000 m3 )

Public demand:

It represents the water demand for public utility purpose like washing of public parks, gardening,
washing on roads, public fountain.
Consumption of water requirements for public use is 50%-70% of the total water use.

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Fire demand:

In populated and industrial areas fires generally breakout and may lead to serious problems. For
control that situation requires sufficient quantity water that is called fire demand.

Figure 16 Fire demand calculation

It is the water consumed during firefighting in the city. Although actual amount of water used in a
year for firefighting is small but rate of use of water is large.
Quantity of water for firefighting should be easy available and always kept in storage.
There are two ways to meet fire demand
Direct system
Indirect system

Direct System:

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In this system mobile vehicles are used for firefighting and firefighting water demand is not
injected in distribution system which reduces demand.
Minimum pressure in pipes must be 60psi

Indirect System:

In this case we use fire hydrant in distribution system. The fire hydrant should not place or
installed on a pipe having diameter less than 6 inch
Maximum flow required is 45.2 m3/min. the spacing of fire hydrant should not be less than
150mm and should not be less than 50m.
The pressure head should not less than 20 psi.
ISO formula for fire demand = F = 18C A (Gallons/min)
F = 223.17C A (liters/min)
Where;
F = fire demand
C = coefficient (depend on type of building material)
Values of C:
C for wooden structure = 1.5
C for ordinary structure = 1
C for fire resistant = 0.6
C for non- combustible = 0.8

Water demand require for thefts and wastes:

This includes the water lost in leakage and stolen water due to unauthorized water connection.

Losses and Waste Provision:

They are present even if the system is very efficient, metered, no unauthorized connection or
water stealing. Losses can never be less than 10%. So 10% of total water estimation should be
added to total water demand. It is also known as unaccounted water i.e. water which is not used
by anyone or is unaccounted.

FACTORS AFFECTING WATER CONSUMPTION:

Following are the factors affecting water consumption.

a) Climate
b) Size of city
c) Water pressure

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d) Quality of water
e) Cost of water
f) Types of supply
g) Living standard
h) Metering.

Climate:

In summer we used more water as compared to winters because summer are hot and dry so much
amount of water is consumed and much of the water is used for bathing, drinking and for cooling
purpose.
On the other hand, in cold weather the water consumption demand is low.
Water depend also depends upon the amount of rainfall. Due to more rainfall, water demand
decreases .A study shows that
Rainfall (inch/year) Water consumption
<15 210
15-25 156
25-35 143
35-45 139
>45 119

Size of city:
For a big city water consumption will be more. This is because there are more industries and
factories where more water is used.

Water pressure:

If the aim is to provide for building users‘ needs while also using water efficiently, the right water
pressure is crucial. If water pressure is too low, this will be inconvenient for building users – for
example, because showers have poor water flow, and baths take a long time to fill. If pressure is
too high, this will lead to wastage of water, as well as high wear and tear on the system.
Typically, new buildings in areas with mains water supply will have mains pressure systems.
Existing buildings, and buildings that are not connected to mains water, may have low pressure
systems or unequal pressure systems (with different pressures for hot and cold water supply).As
an example of the difference in water usage, a low pressure hot water system shower flow may
average about 7 liter per minute, while a mains pressure shower may average about 12.5 liter per

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38
minute. Mains pressure systems require pressure limiting and pressure reducing valves to control
water pressure and temperature. Typically, pressure limiting or pressure reducing valves will be
used to control pressure in mains-supplied hot water systems or where high pressure may lead to
problems such as burst pipes. Pressure can also be raised to adequate levels using a pressurizing
pump, in which case it may be necessary to use pressure limiting and pressure reducing valves.

Quality of water:

The following four categories are used to describe drinking water quality:

Physical:

Physical characteristics relate to the quality of water for domestic use. They include color,
turbidity, temperature, and, in particular, taste and odor.

Chemical:

Chemical characteristics of waters are sometimes evidenced by their observed reactions, such as
the comparative performance of hard and soft waters in laundering. Most often, differences are
not visible. However, in some cases, such as the oxidation of iron, the reactions result in highly
objectionable color.
Microbiological:

Microbiological agents are very important in their relation to public health and may also be
significant in modifying the physical and chemical characteristics of water.

