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Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible, which is also called the Tanakh
Hebrew Bible
(/tɑːˈnɑːx/;[1] ‫ ַתּנַ״‬, pronounced [taˈnaχ] or [təˈnax]; also Tenakh,
Tenak, Tanach), or sometimes the Miqra (‫) ִמק ְָרא‬, is the
canonical collection of Hebrew scriptures, including the Torah.
These texts are almost exclusively in Biblical Hebrew, with a few
passages in Biblical Aramaic (in the books of Daniel and Ezra,
the verse Jeremiah 10:11 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/p
t/pt1110.htm#11), and some single words). The form of this text
that is authoritative for Rabbinic Judaism is known as the
Masoretic Text (MT) and consists of 24 books, while Protestant
Bibles divide essentially the same material into 39 books.
Catholic Bibles and Eastern / Greek Orthodox Bibles contain
additional materials in their Old Testaments, derived from the
Septuagint (texts translated into Koine Greek) and other
sources.

In addition to the Masoretic Text, modern scholars seeking to

understand the history of the Hebrew Bible use a range of
sources.[2] These include the Septuagint, the Syriac language
Peshitta translation, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Dead Sea
Scrolls collection and quotations from rabbinic manuscripts. Complete set of scrolls, constituting the
These sources may be older than the Masoretic Text in some Tanakh
cases and often differ from it.[3] These differences have given Information
rise to the theory that yet another text, an Urtext of the Hebrew
Bible, once existed and is the source of the versions extant Religion Judaism, Christianity
today.[4] However, such an Urtext has never been found, and Language Biblical Hebrew, Biblical
which of the three commonly known versions (Septuagint, Aramaic
Masoretic Text, Samaritan Pentateuch) is closest to the Urtext is
Period 8th–7th centuries BCE –
debated.[5]
2nd–1st centuries BCE

Contents
The name "Tanakh"
The term "Hebrew Bible"
Development and codification
Language and pronunciation
Number of different words used
Books of the Tanakh
Torah
Nevi'im
Ketuvim
Poetic books

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Five scrolls (Ḥamesh Megillot)

Other books
Nach
Translations
Jewish commentaries
See also
References
Further reading
External links

The name "Tanakh"

Rabbinic Judaism has many acronyms, such as "Rambam"; see Hebrew abbreviations. Tanach is an
acronym, made from the first Hebrew letter of each of the Masoretic Text's three traditional divisions:
Torah ('Teaching' or 'Law', also known as the Five Books of Moses), Nevi'im ('Prophets'), and Ketuvim
('Writings')—hence TaNaKh. (On the "a"s of the word, see abjad.) Central to Judaism is that the books of
the Tanakh are passed from generation to generation, l'dor v'dor in the Hebrew phrase. According to
rabbinic tradition, they were accompanied by an oral tradition, called the Oral Torah.

The three-part division reflected in the acronym 'Tanakh' is well attested in the literature of the Rabbinic
period.[6] During that period, however, 'Tanakh' was not used. Instead, the proper title was Mikra (or
Miqra, ‫מקרא‬, meaning ’reading’ or 'that which is read') because the biblical texts were read publicly. The
acronym 'Tanakh' is first recorded in the medieval era.[7] Mikra continues to be used in Hebrew to this
day, alongside Tanakh, to refer to the Hebrew scriptures. In modern spoken Hebrew, they are
interchangeable.[8]

The term "Hebrew Bible"

Many biblical studies scholars advocate use of the term Hebrew Bible (or Hebrew Scriptures) as a
substitute for less-neutral terms with Jewish or Christian connotations (e.g. Tanakh or Old
Testament).[9][10] The Society of Biblical Literature's Handbook of Style, which is the standard for major
academic journals like the Harvard Theological Review and conservative Protestant journals like the
Bibliotheca Sacra and the Westminster Theological Journal, suggests that authors "be aware of the
connotations of alternative expressions such as...Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without
prescribing the use of either.[11] Alister McGrath points out that while the term emphasizes that it is
largely written in Hebrew and "is sacred to the Hebrew people", it "fails to do justice to the way in which
Christianity sees an essential continuity between the Old and New Testaments", arguing that there is "no
generally accepted alternative to the traditional term 'Old Testament.'" However, he accepts that there is
no reason why non-Christians should feel obliged to refer to these books as the Old Testament, "apart
from custom of use."[12]

Christianity has long asserted a close relationship between the Hebrew Bible and New Testament,
although there have sometimes been movements like Marcionism (viewed as heretical by the early
church), that have struggled with it.[12][13][14] Modern Christian formulations of this tension include
supersessionism, covenant theology, new covenant theology, dispensationalism and dual-covenant
theology. All of these formulations, except some forms of dual-covenant theology, are objectionable to
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mainstream Judaism and to many Jewish scholars and writers, for whom there is one eternal covenant
between God and the Israelites, and who therefore reject the term "Old Testament" as a form of
antinomianism.

