UNIT–3

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT TESTS AND

TECHNIQUES

Written By:
Dr. Naveed Sultana

Reviewed By:
Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal
 CONTENT
Sr. No Topic Page No

Introduction .................................................................................................................45

Objectives ..................................................................................................................45

3.1 Tests ...............................................................................................................46

3.1.1 Achievement tests: ...........................................................................46

3.1.2 Aptitude Tests ...................................................................................48

3.1.3 Attitude .............................................................................................51

3.1.4 Intelligence Tests ..............................................................................53

3.1.5 Personality tests ................................................................................55

3.1.6 Norm-referenced tests and Criterion-referenced tests .....................59

3.2 Techniques .....................................................................................................62

3.2.1 Questionnaire ....................................................................................62

3.2.2 Observation ......................................................................................67

3.2.3 Interview ...........................................................................................70

3.2.4 Rating Scale ......................................................................................74

3.3 Standardized testing .......................................................................................75

3.4 Summary ........................................................................................................77

3.4 Self Assessment Questions ............................................................................77

3.5 References/Suggested Readings ....................................................................78

 INTRODUCTION
Educational reformers are seeking answers to two fundamental questions: (1) How well are students
learning? And (2) how effectively are teachers teaching? Classroom assessment responds directly concern
about better learning and more effective teaching. Classroom assessment, involves students and teachers
in the continuous monitoring of students' learning. It provides faculty with feedback about their
effectiveness as teachers, and it gives students a measure of their progress as learners. Most important,
because classroom assessments are created, administered, and analyzed by teachers themselves on
questions of teaching and learning that are important to them, the likelihood that instructors will apply the
results of the assessment to their own teaching is greatly enhances. The classroom assessment process
assumes that students need to receive feedback early and often, that they need to evaluate the quality of
their own learning, and that they can help the teacher improve the strength of instruction. Assessment is
integral to the teaching–learning process, facilitating student learning and improving instruction, and can
take a variety of forms. Classroom assessment is generally divided into three types: assessment for
learning, assessment of learning and assessment as learning. Classroom assessment is the process of
collecting information from your students about their experience as learners in your class. There are many
different ways of collecting information, depending on what you are teaching and what kind of
information teacher need.
All types of assessment are based on the principle that the more clearly and specifically to understand
how students are learning, the more effectively teacher can teach them. When assessing the classroom,
some issues to consider are how to allow all students to contribute, how to respond to the student
feedback, and how often to collect feedback. For this purpose teacher uses different modes such as test
and techniques for assessing (a) course-related knowledge and skills; (b) learner attitudes, values, and
self-awareness; and (c) learner reactions to teachers and teaching. Classroom assessment test and
techniques are formative evaluation methods that serve two purposes. They can help you to assess the
degree to which your students understand the course content and they can provide information about the
effectiveness of teaching learning process. So this unit addresses the different types of tests and
techniques and their application for assessing the degree to which students understand the course contents
and they can provide information about the effectiveness of teaching learning process.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, prospective teachers will be able to:
1. understand and describe the different types of tests and techniques.
2. examine the purposes and characteristics of tests and techniques.
3. describe the role of tests and techniques for improving the teaching learning process.
4. analyze the advantages and disadvantages of each type of test and technique.
3.1 Tests
3.1.1 Achievement Tests
Achievement tests are widely used throughout education as a method of assessing and comparing student
performance. Achievement tests may assess any or all of reading, math, and written language as well as
subject areas such as science and social studies. These tests are available to assess all grade levels and
through adulthood. The test procedures are highly structured so that the testing process is the same for all
students who take them.
It is developed to measure skills and knowledge learned in a given grade level, usually through planned
instruction, such as training or classroom instruction. Achievement tests are often contrasted with tests
that measure aptitude, a more general and stable cognitive trait.
Achievement test scores are often used in an educational system to determine what level of instruction for
which a student is prepared. High achievement scores usually indicate a mastery of grade-level material,
and the readiness for advanced instruction. Low achievement scores can indicate the need for remediation
or repeating a course grade.
Teachers evaluate students by: observing them in the classroom, evaluating their day-to-day class work,
grading their homework assignments, and administrating unit tests. These classroom assessments show
the teacher how well a student is mastering grade level learning goals and provide information to the
teacher that can be used to improve instruction. Overall achievement testing serves following purposes:
 Assess level of competence
 Diagnose strength and weaknesses
 Assign Grades
 Achieve Certification or Promotion
 Advanced Placement/College Credit Exams
 Curriculum Evaluation
 Accountability
 Informational Purposes

(i) Types of Achievement Tests

(a) Summative Evaluation:
Testing is done at the end of the instructional unit. The test score is seen as the summation of all
knowledge learned during a particular subject unit.
(a) Formative Evaluation:
Testing occurs constantly with learning so that teachers can evaluate the effectiveness of teaching
methods along with the assessment of students' abilities.

(ii) Advantages of Achievement Test:

 One of the main advantages of testing is that it is able to provide assessments that are
psychometrically valid and reliable, as well as results which are generalized and replicable.
 Another advantage is aggregation. A well designed test provides an assessment of an
individual's mastery of a domain of knowledge or skill which at some level of aggregation
will provide useful information. That is, while individual assessments may not be accurate
enough for practical purposes, the mean scores of classes, schools, branches of a company, or
other groups may well provide useful information because of the reduction of error
accomplished by increasing the sample size.

(iii) Designing the Test

Step 1: The first step in constructing an effective achievement test is to identify what you want students
to learn from a unit of instruction. Consider the relative importance of the objectives and include more
questions about the most important learning objectives.
Writing the questions:
Step2: Once you have defined the important learning objectives and have, in the light of these objectives,
determined which types of questions and what form of test to use, you are ready to begin the second step
in constructing an effective achievement test. This step is writing the questions.
Step3: Finally, review the test. Are the instructions straightforward? Are the selected learning objectives
represented in appropriate proportions? Are the questions carefully and clearly worded? Special care must
be taken not to provide clues to the test-wise student. Poorly constructed questions may actually measure
not knowledge, but test-taking ability.

(iv) General Principles:

While the different types of questions--multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank or short answer, true-false,
matching, and essay--are constructed differently, the following principles apply to construct questions and
tests in general.
 Make the instructions for each type of question simple and brief.
 Use simple and clear language in the questions. If the language is difficult, students who understand
the material but who do not have strong language skills may find it difficult to demonstrate their
knowledge. If the language is ambiguous, even a student with strong language skills may answer
incorrectly if his or her interpretation of the question differs from the instructor's intended meaning.
 Write items that require specific understanding or ability developed in that course, not just general
intelligence or test-wiseness.
 Do not suggest the answer to one question in the body of another question. This makes the test less
useful, as the test-wise student will have an advantage over the student who has an equal grasp of the
material, but who has less skill at taking tests.
 Do not write questions in the negative. If you must use negatives, highlight them, as they may
mislead students into answering incorrectly.
 Specify the units and precision of answers. For example, will you accept numerical answers that are
rounded to the nearest integer?

