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2012 Advanced Issues in Arabic/English Translation
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ADVANCED ISSUES IN
ARABIC-ENGLISH
TRANSLATION STUDIES
Prof. Mohammed Farghal

Dept. of English Language & Literature
Faculty of Arts
Kuwait University
2012
National Library of Kuwait Cataloguing
Prof. Farghal, Mohammed
Advanced Issues in Arabic-English Translation Studies

First Ed., Kuwait: Kuwait University,
Academic Publication Council,
Authorship, Translation & Publication Committee, 2012
P.: 374; 17 X 24 cm
1 - Arabic Language-Translation into English.
2 - English Language-Translation into Arabic.
3 - Arabic Language-Dialects.
428.029270 PJ 7170
ISBN: 978 - 99906 - 1 - 173 - 1 :‫ﺭﺩﻣﻚ‬

Depository Number: 147 / 2012 :‫ﺭﻗﻢ ﺍﻻﻳﺪﺍﻉ‬
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Authorship, Translation & Publication Committee, Kuwait University
P.O. BOX: 28301 Safat , Code No. 13144, State of Kuwait
Tel. (00965) 24811375 - Tel. & Fax : (00965) 24843185
E-mail:atpc@ku.edu.kw
http://www.pubcouncil.kuniv.edu.kw/atapc
The Publication of the Academic Publication Council
Journal of the Social Sciences 1973. Annals of the Arts and Social Sciences 1980.
Kuwait Journal of Science and Eengineering 1974. Arab Journal for the Humanities 1981.
Jounal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula studies 1975 . The Educational Journal 1983 .
Authorship Translation and Publication Committee 1976. Journal of Sharia and Islamic Studies 1983 .
Journal of Law 1977. Arab Journal of Administrative Sciences 1991.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
Authorʼs Note…………………….……………………………………… iv
List of Arabic Phonetic Symbols………………………………………… v
Foreword Yasir Suleiman……….......……………………………………… 1
Introduction Ali Manaʼ……………………..……………………………… 8
1.CHAPTER ONE
BASIC CONCEPTS
1.0 Nature of Human Communication……………………….……………… 31
1.1 Nature of Translation………………………………...…..………………… 33
1.2 Contemporary Translation Dichotomies……………………..…………… 38
1.3 Nature of Translation Equivalence………………………………………… 45
1,4 Context in Translation………....…………………………………………… 48
1.5 Translation Programs…………………………………………………….... 54
1.6 Theory of Translating vs. Theory of Translation………………………… 56
1.7 Translation as a Question of Relevance………………………………… 61
1.8 Translation as an Act of Communicating………………………………… 65
1.9 Translation as a Multi-stage Process……………………………………… 69
1.10 A Practical Exercise in Translation Criticism…………………………… 71
1.11 Conclusion………………………………………………………………… 77
1.12 Practices…………………………………………………………………… 79
2. CHAPTER TWO
INTRINSIC MANAGING: NATURALIZING THE TL TEXT
2.0 The Concept……………………………………………………………… 87
2.1 Intrinsic Managing………………………………………………………… 90
2.1.0 Phonology and Morphology………………………………… 91
2.1.1 Syntax………………………………………………………… 99
2.1.2 Lexis and Phraseology……………………………………… 112
2.1.3 Pragmatics…………………………………………………… 132
2.1.4 Textuality…………………………………………………… 140
2.1.5 Culture………………………………………………………… 151
i
2.2 Summary…………………………………………………………… 168
2.3 Practices………………………………………………………………… 169
3. CHAPTER THREE
EXTRINSIC MANAGING: AN EPITAPH TO
TRANSLATORIAL IDEOLOGICAL MOVES
3.0 Introduction………………………………………………………… 179
3.1 Lexis………………………………………………………………… 184
3.2 Syntax……………………………………………………………… 196
3.3 Discourse and/or Culture…………………………………………… 202
3.4 Conclusion………………………………………………………… 219
3.5 Practices……………………………………………………………… 220
4. CHAPTER FOUR
DECODING AND ENCODING IN TRANSLATION: A
SCHEMA-THEORETIC PERSPECTIVE
4.0 Introduction……………………………………………………… 227
4.1 Schemata and Lexis in Translation…………………………………
4.1.0 Lexical Aspect of Schemata………………………………… 232
4.1.1 Material……………………………………………………… 235
4.1.2 Experiment………………………………………………… 236
4.1.3 Results and Discussion
4.1.3.0 The Student Groups…………………………………… 237
4.1.3.1 The Professor Group………………………………… 245
4.1.4 Summary and Conclusion…………………………………… 247
4.2 Discourse and Schemata
4.2.0 Discourse vs. Text…………………………………………… 249
4.2.1 Symbolism………………………………………………… 252
4.2.2 Explicitness…………………………………………………… 256
4.2.3 Coherence…………………………………………………… 266
4.2.4 Diction………………………………………………………… 267
4.2.5 Summary……………………………………………………… 270
4.3 Schematic Model of Literary Translation
4.3.0 Literary Translation………………………………………… 270
ii
4.3.1 The Model………………………………………………… 273
4.3.2 Discussion
4.3.2.0 Culture-free Schemata…………………………… 275
4.3.2.1 Culture-bound Schemata………………………… 280
4.3.2.2 Culture-sensitive Schemata………………………… 285
4.3.2.3 Language-bound Schemata……………………… 288
4.3.3 Summary……………………………………………………… 292
4.4 Practices…………………………………………………………… 293
5. CHAPTER FIVE
ARABIC EUPHEMISM: THE QUESTION OF
POLITENESS IN TRANSLATION
5.0 Definition and Scope of Euphemism……………………………… 303
5.1 Euphemism in Arabic Linguistics……………………………… 305
5.2 A Translational Perspective……………………………… 308
5.2.0 Figurative Expressions……………………………… 309
5.2.1 Antonyms……………………………… 312
5.2.2 Circumlocutions, Remodelings and Ellipsis……………… 314
5.2.3 Understatements and Overstatements…………………… 318
5.2.4 Borrowings…………………………………………………… 321
5.2.5 Euphemizers……………………………………………… 322
5.3 Conclusion………………………………………………………… 326
5.4 Practices…………………………………………………………… 327
6. CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUDING REMARKS 335
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS 339
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………… 346
ABSTRACT (English).……………………………………………………. 371
ABSTRACT (Arabic)……………………………………………………… 373
iii
iO�«
AUTHORʼS NOTE
The present volume is intended to fill a gap in
academic work on Arabic-English translation studies
by coupling theory with practice through an extended
translation exercise. The arguments are supported by
ample translational data embracing different types of
texts which range between media and literary discourses.
The main objective is to drive home theoretical claims
through relevant illustrative excerpts in order to produce
a true feel for critical translation thinking in student
translators and, in effect, surpass the often-occurring
traineesʼ practice of memorizing esoteric academic
material about translation without being aware of its
applied dimensions. In terms of presentation, the book can
be used as a unified whole in an advanced undergraduate
or an introductory postgraduate translation course or,
alternatively, individual chapters may be picked out
for discussion, as each chapter constitutes a coherently
treated topic. The practices provided at the end of each
chapter are not meant to test the studentsʼ understanding
of the content but rather to consolidate and elaborate
on the material with an eye to generating translational
argumentation among the students as well as between
the students and their instructor.
iv
List of Arabic Phonetic Symbols
/b/ voiced bilabial stop List of Arabic Phonetic Symbols

/m/ bilabial
/b/ voiced nasal stop
bilabial
/f/
/m/voiceless labio-dental fricative
bilabial nasal
/f/ voiceless
/ð/ labio-dentalfricative
voiced interdental fricative
/ð/ voiced interdentalList fricative
of Arabic Phonetic Symbols
/ð/ voiced interdental
/ð/ voiced interdental emphatic emphatic fricative
fricative
/b/ voiceless
/�/ voiced
voiceless interdental
interdental
bilabial fricative
stop fricative
/d/ voiced
/d/
/m/ voiced
bilabialalveolar
nasal stop
alveolar stop
/t/ voiceless
/f/ voiceless alveolar
labio-dental stopfricative
/t/ voiceless
/d/ voiced alveolar
voiced interdental
alveolar emphatic stop
/ð/ fricativestop
/d/ voicedinterdental
/t/ voiceless
/ð/ voiced alveolar
alveolar emphatic
emphatic
emphatic stopstop
fricative
/z/ voiceless
/t/
/�/ voiced alveolar
voiceless alveolar fricative
interdental emphatic
fricative stop
/s/ voiceless
/d/ voiced alveolar fricative
/z/
/s/ voicedalveolar
voiceless alveolar
alveolar
stop
fricative
emphatic fricative
/t/ voiceless alveolar stop
/n/
/s/ alveolar
/d/ voiceless nasal
voiced alveolar stop
alveolar fricative
emphatic stop
/r/
/s/ alveolar rhotic
voicelessalveolar
/t/ voiceless liquid
alveolar emphatic
emphatic stopfricative
/l/ alveolar
/z/ voiced lateral
alveolar liquid
/n/
/š/ alveolar
voiceless nasal fricative
stop fricative
alveo-palatal
/s/ voiceless alveolar fricative
/j/ voiceless
/r/
/s/ voiced
alveolaralveo-palatal
rhotic
alveolarliquid affricatefricative
emphatic
/y/alveolar
/l/
/n/ palatal glide
alveolar lateral
nasal stopliquid
/w/alveolar
/r/ labio-velar
rhotic glide
liquid
/š/ voiceless
/k/alveolar
voiceless alveo-palatal
velar stop fricative
/l/ lateral liquid
/�/ voiced
/j/
/š/ voiced velar
voiceless fricative affricate
alveo-palatal
alveo-palatal fricative
/x/ voiceless velar fricative
/y/ palatalalveo-palatal
/j/ voiced glide affricate
/q/ voiceless
/y/ palatal uvular
glide glide stop
/w/ labio-velar
/w/ labio-velar glide fricative
/‘/ voiced pharyngeal
/k/
/k/ voiceless velar
/h/ voiceless
voiceless pharyngeal
velarstop stopfricative
/’/ voiced
/�/ glottal stop
voicedvelar
velar fricative
fricative
/h/ voiceless
/x/ voiceless velar
laryngeal fricative
fricative
/i/ high
/q/ front uvular
voiceless short vowel
stop v
/u/ high back short vowel
/‘/ voiced pharyngeal fricative
/a/ voiceless
/h/ low central short vowel
pharyngeal fricative
/ii/glottal
/’/ high front
stop long vowel
/uu/voiceless
/h/ high back long vowel
laryngeal fricative
/aa/ low central long
/i/ high front short vowelvowel
/ee/ mid front long vowel
/q/ voiceless uvular stop
/ʻ/ voiced pharyngeal fricative
/ħ/ voiceless pharyngeal fricative
/ʼ/ glottal stop
/h/ voiceless laryngeal fricative
/i/ high front short vowel
/u/ high back short vowel
/a/ low central short vowel
/ii/ high front long vowel
/uu/ high back long vowel
/aa/ low central long vowel
/ee/ mid front long vowel
/oo/ mid back long vowel
vi
iO�«
FOREWORD
Yasir Suleiman
Over the past two decades, the subject of Translation
Studies has witnessed a massive transformation in a number of
domains including practical training, expansion in university
programmes and, most importantly, the conduct of fundamental
and applied research in many parts of the world. Keen awareness
of the importance of inter-cultural communication in all fields of
human knowledge and in international relations is a major factor in
this transformation, as are the imperatives of security and national
development in the economic and scientific fields. Europe has led
the way in this area, but the Arab World and China in particular
have followed close on Europeʼs heels with vigour and creative
engagement. The book at hand provides a good example of this
engagement, which builds on Farghalʼs extensive research and
teaching experience in the field. The bibliography at the end of the
book gives but a flavour of the breadth and depth of his research
in Translation Studies and contrastive linguistics.
This book has many merits. To begin with, it is written

