Basic Manufacturing Process

Basic Manufacturing Process
 Introduction
ƒ Manufacturing, which has been practiced for several 
g, p
thousand years, is, in the broadest sense, the process 
of converting raw material into products
ƒ The word manufacturing is derived from the Latin, 
h d f d df h
manu factus, which means “ made by hand “
ƒ Manufacturing engineering is the term widely used 
Manufacturing engineering is the term widely used
in United States, whereas in Japan and Europe the 
term production engineering is used.
 Classification of Manufacturing Process
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1. Casting process
Casting or molding processes are widely used to produce parts that often require 
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other follow‐on processes such as machining. Casting uses molten metal to fill a 
cavity. The metal retains the desired shape of the mold cavity after solidification.
commonly can be classified into two types : expendable mold and permanent mold

2. Forming and shaping process
Typically utilize material that has been previously cast or molded. The basic purpose 
of Forming is to modify the shape and size and/or physical properties of the material
can be classified into several types : Rolling forging extrusion drawing sheet
can be classified into several types : Rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet 
forming, powder metallurgy, 

3. Machining process
M hi i
Machining or metal removal processes refer to the removal of certain selected areas 
t l l f t th l f t i l t d
from a part in order to obtain the desried a shape or finish. Chips are formed by 
interaction of a cutting tool with the material being machined.
Turning, boring, drilling, milling, planing, shaping, broaching, grinding
4. Joining or fabrication process
are the largest collection of processes, in terms of both diversity and quantity.
welding brazing
welding, brazing, soldering
soldering, diffusion bonding
bonding, adhesive bonding
bonding, mechanical
joining

5. Finishing process
are yet another class of processes typically employed for cleaning, removing
burrs left by machining, or providing protective and/or decorative surface
on work pieces
honning lapping,
honning, lapping polishing
polishing, burnishing
burnishing, deburring,
deburring surface treating,
treating coating,
coating
plating

6, Nano fabrication ; it is the most advanced technology, it typically involves

processes such h as etching
t hi ttechnique,
h i electro
l t b beam, llaser beam.
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 Casting Process
Casting is the process of pouring a material in a liquid form
into a mould and allowing it to solidify to produce the desired
object/part.

Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes, date 
back to 4000 B.C. when copper arrowheads were made. 
A wide variety of part and components are made by casting, such
as crankshafts, automotive component and powertrains, railroad
equipment pipe power tool,
equipment, tool office equipment and very large
component for hydraulic turbines. These process is capable of
producing intricate shape in one piece, including those with
internal cavities
cavities, such as engine block
 Classification Casting Process
Classification Casting Process
The classification are related to mold materials, molding processes, and methods 
of feeding the mold with molten metal
 Classification Casting Process
• Expendable mold processes – use an expendable mold which 
must be destroyed to removed casting.
b d d d
Mold material : sand, plaster, ceramics, similar materials, plus 
binders
• Permanent mold processes – use a permanent mold which 
can be used many times to produce many castings.
Made of metal that maintain their strength at high 
temperatures. Better heat conductors and higher rate of 
cooling.
• Composite mold, which are made of two or more different 
materials (such as sand, graphite, and metal) combining the 
i l ( h d hi d l) bi i h
advantages of each material 
 Casting
gpprocesses basically
y involves :
• Preparing a mold cavity of the desired
shape with proper allowance for shrinkage
shape with proper allowance for shrinkage
• Melting the metal with acceptable quality
• Pouring the metal into the cavity and providing
g y p g
means for the escape of air or gases
• Solidifications process, must be properly designed
and controlled to avoid defects
• Mold removal
• Finishing, cleaning and inspection operations
Finishing cleaning and inspection operations
 Casting terminology
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed
top or bottom in which the mold is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in
the molding structure, it is referred to by
various names such as drag - lower molding
flask, cope - upper molding flask.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to
be made. The mold cavity is made with the
help of pattern.
3
3. P ti liline: Thi
Parting This iis th
the di
dividing
idi liline b
between
t
the two molding flasks that makes up the
mold.
4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly
without losing g its p
permeabilityy to air or g
gases.
It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and
moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of
carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner
surface of the mold cavity to give a better
surface finish to the castings.
6. Core: which are inserts made from sand.
They are placed in the mold to form hollow
region or otherwise define the interior surface
of the casting.
7. Core print : The region added to the pattern,
core, or mold used to locate and support the
core
7. Runner : has channels that carry
the molten metal from the sprue to
the mould cavity.
8. Sprue : the passage through which
the molten metal from the pouring
basin reaches the mould cavity.
9. Pouring basin : a small funnel
shaped cavity at the top of the
mould into which the molten metal
is poured.
10. Gate : the actual entry point
through which molten metal enter
mould cavity.
11
11. Ch l t : are used
Chaplet d tto supportt core
inside the mould cavity to take care
of its own weight.
12. Riser : which supply additional
molten metal to the casting g as it
shrinks during solidification.
13. Vent : additional channels that
provide an escape for gases
generated during the pour
Brake pedals for car
 Advantages and Limitations
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Advantages 
The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its 
many advantages. 
• Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be 
made by this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, 
forging, and welding, can be minimized or eliminated.