(v) Interpreting the Test Results:

If you have carefully constructed an achievement test using the above principles, you can be confident
that the test will provide useful information about the students' knowledge of the learning objectives.
Considering the questions relating to the various learning objectives as separate subtests, you can develop
a profile of each student's knowledge of or skill in the objectives. The scores of the subtests can be a
useful supplement to the overall test score, as they can help you identify specific areas which may need
attention. A carefully-constructed achievement test can, by helping you know what your students are
learning, help you to teach more effectively and, ultimately, help the students to master more of the
objectives.

Activity 3.1: Prepare the achievement test on content to be taught of any subject
while focusing its steps and discuss with your course mates.

3.1.2 Aptitude Tests

Aptitude tests assume that individuals have inherent strengths and weaknesses, and are naturally inclined
toward success or failure in certain areas based on their inherent characteristics.
Aptitude tests determine a person's ability to learn a given set of information. They do not test a person's
knowledge of existing information. The best way to prepare for aptitude tests is to take practice tests.

Aptitude and ability tests are designed to assess logical reasoning or thinking performance. They consist
of multiple choice questions and are administered under exam conditions. They are strictly timed and a
typical test might allow 30 minutes for 30 or so questions. Test result will be compared to that of a control
group so that judgments can be made about your abilities.

You may be asked to answer the questions either on paper or online. The advantages of online testing
include immediate availability of results and the fact that the test can be taken at employment agency
premises or even at home. This makes online testing particularly suitable for initial screening as it is
obviously very cost-effective.

(i) Types of Aptitude Test

The following is a list of the different types of aptitude test that are used for assessment process.

(a) Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is defined as a form of reflective reasoning which analyses and evaluates information
and arguments by applying a range of intellectual skills in order to reach clear, logical and coherent
judgments within a given context. Critical thinking tests force candidates to analyse and evaluate short
passages of written information and make deductions to form answers.

(b) Numerical Reasoning Tests

Numerical tests, sometimes known as numerical reasoning, are used during the application process at all
major investment banks and accountancy & professional services firms. Test can be either written or
taken online. The tests are usually provided by a third party.

Perceptual Speed Tests

Perceptual speed is the ability to quickly and accurately compare letters, numbers, objects, pictures, or
patterns. In tests of perceptual speed the things to be compared may be presented at the same time or one
after the other. Candidates may also be asked to compare a presented object with a remembered object.

(c) Spatial Visualization Tests

Spatial visualization ability or Visual-spatial ability refers to the ability to mentally manipulate 2-
dimensional and 3-dimensional figures. It is typically measured with simple cognitive tests and is
predictive of user performance with some kinds of user interfaces
(d) Logical Reasoning Tests
Logical reasoning aptitude tests (also known as Critical Reasoning Tests) may be either verbal (word
based, e.g. "Verbal Logical Reasoning"), numerical (number based, e.g. "Numerical Logical Reasoning")
or diagrammatic (picture based, see diagrammatic tests for more information).

(e) Verbal Reasoning Tests

Verbal reasoning tests are a form of aptitude test used by interviewers to find out how well a candidate
can assess verbal logic. In a verbal reasoning test, you are typically provided with a passage, or several
passages, of information and required to evaluate a set of statements by selecting one of the following
possible answers.
(f) Perceptual Speed Tests:
Perceptual speed is the ability to quickly and accurately compare letters, members, objects, pictures, or
patterns. In tests of perceptual speed the things to be compared may presented at the same time or one
after the other. Candidates may also be asked to compare a presented object with a remembered object.

(ii) Value of Aptitude Tests

Aptitude tests tell us what a student brings to the task regardless of the specific curriculum that the student
has already experienced. The difference between aptitude and achievement tests is sometimes a matter of
degree. Some aptitude and achievement tests look a lot alike. In fact, the higher a student goes in levels of
education, the more the content of aptitude tests resembles achievement tests. This is because the
knowledge that a student has already accumulated is a good predictor of success at advanced levels.
In addition, group aptitude tests--usually given as part of a group achievement battery of tests--can be
given quickly and inexpensively to large numbers of children. Children who obtain extreme scores can be
easily identified to receive further specialized attention. Aptitude tests are valuable in making program
and curricula decisions.
 They are excellent predictors of future scholastic achievement.
 They provide ways of comparing a child's performance with that of other children in the same
situation.
 They provide a profile of strengths and weaknesses.
 They assess differences among individuals.
 They have uncovered hidden talents in some children, thus improving their educational
opportunities.
 They are valuable tools for working with handicapped children.
(iii) How can we use aptitude test results?
In general, aptitude test results have three major uses:

(a) Instructional
Teachers can use aptitude test results to adapt their curricula to match the level of their students, or to
design assignments for students who differ widely. Aptitude test scores can also help teachers form
realistic expectations of students. Knowing something about the aptitude level of students in a given class
can help a teacher identify which students are not learning as much as could be predicted on the basis of
aptitude scores. For instance, if a whole class were performing less well than would be predicted from
aptitude test results, then curriculum, objectives, teaching methods, or student characteristics might be
investigated.

(b) Administrative
Aptitude test scores can identify the general aptitude level of a high school, for example. This can be
helpful in determining how much emphasis should be given to college preparatory programs. Aptitude
tests can be used to help identify students to be accelerated or given extra attention, for grouping, and in
predicting job training performance.

(c) Guidance
Guidance counselors use aptitude tests to help parents develop realistic expectations for their child's
school performance and to help students understand their own strengths and weaknesses.

Activity: 3.2 Discuss with your course mate about their aptitudes towards teaching
profession and analyze their opinions.

3.1.3 Attitude
Attitude is a posture, action or disposition of a figure or a statue. A mental and neural state of readiness,
organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to
all objects and situations with which it is related.
Attitude is the state of mind with which you approach a task, a challenge, a person, love, life in general.
The definition of attitude is “a complex mental state involving beliefs and feelings and values and
dispositions to act in certain ways”. These beliefs and feelings are different due to various interpretations
of the same events by various people and these differences occur due to the earlier mentioned inherited
characteristics’.
(i) Components of Attitude
1. Cognitive Component:
It refers that's part of attitude which is related in general know how of a person, for example, he
says smoking is injurious to health. Such type of idea of a person is called cognitive component
of attitude.
2. Effective Component:
This part of attitude is related to the statement which affects another person. For example, in an
organization a personal report is given to the general manager. In report he points out that the sale
staff is not performing their due responsibilities. The general manager forwards a written notice
to the marketing manager to negotiate with the sale staff.
3. Behavioral Component:
The behavioral component refers to that part of attitude which reflects the intension of a person in
short run or long run. For example, before the production and launching process the product.
Report is prepared by the production department which consists of the intention in near future and
long run and this report is handed over to top management for the decision.
(ii) List of Attitude:
In the broader sense of the word there are only three attitudes, a positive attitude, a negative attitude, and
a neutral attitude. But in general sense, an attitude is what it is expressed through. Given below is a list of
attitudes that are expressed by people, and are more than personality traits which you may have heard of,
know of, or might be even carrying them:
 Acceptance
 Confidence
 Seriousness
 Optimism
 Interest
 Cooperative
 Happiness
 Respectful
 Authority
 Sincerity
 Honest
 Sincere

Activity: Develop an attitude scale for analyzing the factors motivating the prospective teachers to
join teaching profession.