with great conceptual clarity. The reader should be able to process
the model underlying Farghalʼs approach to translation with great
1
mental economy. Allied to this conceptual clarity is clarity of
expression which enhances comprehension of the model. Second,
as a book aimed at the students and teachers of translation in the
Arabic speaking world the wealth of examples Farghal provides,
and the discussions and comments that accompany them, make
many of the nuts and bolts in the model come to life. Third, the
book attends to the needs of the Arab student of translation. It
is full of comparative insights that set out the similarities and
differences between Arabic and English and their impact on the
translation process. Fourth, the book tracks this comparative
perspective through the various structural levels of language and
the pragmatics of inter-cultural communication. Fifth, although
the book deals with Arabic-English translation, it manages to go
beyond the limits imposed by these two languages: it incorporates
insights and ideas of a general and comparative nature which
students of translation will find useful regardless of the languages
with which they work. Finally, the book tries to build on whatever
translation experience students bring with them, what Farghal
calls ʻtheory of translatingʼ, to build a theory of translation that is
deliberate and nuanced. The net result of these features of the text
is a book that is user friendly, engaging and attentive to detail, but
without forgetting the macro-considerations that inform translation
both as a process and as a product.
2
The starting point for this text is the nature of language as
a system that embodies productivity and closure not in an either/
or relationship, but as features of a both/and continuum. Farghal
refers to these properties of language as the open and idiom
principles and links them to ideational and functional equivalence
in translation. A translatorʼs work ranges between the two ends of
this continuum, embodying two modes of practice: one signalling
freedom and the other the closer tracking of the source text (ST) in
the target text (TT). This process of negotiating the transfer of the
ST meaning into the TT is embedded in a context that combines
macro-considerations with micro-details. The macro-level
recognizes the role of the translator as a negotiator of meanings and
ideologies involving the author and his or her original audience.
This view of the task of the translator implies that the translation
process must include reception at two levels: those of the source
and target language cultures and, additionally, their audiences, a
fact that makes the translator consumer and producer of texts at one
and the same time. Relevance is a key concept in this multi-stage
process of mediation that involves different kinds of competence,
including cultural and schematic or genre competence.
Farghal develops these ideas in an applied direction in

Chapters 2 and 3 through the notion of ʻmanagementʼ which he
divides into two types: extrinsic and intrinsic management. The
3
main purpose of management in translation is to deal with the
lack of equivalence, or fit, between languages structurally and
culturally. The notions of relevance, equivalence and the two
principles of openness and idomaticity come into play in these
two chapters. Intrinsic management deals with the mismatches
between the source and target language at the levels of phonology,
morphology, syntax, lexis and phraseology, pragmatics, textuality
and culture. Each of these categories is introduced and discussed
through copious examples that enhance the practice-oriented
purpose of the book.
Chapter 3 deals with issues arising in the application of

extrinsic management, in which ideology is the primary concern, by
considering the levels of lexis and syntax; the latter is approached
from the viewpoint of agency, modality and ʻevaluativenessʼ. For
most translation scholars, ideological interference in the translation
process is considered negatively, although skopos theory regards
the ideological management of the ST in the direction of the target
culture to be an acceptable procedure. This kind of approach may
in fact be commendable in some cases, for example in translating
media texts from English into Arabic owing to the ideologically
impregnated nature of these texts in the source language. Farghal
seems to accept this procedure as some of the examples relating to
the Arab-Israeli conflict in the book suggest. Not managing these
4
texts extrinsically would lead to transferring the ideology of these
texts into the target culture, giving this ideology currency where in
fact it ought to be challenged and resisted. Applying this practice
is justified in situations where the source and target culture exist
in a state of active political conflict, as for example between Israel
and the Palestinian Arabs. Translating the Israeli term Judea and
Samaria directly into Arabic as yahuda wa-l-samira, even with
the caveat term ʻso-calledʼ before the translation in Arabic, would
represent a tacit acceptance of the bogus claim Israel makes
over what the rest of the world calls the Occupied Territories in
conformity with international law. The translator is not a neutral
channel through which meanings and information move from one
language and culture to another, but he or she also acts as a filter
that monitors ideological bias in the ST and manages it in a way
that is consistent with the understanding of translation as a form of
mediation and re-writing. There would, of course, be cases where
the translator may wish to preserve the ideological bias in ST in
the TT, but this intention ought to be marked overtly by reference
to the skopos (purpose) that underpins it. What I am arguing here
is the need to consider maintaining the ideological bias of ST,
especially a media text of the type mentioned above, as itself a
kind of skopos-oriented practice rather than as a neutral stance.
Although Farghal does not articulate his position in this way, I am
sure that this view of skopos is consistent with his approach, as
5
some of the examples in Chapter 3 strongly suggest.
Chapter 4 argues for a schema-oriented approach to the

decoding of STs prior to their encoding into TTs. Schemata are of
two types: content schemata which represent a readerʼs background
knowledge about the topic or topics in the ST, and formal schemata
whose domain resides in language as a structural system as well as
in text types as organised stretches of discourse. A good translator
will always activate his or her content schemata to help resolve
what is unfamiliar in an ST by reference to what is familiar in
that ST or in the target culture. The same applies at the level of
formal schemata: a good translator will use vocabularies that are
lexically transparent to disambiguate or understand items that are
lexically opaque. By the same token, a good translator will use
his or her knowledge of text types and their structural and stylistic
characteristics to decode ST textually. Knowledge of contexts and
how they frame the decoding of STs constitute important schemata
in the reading process. However, it is important to monitor this
decoding process to ensure that it does not lead the translator as
decoder and encoder into blind-alleys.
The last substantive chapter, Chapter 5, deals with the

translation of Arabic and English euphemisms against the
important pragmatic principle of politeness. In dealing with this
topic, Farghal uses well-chosen examples to discuss figurative
6
expressions, antonyms, circumlocution, ellipsis, understatement
and overstatement, borrowings and ʻeuphemisersʼ with view to
showing how the cultural distance between Arabic and English can
be a source of translation difficulty, even embarrassment, for the
translator. Differences in cultural and moral sensibilities between
languages are a fascinating topic for research in Translation Studies.
Farghalʼs discussion of such issues does not aim at completeness;
its aim is to provide a few pointers which the student of translation
can use in thinking about similar topics and the limits of their
translatability. In a similar manner, this Foreword does not aim
to cover the full extent of the concepts, frames of reference and
insights in this book, but to provide a few pointers which can guide
the reader in approaching it.
Yasir Suleiman
Professor of Modern Arabic Studies
Fellow, Kingʼs College
University of Cambridge, England
7
INTRODUCTION
Ali Al-Mannaʼ
Driving a car does not require you to understand how its
engine works. However, if you have basic knowledge of such a
mechanism, you will undoubtedly drive your car with greater self-
confidence, totally free from worry and fear.
The same holds true for translation. It is not necessary

to master translation theory in order to translate a text. However,
acquiring good knowledge of translation theory will enable you
to produce a text reflecting more accurately the intentions of the
source text author whilst maintaining text-type focus and living
up to the target-readerʼs expectations.
However, a study of the various theoretical concepts either

drawn from or brought to the practice of translation can
provide entrance into mechanisms that, through the art
of translation, make crosscultural communication and
understanding possible (Schulte and Biguent, 1992: p.1)
Debates have been raging since Cicero and Horace on types

of translation – word-for-word or sense-for-sense. Translation in
the seventeenth century was considered as ʻessentially copyingʼ,
8
prohibiting translators from passing comments or interpretation
(Kelly, 1979: 35); however, the prohibition of interpretation could
be traced back as far as the Sptuagintʼ (ibid). In the eighteenth
century, the concept of ʻcopyingʼ was modified slightly to mean “a
recreation in terms of the other language” (ibid). In the nineteenth
century, the theologian and translator Friedrich Schleiermacher
(1813), being considered the founder of modern hermeneutics,
took the discussion a step further in his essay entitled ʻOn the
Different Methods of Translatingʼ. He shifted the focus of
attention to the “methodologies of translations”, rather than
“illuminating the nature of the translation process” as writers like
Humboldt, Schlegel and Arnold did (Schulte and Bigeunet, ibid:
6). He argued that, as a translator, one “[e]ither […] leaves the
writer alone as much as possible and moves the reader towards the
writer” or “leaves the reader alone as much as possible and moves
the writer towards the reader”. He further added: “Both paths
are so completely different from one another that one of them
must definitely be adhered to as strictly as possible, since a highly
unreliable result would emerge from mixing them, and it is likely
that author and reader would not come together at all” (Friedrich
Schleiermacher cited in Schulte and Biguenet, ibid: 42).
More recently, Venuti (1995), drawing on Schleiermacherʼs

aforementioned views, has introduced into the field of translation
9
the dichotomy: foreignization vs. domestication. To put it
differently, translators have to take a decision as to whether their
translation should be as close as possible to the source text, thereby
adding foreign flavour to the TT, or whether it should clearly
announce its divergence from the ST, familiarising the text to the
target reader.
Global Strategy vs. Local Strategy
In addition to taking into account the purpose of the