Christian usage of the "Old Testament" does not refer to a universally agreed-upon set of books but,
rather, varies depending on denomination. Lutheranism and Protestant denominations that follow the
Westminster Confession of Faith accept the entire Jewish canon as the Old Testament without additions,
although in translation they sometimes give preference to the Septuagint (LXX) rather than the
Masoretic Text; for example, see Isaiah 7:14.

"Hebrew" refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of
the Second Temple era and their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up
to the present day.[15] The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in Aramaic (mostly in the books of
Daniel and Ezra), written and printed in Aramaic square-script, which was adopted as the Hebrew
alphabet after the Babylonian exile.

Development and codification

There is no scholarly consensus as to when the
Hebrew Bible canon was fixed: some scholars
argue that it was fixed by the Hasmonean
dynasty,[16] while others argue it was not fixed
until the second century CE or even later.[17]

According to Louis Ginzberg's Legends of the

Jews, the twenty-four book canon of the Hebrew
Bible was fixed by Ezra and the scribes in the
Second Temple period.[18]

According to the Talmud, much of the Tanakh was The inter-relationship between various significant ancient
compiled by the men of the Great Assembly manuscripts of the Old Testament (some identified by their
(Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah), a task completed in siglum). Mt being the Masoretic text. The lowermost text "
450 BCE, and it has remained unchanged ever (lost)" would be the Urtext.
since.[19]

The 24-book canon is mentioned in the Midrash Koheleth 12:12: Whoever brings together in his house
more than twenty four books brings confusion.[20]

Language and pronunciation

The original writing system of the Hebrew text was an abjad: consonants written with some applied
vowel letters ("matres lectionis"). During the early Middle Ages scholars known as the Masoretes created
a single formalized system of vocalization. This was chiefly done by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, in the
Tiberias school, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh, hence the name Tiberian
vocalization. It also included some innovations of Ben Naftali and the Babylonian exiles.[21] Despite the
comparatively late process of codification, some traditional sources and some Orthodox Jews hold the
pronunciation and cantillation to derive from the revelation at Sinai, since it is impossible to read the
original text without pronunciations and cantillation pauses.[22] The combination of a text (‫ מקרא‬mikra),
pronunciation (‫ ניקוד‬niqqud) and cantillation (‫ טעמים‬te`amim) enable the reader to understand both the
simple meaning and the nuances in sentence flow of the text.
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Number of different words used

The number of distinct words in the Hebrew Bible is 8,679, of which 1,480 are hapax legomena.[23]:112
The number of distinct roots, on which many of these Biblical words are based, is roughly 2000.[23]:112

Books of the Tanakh

The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books: it counts as one book each Samuel, Kings, Chronicles and
Ezra–Nehemiah and counts the Twelve Minor Prophets (‫ )תרי עשר‬as a single book. In Hebrew, the books
are often referred to by their prominent first word(s).

Torah

The Torah (‫תּוֹרה‬,

ָ literally "teaching"), also known as the Pentateuch, or as the "Five Books of Moses".
Printed versions (rather than scrolls) of the Torah are often called "Chamisha Chumshei Torah"" (‫חמישה‬
‫" חומשי תורה‬Five fifth-sections of the Torah") and informally a "Chumash".

Bereshit (‫בּ ְֵראשִׁ ית‬, literally "In the beginning") — Genesis

Shemot (‫שְׁ מֹות‬, literally "The names [of]") — Exodus
Vayiqra (‫וַיִּקְ ָרא‬, literally "And He called") — Leviticus
Bemidbar (‫בְּמִ דְ בַּר‬, literally "In the desert [of]") — Numbers
Devarim (‫דְּ ב ִָרים‬, literally "Things" or "Words") — Deuteronomy

Nevi'im

Nevi'im (‫ נְבִיאִים‬Nəḇî'îm, "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and
Ketuvim. It contains three sub-groups. This division includes the books which cover the time from the
entrance of the Israelites into the Land of Israel until the Babylonian captivity of Judah (the "period of
prophecy").