Radiological:
Radiological factors must be considered in areas where there is a possibility that the water may
have come in contact with radioactive substances. The radioactivity of the water is of public
health concern in these cases.

Cost of water:

As the cost increases consumption of the water decreases

C = 21 log Q
Where,
C= cost in dollars
Q= rate of use of water in thousands of dollars per year

Living standard:
The effect of water consumption depends largely upon economic status of community. In high
value residual of a city , water consumption per capita will be high.

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Metering:

Metering controls wastage of water ad use. Through metering leakages can also be detected. In a
community of one million water consumption was 182 gpcd when metering was absent.

After 100% metering system was introduced the consumption reduced to 119 gpcd per capita per
day. 35% of water consumption is reduced after metering.

ADVANTAGES OF METERING:
a) Wastage is control.
b) Load in waste water treatment is reduced.
c) Leakages can be quantified
d) Waste survey is easier so unauthorized use is reduced.
e) People are charged in their proportion to their use of water.
f) Careful user can be given advantage and careless user will be fined.

VARIATION IN WATER DEMAND:

Water demand for a particular community can vary from season to season, month to month, day
to day, hour to hour depending upon their activity.

climate conditions, working days, holidays tend to cause wide variation in water use.

Throughout the year one month show high annual consumption of water. In great majority of
cities the peak months are July, August. Dry weather will cause maximum consumption of water.
Peak demand also occurs during the day, there will be peak in the morning as the activities start or
one peak in the evening.

The system shall be designed to meet the greater of either of the following demands:

1. Maximum Daily Demand Plus Fire Flow

2. Maximum Hourly Demand
3. Peak hourly demand

Where applicable, individual studies shall be conducted for the following:

1- Special commercial establishments and major commercial area
2- Special industries and major industries
3- Institutional development
4- High density residential areas

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Average Water Demand (light industrial and commercial)

If individual data is not available, the following typical numbers should be used in order to
establish the daily average flow demand for light commercial and industrial facilities.

Average daily demand:

The average daily water demand is sized to the community using the following equation:
Average community daily water demand = Average daily water demand × Number of people

Maximum Daily Demand:

Maximum daily water demand = F × (Average community daily water demand,

Where F=1.5-2

Peak hourly demand:

Maximum hourly water demand =F × (Average community daily water demand),

Where F=2.25
YIELD:
Portion of precipitation on a watershed that can be collected for use is called yield.
SAFE YIELD:
Minimum yield of previous year recorded is called safe yield.
DRAFT:
It is intended or actual quality of water drawn for use.
If flows of water are less than draft then reservoir has to be made and dimension of reservoir has
to be calculated.

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C hapter #4
DESIGN CRIETERIA
DEFINITION OF DESIGN CRITERIA:
Design criteria are the explicit goals that a project must achieve in order to be successful.it is one
of the most important element in the design process it control the design process throughout the
engineering design process.
Design criteria are useful thinking and communication tool for the designer. Essentially they list
all the things that the product needs to feature to satisfy the user. Design criteria are like the bullet
points on the side of product‘s package.it is helpful in number of way. At an early stage in
product development they are aid to creative thinking because they focus the designer mind on
what the user needs and can be a super thinking of alternative, creative ways of meeting these
needs.
If the design process is linear sequence then design criteria is fixed and it is develop at early
stage. In reality, the designer learns more about the user and thinks about the project, new aspects
of the design criteria will become clear. Depending on the situation, it may be possible to take
account of these new insights, even at a late stage. These ideas should still be recognized as
valuable and include in the evaluation of the project.

Component of design criteria of water supply scheme designing:

1- Design population
2- Design period
3- Minimum velocity
4- Maximum velocity
5- Minimum residual pressure
6- Per capita water demand
7- Flow
8- Minimum diameter
9- Roughness coefficient

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Design population:

“It is expected population at the end of the design period of water supply or drainage
scheme is called design population”.
Populating for costing we estimate the present and future population with the help of past data.
Several methods are used to estimate the future population.it is important to note that conditions
in this country differ to a great extent from those in other countries, and population growth is
influenced by a host of demographic factors, which include migration and urbanization. It is
therefore important to consult demographers and town planners. They are best equipped to deal
with the socio-economic planning and hence future population of a given area. Designer should
take note of the consequences of accepting an excessive growth rate but recognizance should also
be taken of the characteristics of the study area. Factors like employment opportunities, available
residential area, infrastructure services and HIV/AIDS can have a significant effect on growth
rates.