translation, their own objectives, the expectation of the intended
readership, the publisherʼs attitude/the agencyʼs policy and the
status of the source text, etc. translators have to zoom in on the
text at hand with a view to pinpointing its subject matter, genre,
etc. Such a macro-analytical approach will “not only create
certain expectations on the part of the translator […] in terms of
style, syntax and lexis, but will also help to explain some of the
choices made by the ST author and thus inform the TT author (i.e.
the translator) in his own process of choice” which strategy fits the
text (Adab, 1994: 23).
Jääskeläinen (1993: 116) differentiates between ʻglobalʼ

strategy, the general strategy adopted by translators to deal with
the whole text, whether (to use Venutiʼs (1995) terminology)
to domesticate or foreignize it, and ʻlocalʼ strategy, a problem-
10
motivated strategy adopted by translators to solve the problems
with which they grapple in dealing with segments of the text.
Strategies in general, whether global or local, are “heuristic

and flexible in nature” (Jääskeläinen, 1993: 71). The actual choice
of a particular global strategy depends on a variety of factors, as
stated above. Local strategies are, however, influenced primarily
by the global strategy itself. Unsurprisingly, there are other factors
that could contribute to the adoption of an appropriate local
strategy such as cultural differences, the context of situation,
generic and textual constraints, the importance of the segment of
the text itself in drawing attention to the authorʼs intention(s) and
the altering of the text-type focus and its relevance to the whole
text. Newmark (1988: 82) states that the translatorʼs strategy
sometimes depends on his/her desire “to attract the reader or to
give a sense of intimacy between the text and the reader”. This is
in line with Bellʼs (1990: 221; italic his) view that the translator,
like the writer who asks himself “why the text is to be written” and
“what form the text should take: an article, a monograph, a book”
and, accordingly, the function of the language is determined,
should keep an eye on the global strategy that s/he first adopted.
In this connection, the marked elements, such as stylistic features,
collocational patterns, thematic patterns, etc. should be taken into
account by translators while mapping “the propositional content
11
onto the syntax through selections from the MOOD systems” and
arranging “clauses in a suitably communicative manner through
selections from THEME systems” (ibid: 222).
Producing a coherent text, reflecting the content of the ST

and the ST authorʼs intention (intentionality) and being accepted
and read smoothly by the TT reader (acceptability, readability),
will definitely create a tension between naturalness and accuracy.
Baker states (1992: 57) that “[a]ccuracy is no doubt an important
aim in translation, but it is also important to bear in mind that the
use of common target-language patterns which are familiar to the
target reader plays an important role in keeping the communication
channels open”. The salient features of naturalness, according to
As-Safi and Ash-Sharifi (1997: 60-1; emphasis added), are ʻwell-
formednessʼ, ʻacceptabilityʼ, ʻidiomaticityʼ, ʻauthenticityʼ,
ʻcontemporaneityʼ, ʻintelligibilityʼ, ʻaccessibilityʼ, and
ʻreadabilityʼ. The retention of a certain level of naturalness
requires the translator to skew the SL syntactic structure to fit in
the TL syntax, slacken and/or lighten the ST propositional contents
for the TT version, coordinate between “obligatory and optional
information through the choices of explicit or implicit expression”
etc. (Trotter, 2000: 199). This is exactly what Farghal in this
book tries to hammer it home through what he labels ʻmanagingʼ
translation, whether extrinsic or intrinsic (see chapters three and
four of this book).
12
Reading/Misreading the Text
One of many tasks entrusted to translators is reading.

Reading for the purpose of translation is different from reading
for enjoyment, for instance, although they share some common
features. Pajraes and Romero (1993: 300) state “the translator is
a somewhat special reader. We maintain that his/her mission is
not to transcribe within the maximum literalness what the original
author says, but to give us an idea, according to his/her criteria,
of what the author intended to say. To achieve this objective, the
translator must make an effort not to diminish, at least consciously,
the readerʼs interpretive capacity”. Translators and readers are
required to perform a number of intellectual activities, such as
“reflecting, judging, planning and decision-making” as well as
adopting “special […] strategies to facilitate comprehension”
(Belhaaj, 1998: 34). By doing so, their cognitive skills, experience
and background knowledge are simultaneously activated, alongside
“text-based processing which maps information from the text”, to
take part in understanding the text at hand (ibid). Misreading occurs
when the translator cannot free himself from the temptation of pre-
judgement and/or inserting his/her own “underlying assumptions,
beliefs, and ideas” about the ST community, ignoring thereby the
importance of information that could be drawn from the text itself
(Nida and Reyburn 1981 cited in Ali, 2006: 94).
13
Reiss (2000: 106) states that “reading a text sets in motion
an act of interpretation”. Thus, insufficient comprehension of the
source text will lead to the production of an inaccurate target text.
Such insufficient comprehension results from certain factors,
at the forefront of which is the lack of reading competence that
enables the reader/translator “to distinguish fact from opinion, to
draw inferences, to draw generalisations, to determine the authorʼs
intentions and evaluate his point of view” (Belhaaj, 1998: 33).
The other factor that could contribute to misreading the source
text is that when “we become completely infatuated with the text”
(Ali, 2006: 89-90):
Whenever we translate a text, we find ourselves pulled by two

equal forces: an inward or centripetal force, one the result of
which we become completely infatuated with the text, and
an outward or centrifugal, one with which we try to take our
attractions of the text to their ʻfurthestʼ ends […]. The struggle
of forces is relative to the competencies of the translator. A
competent translator is always able to free himself up for a
non–centric interpretation and translation, an incompetent
translator, by contrast, is an easy hunt. As far as I can see it, a
misreading/misinterpretation/ mistranslation is often one that
is so close to the centre, i.e. the text […].
Incomprehension of the source text could result from

reading carelessly and/or stereotypically. “[R]eaders often tend
to read carelessly and stereotypically, that is, they often notice
14
only a few features of the language they read without paying
attention to what particular variety has been chosen, or to how
it is represented”, Traugott & Pratt (1990, cited in Ali, 2006: 91-
2). Consider the following example quoted from Shakespeareʼs
Hamlet (cited in Niazi, 2008: 7) in which the translator, Jabra
Ibrahim Jabra, misread the verb ʻto flyʼ for the noun ʻflyʼ, and
consequently mistranslated it into ‘»U�–’ instead of ‘Øs� vK��Ø»dN�
dOD�’ (emphasis added):
The great man down, you mark, his favourite flies

The poor dvanceʼd makes friends of enemies
And hitherto doth love on fortune tend
tOK� UM�� rOEF�« q�d�« Èu� Ê≈
»U�– v�� tM� v�œ U�
Î UI�b ËÒ bF�« VKI�« ¨ö� «–≈ dOI(«Ë
ÊU�e�« Âb� s� V(U�
Ò
Catford (1965: 94) states that the source of ambiguities in

such cases is either due to “(i) shared exponence of two or more
ST grammatical or lexical items, [or] (ii) polysemy of an SL item
with no corresponding TL polysemy”. In our above example, the
ambiguity arises due to, to use Catfordʼs terminology, the shared
exponence of the two distinct morphemes: the noun in plural forms
ʻfliesʼ and the verb in the third person singular present ʻfliesʼ, which
both graphologically end with ʻ-sʼ. In Farghalʼs (in this book:
15
129) terms, such a mistake is attributed to the translatorʼs failure
to decode the “textʼs import”, which is [supposed to be] triggered
by the successful interaction between the [translator] and the
text […], flopping thereby to “producing cognitive effects” that
“constitute a touchstone for the process of text comprehension”.
For convenience, we quote Farghalʼs (ibid):
The readerʼs failure to integrate the textʼs import into his/

her world knowledge (i.e. failing to make the text optimally
relevant) represents the antithesis of text comprehension or,
simply, a failed comprehension enterprise.
In conclusion, understanding segments of the text at hand

is not simply a matter of knowing the meanings of the source
textʼs lexical items individually and the way in which they are
combined. Rather, it involves drawing inferences based on
non-linguistic information as well as the assumption that the
source text author has aimed to meet certain general standards of
communication, hence the importance of analysing all aspects of
the text at hand and prioritizing these aspects whilst introducing a
translated version.
Arabic is a member of the Semitic family of languages

whereas English a member of the Indo-European language family.
Starting from such a premise that Arabic and English belong to
different settings and different language families, one could
16
strongly argue that translators will face a great number of difficulties
at lexical, morpho-syntactic, pragmatic or textual level, not to
mention the cultural and ideological difficulties with which they
might feel hampered. Such problems are adequately addressed in
this book (see chapters two and three). In order to avoid repetition
and the rehashing of what is produced by the author of this book,
I will settle for a general reference and shoot my bolt in order to
provide the reader with what is missed in this book or, at least,
introduce some of its parts from a different perspective.
Pre-transferring Adjustment
Translators, prior to transferring the analysed materials,

are most often called upon to make some adjustment to the ST at
its lexical or sentential level. Rewriting the ST sentence without
affecting the authorʼs intention or text-type focus will definitely
allow translators to exercise greater freedom of choice in rendering
the extract at hand and let them remove the syntactico-semantic
and socio-cultural constraints imposed by the ST. This is in line
with Wilssʼ (1982: 160) views that languages are “syntactically,
lexically and socio-culturally non-isomorphic”. Therefore,
pre-transferring adjustment is a preliminary step taken by the
translator to obtain a better insight into the ST. As hinted above,
such an adjustment does not confine itself solely to the sentential
level, but rather, in most cases, translators are highly advised
17
to opt for such an adjustment at the phrasal and lexical levels.
Replacing the ST word, for instance, with its synonyms would
help the translator understand its denotative meaning, on the one
hand, and it provides him/her with a number of equivalents, on
the other. Checking the meaning of a lexical item in a bilingual
dictionary and failing to find out its exact meaning because of its
archaism, neologism, etc. will lead the translator, as a last resort,
to apply such an adjustment. Pre-transferring adjustment could be
used to, 1) pinpoint the implicit relationship between sentences, 2)
surmount the lexical, syntactic, pragmatic, cultural, etc. constraints
imposed by the ST, 3) find out the meaning of a lexical item which
is not referred to in available dictionaries, either because of its
archaism, neologism, etc. or 4) cope with figurative language, to
mention but a few.
Apart from these obligatory cases in which translators

have, more or less, no alternative route to take in rendering the
text at hand, the degree to which they could apply pre-transferring
adjustment and, thus, reshape the SLT is determined by a number
of factors, such as the global strategy adopted by the translator, the
purpose of the translation, the expectation of the TL readership,
the text type, etc.
Such an adjustment is of crucial influence on the process

and product of translation, in particular when the translators are
18
of greater ʻcommunicativeʼ and ʻlinguistic competenceʼ as well as
ʻcontrastive knowledgeʼ (Bell, 1990: 36-42). They will adjust the
text semantically and syntactically in a way that the SLT supplely
accommodates itself in the linguistic system of the TL.
By way of illustration, let us take two examples quoted

from Saeedʼs The Stand-in (printed and translated by Al-Mannaʼ
and Al-Rubaiʼi, 2009; emphasis added)
ST 1 (p. 69-71):
Íc�� XHA��«Ë …—UO��« q�«œ Á¡u{ r��√ Íc�« Ÿ—UA�« UMK�œ Ê√ U� UMMJ�
l�dI��«Ë ÂuK�« s� lDIM� ô qO� w� d�H�« v�� W�“u�dI�« f�ö*«
ÆÆÆÆÂu�A*« k(« vK� w�U��«Ë Œ«dB�«Ë
Here, for the sake of naturalness, a syntactic adjustment is made.