Their distribution is not chronological, but substantive.

The Former Prophets (‫ נביאים ראשונים‬Nevi'im Rishonim)

Yĕhôshúa‘ ( ַ‫ — )י ְהוֹשֻ ע‬Joshua

Shophtim (‫ — )שׁ ֹפְ טִ ים‬Judges
Shmû’ēl (‫ — )שְׁ מוּאֵ ל‬Samuel
M'lakhim (‫ — )מְ ָלכִים‬Kings

The Latter Prophets (‫ נביאים אחרונים‬Nevi'im Aharonim)

Yĕsha‘ăyāhû (‫ — )י ְשַׁ עְ י ָהוּ‬Isaiah

Yirmyāhû (‫ — )י ְִרמְ י ָהוּ‬Jeremiah
Yĕḥezqiēl (‫ — )י ְחֶ זְקֵ אל‬Ezekiel

The Twelve Minor Prophets (‫תרי עשר‬, Trei Asar, "The Twelve"), which are considered one book

Hôshēa‘ ( ַ‫ — )הוֹשֵׁ ע‬Hosea

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Yô’ēl (‫ — )יוֹאֵ ל‬Joel

‘Āmôs (‫ — )עָ מוֹס‬Amos
‘Ōvadhyāh (‫ — )עֹבַדְ י ָה‬Obadiah
Yônāh (‫ — )יוֹנָה‬Jonah
Mîkhāh (‫ — )מִ יכָה‬Micah
Naḥûm (‫ — )נַחוּם‬Nahum
Ḥăvaqûq (‫ — )חֲ בַקּוּק‬Habakkuk
Tsĕphanyāh (‫ — )צְפַ נְי ָה‬Zephaniah
Ḥaggai (‫ — )חַ גַּי‬Haggai
Zkharyāh (‫ — ) ְזכ ְַרי ָה‬Zechariah
Mal’ākhî (‫ — )מַ לְאָכִי‬Malachi

Ketuvim

Ketuvim (‫כְּתוּבִים‬, "Writings") consists of eleven books, described below. They are also divided into three
subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot.

The three poetic books (Sifrei Emet)

Tehillim (‫ — )תְ הִ לִּים‬Psalms

Mishlei (‫ — )מִ שְׁ לֵי‬Proverbs
Iyyôbh (‫ — )אִ יּוֹב‬Job

The Five Megillot (Ḥamesh Megillot). These books are read aloud in the synagogue on particular
occasions, the occasion listed below in parenthesis.

Shīr Hashīrīm (‫ירים‬ ִ ִ‫שִׁ יר הַ שּׁ‬, literally "Song of songs", also known as "Song of Solomon") — Song of
Songs (on Passover)
Rūth (‫ — )רוּת‬Ruth (on Shavuot)
Eikhah (‫ — )אֵ יכָה‬Lamentations (on Tisha B'Av[24])
Qōheleth (‫ — )ק ֹהֶ לֶת‬Ecclesiastes (on Sukkot)
Estēr (‫ — )אֶ סְ תֵ ר‬Esther (on Purim)

Other books

Dānî'ēl (‫ — )דָּ נִיֵּאל‬Daniel

‘Ezrā (‫ — )עֶ ז ְָרא‬Ezra and Nehemiah
Divrei ha-Yamim (‫ — )דִּ ב ְֵרי הַ יָּמִ ים‬Chronicles

The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud
(Bava Batra 14b — 15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon,
Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.

In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old
Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon,
Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.

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Poetic books

In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a
special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their
poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, ,‫איוב‬
‫ תהלים‬,‫ משלי‬yields Emet ‫אמ"ת‬, which is also the Hebrew for "truth").

These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are
designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job
are in the normal prose system.

Five scrolls (Ḥamesh Megillot)

The five relatively short books of the Song of Songs, the Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations,
Ecclesiastes and the Book of Esther are collectively known as the Ḥamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These
are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon, with the latest parts
having dates ranging into the 2nd century BCE. These scrolls are traditionally read over the course of the
year in many Jewish communities.

Other books

Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra–
Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition,
they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics.

Their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e. the Babylonian captivity and the
subsequent restoration of Zion).
The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.
Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic.