3.1.4 Intelligence Tests

Intelligence involves the ability to think, solve problems, analyze situations, and understand social values,
customs, and norms. Two main forms of intelligence are involved in most intelligence assessments:
 Verbal Intelligence is the ability to comprehend and solve language-based problems; and
 Nonverbal Intelligence is the ability to understand and solve visual and spatial problems.
Intelligence is sometimes referred to as intelligence quotient (IQ), cognitive functioning, intellectual
ability, aptitude, thinking skills and general ability.
While intelligence tests are psychological tests that are designed to measure a variety of mental functions,
such as reasoning, comprehension, and judgment.
Intelligence test is often defined as a measure of general mental ability. Of the standardized intelligence
tests, those developed by David Wechsler are among those most widely used. Wechsler defined
intelligence as “the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the
environment.” While psychologists generally agree with this definition, they don't agree on the
operational definition of intelligence (that is, a statement of the procedures to be used to precisely define
the variable to be measured) or how to accomplish its measurement.
The goal of intelligence tests is to obtain an idea of the person's intellectual potential. The tests center
around a set of stimuli designed to yield a score based on the test maker's model of what makes up
intelligence. Intelligence tests are often given as a part of a battery of tests.
(i) Types of Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests (also called instruments) are published in several forms:
(a) Group Intelligence tests usually consist of a paper test booklet and scanned scoring
sheets. Group achievement tests, which assess academic areas, sometimes include a
cognitive measure. In general, group tests are not recommended for the purpose of
identifying a child with a disability. In some cases, however, they can be helpful as a
screening measure to consider whether further testing is needed and can provide good
background information on a child's academic history.
(b) Individual intelligence tests may include several types of tasks and may involve easel
test books for pointing responses, puzzle and game-like tasks, and question and answer
sessions. Some tasks are timed.
(c) Computerized tests are becoming more widely available, but as with all tests,
examiners must consider the needs of the child before choosing this format.
(d) Verbal tests evaluate your ability to spell words correctly, use correct grammar,
understand analogies and analyze detailed written information. Because they depend on
understanding the precise meaning of words, idioms and the structure of the language
they discriminate very strongly towards native speakers of the language in which the test
has been developed. If you speak English as a second language, even if this is at a high
standard, you will be significantly disadvantaged in these tests. There are two distinct
types of verbal ability questions, those dealing with spelling, grammar and word
meanings, and those that try to measure your comprehension and reasoning abilities.
Questions about spelling, grammar and word meanings are speed tests in that they don’t
require very much reasoning ability. You either know the answer or you don’t.
(e) Non-verbal tests are comprised of a variety of item types, including series completion,
codes and analogies. However, unlike verbal reasoning tests, none of the question types
requires learned knowledge for its solution. In an educational context, these tests are
typically used as an indication of a pupil’s ability to understand and assimilate novel
information independently of language skills. Scores on these tests can indicate a pupil’s
ability to learn new material in a wide range of school subjects based on their current
levels of functioning.

(ii) Advantages
In general, intelligence tests measure a wide variety of human behaviours better than any other measure
that has been developed. They allow professionals to have a uniform way of comparing a person's
performance with that of other people who are similar in age. These tests also provide information on
cultural and biological differences among people.
Intelligence tests are excellent predictors of academic achievement and provide an outline of a person's
mental strengths and weaknesses. Many times the scores have revealed talents in many people, which
have led to an improvement in their educational opportunities. Teachers, parents, and psychologists are
able to devise individual curricula that matches a person's level of development and expectations.

(iii) Disadvantages
Some researchers argue that intelligence tests have serious shortcomings. For example, many intelligence
tests produce a single intelligence score. This single score is often inadequate in explaining the
multidimensional.
Another problem with a single score is the fact that individuals with similar intelligence test scores can
vary greatly in their expression of these talents. It is important to know the person's performance on the
various subtests that make up the overall intelligence test score. Knowing the performance on these
various scales can influence the understanding of a person's abilities and how these abilities are
expressed. For example, two people have identical scores on intelligence tests. Although both people have
the same test score, one person may have obtained the score because of strong verbal skills while the
other may have obtained the score because of strong skills in perceiving and organizing various tasks.
Furthermore, intelligence tests only measure a sample of behaviors or situations in which intelligent
behavior is revealed. For instance, some intelligence tests do not measure a person's everyday
functioning, social knowledge, mechanical skills, and/or creativity. Along with this, the formats of many
intelligence tests do not capture the complexity and immediacy of real-life situations. Therefore,
intelligence tests have been criticized for their limited ability to predict non-test or nonacademic
intellectual abilities. Since intelligence test scores can be influenced by a variety of different experiences
and behaviors, they should not be considered a perfect indicator of a person's intellectual potential.
Activity 3.4:
Discuss with your course mate about the intelligence testing and identify the methods
used to measure intelligence, and make a list of problems in measuring intelligence

3.1.5 Personality Tests

Your personality is what makes you who you are. It's that organized set of unique traits and
characteristics that makes you different from every other person in the world. Not only does your
personality make you special, it makes you!?
“The particular pattern of behavior and thinking that prevails across time and contexts,
and differentiates one person from another.”
The goal of psychologists is to understand the causes of individual differences in behavior. In order to do
this one must firstly identify personality characteristics (often called personality traits), and then
determine the variables that produce and control them.
A personality trait is assumed to be some enduring characteristic that is relatively constant as opposed to
the present temperament of that person which is not necessarily a stable characteristic. Consequently, trait
theories are specifically focused on explaining the more permanent personality characteristics that
differentiate one individual from another. For example, things like being; dependable, trustworthy,
friendly, cheerful, etc.

A personality test is completed to yield a description of an individual’s distinct personality traits. In

most instances, your personality will influence relationships with your family, friends, and classmates
and contribute to your health and well being. Teachers can administer a personality test in class to help
your children discover their strengths and developmental needs. The driving force behind administering
a personality test is to open up lines of communication and bring students together to have a higher
appreciation for one another. A personality test can provide guidance to teachers of what teaching
strategies will be the most effective for their students. Briefly personality test can benefit your students
by:
 Increasing productivity
 Get along better with classmates
 Help students realize their full potential
 Identify teaching strategies for students
 Help students appreciate other personality types.

(i) Types of Personality Tests

Personality tests are used to determine your type of personality, your values, interests and your skills.
They can be used to simply assess what type of person you are or, more specifically, to determine your
aptitude for a certain type of occupation or career.
There are many different types of personality tests such as self report inventory, Likert scale and
projective tests.

(a) Self-report Inventory

A self-report inventory is a type of psychological test often used in personality assessment. This type of
test is often presented in a paper-and-pencil format or may even be administered on a computer. A typical
self report inventory presents a number of questions or statements that may or may not describe certain
qualities or characteristics of the test subject.
Chances are good that you have taken a self-report inventory at some time the past. Such questionnaires
are often seen in doctors’ offices, in on-line personality tests and in market research surveys. This type of
survey can be used to look at your current behaviors, past behaviors and possible behaviors in
hypothetical situations.