Method for Estimation of population:

There is few mathematical and graphical method to estimate the present and future population.
1- Simple graph method
2- Arithmetic method
3- Geometrical method
4- Logistic method
5- Curvilinear method
6- By-ratio method

Simple graph method:

In this method the graph is made with the help of past historical data of population of that town
and extends the graph with same manner up to design period with same gradient. And draw a
projection on x –axis to the graph at design period and meet that point on corresponding
population on y-axis.

Arithmetic method:

It is based on the hypothesis

“The rate of change of population is constant”

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dp=dt.ka

Pt-P0 =ka. [tf –t0]

Pt= ka. [tf –t0] +P0
Where:
Pt = future population
P0 = initial population
tf = time at which population is to be calculated
t0 = time of initial population
Ka=arithmetic constant

And Ka

Geometric method:

It is based on the hypothesis

“The rate of change of population is proportional to population”

Pkg

dp=dt.kg

= g

lnPt – lnP0 = kg[tf – t0]

lnPt = kg[tf – t0] + lnP0

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where:
Pt = future population
P0 = initial population
tf = time at which population is to be calculated
t0 = time of initial population
Kg=geometric constant

kg=

Logistic method:

It is based on the hypothesis

“The rate of change of population is variable”
P=Psat / [1+ea+b.dt]
Where

Psat=

a= ln )

b=

Po=earliest recorded population

P1=population recorded at the middle of record
P2=population recorded at the end of the record
n= interval in the years

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Curvilinear method:

This technique, involves the graphical projection of the past population growth curve, continuing
whatever trends the historical data indicate. This method includes comparison of the projected
growth to the recorded growth of other cities of larger size. The cities chosen for the comparison
should be as similar as possible to the city being studied

Step 1:

Step 2:

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Step 3:

Step 4:

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Step 5:

Step 6:

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By-Ratio method:

 Assumes that the population growth rate of any given community can be related to a larger
region, i.e. county, state.
 Use of the appropriate scale factor allows correlation
P2 P1
P2R P1R = KR
=

P2 = Projected population
P2R = Projected population in the larger region
P1 = Population at last census for the projected region
P1R = Population at last census for the projected region in the larger region
KR = ratio or correlation constant
To illustrate the procedure used in the ratio method, a sample projection for the years 1970
and 1980 will be made of the population of a hypothetical study area by projecting the historic
ratio with the State.

The first step is to list the historic population data for the study area and the State in order to
derive the necessary historic rates. The type of information required may be obtained from census
data.

In developing the ratios, care must be taken to see that the geographic boundaries of the area used
in each census year are the same as for each of the other years. Thus, if a four-city area is the
study area in 1960, the same geographic area of the four cities must be used in the time series.

The next step is to obtain State population forecasts for the years 1970 and 1980. These could be
obtained by stepping down from the national forecasts prepared by the U.S. Bureau of the Census

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or some other agency. In this example, it will be assumed that a State agency has prepared
population forecasts. The forecasted figures are 2,500,000 persons in 1970 and 3,200,000 in 1980.

In addition to obtaining the population forecast for the State, it is necessary to prepare ratios of
the study area population to State population for the years 1970 and 1980. The preparation of
these ratios is the most important part of this forecasting technique. All of the factors which
influence population change as discussed in part I must be considered and analyzer as to their
probable future effect on the study area's share of the future State population. In this example the
study area share in the total State copulation has been increasing. Assuming that a study of births,
deaths, migration, employment, and economic trends indicate a continuation of an increasing
ratio, although at a declining rate, then the forecast ratios of 0.124 for 1970 and 0.126 in 1980 can
be considered reasonable. With this information, the study area population can be forecast for
1970 and 1980

Design period:

It is number of years for which excess amount of water is provided to the population as compared
to the present requirement The design period (also called the design life ) is not the same as the
life expectancy. The design period is the length of time it is estimated that the facility will be able
to meet the demand, that is, the design capacity. The life expectancy of a facility or piece of
equipment is determined by wear and tear. Typical life expectancies for equipment range from 10
to 20 years. Buildings, other structures, and pipelines are assumed to have a useful life of 50 years
or more.
New water works are generally made large enough to meet the demand for the future Selection of
an appropriate design period for a particular facility / component of water supply system is very
important and dependent upon following factors

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1- First cost
2- Lead time
3- Economy of scale
4- Regulatory constraints.
5- The rate of population growth.
6- Rate of interest (design period is shorter)
7- The ease or difficulty of expansion.
8- The useful life of the structures and equipment.
9- Performance in early years of life under minimum hydraulic load.

Design period of water supply network component is as follow.

Source:

Source Design period

Underground source 5 years

Surface source 50 years

Transmission line:

It is design on average demand. And design period is 25 years.

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Water treatment plant:

It is design on average daily demand and design period is 10-15 years.

Pumping plant:

Design period Design on basis

Pumping plant 10 years  If OHT is not present peak hourly demand

 OHT is present then design on Max daily

demand

3- Minimum velocity:

Minimum velocity of water should not be less than 0.3m/sec.

4-maximum velocity:

Maximum velocity water should not be greater than 1.5m/sec.

5-minimum residual pressure:

it is the minimum pressure in the farthest end pipe in the water distribution network from
overhead tank or any other water storage facility that meet the requirement of flow .
The water distribution systems and any extensions shall be designed to supply the demands of all
customers while maintaining the following minimum pressures and velocity.
1- 40 PSI for maximum daily flow
2- 30 PSI for peak hourly flow
3- 20 PSI for instantaneous flow plus fire flow. If this requirement cannot be met due to system
limitations, the minimum pipe diameter shall be 8-inches.
4- 4 FPS for flushing

6-per capita water demand:

It is basic term used in designing of water supply scheme.it is defined as the amount of water
consume by one person in one day .it is based on nearly average not on a single particular day
consumption per year.it control the overall project because on the basis of water consumption
minimum residual pressure and flow is decided and then pipe diameter and height of overhead

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tank is decided .so it is very important to consider the daily water consumption in the designing of
water supply scheme.

7-Flow: It is based on the per capita water consumption. And it is useful in the deciding of
minimum residual pressure, diameter of pipe , and pressure of water form pipes and height of the
overhead tank.

8-Diameter:
The minimum diameter available in market is 3inch

Available size of pipes(inch) Available size in (mm) Available size in(m)

3 75 0.075
4 100 0.1
5 125 0.125
6 150 0.150
8 200 0.2
10 250 0.25
12 300 0.3
14 350 0.35

9-Roughnesss coefficient:

Commercial pipes come in many different materials and many different sizes. The internal
roughness of a pipe is an important factor when considering the friction losses of a fluid moving
through the pipe.
For each pipe material either a single pipe roughness value or a range of roughness values is
normally provided by the manufacturer. The roughness value, usually denoted as e, is used in the
calculating the relative roughness of a pipe against the size of its diameter.

1-Absolute roughness:

The roughness of a pipe is normally specified in either mm or inches and common values range
from 0.0015 mm for PVC pipes through to 3.0 mm for rough concrete pipes.

2-Relative roughness:

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53
The relative roughness of a pipe is its roughness divided by its internal diameter or e/D, and this
value is used in the calculation of pipe friction factor which is then used in the Darcy-Weisbach
equation to calculate the friction loss in pipe for a flowing fluid.