Nach
Nach, also anglicized Nakh, refers to the Nevi'im and Ketuvim portions of Tanakh.[25][26] Nach is often
referred to as its own subject,[27] separate from Torah.[28]

It is a major subject in the curriculum of Orthodox high schools for girls and in the seminaries which
they subsequently attend,[25] and is often taught by different teachers than those who teach
Chumash.[27] The curriculum of Orthodox high schools for boys includes only some portions of Nach,
such as the book of Joshua, the book of Judges,[29] and the Five Megillot.[30]

Translations
The Holy Scriptures According to the Masoretic Text: A New Translation with the aid of Previous
Versions & with the Constant Consultation of Jewish Authorities was published in 1917 by the Jewish
Publication Society. It was replaced by their Tanakh in 1985
Tanakh, Jewish Publication Society, 1985, ISBN 0-8276-0252-9
Tanach: The Stone Edition, Hebrew with English translation, Mesorah Publications, 1996, ISBN 0-
89906-269-5, named after benefactor Irving I. Stone.

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Tanakh Ram, an ongoing translation to Modern Hebrew (2010–) by Avraham Ahuvya (RAM
Publishing House Ltd. and Miskal Ltd.)
The Living Torah and The Living Nach, a 1981 translation of the Torah by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan and a
subsequent posthumous translation of the Nevi'im and Ketuvim following the model of the first
volume

Jewish commentaries
The major commentary used for the Chumash is the Rashi commentary. The Rashi commentary and
Metzudot commentary are the major commentaries for the Nach.[31][32]

There are two major approaches to the study of, and commentary on, the Tanakh. In the Jewish
community, the classical approach is a religious study of the Bible, where it is assumed that the Bible is
divinely inspired.[33] Another approach is to study the Bible as a human creation.[34] In this approach,
Biblical studies can be considered as a sub-field of religious studies. The latter practice, when applied to
the Torah, is considered heresy[35] by the Orthodox Jewish community.[36] As such, much modern day
Bible commentary written by non-Orthodox authors is considered forbidden[37] by rabbis teaching in
Orthodox yeshivas. Some classical rabbinic commentators, such as Abraham Ibn Ezra, Gersonides, and
Maimonides, used many elements of contemporary biblical criticism, including their knowledge of
history, science, and philology. Their use of historical and scientific analysis of the Bible was considered
acceptable by historic Judaism due to the author's faith commitment to the idea that God revealed the
Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai.

The Modern Orthodox Jewish community allows for a wider array of biblical criticism to be used for
biblical books outside of the Torah, and a few Orthodox commentaries now incorporate many of the
techniques previously found in the academic world,[38] e.g. the Da'at Miqra series. Non-Orthodox Jews,
including those affiliated with Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, accept both traditional and
secular approaches to Bible studies. "Jewish commentaries on the Bible", discusses Jewish Tanakh
commentaries from the Targums to classical rabbinic literature, the midrash literature, the classical
medieval commentators, and modern-day commentaries.

See also
613 commandments, formal list of Jewish 613 commandments
929: Tanakh B'yachad
Bemidbar (parsha)
Dead Sea Scrolls
Hebrew University Bible Project
Jewish English Bible translations
Mikraot Gedolot
New Jewish Publication Society of America Tanakh
Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible

References
1. "Tanach" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tanach). Random House Webster's Unabridged
Dictionary.