(i) Strengths and Weaknesses of Self-Report Inventories

Self-report inventories are often good solution when researchers need to administer a large number of
tests in relatively short space of time. Many self report inventories can be completed very quickly, often
in as little as 15 minutes. This type of questionnaire is an affordable option for researchers faced with
tight budgets.
Another strength is that the results of self report inventories are generally much more reliable and valid.
Scoring of the tests a standardized and based on norms that have been previously established.
However, self report inventories do have their weaknesses. Such as people are able to exercise deception
while taking self report tests (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997).
Another weakness is that some tests are very long and tedious. For example, the MMPI takes
approximately 3 hours to complete. In some cases, test respondents may simply lose interest and not
answer questions accurately. Additionally, people are sometimes not the best judges of their own
behavior. Some individuals may try to hide their own feelings, thoughts and attitudes.

(ii) Types of Self Reports

 Myers-Briggs Inventory
First designed to help suite people's personality to jobs
identifies 'type' of person not 'traits' in people
 MMPI & MMPI-2
used to assess personality and mental health
 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire
identifies a person’s traits
  The Big Five
identifies on a scale of five traits where a person sits

(b) Likert Scale

A Likert Scale is a type of psychometric scale frequently used in psychology questionnaires. It was
developed by and named after organizational psychologist Rensis Likert. A Likert item is simply a
statement which the respondent is asked to evaluate according to any kind of subjective or objective
criteria; generally the level of agreement or disagreement is measured. It is considered symmetric or
"balanced" because there are equal amounts of positive and negative positions. Often five ordered
response levels are used, although many psychometricians advocate using seven or nine levels.
The format of a typical five-level Likert item, for example, could be:
1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree
3. Uncertain
4. Agree
5. Strongly Agree

Likert scaling is a bipolar scaling method, measuring either positive or negative response to a statement.
Sometimes an even-point scale is used, where the middle option of "Neither agree nor disagree" is not
available. This is sometimes called a "forced choice" method, since the neutral option is removed. The
neutral option can be seen as an easy option to take when a respondent is unsure, and so whether it is a
true neutral option is questionable. It has been shown that when comparing between a 4-point and a 5-
point Likert scale, where the former has the neutral option unavailable, the overall difference in the
response is negligible.

(c) Projective tests

A projective test is a personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably
revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts. In psychology, a projective test is a type of personality
test in which the individual offers responses to ambiguous scenes, words or images. This type of test
emerged from the psychoanalytic school of thought, which suggested that people have unconscious
thoughts or urges. These projective tests were intended to uncover such unconscious desires that are
hidden from conscious awareness.
(i) How Do Projective Test Work?
In many projective tests, the participant is shown an ambiguous image and then asked to give the first
response that comes to mind. The key to projective tests is the ambiguity of the stimuli. According to the
theory behind such tests, clearly defined questions result in answers that are carefully crafted by the
conscious mind. By providing the participant with a question or stimulus that is not clear, the underlying
and unconscious motivations or attitudes are revealed.

(ii) Types of Projective Tests

There are a number of different types of projective tests. The following are just a few examples of some
of the best-known projective tests.
(a) The Rorschach Inkblot Test
 The Rorschach Inkblot was one of the first projective tests and continues to be one of the best-
known. Developed by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in 1921, the test consists of 10
different cards that depict an ambiguous inkblot. The participant is shown one card at a time and
asked to describe what he or she sees in the image. The responses are recorded verbatim by the
tester. Gestures, tone of voice and other reactions are also noted. The results of the test can vary
depending on which of the many existing scoring systems the examiner uses.
(b) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
In the Thematic Apperception Test, an individual is asked to look at a series of ambiguous scenes.
The participant is then asked to tell a story describing the scene, including what is happening,
how the characters are feeling and how the story will end. The examiner then scores the test based
on the needs, motivations and anxieties of the main character as well as how the story eventually
turns out.

(iii) Strengths and Weaknesses of Projective Tests

 Projective tests are most frequently used in therapeutic settings. In many cases, therapists use
these tests to learn qualitative information about a client. Some therapists may use projective
tests as a sort of icebreaker to encourage the client to discuss issues or examine thoughts and
emotions.
 While projective tests have some benefits, they also have a number of weaknesses and
limitations. For example, the respondent's answers can be heavily influenced by the
examiner's attitudes or the test setting. Scoring projective tests is also highly subjective, so
interpretations of answers can vary dramatically from one examiner to the next.

Activity 3.5: Apply the projective tests to any class and analyze the traits of students which differ
them with each other.

3.1.6 Norm-referenced Tests and Criterion-Referenced Tests

Tests can be categorized into two major groups: norm-referenced tests and criterion-referenced tests.
These two tests differ in their intended purposes, the way in which content is selected, and the scoring
process which defines how the test results must be interpreted.

(a) Definition of Norm-Referenced Test

Norm-referenced tests are made with compare test takers to each other. On an NRT driving test, test-
takers would be compared as to who knew most or least about driving rules or who drove better or worse.
Scores would be reported as a percentage rank with half scoring above and half below the mid-point.
This type of test determines a student's placement on a normal distribution curve. Students compete
against each other on this type of assessment. This is what is being referred to with the phrase, 'grading on
a curve'.

(b) Definition of Criterion-Referenced Tests

Criterion-referenced tests are intended to measure how well a person has learned a specific body of
knowledge and skills.
Criterion-referenced test is a term which is used daily in classes. These tests assess specific skills covered
in class.
Criterion-referenced tests measure specific skills and concepts. Typically, they are designed with 100
total points possible. Students are earned points for items completed correctly. The students' scores are
typically expressed as a percentage. Criterion-referenced tests are the most common type of test teacher’s
use in daily classroom work.

(c) Norm- Reference V.S Criterion-Referenced Testing

Norm-referenced tests compare an examinee’s performance to that of other examinees. Standardized
examinations such as the SAT are norm-referenced tests. The goal is to rank the set of examinees so that
decisions about their opportunity for success can be made.
Criterion-referenced tests differ in that each examinee’s performance is compared to a pre-defined set of
criteria or a standard. The goal with these tests is to determine whether or not the candidate has the
demonstrated mastery of a certain skill or set of skills. These results are usually “pass” or “fail” and are
used in making decisions about job entry, certification, or licensure. A national board medical exam is an
example of a Criterion Reference Test. Either the examinee has the skills to practice the profession, in
which case he or she is licensed, or does not.

(i) Purposes of Criterion and Norm – Reference testing

The major reason for using a norm-referenced test is to classify students. Norm Reference Tests are
designed to highlight achievement differences between and among students to produce a dependable rank
order of students across a continuum of achievement from high achievers to low achievers. School
systems might want to classify students in this way so that they can be properly placed in remedial or
gifted programs. These types of tests are also used to help teachers select students for different ability
level reading or mathematics instructional groups.
With norm-referenced tests, a representative group of students is given the test prior to its availability to
the public. The scores of the students who take the test after publication are then compared to those of the
norm group.
While norm-referenced tests ascertains the rank of students, criterion-referenced tests determine what test
takers can do and what they know, not how they compare to others
Criterion Reference Tests report how well students are doing relative to a pre-determined performance
level on a specified set of educational goals or outcomes included in the school, district, or state
curriculum.
Educators or policy makers may choose to use a Criterion Reference Test when they wish to see how well
students have learned the knowledge and skills which they are expected to have mastered. This
information may be used as one piece of information to determine how well the student is learning the
desired curriculum and how well the school is teaching that curriculum.
Both Norm Reference Tests and Criterion Reference Tests can be standardized. The U.S. Congress,
Office of Technology Assessment defines a standardized test as one that uses uniform procedures for
administration and scoring in order to assure that the results from different people are comparable. Any
kind of test--from multiple choices to essays or oral examinations--can be standardized if uniform scoring
and administration are used. This means that the comparison of student scores is possible. Thus, it can be
assumed that two students who receive the identical scores on the same standardized test demonstrate
corresponding levels of performance. Most national, state and district tests are standardized so that every
score can be interpreted in a uniform manner for all students and schools.