Hazen-Williams coefficients are used in the Hazen Williams equation or friction loss calculation
in ducts and pipes. Coefficients for some common materials used in ducts and pipes can be found
in the table below:

Material Roughness coefficient

ABS - Acrylonite Butadiene Styrene 130

Aluminum 130 - 150

Asbestos Cement 140

Asphalt Lining 130 - 140

Brass 130 - 140

Brick sewer 90 – 100

Cast-Iron - new unlined (CIP) 130

Cast-Iron 10 years old 107 - 113

Cast-Iron 20 years old 89 – 100

Cast-Iron 30 years old 75 – 90

Cast-Iron 40 years old 64-83

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Cast-Iron, asphalt coated 100

Cast-Iron, cement lined 140

Cast-Iron, bituminous lined 140

Cast-Iron, sea-coated 120

Cast-Iron, wrought plain 100

Cement lining 130 - 140

Concrete 100 - 140

Concrete lined, steel forms 140

Concrete lined, wooden forms 120

Concrete, old 100 - 110

Copper 130 - 140

Corrugated Metal 60

Ductile Iron Pipe (DIP) 140

Ductile Iron, cement lined 120

Fiber 140

Fiber Glass Pipe – FRP 150

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Galvanized iron 120

Glass 130

Lead 130 - 140

Metal Pipes - Very to extremely smooth 130 - 140

Plastic 130 - 150

Polyethylene, PE, PEH 140

Polyvinyl chloride, PVC, CPVC 150

Smooth Pipes 140

Steel new unlined 140 - 150

Steel, corrugated 60

Steel, welded and seamless 100

Steel, interior riveted, no projecting rivets 110

Steel, projecting girth and horizontal rivets 100

Steel, vitrified, spiral-riveted 90 – 110

Steel, welded and seamless 100

Tin 130

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Vitrified Clay 110

Wrought iron, plain 100

Wooden or Masonry Pipe - Smooth 120

Wood Stave 110 - 120

Mass diagram:
It is used to calculate the volume of reservoir or storage capacity of reservoir.
1- Data of runoff recorded for each month and draft value
2- Calculate cumulative runoff and cumulative estimated draft
3- Draw graph between time on x axis and cumulative runoff on y-axis
4- Draw graph between time on x axis and cumulative draft on y-axis to get straight curve
5-Draw both curve on same graph
6-draw tangent on cumulative runoff curve parallel to cumulative draft .
7-The difference between the lines (a+b) tangent to the demand line (∑D) drawn at the highest
and lowest points (A and B, respectively) of mass curve (∑S) gives the rate of withdrawal from
reservoir during that critical period.
8-The maximum cumulative value between tangents is the required storage capacity (active
storage).

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C HAPTER NO # 05

HYDRAULICS OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEME

Hazen William equation:
The Hazen–Williams equation is an empirical relationship which relates the flow of water in a
pipe with the physical properties of the pipe and the pressure drop caused by friction. It is used in
the design of water pipe systems. Such as fire sprinkler systems, water supply networks,
and irrigation systems. It is named after Allen Hazen and Gardner Stewart Williams.

The Hazen–Williams equation has the advantage that the coefficient C is not a function of
the Reynolds number, but it has the disadvantage that it is only valid for water. Also, it does not
account for the temperature or viscosity of the water. It is experimentally proved formula,

V= KCR0.63S0.54

Where,

C is a factor dependent on relative Roughness.

R is the Hydraulic Radius (the area of flow divided by wetted perimeter).

S is the slope of energy grade line.

K is a factor dependent on units.

Hydraulic radius:

The hydraulic radius is a measure of channel flow efficiency. Flow speed along the channel
depends on its cross-sectional shape (among other factors), and the hydraulic radius is a
characterization of the channel that intends to capture such efficiency. Based on the constant shear
stress at the boundary' assumption, hydraulic radius is defined as the ratio of the channel's cross-
sectional area of the flow to its wetted perimeter.

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Rhyd=

Where ,

A is cross sectional area=

P is cross sectional parameter =

Putting these values in above equation we get

Rhyd=

Hydraulic gradient:

It is the ratio of head loss in pipe to the length of that pipe

Head loss:

Friction loss is the loss of pressure caused by water flowing through the pipe in a system. Flow in
pipes is usually turbulent and the roughness of the inside walls of pipes have a direct effect on the
amount of friction loss. Turbulence increases and consequently friction loss increases with the
degree of roughness. Friction loss is thus determined by the type, size and length of the pipe and
the amount of water flowing through it.

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The figure shows that pressure is decreasing as the length of pipe increases.