• It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non‐ferrous.

• As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight can 
be achieved. 

• y q g y p p
The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and inexpensive. As 
a result, for production of a small lot , it is the ideal process. 

• There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed 
y
this way. 

• Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process. 
Limitations
1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings
made by sand casting processes are a limitation to this 
technique. Many new casting processes have been 
developed which can take into consideration the aspects
of dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
y Some of
these processes are die casting process, investment 
casting process, vacuum‐sealed molding process, and 
shell molding process
shell molding process. 

2. Required some finishing process
3. Internal defects
4. Environmental impact
 Sand Casting
A sand casting is a cast part produced by forming a mold from a sand mixture and
then pouring molten liquid metal into the cavity in the mold. The mold is then cooled
until
til th
the metal
t lhhas solidified.
lidifi d IIn th
the llastt stage,
t th
the casting
ti iis separated
t d ffrom th
the mold.
ld

Sand Casting : Expendable Mold casting process uses sand as molding material

Classified According to the type pattern used :

1.Removable pattern sand : the pattern can removed , can be used many time
2 Disposable pattern sand : destroyed by the hot metal when it is poured in
2.Disposable
usually used

Classified According to the type sand molds used :

1G
1.Green sandd mold
ld : mold
ld material
t i l iis a mixture
i t off sand,
d clay
l andd water
t
2.Cold-box mold : organic and inorganic binder are blended into the sand to bond
the grains chemically for greater strength. More accurate dimensionally but are
more expensive
p
3.No-bake mold : synthetic liquid resin is mixed with the sand, and the mixture
hardens at room temperature
 Pattern
ƒ It is the replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some
modifications.
modifications

ƒ The main modifications are the addition of pattern allowances, and the  
provision of core prints. 

ƒ If  the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create 
these cavities in  the finished product. 

ƒ The quality of the casting produced depends upon the material of the pattern, its
design, and construction.

ƒ Th
The costs of the pattern and the related equipment are reflected in the cost of the 
f h d h l d i fl di h f h
casting. 

ƒ The use of an expensive pattern is justified when the quantity of casting required
p p j q y g q
is substantial.
 Function Pattern
Function Pattern

1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting 
requires a core and need to be made hollow. 

3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity 
may form  a part of the pattern. 

4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce 
casting defects
casting defects. 

5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings. 
Types of patterns
yp p
Types of pattern used in sand casting :
a. Solid
S lid patern
t one piece
i pattern
tt
is made of single piece without joints, partings line or loose piece. It is the
simplest form of the pattern. Generally used when shape is simple and number
of casting is small
b. Split pattern
is made in two pieces which are joined at parting lines by means of dowel pins
c. Match-plate pattern
This pattern is made in two halves and is on mounted on the opposite sides of
wooden or metallic plate
plate, know as match plates
plates. The gates and runners are also
attacted to the plate
d. Cope and drag patter
cope and drag part of the mould are prepared separately. This is done when the
complete mould is too heavy to be handled by one operator. The pattern is made
up of two halves, which are mounted on different plates.
One piece or Solid Pattern Split Pattern