The borders of the main clause ..... qO� w� d�H�« are extended to
include part of the subordinate clause ...... f�ö*« Íc�� XHA��« in the
TT, as follows:
Adjustment:
XHA��« v�� …—UO��« q�«œ Á¡u{ r��√ Íc�« Ÿ—UA�« UMK�œ Ê√ U� UMMJ�
l�dI��«Ë ÂuK�« s� lDIM� ô qO� w� d�H�U?� W�“u�dI�« f�ö*« Íc��
ÆÆÆÆÂu�A*« k(« vK� w�U��«Ë Œ«dB�«Ë
Translation (p. 70)
But as soon as we turned onto the street which let light

shine into the car, she realized I had taken off my ridiculous
19
clothes and burst out in an unbroken tirade of blame and
reproof, ranting and railing about her accursed luck….
ST 2 (p. 71):
W�öF�« Ác� ¨5K�UF�«Ë 5H�u*« s� U�*« qLF� ŸËdH�« Ác� s� Ÿd� q� w�

Æ ÆÆÁU�d�« o�d� v�≈ tM� ZKM� Íc�« »U��«Ë dO� W%U� ÊuJ��
Adjustment:
W�öF�« Ác� ¨5K�UF�«Ë 5H�u*« s� U�*« qLF� ŸËdH�« Ác� s� Ÿd� q� w�

Íc�« »U��«Ë ØUN� rK�� ôØUNOK� b��ØWM��Ø…bO� W�«b� ÊuJ��
Æ ÆÆÁU�d�« o�d� v�≈ qB� tM�ØU�œuI�ØUMKB�
Translation (p. 70):
[His is a multi-national company with branches in more than

fifty countries in all five continents,] each branch employing
hundreds of workers and staff. Such a contact would be an
excellent starting point and an entrée to a life of luxury.
Revision and Editing
“Any form of post-translation process is intrinsically an

operation carried out in writing on a pre-existence text” (Dickins
et al, 2002: 217). In this connection, the draft of the TT undergoes,
first, a deep examination for ʻaccuracyʼ, i.e. the translator peruses
the draft of the TT with a view to getting rid of any spelling or
grammatical mistakes, errors of capitalization or punctuation,
lexical or phrasal errors, etc., then ʻpolishingʼ the revised TT with
20
the aim of achieving “optimum orientation of the translated text
to the requirements of the target readership” (Graham cited in
Dickins et al, 2002: 221; emphasis added). To this end, translators
“exploit the TL norms – structural, stylistic, etc. – to the fullest”
(Belhaaj, ibid: 85). Practically speaking, even though revision
and editing are two separate stages that the professional translator
passes through when translating a text, they overlap to some extent.
Sometimes, revision and editing are carried out simultaneously:
scanning the text to spot any grammatical or spelling mistakes,
translators, on their way, often polish stylistic features of the text
in an effort to elevate the text to target-reader expectations.
Explicitness vs. Implicitness
Rendering implicit information relationship into explicit,

or vice versa, is governed by language preference and whether such
conceptual relations can be inferred via world knowledge or not.
At the level of cohesion, translators who follow target-language
patterns to smoothen the target text, will sacrifice accuracy for
the sake of naturalness. Again, such a decision will depend on
“the purpose of the translation and the amount of freedom the
translator feels entitled to in rechunking information and/or
alerting signals of relations between chunks” (Baker, ibid: 201).
Language preference cannot be taken for granted since, within
the same language, genres are not identical in the way they use
21
conjunctions – some genres are “more conjunctive than others”
(ibid: 196). This requires the translator to be aware of generic
conventions in the interfacing language.
Equally, the syntactic structure and punctuation system of

the target language can play an important role in encouraging or
hindering the explicitness of the logical connectors. De Beaugrande
(printed in Al-Jabr, 1987: 53) states that “the overt realizations
of junctive relations are not always necessary. However, their
presence can facilitate the processing of text if they are not unduly
frequentʼʼ. Since conjunctions contribute to the rhetoric of a text
and provide it with some interpretation, Baker (ibid: 197) warns
against exaggeration in the normalization of semantic relations
between chunks of information in order to live up to the target-
language preference. Such an adjustment in translation “will often
affect both the content and the line of argumentation”.
In turning back to the question of translating conjunctions,

it is worth mentioning that it is not necessary to render the
connector into its typical equivalent in the interfacing language,
as provided by good bilingual dictionaries. It is of greater
importance in connection with translation to maintain the type of
logical relationship among sentences, whether it is an addition,
contrast, result, etc., regardless of the propositional meaning
of the connective, as each language has its own connectives to
22
remark a certain relation between chunks of information (Al-
Mannaʼ and Al-Mannaʼ, 2008). For example, if the relationship
between the two independent clauses or separated sentences in
question is addition in the ST, which is indicated by the use of a
connective like, s� ÎöC� and the translator renders it into ʻbecause
ofʼ, assuming that there is no difference between them, his/her
translation will be judged as inaccurate since s/he turns the
logical relationship upside down. However, if s/he renders it into
one of the connectives, which are typically used in English to
signal additive relations, his/her translation will not be judged as
inaccurate despite the slight loss in the propositional meaning
of the connective itself. Consider the following example (cited
in Al-Mannaʼ & Al-Mannaʼ, ibid: 79) with both its accurate and
inaccurate versions of translation:
ÆÂ_« w�G� s� ÎöC� WO�U*_«Ë W�eOKJ�ù« WGK�« rKJ�√
Accurate:
I speak English and German in addition to my mother-tongue.
I speak English and German besides my mother-tongue.
I speak English and German as well as my mother-tongue.
Inaccurate:
I speak English and German because of my mother-tongue.
Perhaps an appropriate way of concluding our introduction

to this sensible and practical book is to state that in the Arab
23
world many attempts have been made to bring both rhetorical and
practical sides of translation together in the form of coursebooks,
monographs, etc. Unfortunately, these attempts were either just
rehashing what has been introduced by others, offering nothing
new to the field, or a mile away from being internationally
accepted due to the lack of originality, rigour, clear methodology,
documentation, etc. The authorʼs long experience in teaching
linguistics and translation and his publication of a great number
of articles in international journals have given him first-hand
knowledge of the problems with which translators constantly
grapple. The author, by touching on general concepts, such as the
nature of human communication, context, relevance, equivalence,
theory of translation, etc. and taking into account the lexical,
morphosyntactic, pragmatic, textual, cultural and ideological
differences between the interfacing languages, produces a well-
organized book. I hope this book, together with other forthcoming
titles produced by intellectuals dealing with translation-related
issues, will help to fill a gap in this field and fulfil professional
and academic needs and interests.
Ali Al-Mannaʼ
Durham Universty
Ph.D. Researcher
Founding Director of Sayyab Books - London,
Founding coordinator of STJ as well as Sayyab
Translation Studies Series
24
References
- Adab, B. J. (1994). Annotated Texts for Translation:
French > English, Clevedon, Philadelphia and Adelaide:
Multiligual Matters Ltd.
- Al-Ali, K. (2005). Misreading and Mistranslation. Retrieved

on April 5th, 2009 from http://www.translationdirectory.
com/article535.htm
- Al-Jabr, A. (1987). Cohesion in Text Differentiation: A

Study of English and Arabic, unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Aston University, UK.
- Ali, K. (2006). Reader Response and Translation Quality

Assessment: A survey of the responses of proficient non-
Arab readers of English to translations of modern Arabic
poetry. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Basra,
Iraq.
- Al-Mannaʼ, A. and Al-Mannaʼ, F. (2008). Translation:

History, Theory & Practice, London: Sayyab Books.
- Al-Mannaʼ, A. and Al-Rubaiʼi, A. (2009). Modern Iraqi

Short Stories, London: Sayyab Books.
- Al-Rubaiʼi, A. (2005). Translation Criticism, Durham:

Durham Modern Language Series.
- As-Safi, A. & Ash-Sharifi, I. (1997). ʻNaturalness in
25
Literary Translationʼ, Babel, volume 43 (1) p.p. 60-75.
- Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words, London and New York:

Routledge.
- Belhaaj, A. E. (1998). The Process of Translation: Factors,

Tasks and Challenges, Saudi Arabia: Umm Al-Qura
University Press.
- Bell, R. (1990). Translation and Translating: London &
New York: Routledge..
- Catford, J. C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation,
Oxford University Press.
- Dickins, J. Hervey, S. & Higgins, I. (2002). Thinking
Arabic Translation: a course in translation method: Arabic
to English, London and New York: Rutledge.
- Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). ʻInvestigating Translation Studiesʼ
in S.Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling, eds. Recent Trends
in Empirical Translation Research, Joensuu: University of
Joensuu, Faculty of Arts, p.p. 99-116.
- Kelly, L. (1979). The True Interpreter: A History of
Translation Theory and Practice in the West, New York: St
Martinʼs Press.
- Munday, J. (2008). Introducing Translation Studies:
Theories and Applications (2nd edition), London and New
York: Routledge.
26
- Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation.
Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall.
- Niazi, S. (2008). Hamlet (trans.), Damascus: Dar al-Mada.
- Pajraes, E. & Romero, F. (1997). ʻTranslation and Reading
Processʼ, Babel, volume 43(4 ), p.p. 283-302
- Reiss, K. (2000). Translation Criticism - The Potentials
and Limitations, Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.
- Schulte, R. and Biguenet, J. (1992). Theories of Translation:
Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida, Chicago and
London: The University of Chicago Press.
- Trotter, W. (2000). Translation Salience: A model of

equivalence in translation (Arabic/English), unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, University of Sydney: Australia.
- Venuti, L. (1995). The Translatorʼs Invisibility: A Historical
Translation. London and New York: Routledge.
- Wills, W. (1982). The Science of Translation: Problems
and Methods. Tubingen: Gunter and Narr.
27
iO�«
28
CHAPTER ONE
BASIC CONCEPTS
29
iO�«
30
1. CHAPTER ONE
BASIC CONCEPTS
1.0 The Nature of Human Communication
Translation is an act of interlingual communication which