Head loss is calculated with the help of following formula:

H = 10.68 (Q/C)1.85 L/ (D)4.87

Derivations:

Discharge = (Area) * (Velocity)

Q = AV ......................①

As we know that

V= 0.894CR0.63S0.54

Putting the values of v and A in equation ① we get:

H = 10.68 (Q/C)1.85 L/ (D)4.87

Major reason of head loss

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1- The major reason of head loss is friction between water layers and pipes internal surface .it
reduces the water pressure greater the length, greater will be the friction contact and hence
greater will be the head loss

Minor reasons of head loss:

1-Valve fittings
2-Bend fitting
3-Joints

Design of branch system:

Step involved in designing branched system.

1- Take the length of one pipe.

2- Assume the velocity of flow of water in pipe ranging from 0.3 -1.5 m/sec.

3- Check the flow (Q) in that pipe convert it into peak hourly demand and then convert its unit
into m3/sec.

4- Calculate the diameter with the help of equation Q=A x V

5- Assign diameter according to available diameter in market by round off the diameter to upper
side.

6- Find the head loss by using Hazen William equation of head loss

H = 10.68 (Q/C)1.85 L/ (D)4.87

7- Find the height of overhead tank by adding all the head losses in the way to the farthest point
in branch system to the minimum residual pressure and round off it to upper side.

Hardy- Cross method:(for designing the loop system

The Hardy Cross method is an iterative method for determining the flow in pipe network systems
where the inputs and outputs are known, but the flow inside the network is unknown. The method
was first published in November 1936 by its namesake, Hardy cross a structural engineering
professor The Hardy Cross method is an adaptation of the moment distribution method which
was also developed by Hardy Cross as a way to determine the moments in indeterminate
structures.

The introduction of the Hardy Cross method for analyzing pipe flow networks
revolutionized municipal water supply design. Before the method was introduced, solving

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complex pipe systems for distribution was extremely difficult due to the nonlinear relationship
between head loss and flow. The method was later made obsolete by computer solving algorithms
employing the Newton-Raphson method or other solving methods that prevent the need to solve
nonlinear systems of equations by hand.

Principal of Hardy-Cross Method:

1- Sum of inflow to the junction must be equal to sum of outflow from the junction in a closed
loop.

2- Sum of head loss in a closed loop must be equal to zero.by assuming head losses in
anticlockwise loop as negative and in clockwise direction as positive head loss.

Procedure:

1- A trial distribution of discharges is made arbitrary in such a way that continuity equation is
satisfied at each junction.

2- with the assumed of Q the head loss is calculated with the help of Hazen William equation.

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3- Consider the head loss in clock wise direction is positive in a loop and head loss in anti-clock
wise direction is negative.

4- Sum all the head loss is the net head loss is zero then assumed values of Q are correct if not
then apply correction till the correction is balanced.

5- If the Correction factor comes out to be positive, then it should be added to the flows in the
CW direction and subtracted from the flows in the CCW direction.

6- After the corrections have been applied to each pipe in a loop and to all loops, a second trial
calculation is made for all loops. The procedure is repeated till Delta Q becomes negligible.

Correction factor derivation:

As we know that according to Hazen William equation

H = 10.68 (Q/C)1.85 L/ (D)4.87

As C, L, D are constant so equation become

H=K

Take x=1.85 so equation becomes

H=K

Some of the flow will out from one path and in to the next path so

H=K

Applying binomial series by neglecting negligible term

H=K =k [ ]

Applying summation on both sides

=

as we know that H=K so equation become

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0= +

Test applied after the construction of water distribution network:

1-leakage test

2-disinfection test

Leakage test:

This test is applied on the length of pipe not exceeding more than 300m.close the one end of the
pipe with air relieve valve. And apply 50 % more pressure than the average demand pressure.
Attach flow meter and pressure gauge at this point. Apply pressure for 30 min according to
literature and according to experimental evidence pressure for 24 hours,

If there is no deflection in flow meter then there is no leakage .

If there is deflection note that leakage

Calculate minimum allowable leakage:

L=(ND ) /C

Where

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L=allowable leakage (l/h)

D=diameter (mm)

P= test pressure

C= 32 , constant

If L > flow meter leakage then pipe is OK

If L<flow meter leakage then pipe is rejected

Disinfection test:

In this method flash the pipe to remove dust from pipes with the water and then add 1mg/l of
chlorine water in the water distribution network for 24 hours.