(ii) Comparison of CRT/NRT Characteristics

Criterion-Referenced Tests Norm-Referenced Tests
 To determine whether each  To rank each student with respect to
student has achieved specific the achievement of others in order to
skills or concepts based on discriminate between high and low
standards. achievers.
 Measures specific skills which  Measures broad skill areas sampled
make up a designated from a variety of textbooks, syllabi,
curriculum. These skills are and the judgments of curriculum
identified by teachers and experts.
curriculum experts  Each individual is compared with
 Each individual is compared other examinees and assigned a
with a preset standard for score--usually expressed as a
acceptable achievement. The percentile. Student achievement is
performance of other reported for broad skill areas,
examinees is irrelevant. although some norm-referenced tests
 Student’s score is usually do report student achievement for
expressed as a percentage. individual skills
Student achievement is
reported for individual skills.

(iii) Advantage of Criterion Referenced Test

Following are the major advantages of criterion referenced tests:
First, students are only tested on their knowledge of specific goals or standards. For example, if you had
taught a lesson on adding fractions, you will give the student a test on adding fractions. If he or she scores
85% that means that that particular student has learned 85% of that goal. If a student does not score
particularly well, then the teacher can adjust their instruction accordingly.
Another benefit is that if students do not seem to master a particular standard, the teacher will be able to
go back and teach that standard again until the student performs better.

(iv) Disadvantages of Criterion-Referenced Tests

Criterion-referenced tests have some built-in disadvantages. Creating tests that are both valid and reliable
requires fairly extensive and expensive time and effort. In addition, results cannot be generalized beyond
the specific course or program. Such tests may also be compromised by students gaining access to test
questions prior to exams. Criterion-referenced tests are specific to a program and cannot be used to
measure the performance of large groups.

(v) Advantages of Norm reference Test

The advantage of a norm-referenced test is that it shows us how our student is doing related to other
students across the country. They are good for using the placement of students at the beginning and then
again four or six months later, or at the end of the year. This will show growth over the period of the time.
Norm-referenced tests along with informal observational evaluation are useful for showing student
growth over time. They aren't to be used for grading though they can be one element in a total grade. One
must remember we can't expect great growth, if any, over short periods of times, particularly as shown on
a norm-referenced test.

(v) Disadvantage of Norm Reference test

An obvious disadvantage of norm-referenced tests is that it cannot measure progress of the population as
a whole, only where individuals fall within the whole. Thus, only measuring against a fixed goal can be
used to measure the success of an educational reform program which seeks to raise the achievement of all
students against new standards which seek to assess skills beyond choosing among multiple choices.
However, while this is attractive in theory, in practice the bar has often been moved in the face of
excessive failure rates, and improvement sometimes occurs simply because of familiarity with and
teaching to the same test.

Activity 3.6: Discuss with your course mate about characteristics of norm and
criterion referenced tests and prepare a report about their usability.

3.2 Techniques
3.2.1 Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical
analysis of the responses, this is not always the case.
A questionnaire is a list of written questions that can be completed in one of two basic ways

Firstly, respondents could be asked to complete the questionnaire with the researcher not present. This is
a postal questionnaire and (loosely) refers to any questionnaire that a respondent completes without the
aid of the researcher.

Secondly, respondents could be asked to complete the questionnaire by verbally responding to questions
in the presence of the researcher. This variation is called a structured interview.
Although the two variations are similar (a postal questionnaire and a structured interview could contain
exactly the same questions), the difference between them is important. If, for example, we are concerned
with protecting the respondent’s anonymity then it might be more appropriate to use a postal
questionnaire than a structured interview.

(i) Different Types of Questions in Questionnaire Design

The following is a list of the different types of questions in questionnaire design:

1. Open Format Questions

Open format questions are those questions that give your audience an opportunity to express their
opinions. In these types of questions, there are no predetermined set of responses and the person is free to
answer however he/she chooses. By including open format questions in your questionnaire, you can get
true, insightful and even unexpected suggestions. Qualitative questions fall under the category of open
format questions. An ideal questionnaire would include an open format question at the end of the
questionnaire that would ask the respondent about suggestions for changes or improvements.

Example of an Open Format Question

State your opinion about the quality of teaching during workshop.
……………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………..

2. Closed Format Questions

Closed format questions are questions that include multiple choice answers. Multiple choice questions fall
under the category of closed format questions. These multiple choices could either be in even numbers or
in odd numbers. By including closed format questions in your questionnaire design, you can easily
calculate statistical data and percentages. Preliminary analysis can also be performed with ease. Closed
format questions can be asked to different groups at different intervals. This can enable you to efficiently
track opinion over time.

Example of an Open Format Question

Which are the elements necessary for classroom teaching?
Circle those elements:
(a) Teacher (b) Library (c) Lesson planning (d) Laptop

3. Leading Questions
Leading questions are questions that force your audience for a particular type of answer. In a leading
question, all the answers would be equally likely. An example of a leading question would be a question
that would have choices such as, fair, good, great, poor, superb, excellent etc. By asking a question and
then giving answers such as these, you will be able to get an opinion from your audience.
Example of an Open Format Question
How would you rate lecture method?
(i) Fair (ii) Good (iii) Excellent (iv) Superb

4. Importance Questions
In importance questions, the respondents are usually asked to rate the importance of a particular issue, on
a rating scale of 1-5. These questions can help you grasp what are the things that hold importance to your
respondents. Importance questions can also help you make business critical decisions.

Example of an Open Format Question

Students’ involvement in classroom is:
(i) Extremely Important (ii) Very Important (iii) Somewhat Important
(ii) Not very Important (v) Not at all Important

5. Likert Questions
Likert questions can help you ascertain how strongly your respondent agrees with a particular statement.
Likert questions can also help you assess how your customers feel towards a certain issue, product or
service.

Example of an Open Format Question

Lecture method is suitable for all subjects
(1)Strongly Agree (2) Agree (3) Undecided (4) Disagree (5) Strongly Disagree

6. Dichotomous Questions
Dichotomous questions are simple questions that ask respondents to just answer yes or no. One major
drawback of a dichotomous question is that it cannot analyze any of the answers between yes and no.

Example of an Open Format Question

Do you like smoking?
Yes No

7. Bipolar Questions
Bipolar questions are questions that have two extreme answers. The respondent is asked to mark his/her
responses between the two opposite ends of the scale.

Example of an Open Format Question

How would you describe the services of Allama Iqbal Open University?
Efficient…… ……. ……. ……. ……. …….. Inefficient
Fast …….. …….. ……. …… ……. …….. Slow

8. Rating Scale Questions

In rating scale questions, the respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on a scale that ranges from poor
to good. Rating scale questions usually have an even number of choices, so that respondents are not given
the choice of a middle option.