Match Plate Pattern Cope & Drag Pattern
 Pattern Material
Some materials used for making patterns are: 
1.Wood – common material because easy to work, readily available, relatively 
cheap easy to join easy repaired and low weight but it warps its absorption of
cheap, easy to join, easy repaired and low weight, but it warps, its absorption of 
moisture, which can cause distortion and dimensional changes
2.Metal ‐ more expensive, higher weight, tendency of rusting, but not much 
affected by moisture wear is very less longer life more durable
affected by moisture, wear is very less, longer life, more durable
3.Plastic  – compromise between wood and metal

To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be:
, p

1. Easily worked, shaped and joined
2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6 Di
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity
i ll t bl d ff t d b i ti i t t d h idit
7. Available at low cost
 Pattern Allowance
Pattern Allowance
Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of 
P ll i i lf i ff h di i l h i i f
the casting. 
Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the 
sizes specified in the finished component drawing so that a casting with the
sizes specified in the finished component drawing so that a casting with the 
particular specification can be made. 
The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and 
avoid rejections.
avoid rejections. 

The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows:
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
g
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
 Shrinkage allowance
ƒ The shrinkage allowance is provided to take care of the contractions or  
reduction volume of a casting.
‐ Shrinkage of the liquid ; contraction of the liquid from the
pouring temperature to the freezing temperature.
‐ Solidification shrinkage ; contraction associated with the change of 
phase from liquid to solid
phase from liquid to solid
‐ Solid metal contraction ; contraction of the solid casting from freezing
temperatur to the room temperature. The shrinkage  allowance is
provided to take care of this reduction
provided to take care of this reduction

Factors that affected of shrinkage allowance :
1. Coefficient of thermal expansion of material  ; higher the value this coefficient,
the more the value shrinkage allowance.
2. Metallurgical transformation during the solidification
ex : cast iron shrinks about  21 mm/m during casting, however when annealed
it grows  about 10.5 mm/m
Tabel 1. Shrinkage allowances for various material
Example 1
Example 1

The casting shown in fig.  is to be made in steel  using wooden pattern. Assuming only 
shrinkage allowance, calculate the dimensions of the pattern
shrinkage allowance, calculate the dimensions of the pattern

From table 1. For steel the dimensions allowance is 21 mm/m

 Draft allowance

Example : Provide draft allowance to the

pattern shown bellow , assume 10 taper

For 102.1 size the taper required is

102.1 x tan (1) = 1.8
 Machining Allowance
The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when 
The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when
the casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, 
it is generally achieved by subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are 
therefore added in the pattern dimension. 

The amount of machining allowance is affected by the type, size and shape of the casting; 
the casting orientation; the metal; the method of molding and the degree of accuracy and 
finish required.
q

Machining allowance for sand casting

 Example 2

In the previous example, What will be the pattern dimension if the hole in the
casting is to be machined with a machining allowance of 2 mm
mm.

The dimension 81.7 – 2 x 2 = 77.7

The dimension 78.1 – 2 x 2 = 74.1
 CORE
A core is a device used in casting and molding processes to produce internal
cavities and reentrant angles.
g The core is normally y a disposable
p item that is
destroyed to get it out of the piece. It position in the mold cavity during pouring
require supported by Chaplet

Requirements
There are seven requirements for core:
1. must be adequate strength for handling.
2. must be strong enough to handle the forces of casting; therefore the
compression strength should be 100 to 300 psi (0.69 to 2.1 MPa).
3. Permeability must be very high to allow for the escape of gases.
4. As the casting or molding cools the core must be weak enough to break down
as the material shrinks
shrinks. Moreover
Moreover, they must be easy to remove during
shakeout.
5. Good refractoriness is required as the core is usually surrounded by hot
metal during casting or molding.
6 A smooth
6. th surface
f finish.
fi i h
7. A minimum generation of gases during metal pouring.
 Type of Core
1. Horizontal core
2. Green sand core
3. Balanced core
4. Vertical core
5. Dry sand core

The selection of the correct type of core depends on production quantity, production
rate, required precision, required surface finish, and the type of metal being used.