1-After 24 hours check the residual chlorine it should be > 0.5mg/l if it is not then repeat the test
until it meet the desired results.

Or check the amount of total coliform with the help of test.

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C hapter #6:

Case study Bahria town – phase 6

Task was to design the water supply scheme for bahria town phase-6 by keeping in mind various
parameter and figures, and task is finally fulfilled.

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Design criteria:

Step 1: calculation of per capita water demand :

average daily usage of water per capita, which is different for different areas depending upon the;
 Availability of water
 Climatic parameters like temperature, rainfall etc.
 Life style of the population

First, should know the per day per capita demand for water, then estimate the population for
whole building, then decide for how much time/years you are going to design the storage tank,
then decide for how many days you want to store the water, consider the population growth rate

Per capita demand depends upon the various factors such as:
• Cost of water
• Metering
• Standard of living etc.
Water used per capita is the sum of all types of uses such as:
• Domestic purposes
• Non-domestic purposes i.e., for commercial areas (15% of domestic purposes)
• Unaccounted water (10% of domestic)
• Fire demand (5 lpcd)

Considering all these parameter we calculate the per capita water demand

Places Per capita water demand

Houses 330 lpcd

Mosque 50 lpcd

Commercial area 50 lpcd

Monument 7 liter/m2 per day

Parks 7 liter/m2 per day

Green belts 7 liter/m2 per day

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 Bahria heights 50 lpcd

Step 2: design population:

1- houses having area (50 x 90) ft2 = 16 Marla .

take population per houses=12 person

2- house having area (30 x 75) ft2 =9 Marla

Take population per house =10 person

3- take population of mosque= 250 person

4- population in commercial area=5 person per shop

Step 3:minimum residual pressure:

Minimum residual pressure=14m

Step 4:velocity of water in pipe:

Consider velocity of water in pipe 1 m /sec

Step 5 Roughness coefficient :

Take roughness coefficient =100 for PVC pipe

Demand multiplier:
We calculate the average daily demand but we are going to design the water supply scheme on
peak hourly demand so to convert average daily demand into peak hourly demand, demand
multiplier will be 2.25

B-Draw pipeline:

Water pipes should be laid out in loops to avoid dead-ends that create stagnant water. Water pipes
must be buried at least 48 inches below the ground surface in Ohio to protect them from freezing.
1- draw pipeline throughout the plan and draw node where two pipe meet and layout pipeline
according to grid iron system or looped system
2- name each length and node of having elevation 220 m
3-Measure length of each pipe
4- calculate demand on each node in litre per sec
Overhead tank :
locate the tank near mosque on meadow with

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initial level =17m
maximum level=18m
ninimum level = 15m
elevation=220m
Demand on each node:
1-Calculate demand of each block , ,mosque, commercial area, baheria height
By formula
Total demand = population x per capita water demand
Calculate demand of each green belt , park, monument
Total demand = area x 7 litre per m2 per day
2- divide demand of each block, commercial area, beheria height, mosque , green belt, mosque by
no of nodes serving them
For example demand of A block is = 50160 litres/day
Block A is served by three node n1 ,n2,n3
So demand per node for A block = 50160/3= 16720 liter/day
Now examine each node serving blocks etc
For example node 1 serve block A and green belt 6
Demand per node =demand per node for A block + demand per node for G 6
= 16720 +2550.3 = 19270.13 liter/day =0.22liter/sec

Figure 17 map with pipeline and junctions

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Figure 18 designation of each pipe and node

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 Figure 19 base demand on each node

C- application of hardy cross method.

Give value of diameter for each length and run it on EPANET it will apply hazen William
equation and hardy cross method up to head loss in each pipe become 0.001m it will show u
which pipe has problem and then correct the diameter of that pipe and run it again until run is
successful .

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Figure 20 node with residual pressure after run is successful

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 Figure 21 pipes with diameter after run is successful

Finally we had designed the water supply scheme for bahria town phase -6 with minimum
residual pressure at each node and diameter of each pipe having head loss less than 0.001 meter

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Figure 22 final designed water supply scheme

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Water Supply Scheme
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