Example of an Open Format Question

How would you rate the quality of lecture method?
Good Fair Poor Very poor
9. Buying Propensity Questions
Buying propensity questions are questions that try to assess the future intentions of customers. These
questions ask respondents if they want to buy a particular product, what requirements they want to be
addressed and whether they would buy such a product in the future.

Example of an Open Format Question

Pakistani products have the good quality, would you prefer to buy it?
Definitely Probably Not Probably Not Sure Definitely Not

(ii) FORMATTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

As the questions are determined, a series of decisions must be made about the questionnaire format: its
appearance, length, and order of questions. The questionnaire must be pleasing to look at and easy to
complete.
The following guidelines may help in formatting the questionnaire.
 Begin with an introduction which includes the questionnaire’s purpose, who is conducting it, to what
use the information will go, and confidentiality. In mailed questionnaires, reinforce points that were
made in the cover letter.

 Make the first questions interesting. Make them clearly related and useful to the topic of the
questionnaire. The beginning questions should not be open-ended or questions with a long list of
answer choices.

 Put the more important questions at the beginning.

 Arrange the order of questions to achieve continuity and a natural flow. Try to keep all questions on
one subject together. Put the more general questions first, followed by a more specific question. For
example, if you want to find out about a person’s knowledge of insurance, start with questions about
types of insurance, purpose of the different types, followed by questions about costs of these various
types.

 Try to use the same type of question/responses throughout a particular train of thought. It breaks the
attention span to have a multiple choice question following a YES/NO question, then an open-ended
question.

 Place demographic questions (age, gender, race/ethnicity, etc.) in the beginning of the questionnaire.

 Use quality print in an easy-to-read type face. Allow sufficient open space to let the respondent feel it
is not crowded and hard to read.

 Keep the whole question and its answers on the same page. Don’t cause respondents to turn a page in
the middle of a question or between the question and its answers.
 Be sure that the question is distinguishable from the instructions and the answers. May be put the
instructions in boldface or italics.

 Try to arrange questions and answers in a vertical flow. This way, the respondent moves easily down
the page, instead of side to side.

 Give directions on how to answer. Specific instructions may include: (Circle the number of your
choice.) (Circle only one.) (Check all that apply.) (Please fill in the blank.) (Enter whole numbers.)
(Please do not use decimals or fractions.)

(iii) Advantages of the Questionnaires

The main advantage of using questionnaires is that a large number of people can be reached relatively
easily and economically. A standard questionnaire provides quantifiable answers for a research topic.
These answers are relatively easy to analyze.
Questionnaires can be designed to target a certain “audience even if they are geographically spread.”
Depending on the design of questionnaires, the data collected may be either quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative data is in numerical form and can be used to find answers about a particular problem such as:
customers’ perceptions about certain products, feelings about services being offered by “Call Centers”,
and so on. Another good thing about questionnaires is that they “reduce bias”.
Effective questionnaires may be designed in such a way that the questions are “short and focused” and
have at least less than “12 words” (Marshall, 2004, p. 132).

(iv) Disadvantages
Questionnaires are not always the best way to gather information. For example, if there is little previous
information on a problem, a questionnaire may only provide limited additional insight. On one hand, the
investigators may not have asked the right questions which allow new insight in the research topic. On the
other hand, questions often only allow a limited choice of responses. If the right response is not among
the choice of answers, the investigators will obtain little or no valid information.
Another setback of questionnaires is the varying responses to questions. Respondents sometimes
misunderstand or misinterpret questions. If this is the case, it will be very hard to correct these mistakes
and collect missing data in a second round.

Activity 3.7: Prepare a five point scale questionnaire to rank the problems of
elementary school teachers of rural areas.

3.2.2 Observation
An observation is information about objects, events, moves, attitudes and phenomena using directly one
or more senses. Observation can be defined as the visual study of something or someone in order to gain
information or learn about behaviour, trends, or changes. This then allows us to make informed decisions,
adjustments, and allowances based on what has been studied. Observation is a basic but important aspect
of learning from and interacting with our environment. Observation is an important part of learning how
to teach. Much of what beginner teachers need to be aware of cannot be learned solely in the class.
Therefore classroom observation presents an opportunity to see real-life teachers in real-life teaching
situations. In their reflections, many of our teacher friends mention their observations and how these
observations influence the way they plan and teach. Teachers are forever reflecting and making decisions,
and when they see someone else in action, in as much as they are seeing someone else, they are almost
simultaneously seeing themselves. This means that observation is important at every stage of a teacher’s
career. Overall classroom observation is form of ongoing assessment. Most teachers can "read" their
students; observing when they are bored, frustrated, excited, motivated, etc. As a teacher picks up these
cues, he/she can adjust the instruction accordingly. It is also beneficial for teachers to make observational
notes (referred to as anecdotal notes). These notes serve to document and describe student learning
relative to concept development, reading, social interaction, and communication skill.

(a) Classroom Observation Guidelines

 To make useful observations in a child care program, the observer needs to be respectful
of the program’s needs to operate effectively. meeting the following guidelines will help:
 Observers should not interfere with the child care program’s activities in any way while
making observations.
 Observers may sit in a chair so a standing adult observer does not intimidate the children.
Do not sit on other furniture such as shelves, tables, the children’s chairs near an activity
table or on play equipment.
 Refrain from talking with other observers, with the caregivers or the children while in the
child care area. Take notes on a pad to help remember what you have seen and frame
questions you can ask of the director later.
 Acknowledge children if they approach you, but do not otherwise take part in the
activities of the children. You can tell them you are watching them play today, or that you
have to finish your work.
 Keep your personal possessions with you at all times unless you are given a safe place to
leave them in the facility. Do not allow children to have access to your things.
 Treat all you see and hear as confidential. Do not repeat anything about the adults,
children or facility that could be traced back to your observation

(b) Purposes of Classroom Observation

Classroom observation has many valid and important educational purposes. This three important purposes
or areas where systematic classroom observation has been widely used:
 Description of instructional practices.
 Investigation of instructional inequities for different groups of students.
 Improvement of teachers' classroom instruction based on feedback from individual classroom or
school profiles.

(c ) Advantage and Disadvantage of Observation

(i) Advantage:
 Data gathered can be highly reliable.
 The analyst is able to see what is being done.
  Observation is less expensive compared to other technique.
 It is useful when the subject cannot provide information.
 It helps to make appropriate decision about students personality.

(ii) Disadvantages:
 People feel uncomfortable being watched, they may perform differently when being
observed.
 The work being observed may not involved the level of difficulty or volume normally
experienced during that time period.
 Some activities may take place at odd times, it might be inconvenience for the system
analyst.
 The task being observed is subjected to types of interruptions.
 Some task may not be in the manner in which they are observed.
Sometimes people act temporarily and perform their job correctly when they are being observed they
might actually violate the standard of manner.
Activity 3.8: Prepare and conduct a classroom observation focusing on different
teaching competencies of your classroom teacher, after collecting
the data to analyze the teachers performance in different subjects.

3.2.3 Interview
A conversation in which one person (the interviewer) elicits information from another person (the subject
or interviewee). A transcript or account of such a conversation is also called an interview.