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2. "Scholars seek Hebrew Bible's original text – but was there one?" (http://www.jta.org/2014/05/13/new
s-opinion/united-states/scholars-seek-hebrew-bibles-original-text-but-was-there-one.). Jewish
Telegraphic Agency. 2014-05-13. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
3. "Controversy lurks as scholars try to work out Bible's original text" (http://www.timesofisrael.com/cont
roversy-lurks-as-scholars-suss-out-original-biblical-text/#ixzz31uFPqDC8). The Times of Israel.
Retrieved 25 September 2015.
4. Isaac Leo Seeligmann, Robert Hanhart, Hermann Spieckermann: The Septuagint Version of Isaiah
and Cognate Studies, Tübingen 2004, pages 33-34.
5. Shanks, Herschel (August 4, 1992). Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls (https://archive.org/details/
understandingdea00shan) (1st ed.). Random House. p. 336 (https://archive.org/details/understandin
gdea00shan/page/336). ISBN 978-0679414483.
6. "Mikra'ot Gedolot" (https://www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudMap/MG.html#MG).
7. It appears in the masorah magna of the Biblical text, and in the responsa of the Rashba (5:119); see
Research Query: Tanakh/‫( תנ״ך‬https://networks.h-net.org/node/28655/discussions/2030881/tanakh%
D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%B4%D7%9A)
8. BIBLICAL STUDIES Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading, and Interpretation. Norton Irish Theological
Quarterly.2007; 72: 305-306
9. Safire, William (1997-05-25). "The New Old Testament" (https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/25/magaz
ine/the-new-old-testament.html). The New York Times..
10. Hamilton, Mark. "From Hebrew Bible to Christian Bible: Jews, Christians and the Word of God" (http
s://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/scriptures.html). Retrieved 2007-11-19.
"Modern scholars often use the term 'Hebrew Bible' to avoid the confessional terms Old Testament
and Tanakh."
11. Alexander, Patrick H; et al., eds. (1999). The SBL Handbook of Style (https://archive.org/details/sblh
andbookofsty0000unse/page/17). Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. p. 17 (section 4.3) (https://archive.org/
details/sblhandbookofsty0000unse/page/17). ISBN 978-1-56563-487-9. See Society of Biblical
Literature: Questions Regarding Digital Editions… (https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/SBLHS
2_FAQ.pdf)
12. McGrath, Alister, Christian Theology, Oxford: Blackwell, 2011, p. 120, 123. ISBN 9781444335149.
13. "Marcion", Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911.
14. For the recorded teachings of Jesus on the subject see Antithesis of the Law#Antitheses, for the
modern debate, see Christian views on the old covenant
15. "Scanning an Ancient Biblical Text That Humans Fear to Open" (https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/0
5/science/biblical-codes-morgan-library.html). The New York Times. January 5, 2018.
16. Davies, Philip R. (2001). "The Jewish Scriptural Canon in Cultural Perspective" (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=kxW-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT66). In McDonald, Lee Martin; Sanders, James A. (eds.).
The Canon Debate. Baker Academic. p. PT66. ISBN 978-1-4412-4163-4. "With many other scholars,
I conclude that the fixing of a canonical list was almost certainly the achievement of the Hasmonean
dynasty."
17. McDonald & Sanders, The Canon Debate, 2002, page 5, cited are Neusner's Judaism and
Christianity in the Age of Constantine, pages 128–145, and Midrash in Context: Exegesis in
Formative Judaism, pages 1–22.
18. Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews Vol. IV : Chapter XI Ezra (http://www.swartzentrov
er.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends%20of%20the%20Jews.pdf) (Translated by Henrietta
Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.
19. (Bava Batra 14b-15a, Rashi to Megillah 3a, 14a)
20. Midrash Qoheleth 12:12
21. Kelley, Page H.; Mynatt, Daniel S.; Crawford, Timothy G. (1998-04-09). The Masorah of Biblia
Hebraica Stuttgartensia: Introduction and Annotated Glossary (https://books.google.com/books?id=G
h6OHYcIZgkC&pg=PA20). p. 20. ISBN 9780802843630.
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22. John Gill (1767). A Dissertation Concerning the Antiquity of the Hebrew Language: Letters, Vowel-
points, and Accents (https://archive.org/details/dissertationconc00gill). G. Keith. pp. 136 (https://archi
ve.org/details/dissertationconc00gill/page/136)–137. also pages 250–255 (https://archive.org/details/
dissertationconc00gill/page/250)
23. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2020). Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in
Australia and Beyond (https://global.oup.com/academic/product/revivalistics-9780199812790?lang=e
n&cc=us). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199812790.
24. Also called Kinnot in Hebrew.
25. "Guide to Israel Schools (Tiferet)" (https://www.yu.edu/israel-program/women-schools/Tiferet).
Yeshiva University. ".. classes in Chumash, Nach, Practical Halacha, Tefilla, ..."
26. "Who's Afraid of Change? Rethinking the Yeshivah Curriculum" (https://jewishaction.com/religion/edu
cation/whos_afraid_of_change_rethinking_the_yeshivah_curriculum). Jewish Action (OU). "know
little Nach, are unexcited by the study of .."
27. "Tova .. our new ." (https://www.jcot.org/tova-warburg-sinensky-our-new-yoetzet-halakha.html) "Tova
joined the .. faculty this fall as a Nach teacher .. High School for Girls."
28. Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan. The Living Nach. ISBN 978-1885-22007-3.
29. covered in or before 8th grade (so it's a review)
30. Esther, Rus, Shir HaShirim, Eicha and KoHeles: these are read aloud in synagogue, each at a
particular point in the yearly Holiday cycle.
31. Mishlei. Shai LaMora "Eshkol".
32. "NACH - Shai LaMorah - All Volumes" (https://www.monseyjudaica.com/product/nach-shai-lamorah-
2). "Description. Nach metzudos on ..."
33. Peter Steinfels (September 15, 2007). "Irreconcilable Differences in Bible's Interpretations" (https://w
ww.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/us/15beliefs.html). The New York Times. "of divine origin"
34. Michael Massing (March 9, 2002). "New Torah For Modern Minds" (https://www.nytimes.com/2002/0
3/09/books/new-torah-for-modern-minds.html). The New York Times. "human rather than divine
document"
35. David Plotz (September 16, 2007). "Reading Is Believing, or Not" (https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/
16/books/review/Plotz-t.html). The New York Times. "Modern scholars have also unmoored ... Most
unsettling to religious Jews"
36. Natalie Gittelson (September 30, 1984). "American Jews Rediscover Orthodoxy" (https://www.nytime
s.com/1984/09/30/magazine/american-jews-rediscover-orthodoxy.html). The New York Times.
"watered-down Judaism soon turns to water"
37. Chaim Potok (October 3, 1982). "The Bible's Inspired Art" (https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/03/mag
azine/the-bibles-inspired-art.html). The New York Times. "Song of Songs ... was entirely profane ..
could not have been written by Solomon"
38. Mitchell First (January 11, 2018). "Rabbi Hayyim Angel's 13th Book Is Compilation of Tanach-
Related Topics" (https://www.jewishlinknj.com/features/22780-rabbi-hayyim-angel-s-13th-book-is-co
mpilation-of-tanach-related-topics). Jewish Link NJ.