involves the use of language, be it in the spoken form (interpreting)
or in the written form (translating). Explaining the nature of human
communication, which is the raw material for translation activity,
therefore, is a prerequisite for embarking on any pedagogical
endeavor relating to translation. The production and reception
of language, spoken or written, is a dynamic, interactive process
whereby explicit as well as implicit propositions are smoothly
produced and received. The propositional content, or simply
meaning, in human discourse embodies two main functions: the
affective (phatic) function and the referential (informational)
function at varying degrees, with a discernable dominance of one
over the other in various discourses. This functional and fluid
division of labor, so to speak, captures the usually intertwined
interactional and transactional functions of human communication
in its entirety (Brown and Yule 1983).
The expression of propositions in discourse by language

users embraces two distinct, though complementary, principles:
31
the open principle (OP) and the idiom principle (IP) (Sinclair
1991). The OP emphasizes the productive (generative) nature of
human communication, which enables language users to produce
and comprehend novel propositions by utilizing a finite set of
rules whose functionalization rests on already learned vocabulary
items. By contrast, the IP stresses the parroted (memorized)
component of human communication which enables language
users to fall back on a huge amount of multiword units (canonically
including collocational, idiomatic, proverbial, and formulaic
expressions, among others) to produce and receive previously
encountered (parts of) propositions. In this way, meaning in
interlingual communication evolves out of constructing meaning
via gammaticalizing (the OP) or parroting meaning by calling up
multi-word units (the IP) based on the presence of a source text
(ST). By way of illustration, the propositional content of Cats love
dozing under palm trees may turn out to be a novel one (being
the product of the OP) and can readily translate into an Arabic
utterance that may involve a novel proposition, viz. ÂuM�« jDI�« V%
qO�M�« —U��√ X% [like the-cats the-sleeping under trees the-palm].
By contrast, the familiar English proverb Birds of a feather flock
together (being the product of the IP) can readily be translated
into a familiarly corresponding one in Arabic, viz. vK� —uOD�« Ê≈
lI� UN�UJ�√ [verily the-birds on shapes-their fall]. The translatorʼs
awareness of the grammaticalized vs. idiomatized expression of
32
meaning constitutes the foundation stone in translation activity as
an act of human communication
1.1 The Nature of Translation
Translation is an age-long activity which is necessitated by

the fact that groups belonging to different language communities
have been coming into contact with one another for social,
economic, cultural and political reasons, among others, since
the dawn of human history. Subsequently, as man managed to
establish literate civilizations and as contact between various
cultures became inevitable, learned men started thinking about
the nature of translation activity in an attempt to evaluate and
improve the products resulting from such activity. There is ample
evidence that early scholars of the Romans (Horace, 20 BC and
Ciecero, 46 BC) and later scholars of the ancient Chinese and
Arab cultures seriously contemplated the work of translators
and their products (for more details, see Munday 2001) and,
consequently, realized the ever-existing tug-of-war between form
and content or, alternatively, what St Jerome early on (395 Ad)
called ʻword-for-wordʼ or ʻsense-for-senseʼ. This dichotomy was
most eloquently expressed in the words of the German scholar
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1813) when he saw translation activity
as a matter of either bringing the reader close to the writer or,
conversely, bringing the writer close to the reader.
33
It is interesting to note that the early translation thinkers
resolved the conflict between form and content by siding with
one or the other, thus promoting the ʻsense-for-senseʼ method
of translation (e.g. St Jerome, who was an adamant supporter
of this method) and, simultaneously, condemning the other
method, or, alternatively, proclaiming the ʻword-for-wordʼ
method (e.g. Schleiermarcher) while dismissing the other method
as inadequate. In both cases, the focus was on the translation of
scholarly, authoritative works such as literature and the Bible.
Each orientation was rooted in a rational justification: the ʻword-
for-wordʼ sought to capture the form of the original by introducing
a SL foreign pattern of discoursing and thinking while the ʻsense-
for-senseʼ sought to capture the function of the original by devising
a TL domestic pattern of discoursing and thinking.
A close examination of the ʻword-for-wordʼ and the ʻsense-

for-senseʼ indicates that they have different roots. The first is rooted
in the assumption that languages involve structural and semantic
correspondences and are capable of grammaticalizing meaning
interlingually. In this way, a proposition in one language can be
expressed in another language by embracing the phraseology
in the original in terms of structure and denotation. Linguistics
and philosophy, therefore, constitute the foundation stone of this
approach. The second, by contrast, frees itself from linguistic
34
constraints by opting for a more functional understanding of
interlingual communication that has its roots in sociology and
psychology and, consequently, views language as pscho-social
behavior. Thus, a proposition in one language can be expressed in
another language while departing in drastic ways from the formal
properties (e.g. structural and lexical features) of the phraseology
in the original. It is the message (i.e. the sense) rather than the form
(i.e. the word) that matters in translation. In this regard, Jacobson
(1959) views translation as interlingual communication involving
the replacement of messages in one language with messages in
another language.
With the rise of translation studies as a popular discipline

of enquiry in the twentieth century and the tremendous expansion
of its scope to cover all types of discourse including the fields
of technology, media, culture, business, etc., the world has been
transformed into a small global village in terms of information
flow and communication. The reasons for translating are no longer
restricted to rendering masterpieces of literature (e.g. the translation
of Greek literature into Latin in the Roman times) or translating
epistemological works (e.g. the translation of Greek works into
Arabic during the Abbasid period (750-1250)). The proliferation
of translation materials has necessitated a reconsideration of the
ʻword-for-wordʼ or ʻsense-for-senseʼ dichotomy, so the relationship
35
between them becomes a matter of complementation rather than
that of opposition. In this way, a division of labor is created which
would allow us to draw important generalizations along the lines
that information-oriented texts mainly demand ʻsense-for-senseʼ
translation whereas expression-oriented ones in the main require
ʻword-for-wordʼ translation. As a result, text types have emerged
as an important variable in translation activity. Similarly, the
purpose of the translation, whether commissioned or translator-
initiated, has become a determining factor in choosing between
ʻword-for-wordʼ and ʻsense-for-senseʼ translation. However, in
actual translation practice the existence of pure forms of these two
options is practically impossible because a translator may have
recourse to, for example, ʻword-for-wordʼ while adopting ʻsense-
for-senseʼ as a global strategy. To put it differently, the adoption
of one translation method in the dichotomy rather than the other is
basically a matter of dominance rather than exclusion.
The senses of the transitive verb ʻto translateʼ embodies

three different, though relevant and related, acts, viz. (1) express
the sense of (a word, sentence, speech, book) in another language,
(2) express (an idea, book, etc.) in another, esp. simpler form, and
(3) interpret the significance of; infer as (The Concise Oxford
Dictionary, Ninth Edition). Examining these senses, one can
immediately see that the first sense is restricted to interlingual
36
communication, i.e. it involves the use of more than one language,
while the second is confined to intralingual communication which
may involve explaining, paraphrasing, etc. As for the third sense,
one can argue that it is relevant to both intra- and interlingual
communication. In this way, the language user (whether he is
functioning within one language or mediating between two
languages) can perform an interpretative act.
Actually, the three senses above capture much of the insight

and pith of the debate and theorizing voiced by different scholars
working in the discipline of translation studies. The relatively
recent move from ʻtranslation equivalenceʼ (Nida 1964; Catford
1965; Newmark 1981; House 1981) to ʻtranslation resemblanceʼ
(Gust 1996), and later to ʻskoposʼ (Schäffner 2003, 1998; Hönig
1998; Vermeer 2000) represents a steady shift from the first
sense to the third sense in the partial dictionary entry above. To
see the contrast more clearly, let us quote from Newmark (1982)
and Schäffner (1998). In the words of Newmark, the translatorʼs
task is “to render the original as objectively as he can, rigorously
suppressing his own natural feelings …” (1982:389). By contrast,
Schäffner views the translator as a TT [Target Text] author who is
freed from the “limitations and restrictions imposed by a narrowly
defined concept of loyalty to the source text alone” (1998:238). It
should be clear that the ʻlimitations and restrictionsʼ are embodied
37
in definition (1), while the ʻfreedomʼ is embraced by definition (3)
above.
At a more theoretical level, transforming meaning from

one form to another involves a cognitive and a linguistic process.
The cognitive process in intralingual communication consists
in generating and processing ideas (cognitive structures) and,
subsequently, transforming them into words and utterances (i.e.
a linguistic code). While ideas enjoy a high degree of constancy,
the linguistic code is fluid and variable. Thus, the same idea can
be clad differently in terms of language expression by adopting
variegated styles. In interlingual communication, the cognitive
aspect is mainly pertinent to processing and interpreting ideas
rather than generating them (i.e. it is a matter of text comprehension
and interpretation). However, the linguistic code remains fluid
and variable, thus enabling the mediator (i.e. the translator) to
offer translations that differ in language expression (i.e. form) but
essentially relay the same content. At face value, therefore, the
content enjoys a high degree of constancy, while the form shows
a high degree of variability (Farghal 2003).
1.2 Contemporary Translation Dichotomies
If we have a scrutinizing look at the work of main

contemporary authors in Translation Studies (Nida 1964, Catford
38
1965, House 1977, Newmark 1981, Gutt 1991 and Venuti 1995,
among others) and the buzz terms standing for the main contributions
they are remembered/cited for, it will not be too difficult to come
to the conclusion that their theoretical dichotomies (e.g. formal
vs. dynamic equivalence or foreignization vs. domestication) are
terminological reformulations of the classical polemics, ʻword-
for-wordʼ or ʻsense-for-senseʼ translation. This section aims to
show that terminological tricks, albeit intriguing and innovative,
are not supposed to blur the raw facts of any researched state of
affairs. I will examine these recent translation orientations to see
whether they offer anything beyond the qualified legitimization of
both ʻword-for-wordʼ and ʻsense-for-senseʼ in todayʼs translation
practice.
To get started, let us quote Newmark (1981:39) in his

distinction between communicative and semantic translation:
Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close
as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation
attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the
second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.
Therefore, while communicative translation is reader-

oriented, semantic translation is text- and/or author-oriented.
Both, however, adhere to the linguistic constraints within the
39
target language. The former translates at the readershipʼs level,
whereas the latter translates at the textʼs and/or authorʼs level.
If we go back to earlier attempts made by Nida (1964)