(a) Objectives of Interview

1. Collecting the data – both extensively and intensively.
2. Exchanging the data and also the experience

(b) Importance of Interview

Interview is important for the interviewer and the interviewee. Its importance may be analyzed through
following points:
 An interview first helps the interviewer to analyze the communication skill of the candidate.
 Through oral interview the applicants’ communication standards can be assessed. The oral
response of the candidate also helps the interviewer to analyze the social behavior of the
candidate. Additional information’s can also be collected through interviews. The candidate’s
attitude and mind can be assessed only by such oral interviews.
 An interview helps the interviewer to assess the knowledge of the applicant. quires related with
the job requirements; education and technical aspects will assist the interviewer to take a decision
on the candidate upon his subject and technical knowledge.
 The expectation of the interviewer and the candidate can be freely discussed only through
interviews.
 Interview is very important in helping the interviewer to choose the right candidate for their
organization.
 An interview gives you insight on what the person you are interviewing thinks, or appears to be
thinking.
Hence every interview should be taken seriously and all things that went unattended during the interview
must be corrected. Because interview helps to collect different information. Sensitive topics which people
may feel uncomfortable discussing in a focus group that can be taken through interview.

(c) Types of Interview

1. Structured Interview
Here, every single detail of the interview is decided in advance. The questions to be asked, the order in
which the questions will be asked, the time given to each candidate, the information to be collected from
each candidate, etc. is all decided in advance. Structured interview is also called Standardized, Patterned,
Directed or Guided interview. Structured interviews are preplanned. They are accurate and precise. All
the interviews will be uniform (same). Therefore, there will be consistency and minimum bias in
structured interviews.

2. Unstructured Interview
This interview is not planned in detail. Hence it is also called as Non-Directed interview. The question to
be asked, the information to be collected from the candidates, etc. are not decided in advance. These
interviews are non-planned and therefore, more flexible. Candidates are more relaxed in such interviews.
They are encouraged to express themselves about different subjects, based on their expectations,
motivations, background, interests, etc. Here the interviewer can make a better judgment of the
candidate's personality, potentials, strengths and weaknesses. However, if the interviewer is not efficient
then the discussions will lose direction and the interview will be a waste of time and effort.

3. Group Interview
Here, all the candidates or small groups of candidates are interviewed together. The time of the
interviewer is saved. A group interview is similar to a group discussion. A topic is given to the group, and
they are asked to discuss it. The interviewer carefully watches the candidates. He tries to find out which
candidate influences others, who clarifies issues, who summarizes the discussion, who speaks effectively,
etc. He tries to judge the behaviour of each candidate in a group situation.

4. Exit Interview
When an employee leaves the company, he is interviewed either by his immediate superior or by the
Human Resource Development (HRD) manager. This interview is called an exit interview. Exit interview
is taken to find out why the employee is leaving the company. Sometimes, the employee may be asked to
withdraw his resignation by providing some incentives. Exit interviews are taken to create a good image
of the company in the minds of the employees who are leaving the company. They help the company to
make proper Human Resource Development (HRD) policies, to create a favourable work environment, to
create employee loyalty and to reduce labour turnover.
5. Depth Interview
This is a semi-structured interview. The candidate has to give detailed information about his background,
special interest, etc. He also has to give detailed information about his subject. Depth interview tries to
find out if the candidate is an expert in his subject or not. Here, the interviewer must have a good
understanding of human behaviour.

6. Stress Interview
The purpose of this interview is to find out how the candidate behaves in a stressful situation. That is,
whether the candidate gets angry or gets confused or gets frightened or gets nervous or remains cool in a
stressful situation. The candidate who keeps his cool in a stressful situation is selected for the stressful
job. Here, the interviewer tries to create a stressful situation during the interview. This is done purposely
by asking the candidate rapid questions, criticizing his answers, interrupting him repeatedly, etc. Then the
behviour of the interviewee is observed and future educational planning based on his/her stress levels and
handling of stress.

7. Individual Interview
This is a 'One-To-One' Interview. It is a verbal and visual interaction between two people, the interviewer
and the candidate, for a particular purpose. The purpose of this interview is to match the candidate with
the job. It is a two way communication.

8. Informal Interview
Informal interview is an oral interview which can be arranged at any place. Different questions are asked
to collect the required information from the candidate. Specific rigid procedure is not followed. It is a
friendly interview.

9. Formal Interview
Formal interview is held in a more formal atmosphere. The interviewer asks pre-planned questions.
Formal interview is also called planned interview.

10. Panel Interview

Panel means a selection committee or interview committee that is appointed for interviewing the
candidates. The panel may include three or five members. They ask questions to the candidates about
different aspects. They give marks to each candidate. The final decision will be taken by all members
collectively by rating the candidates. Panel interview is always better than an interview by one
interviewer because in a panel interview, collective judgment is used for selecting suitable candidates.

11. Behavioral Interview

In a behavioural interview, the interviewer will ask you questions based on common situations of the job
you are applying for. The logic behind the behavioral interview is that your future performance will be
based on a past performance of a similar situation. You should expect questions that inquire about what
you did when you were in some situation and how did you dealt with it. In a behavioral interview, the
interviewer wants to see how you deal with certain problems and what you do to solve them.

12. Phone Interview

A phone interview may be for a position where the candidate is not local or for an initial prescreening call
to see if they want to invite you in for an in-person interview. You may be asked typical questions or
behavioural questions.
Most of the time you will schedule an appointment for a phone interview. If the interviewer calls
unexpectedly, it's ok to ask them politely to schedule an appointment. On a phone interview, make sure
your call waiting is turned off, you are in a quiet room, and you are not eating, drinking or chewing gum.

(d) Advantages of Interview

 Very good technique for getting the information about the complex, emotionally laden
subjects.
 Can be easily adapted to the ability of the person being interviewed.
 Yields a good percentage of returns.
 Yields perfect sample of the general population.
 Data collected by this method is likely to be more correct as compared to the other
methods that are used to investigate issues in an in depth way for the data collection
 Discover how individuals think and feel about a topic and why they hold certain opinions
 Investigate the use, effectiveness and usefulness of particular library collections and
services
 Inform decision making, strategic planning and resource allocation
 Sensitive topics which people may feel uncomfortable discussing in a focus group
 Add a human dimension to impersonal data
 Deepen understanding and explain statistical data.

Disadvantages of Interview
 Time consuming process.
 Involves high cost.
 Requires highly skilled interviewer.
 Requires more energy.
 May sometimes involve systematic errors.
 More confusing and a very complicated method.
 Different interviewers may understand and transcribe interviews in different ways.
Activity 3.9: Conduct an interview with your teachers regarding their jobs and find
out the problems of teachers during their jobs.