For example, certain metals are sensitive to gases that are given off by certain types
of core sands; other metals have too low of a melting point to properly break down the
binder for removal during the shakeout

Horizontal core Vertical core Dry sand core

Core Box
 Chaplets
Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould either to prevent shifting of
mould or locate core surfaces. These are placed in mould cavity suitably which
positions core and to give extra support to core and mould surface
surface. Its main
objective is to impart good alignment of mould and core surface and to achieve
directional solidification.
 Gating System
Gating System
Good gating design ensure distribution of the metal in the mould cavity at a proper
rate without excessive temperature loss,
loss turbulence and gas entrapment
If the liquid metal is poured very slowly, then the time taken to fill up the mould is
rather long and the solidification may start event before the mould has been
completely filled up. This can be avoided by using too much superheat, but then
gas solubility may cause a problem
If the liquid metal impinges on the mould cavity with too high a velocity, the mould
surface mayy be eroded. Thus,, a compromise
p has to be made in arrivingg at an
optimum velocity.

Gating System
 Category Gating System
• Vertical Gating ; liquid metal poured vertically to fill the mould with atmospheric 
pressure at the base
• B tt
Bottom Gating ; liquid metal is filled in the mould from bottom to top, thus 
G ti li id t l i fill d i th ld f b tt t t th
avoiding the splashing and oxidation
• Horizontal or Parting Gating ; is the most widely used gate in sand casting. The 
metal enter the mould at the parting plane. For the mould cavity in the drag, it is a
metal enter the mould at the parting plane. For the mould cavity in the drag, it is a 
top gate and for the cavity in cope it is a bottom gate. 
• Step gating ; are used for heavy and large castings. The molten metal enters mould 
cavity through a number of ingates which are arranged in vertical step.

Vertical gating Bottom gating

 Category Gating System

Parting gating Step gating

 Gating Design 
Depends on both metal and mould composition. Ex : an elaborate gating design is 
needed to avoid dross (oxides) in easily oxidized metals of low melting point such 
as aluminium.
For cast iron a short path for the liquid metal is selected to avoid a high pouring 
temperature

Parameter design :
1. Time taken to fill up a mould
2 Velocity
2. V l it th
the molten
lt metal
t l lleaving
i ththe gate
t

Two basic principles of fluid flow are relevant to gating system :

1. Bernoulli’s theorem
2. The law of mass continuity
• Bernoulli’s theorem
based on the principle of the conservation of energy and relates pressure, velocity, the elevation of fluid at 
b d th i i l f th ti f d l t l it th l ti f fl id t
any location in the system, and the frictional losses in a system
2
p v
h+ + = constant
ρg 22g
Conservation of energy requires that, at a particular location in the system,
the following relationship be satisfied as
p1 v12 p2 v22
h1 + + = h2 + + +f
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
Subscripts 1 and 2 represent two different elevation. f is the frictional loss in the
liquid travels downward through the system

• Mass continuity law

States that for incompressible liquids and in a system with the rate of flow is
constant.
Q = A1v1 = A2 v2 Q is volume rate of flow (m3/s)
A is cross sectional area of liquid stream (m2)
• Based on Bernoullis theorem, velocity of molten metal leaving the gate for 
frictionless flow is

v = 2 gh
h is the distance from the sprue base to the liquid metal height
If liquid level has reached a height of x , the the gate velocity is

v = 2g h − x
The Time taken to fill up the mould is

V
t=
Ag v

V is volume of the mould (m3), Ag cross sectional area of the gate (m2), v is
gate
t velocity
l it (m/s)
( / )
In bottom gating bellow :

The velocity of the liquid metal at the gate is

v g = v3 = 2 g (ht − h)

The time taken to fill up the mould is

t=
Am
Ag
1
2g
(
2 ht − ht − hm )
 Example
Two gating designs for a mould of 50 cm x 25 cm x 15 cm are show in fig a and fig. b.  
Determine the filling time for both the design

v = 2 x981x15 = 171.6 cm/s

50 x 25 x15
t= = 21.86 s
5 x171.6
5x

50 x 25 2
t= 15 = 43.71 s
5 981