and Catford (1965) at establishing the concept of translation
equivalence, we shall find out that they put forward similar ideas,
albeit they employed different terminologies. Influenced by
Chomskyʼs theory of transformational grammar, Nida suggests
working first with underlying propositions in kernel sentences
rather than surface structures in order to capture dynamic
equivalence, which aims at producing what he calls equivalent
effect principle, i.e. the translation should produce on its readers
the same effects that the original produced on its readers. This
equivalent effect would me largely missed if formal equivalence
is given priority in translation. For Nida, naturalness of expression
and equivalent response of a translation should go hand in hand
with conveying the spirit and manner of the original as basic
requirements for producing a successful translation. One should
note that the first two requirements are reader-oriented whereas
the third requirement is text-/author-oriented. In this way, they
practically reflect Newmarkʼs dichotomy (communicative vs.
semantic translation) launched 17 years later (1981).
Roughly at the same time, Catford (1965) develops a

linguistically-informed approach to translation. Based on the
40
linguistic aspect of Hallidayan functional linguistics, Catfordʼs
approach draws a key distinction between formal and textual
equivalence. He (p.20) defines translation as “the replacement of
textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in
another language”. If we examine closely what he means by textual
equivalence, one can easily conclude that it ranges dynamically
between linguistic and contextual features, i.e. between semantic
and communicative translation, in Newmarkʼs terminology.
Ten years later, House (1977), more influenced by the

functional aspect of the Hallidayan approach, draws a distinction
between overt and covert translation. While an overt translation
can be readily labeled a translation, a covert translation may escape
this label. According to House, this distinction is genre-driven,
that is, the translation of some genres, e.g. tourist brochures,
may produce covert translations, while some, e.g. literature, may
yield overt translations. Clearly, the tug-of-war remains between
linguistic and contextual features, thus pointing to the forthcoming
dichotomy by Newmark, who himself views Houseʼs distinction in
terms of his semantic vs. communicative translation (1981:52).
A decade later than Newmark, Gutt (1991) views translation

in terms of interpretive resemblance (Gutt 1991). Influenced by
the insights of Sperber and Wilsonʼs relevance theory (1986), Gutt
distinguishes between direct translation and indirect translation.
41
While direct translation follows the contextual constraints of the SL
text, indirect translation has recourse to the contextual constraints
associated with the emerging TL text. In other words, and apart from
technical jargon, Gutt reechoes the text-/author-oriented vs. the
reader-oriented dichotomy in translation activity. This resemblance
is made more explicit by Almazan Garciaʼs (2002) interpretation
of Guttʼs dichotomy in terms of s-mode (stimulus-oriented mode),
focusing on ʻwhat was saidʼ and i-mode (interpretation-oriented
mode), focusing on ʻwhat was meantʼ. Thus, indirect translation
falls under i-mode (and may, in its extreme cases, e.g. Houseʼs
covert translations, fall outside the domain of translation proper),
while direct translation combines s-mode and i-mode in a unique
way. If indirect translation (covert translation) is not translation
proper for lack of interpretive resemblance, then we are back to
the same dichotomy (s-mode- vs. i-mode-oriented translation)
within direct translation itself, which so strikingly reflects the age-
long ʻword-for-wordʼ vs. the ʻsense-for-senseʼ translation. That is,
the word can be equated with the stimulus, while the sense can be
equated with the interpretation.
Finally, let us examine Venutiʼs (1995) distinction between

foreignization and domestication. Apart from power relations
between the translating and the translated parties involving
cultural, economic and political factors which Venuti expounds
clearly, his dichotomy closely mirrors its predecessors in terms
42
of actual translation activity. To foreignize is to maintain a socio-
cultural gap between reader and translation, while to domesticate
is to bridge this gap. Therefore, we are back to the text-/author-
oriented vs. reader-oriented dichotomy which was contemplated by
ancient scholars and reechoed in almost every academic endeavor
in present-day Translation Studies. The diagram below summarizes
the highlights of the on-going rumination of the classical ʻWord-
for-wordʼ or “Sense-for-Senseʼ translation discussed above.
ʻWord-for-Wordʼ or ʻSense-for-Senseʼ Translation

(Cicero, 20 BC and Horace 46 BC/
St Jerome, 395 Ad/Schleiermarcher, 1813)
Formal vs. Dynamic Equivalence

(Nida 1964)
Formal vs. Textual Equivalence

(Catford 1965)
Overt vs. Covert Translation

(House 1977)
Semantic vs. Communicative Translation

(Newmark 1981)
Direct vs. Indirect Translation

(Gutt 1991)
43
Foreignization vs. Domestication
(Venuti 1995)
s-mode vs. i-mode Translation

(AlMazan 2001)
To conclude this section, it should be clear that translation

thinking and problem solving is of eclectic nature. The competent
translator should not restrict himself/herself to one translation
dichotomy and/or paradigm, but rather travel among them in
search of enlightened solutions to problems. Here I would like to
quote Pym (2010: 166) who concludes,
When theorizing, when developing your own translation theory, first identify
a problem – a situation of doubt requiring action, or a question in need of an
answer. Then go in search of ideas that can help you work on that problem.
There is no need to start in any one paradigm, and certainly no need to belong
to one.
It is the aim of the present volume to engage specialists

and students alike in a wide variety of translation situations in
order to provoke translation thinking that creates ample room for
theorizing.
44
1.3 The Nature of Translation Equivalence
The existing translation models selectively focus on

different asymmetries in translation equivalence: Cultural
(Casagrande 1954), Situational or Sociolinguistic (Vinay and
Darbelnet 1958), Dynamic or Psycholinguistic (Nida 1964),
Formal or Grammatical (Catford 1965), Semiotic (Jäger 1975),
Texual (Van Dijk 1972; Beaugrande de 1980; Beaugrande de
and Dressler 1981), Functional (Waard de and Nida 1986), and
Ideational (Farghal 1994). Farghal (1994) argues that these notions
of equivalence can be generally reduced to a trichotomy involving
formal vs. functional vs. ideational equivalence. One should note
that the term equivalence is employed by way of metaphor as ʻtotal
translationʼ at all levels is impossible; hence the suggestion to
replace ʻtranslation equivalenceʼ with ʻtranslation resemblanceʼ in
translation studiesʼ literature (Gust 1996). In this book, however,
we will maintain the use of ʻequivalenceʼ as a convenient term.
To observe the equivalence trichotomy in action, let us see

how translators may potentially approach the following concocted
mini English text ʻWe shouldnʼt blame Jane for failing one of her
courses – even Homer sometimes nodsʼ. In an attempt to capture
the cultural background of the proverbial expression in the SL text,
the translator may deem formal equivalence relevant by offering
the following Arabic translation:
45
wI�d�ù« d�UA�«® d�u� v�� ¨WO�«—b�« UN�«—dI� b�√ w� UN�UH�≈ vK� 5� ÂuK� ô√ wG�M�
ÊUO�_« iF� w� ‚UH�û� ÷dF� ©dONA�«
[should not blame (we) Jane on failure-her in one courses-her

studying, even Homer (the-poet the-Greek famous) are-exposed
to-failure in some times]. Though unlikely in most contexts, one
may imagine some situations where translators may, for different
reasons, give priority to formal equivalence. To give two authentic
examples, witness how M. Pickthall (1980) and Shakir (1983)
formally render the Quranic verse ©88 U�UB�«® Âu�M�« w� …dE� dEM�
[then-looked (he) a-look in the-stars] as ʻAnd he glanced a glance
at the starsʼ and ʻThen he looked at the stars, looking up onceʼ. One
may wonder why the two translators opted for such renderings
when more functional ones such as ʻThen he cast a glance at the
starsʼ or ʻThen he took a look at the starsʼ are available. Apparently,
driven by the authority and sanctity of the text, they considered
formal equivalence a first priority.
By contrast, functional equivalence follows the Target

Language (TL) linguistic and cultural norms without staking
the communicative import of the SL text. In this way, our first
illustrative example will receive the following Arabic translation:
…u�� œ«u� qJK� ¨WO�«—b�« UN�«—dI� b�√ w� UN�UH�≈ vK� 5� ÂuK� ô√ wG�M�
[should not blame(we) Jane on failure-her in one courses-her
46
studying, for-every horse a-fall]. Despite the different allusions,
the English and the Arabic proverbial expressions in the SL and
TL text exactly perform the same communicative function; hence
we can here speak of functional rather than formal equivalence.
It should be noted that formal and functional equivalence may
sometimes coincide, giving rise to optimal equivalence when
lexical selection of world features and imagery embrace the same
logic in the language pair in question. By way of illustration, the
English proverb ʻMan proposes and God disposesʼ and the Arabic
proverb dO�b��« w� »d�« Ë dOJH��« w� b�F�« [the-worshipper in thinking and
the-Lord in disposing] bear a high degree of formal and functional
equivalence simultaneously.
Finally, we have ideational equivalence which translators

often resort to when formal equivalence is unworkable (or not
a priority) and functional equivalence is inaccessible (i.e. the
translator is not aware of it). To go back to our first illustrative
example, ideational equivalence would focus on the idea of the
SL text independently of the form or function, thus giving us an
Arabic rendering such as:
w� qAHK� Êu{dF� UMKJ� ¨WO�«—b�« UN�«—dI� b�√ w� UN�UH�≈ vK� 5� ÂuK� ô√ wG�M�
ÊUO�_« iF�
[should not blame(we) Jane on failure-her in one courses-her

studying, for-all-us are-exposed to-failure in some times]. One
47
should note that the translator grammaticalizes meaning by
employing the OP in formal and ideational equivalence, whereas
he idiomatizes meaning by falling back on the IP in functional
equivalence. Needless to say, the OP and IP operate hand in hand
and constitute the foundation of human communication (see
Section 1.0 above).
1.4 Context in Translation
Context plays a key role in the process of translating

because it is the signpost that guides the translator in choosing
one type of equivalence rather than another. In fact, translation
equivalence is a correlative of context although one may discuss
it from a theoretical perspective in isolation of context (Section
1.2 above). One can speak of two types of context: macro- vs.
micro-context in translation activity. At the macro-level, context
can be analyzed into four contextual factors: text, audience, author
and translator. These contextual factors may be diagrammatically
represented in an equilateral triangle with the first three occupying
the three angles and the fourth located in the center, as is shown
below:
48
TEXT
TRANSLATOR
AUDIENCE AUTHOR
The reason for placing the translator in the center of the