3.2.4 Rating Scale

A rating scale is a tool used for assessing the performance of tasks, skill levels, procedures, processes,
qualities, quantities, or end products, such as reports, drawings, and computer programs. These are judged
at a defined level within a stated range. Rating scales are similar to checklists except that they indicate the
degree of accomplishment rather than just yes or no. Hence rating scale used to determine the degree to
which the child exhibits a behaviour or the quality of that behavior; each trait is rated on a continuum, the
observer decides where the child fits on the scale overall rating scale focuses on:
• Make a qualitative judgment about the extent to which a behavior is present
• Consist of a set of characteristics or qualities to be judged by using a systematic procedure
• Numerical and graphic rating scales are used most frequently

Types of Rating Scales

Numerical Rating Scales:
A sequence of numbers is assigned to descriptive Categories; the rater marks a number to indicate the
degree to which a characteristic is present
Graphic Rating Scales:
A set of categories described at certain points along the line of a continuum; the rater can mark his or her
judgment at any location on the line.
(a) Advantages of Rating Scales:
 Used for behaviours not easily measured by other means
 Quick and easy to complete
 User can apply knowledge about the child from other times
 Minimum of training required
 Easy to design using consistent descriptors (e.g., always, sometimes, rarely, or never)
 Can describe the child’s steps toward understanding or mastery

(b) Disadvantages
 Highly subjective (rater error and bias are a common problem).
 Raters may rate a child on the basis of their previous interactions or on an emotional,
rather than an objective, basis.
 Ambiguous terms make them unreliable: raters are likely to mark characteristics by using
different interpretations of the ratings (e.g., do they all agree on what “sometimes”
means?).

Activity 3.10: Prepare a rating scale on attributes of good teaching and administer it
in your classroom for evaluating the performance of your teachers of
different subjects.

3.3 Standardized Testing

Standardized tests are tools designed to allow measure of student performance relative to all others taking
the same test. A standardized test is a test that is administered and scored in a consistent, or "standard",
manner. Standardized tests are designed in such a way that the questions, conditions for administering,
scoring procedures, and interpretations are consistent and are administered and scored in a predetermined,
standard manner. Any test in which the same test is given in the same manner to all test takers is a
standardized test. Standardized tests need not be high-stakes tests, time-limited tests, or multiple-choice
tests. The opposite of a standardized test is a non-standardized test. Non-standardized testing gives
significantly different tests to different test takers, or gives the same test under significantly different
conditions (e.g., one group is permitted far less time to complete the test than the next group), or evaluates
them differently (e.g., the same answer is counted right for one student, but wrong for another student).
Standardized testing has received criticism from psychologists, educators and parents. Criticism of
academic testing often focuses on linguistic biases against minorities, the testing methods that may not
work for all types of students and negative reinforcement of lower performing students.

(a) Types of Standardized Testing

There are two types of standardized tests: Norm-referenced and Criterion referenced. Norm-referenced
testing measures performance relative to all other students taking the same test. It lets you know how well
a student did compare to the rest of the testing population. For example, if a student is ranked in the 86th
percentile, that means he/she did better than 86 percent of others who took the test. This type of testing is
the most common found among standardized testing. Criterion referenced testing measures factual
knowledge of a defined body of material. Multiple-choice tests that people take to get their license or a
test in fractions are both examples of this type of testing.
In addition to the two main categories of standardized tests, these tests can be divided even further into
performance tests or aptitude tests. Performance tests are assessments of what learning has already
occurred in a particular subject area, while aptitude tests are assessments of abilities or skills considered
important to future success in school.
Intelligence tests are also standardized tests that aim to determine how a person can handle problem
solving using higher level cognitive thinking. Often just called an IQ test for common use, a typical IQ
test asks problems involving pattern recognition and logical reasoning. It then takes into account the time
needed and how many questions the person completes correctly, with penalties for guessing. Specific tests
and how the results are used change from district to district but intelligence testing is common during the
early years of schooling.

(b) Advantages
• It can be obtained easily and available on researcher’s convenience.
• It can be adopted and implemented quickly.
• It reduces or eliminates faculty time demands in instrument development and grading.
• It helps to score objectively.
• It can provide the external validity of test.
• It helps to provide reference group measures.
• It can make longitudinal comparisons.
• It can test large numbers of students.

(c) Disadvantages
• It measures relatively superficial knowledge or learning.
• Norm-referenced data may be less useful than criterion-referenced.
• It may be cost prohibitive to administer as a pre- and post-test.
• It is more summative than formative (may be difficult to isolate what changes are
needed).
 • It may be difficult to receive results in a timely manner.

(d) Recommendations
• It must be selected carefully based on faculty review and determination of match
between test content and curriculum content.
• Request technical manual and information on reliability and validity from publisher.
• Check with other users.
• If possible, purchase data disk for creation of customized reports.
• If possible, select tests that also provide criterion-referenced results.
• Check results against those obtained from other assessment methods.
• Embedding the test as part of a course’s requirements may improve student motivation.

Activity 3.11: Download a standardized test for measuring the achievements of

elementary students in English language and administer it in your
school. After administering it to analyze and interpret the score and
explore the deficiency of students in different aspects of English
language.

3.4 Summary
Classroom assessment test and techniques are a series of tools and practices designed to give teachers
accurate information about the quality of student learning. Information gathered isn’t used for grading or
teacher evaluation. Instead, it’s used to facilitate dialogue between students and teacher on the quality of
the learning process, and how to improve it. For this purpose there are many different types and
techniques of testing that can be done during an evaluation. They can be done by our school system or
independently. Keeping in view the learning domains or aspects different tests such as achievement tests,
aptitude tests, attitude scale, intelligence tests, personality tests, norm and criterion tests and assessment
techniques such as questionnaire, interview, observation, rating scale and standardized testing were
discussed.

3.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. Discuss the nature of tests and techniques. Also highlight their characteristics in teaching learning
process.
2. Categories the functions of different tests and techniques. To what extend these functions are
fulfilled in our schools? Discuss.
3. Enlist the different types of tests and their role in education system.
4. Enlist the different types of techniques and their role in education system.
5. Enlist the advantages and disadvantages of different tests and techniques. Also give suggestions
for their improvements.
3.6 References/Suggested Readings
 Airasian, P. (1994) "Classroom Assessment," Second Edition, NY" McGraw-Hill.
 American Psychological Association. (1985). Standards for Educational and Psychological
Testing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
 Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological Testing (6th ed.). New York, NY: MacMillan Publishing
Company.
 Cangelosi, J. (1990) "Designing Tests for Evaluating Student Achievement." NY: Addison-
Wesley.
 Cunningham, G.K. (1998). Assessment in the Classroom. Bristol, PA: Falmer Press.
Ward, A.W., & Murray-Ward, M. (1999). Assessment in the Classroom. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Publishing Co.
 Gronlund, N. (1993) "How to Make Achievement Tests and Assessments," 5th Edition, NY:
Allyn and Bacon.
 Gronlund, N. E. & Linn, R. L. (1995). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching. New Delhi:
Baba Barkha Nath Printers.
 Haladyna, T.M. & Downing, S.M. (1989) Validity of a Taxonomy of Multiple-Choice Item-
Writing Rules. "Applied Measurement in Education," 2(1), 51-78.
 Monahan, T. (1998) The Rise of Standardized Educational Testing in the U.S. – A Bibliographic
Overview.
 Ravitch, Diane, “The Uses and Misuses of Tests”, in The Schools We Deserve (New York: Basic
Books, 1985), pp. 172–181.
 Thissen, D., & Wainer, H. (2001). Test Scoring. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
 Wilson, N. (1997) Educational Standards and the Problem of Error. Education Policy Analysis
Archives, Vol 6 No 10
 http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=11519
 http://www.minddisorders.com/Flu-Inv/Intelligence-tests.html
 http://learningdisabilities.about.com/od/glossar1/a/intelligencetes.htm
 http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Intelligence-Tests.topicArticleId-25438,articleId-
25413.html