Further reading
Johnson, Paul (1987). A History of the Jews (First, hardback ed.). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
ISBN 978-0-297-79091-4.
Kuntz, John Kenneth. The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature,
History, and Thought, Harper and Row, 1974. ISBN 0-06-043822-3
Leiman, Sid. The Canonization of Hebrew Scripture. (Hamden, CT: Archon, 1976).
Levenson, Jon. Sinai and Zion: An Entry into the Jewish Bible. (San Francisco: HarperSan
Francisco, 1985).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_Bible 9/10
1/12/2021 Hebrew Bible - Wikipedia

Minkoff, Harvey. "Searching for the Better Text" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120314095848/http://

www.bib-arch.org/e-features/searching-for-better-text.asp). Biblical Archaeology Review (online).
Archived from the original (http://www.bib-arch.org/e-features/searching-for-better-text.asp) on 14
March 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
Noth, Martin. A History of Pentateuchal Traditions. (1948; trans. by Bernhard Anderson; Atlanta:
Scholars, 1981).
Schmid, Konrad. The Old Testament: A Literary History. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2012).

External links
Judaica Press Translation of Tanakh with Rashi's commentary (http://www.chabad.org/63255) Free
online translation of Tanakh and Rashi's entire commentary
Hebrew–English Tanakh: the Jewish Bible (https://publishersrow.com/ebookshuk/cart/shopproductde
tail.asp?id=3115) Online edition of the oldest known complete Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible
(including cantillation marks) placed next to classic Jewish translation; can be used on most Internet-
connected computers and mobile devices.
Mikraot Gedolot (Rabbinic Bible) at Wikisource in English (sample) and Hebrew (sample)
A Guide to Reading Nevi'im and Ketuvim (https://sites.google.com/site/kadish67/nakh-en) – Detailed
Hebrew outlines of the biblical books based on the natural flow of the text (rather than the chapter
divisions). The outlines include a daily study-cycle, and the explanatory material is in English, by
Seth (Avi) Kadish.
Tanakh Hebrew Bible Project (http://tanakh.info/)—An online project that aims to present critical text
of the Hebrew Bible with important ancient versions (Samaritan Pentateuch, Masoretic Text, Targum
Onkelos, Samaritan Targum, Septuagint, Peshitta, Aquila of Sinope, Symmachus, Theodotion, Vetus
Latina, and Vulgate) in parallel with new English translation for each version, plus a comprehensive
critical apparatus and a textual commentary for every verse.

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