triangle is to show the dynamic role he plays by having direct access,
from equidistance, to the three contextual factors at the angles.
This dynamic role of the translator would be blurred if a square
rather than a triangle were chosen to show the interaction among
the contextual factors. In this way, the type of equivalence opted
for by the translator depends on the weight that he assigns to each
of the three contextual factors. Informed by the authoritativeness
of the SL text, for example, a legal or religious text usually calls
for formal rather functional or ideational equivalence. However, if
the translator deems his audience more relevant to his translation
than the text itself, he may do away with hard-going formal
features in favor of straightforward communicative messages,
i.e. heʼll adopt a communicative translation (which is audience-
49
oriented) rather than a semantic translation (which is text-oriented
in this case) (for more details, see Newmark 1988). In some cases,
the translator may decide to pay more attention to the authorʼs
peculiar stylistic features, in order to bring out the uniqueness of
his subjects, e.g. the fiery language of the celebrity Palestinian
poet Mahmoud Darwish as opposed to the delicate language of the
celebrity Syrian poet Nizar Qabbani.
One should note that the translator in our model of the

contextual factors above is viewed as a free agent, which is
generally true in self-initiated translations. However, there are
many cases where the translator is commissioned to engage in
translation activity by a certain agent, be it a publisher, a political
body or a commercial company. In such situations, the translator
operates within constraints superimposed on him by an external
agent. If, for example, he translates for a daily newspaper or a TV
channel, he is expected to observe the policy or ideological stance
of that media body. Thus, the interaction between the translator
and the other three contextual factors in our triangle can be more
institution- than translator-informed.
At the micro-level, context in translation activity can be

broken down into linguistic context (co-text) and physical and/or
psychological context. The linguistic context usually plays a key
role in determining what a word means independently of physical
50
and/or psychological context. One should note that homonymy
(semantically unrelated multiple senses of a word) and polysemy
(semantically related multiple senses of a word) are all-pervasive
phenomena in both English and Arabic and they can be mainly
worked out in intralingual and interlingual communication
in terms of co-text (i.e. surrounding text). To give an oft-cited
example of homonymy, the lexeme bank ‫ ﺑﻨﻚ‬in the sentences John
deposited his savings in the bank yesterday pM��« w� t�«d�b� Êu� ŸœË√
f�√ [deposited john savings-his in the-bank yesterday] and The
children played on the bank of the river yesterday WH{ vK� ‰UH�_« VF�
f�√ dNM�« [played the-children on bank the-river] can be interpreted
in light of the surrounding words. Within the co-text of depositing
and savings, the word bank can be interpreted only as a financial
institution, while it can be understood solely as referring to an area
of ground alongside a river within the surrounding words children,
playing and river. However, when the homonymous bank above
tolerates ambiguity in an utterance such as Iʼll wait for you by
the bank WHC�«ØpM��« V�U�� „dE��Q� [will-wait-you beside the-bank
(the financial institution)/the-bank (of the river)], the presumed
problem is readily resolved by consulting the immediate or distant
physical context, i.e., whether there exists a financial institution or
a river in the relevant physical surrounding in the outside world.
The word bank can also be productively polysemous by
extending the primary sense linking depositing money to storing
51
any x-material for future use, viz. the familiar expressions blood
bank Âb�« pM� [bank the-blood], data bank U�uKF*« pM� [bank the-
data], and test bank U�U��ô« pM� [bank the-tests]. One could
imagine the existence of a kidney bank vKJ�« pM� [bank the-kidneys]
in the future, as there already exists what they call a sperm bank
W�uM*« U�«uO(« pM� [bank the-animals semen]. All these multiple
senses take the primary sense of bank (financial institution) as a
point of departure for the figurative use. Given the co-text in these
examples, the competent translator should readily exclude the
other primary sense of bank (of a river).
Word ambiguity, which is usually resolved by taking the

co-text into consideration, may constitute a problem for student
but not practicing translators. Student translator trainers should
alert their trainees to the fact that words between English and
Arabic have multiple senses whose relevance in a particular text is
overwhelmingly determined by their linguistic and physical and/
or psychological contexts. To observe how word ambiguity can be
problematic to college student translators, witness the rendition of
Much lies behind those words as ULKJ�« Ác� nK� …dO�� V�–U�√ [lies a lot
behind these words] and Bush fires ranging around the Australian
capital Canberra have killed three people and destroyed hundreds
of suburban homes as:
Õ«— w��« «dO��U� WO�«d��_« WLUF�« w� XF�Ë w��« W�OB*« ÊQA� ‘u� fOzd�« VC�
52
UNO�«uC� WF�«u�« ‰“UM*« U�� UNO� d�œ Ë ’U��√ W�ö� U�U�U�{
[got angry the-president Bush about the-plight which happened

in the-capital the-Australian Canberra which went victims three
people and destroyed in-it hundreds the-homes the-situated in-
suburbs-its]. One should note that the fatal mistakes committed
by the student translators in these two examples are caused by
their insensitivity to word ambiguity, namely the ambiguity of the
lexemes lies and bush/Bush (for more details, see Georges and
Farghal 2005).
In some cases, the linguistic context may conflict with the

physical and/or psychological context. Witness how we interpret
the shop sign [FALL BABY SALE] as advertising clothes for
babies rather than the selling of babies themselves. In so far as
the linguistic context is concerned, it supports the interpretation
that the shop is announcing a sale where babies can be purchased.
However, given the physical context (i.e. the marketplace)
where various consumer commodities are put on sale and the
psychological context (our experiential/world knowledge)
which does not accommodate the sale of babies, we are forced
to interpret the sign in terms of the producerʼs intentions rather
than according to what it linguistically says. Thus, when a conflict
occurs between the linguistic context and the physical and/
or psychological context, it is always resolved in favour of the
53
latter. The competent translator will render the above shop sign
into l{d�« f�ö� vK� n�d)« ö�eM� [sales the-fall on clothes the-
babies], in which the lexeme f�ö� ʻclothesʼ, which is suppressed
in the English text, is brought to the surface in the Arabic text.
One should note that Arabic opts for explicitness here in order to
avoid a breakdown in communication. Hatim (1997) argues that
Arabic discourse is largely explicative, whereas English discourse
is mostly implicative (However, see a critique of this in Faghal
2000). Apparently, the amount of weight accorded to the linguistic
context vs. the physical and/or psychological context in any given
text may differ between English and Arabic.
1.5 Translation Programs
Translation programs at the undergraduate and postgraduate

levels have become a common feature of Arab universities
and academic institutes. This recent development is due to the
increasing demand for translation practitioners on the job market.
Most of these institutions were caught off-guard in terms of the
availability of competent translation trainers. As a result, the task
of translation teaching was assigned to bilingual academics who
specialize in literature and/or linguistics.
One can find translation trainers who neither have a sufficient
theoretical background in Translation Studies (TS), nor interest
or motivation to familiarize themselves with TS as an adequately
54
established sub-discipline of applied linguistics. These academics
believe that their formal training in literature and/or linguistics
is self-sufficient for teaching translation, which is, to them, a by-
product of such training. It is sad that translation training in such
contexts and with such attitudes does not go beyond anecdotal
expositions. For instance, one may cite the common belief that
translation activity is nothing more than using a bilingual dictionary
effectively. To draw on one interesting incident, the chairperson of
an English department where an MA translation program is run
once assertively banned the use of dictionaries by students sitting
for the Comprehensive Examination. He was wondering what
would be left of the test if the examinees were allowed to use
dictionaries.
In addition to the serious lack of competent translation

trainers, many of the students admitted to translation programs
do not possess adequate language competence in the foreign
language (predominantly English), let alone competence in their
first language (Arabic). This bitter reality turns most translation
courses at Arab universities into language rather translation courses
proper. While it is true that translation activity is a sophisticated
linguistic exercise that can sharpen oneʼs language skills in
the foreign as well as the native language, adequate language
proficiency in the relevant language pair is an indispensable
requirement. This requirement cannot be taken for granted based
55
on possession of high school and/or university certification relevant
to language skills in the language pair. Based on my personal
experience, many translation students (both undergraduates and
postgraduates) do not demonstrate adequate English language
competence that can live up to the taxing requisites of translation
activity. Still worse, some even lack such language competence
in their native language (Arabic). One should note that translation
activity presents constraints and complications that may not occur
in intralingual communication. For example, the high degree of
flexibility and freedom available to a student when he writes in
English or Arabic is tremendously reduced when engaging in
translation between the two languages, due to the formal and
semantic bond/contract emerging between the original and the
translation-to-be. Consequently, translation programs should base
their selection of entrants on entrance examinations that gauge
translational competence in the language pair rather than decisions
that refer to language proficiency and/or certification alone.
1.6 Theory of Translating vs. Theory of Translation
To many skeptics, the need for translation theory/theories in

translation training is far from being clear. The familiar argument
is that, until recently, most competent translation practitioners had
never received any type of formal or academic instruction in TS.
While such a polemic is generally valid, it does not negate the
56
presence of theory in translation activity, at least at the psycho-
cognitive level. In other words, the competent practitioner who has
not engaged in any kind of formal training progressively develops
a set of translation strategies that are subconsciously activated
when translating. For example, when encountering a proverbial
or an idiomatic expression, he first looks for a corresponding
expression in the TL. Only after failing to access one will he opt
for rendering sense independently of phraseology.
Most importantly, therefore, we should draw a key distinction

between a theory of translating and a theory of translation. First,
a theory of translating is essentially subconscious; it consists of
a set of practical principles and guidelines which are intuitively
implemented in translation practice by practitioners on the market.
By contrast, a theory of translation is conscious; it consists of a
set of theoretical or abstract principles and guidelines which are
formally learned and consciously applied by translators. Second,
while a theory of translating is naturally acquired through extensive
translation activity wherein the set of principles and guidelines
reaches a high degree of automatization in finished translators,
a theory of translation is formally learned through exposure to
or instruction in TS wherein theoretical claims are tested against
naturally occurring or concocted translational data. Thus, a theory
of translating is subconscious, intuitive and naturally acquired,
whereas a theory of translation is conscious, informed and formally
57
acquired. To give an example, Houseʼs (1977, 2000) important
distinction between a covert and an overt translation is part of a
theory of translation, while the formally uninformed practitionerʼs
intuition that a translation may be reader-oriented or text-oriented
is the output of a theory of translating.
To make the distinction more down-to-earth, an analogy

can be drawn between language competence (Chomsky 1964:
Hymes 1972; Canale 1983) and translation competence (PACTE,
2000). Native speakers of human languages gradually develop
sufficient competence in their languages which enables them to
use language effectively prior to engaging in any form of formal
training. Similarly, translation practitioners gradually develop
sufficient translational competence through extensive translation
activity. In both cases, a theory of x-ing (that is, communicating
and translating respectively) is subconsciously developed. A native
speaker can readily judge the linguistic and social well-formedness
of sentences and utterances in various contexts. Similarly, a
translation practitioner can readily judge the contextual fitness and
naturalness of translations. The intuitive knowledge developed by
both native speakers and translators through natural exposure to
communicating and translating respectively is subject to further
refinement and systematization by formal training and instruction,
e.g. language, linguistics and translation classes. Hence, a native
speaker who has access to formal instruction in language and/or
58
linguistics will develop, in addition to his subconscious theory of
communicating, a conscious theory of communication. Similarly,
a translation practitioner who has access to formal instruction in TS
will develop, in addition to his subconscious theory of translating,
a conscious theory of translation.
One should note that asking generalists in linguistics

and/or literature to teach translation courses is similar, based on
our analogy above, to asking a native speaking layman to teach
language courses. I am quite certain that most, if not all, of those
specializing in language and/or literature would object strongly to
the assignment in the latter case, but only very few would question
the assignment in the former case. This unfortunate attitude may be
attributed to the common view that translation competence alone
(i.e. a theory of translating) is all that is needed for the teaching
of translation courses, whereas, rightly in this case, language
competence alone (i.e. a theory of communicating) is far from
being sufficient for teaching language courses. Consequently,
scholars working within TS should struggle hard to convince
other fellow scholars that a theory of translation is indispensable
and that it is not even enough to be a finished translator, let alone
an amateur one, when it comes to giving formal instruction in
translation classes. Only then will translation courses build their
own legitimate reality.
59
Furthermore, theory/theories of translation alone cannot
produce competent translators because an adequate translation
competence ought to be taken as a point of departure for formal
instruction in TS. The role of translation theory is intended to
refine and sharpen the already existing level of translating theory
by bringing to consciousness a set of strategies and principles
in practicing and/or prospective translators. In this case, the
practicing/prospective translator is expected to work with many
theoretical options whose practical application manifests itself in
a translational decision, which is, in the presence of a theory of
translation, both practically and theoretically motivated. In this
way, translation theory aims to perfect translation competence
rather than create it. In fact, translation theory without translation
competence (i.e. practical experience) may be described as blank,
while translation competence without translation theory may be
described as blind. The importance of translation theory/theories
here may be likened to the importance of an overdue course of
study in mechanical engineering for a practicing mechanic whose
entire career derives from his practical experience in different
garages. There is no doubt that our friend will be a better mechanic,
despite the fact that it is only a matter of ʻBetter late than neverʼ.
60
1.7 Translation as a Question of Relevance
The notion of relevance is introduced as a major parameter

of human communication (Grice 1975; Sperber and Wilson 1981;
Gust 1996; and Farghal 2004, among others). Translation, being
a form of communication, can be convincingly argued to be a
question of relevance. This means that what is supposed to be
relayed from the SL into the TL is what is contextually relevant.
The general implication here is that a textual and/or discoursal
segment which is relevant in one context may not be relevant in
another. By way of illustration, the phraseology ʻthe Custodian
of the two Holy Mosquesʼ in reference to the Saudi monarch is
essentially relevant to the discourse employed by Radio Riyadh,
whereas it is completely irrelevant in a BBC news bulletin, where
ʻKing Abdullah of Saudi Arabiaʼ or just ʻthe Saudi king/monarchʼ
will be most appropriate.
Most frequently, the question of relevance arises in the

context of choosing between form and function in the process of
translating. It is the translatorʼs job to decide whether both form and
function are relevant or only one of them is relevant in any given
translational situation. Translational questions relating to form and
function are assessed and resolved in light of contextual factors (see
Section 1.3 above). To deem one contextual factor more relevant
than the others will show in translational options. For example,
61
the Arabic cognate accusative is a textual feature of Arabic whose
formal relevance when translating into English is very low (e.g.
compare ʻWe discussed the plan in a detailed discussionʼ with
ʻWe discussed the plan in great detailʼ). Nonetheless, considering
the cognate accusative a relevant feature, many translators of the
Holy Quran relay this feature formally into English. M. Pickthall
offers ʻTherefore we grasped them with the grasp of the mighty,
the powerfulʼ and M. Khan and T. Hillali give ʻWe seized them
with a seizure of the all mighty, all capable to carry out what He
willʼ as renditions of the Quranic verse ©¥≤∫µ¥ dLI�«® e�e� c�« r�c�Q�
—b�I�[then-seized(he)-them seizing mighty powerful]. Clearly, the
authoritativeness and sanctity of the text in question has motivated
these translators to consider the Arabic cognate accusative as
formally relevant, despite its failing to achieve a good degree of
naturalness in English.
Sometimes, the question of relevance is guided by the

norms of naturalness in the TL, i.e. what is relevant is what sounds
natural and acceptable. This means that the audience assumes
special importance in terms of relevance. By way of illustration,
P. Stewart (1981) considers the mention of ʻthe Prophetʼ in the
Arabic welcoming formula w�M�« U�—«“ ¨Îö�√ ¨Îö�√ [welcome welcome
visited-us the-Prophet] in his translation (Children of Gebelawi)
of Najeeb Mahfouzʼs (1959) Awlad Haritna irrelevant and,
consequently, renders it as ʻWelcome! This is a great honourʼ. Had
62
Stewart deemed the Arabic metaphor in this formula relevant, i.e.
by translating it into ʻWelcome! The Prophet visited usʼ instead
of the rendition above, he would have twisted the implication of
intimacy and sincerity in Arabic to that of sarcasm in English, in
addition to the low degree of processability of his translation by
English native speakers. So, again relevance presents itself as a
robust maxim in translation practice.
In some cases, the translatorʼs preoccupation with SL

cultural considerations may blur interlingual communication. This
occurs when the translator is bent on adopting SL phraseologies
at the expense of TL naturalness. Situations of this kind may
give rise to communication breakdowns because the discrepancy
in relevance between the SL and TL is too great to be worked
out on the basis of universal principles. To give an illustrative
example, we cite W. Hutchins and O. Kenyyʼs (1989) rendition of
Ibrahimʼs response when Yasin asks him about his attitude when
his wife and his mother quarrel, viz. his response reads 5� s� Î U�–√
5�� s� Î U�–√Ë ©37 ’ ¨‚uA�« dB�® [one ear from clay and one ear from
dough], which is translated as ʻI act as though one of my ears was
made of clay and the other of doughʼ (Palace of Desire, p. 25).
Regardless of any role that the context may play in improvising
a potential interpretation of the English rendition above, one
may be able to argue that, at best, such a rendition is hard-going
and, at worst, incomprehensible by native English speakers. By
63
contrast, considering relevance in light of TL norms would lead to
a rendition like ʻI turn a deaf ear to thatʼ. In this case, the wording
of the Arabic metaphor is rightly considered an irrelevant formal
feature.
Finally, the issue of relevance should be related to lexical

and referential voids between languages (Rabin 1958; Ivir 1977;
and Dagut 1981). In order to deal with translation voids properly,
the translator should decide the relevance of gaps in terms of
incidental/casual mention versus planned/instrumental mention.
While the former does not affect the discourse of the text in
question, the latter does so to a great extent. On the one hand,
the Arabic religious term …U�e�« [the-zakat] may incidentally occur
in a work of fiction where the technical details of this term are
completely irrelevant. Consequently, the translator may relevantly
opt for an English cultural substitute (Larson 1982), e.g. ʻcharityʼ
or ʻalmsgivingʼ in translation. On the other hand, the same term
may occur in a religious text where the exact technical details of
the term (e.g. the fact that …U�e�« [the-zakat] is compulsory and is
strictly quantified in Islam) are relevant. In this case, one should
have recourse to other translation strategies (e.g. descriptive
translation, transliteration, footnoting, lexical creation, etc.) to
bring out relevant details because cultural approximation falters
(for more details about translation strategies, see Ivir 1991).
64
1.8 Translation as an Act of Communication
Many specialists (or pseudo-specialists) in translation

studies and neighbouring areas often raise the issue of ʻun-
/intranslatability and assertively make it a central point in
their discussions and expositions. They claim repeatedly that
untranslatabilty is a major, if not a fatal drawback in translation
practice and, subsequently, employ it as an escape-hatch to avoid
serious scrutiny and analysis. Their argument usually overlooks the
fact that total communication, whether it belongs to intralingual
or interligual communication, is a mere desideratum. Thus, when
one attempts communicating a spoken or a written message in
his own language, he performs the task at varying degrees of
success and/or failure. This being the case, the deficit is expected
to be greater in translation because it is ʻsecond-handʼ rather than
ʻfirsthandʼ communication. This inherent quality of both forms
of communication should be taken for granted and should never
dominate polemics in translation circles.
Translation, therefore, ought to be viewed as an act of

communicating in its own right. The translator should never
lose sight of the fact that he is communicating a message from
one language into another. The success of a translation depends
entirely on how meaningful and communicative it is in the TL.
In many cases, translations establish their own usefulness and
65
acceptability independently of the originals. In point of fact, real-
life situations involve either the original or the translation, but
rarely both. The search for the original and the translation at the
same time is predominantly an academic and/or scholarly matter.
Even when translation activity is dealt with academically,

the translation critic should always bear in mind that translating
is not a static but rather a dynamic act of communicating. In this
way, priorities in translation practice are supposed to differ from
one context to another depending on the skopos of any given
translation (Vermeer 2000 and Schäffner 2003). Most importantly,
one should remember that an SL text is potentially capable of
receiving more than one workable translation. The differences
between the TL versions and the SL text may range from linguistic
to interpretative features. Comparing translations of the same text
with one another should be communication-oriented, that is, the
translation critic ought to be aware of the questions of priority and
relevance when pitting one translation against another. In the final
analysis, it is not a matter of rejecting one translation in favor of
another but rather a matter of explaining why translators may have
different options in a variety of contexts that are diachronically and
synchronically juxtaposed. In this regard, an important distinction
is drawn between a translation mistake and a translation error
(Pym 1992). A translation mistake may be viewed as a translational
decision that cannot be borne out in terms of priority and relevance,
66
whereas a translation error may be regarded as a communicatively
motivated translational option, despite the availability of another/
other option(s) that may fare better than the one opted for. In other
words, translation mistakes operate within the dichotomy of right
or wrong, while translation errors maneuver within a multiplicity
of potential versions.
A final point in the context of translating as act of

communication pertains specifically to practical training in
English into Arabic translation.. The fact that many Arab translator
trainers still think of Arabic in prescriptive terms gives rise to
dogmatic arguments regarding lexis and phraseology in Arabic
translations (TL texts). Such arguments often ignore the reality
that language is a living organism which changes over time and
that translation is an act of communication where the linguistic
code functions as a mere carrier of content in translation. Empty
arguments over whether translators can use expressions such as
bOK'« d�J� ¨Õö��« X% ¨WI��« s� Î «—u�� wM�� ¨…œu'« w�U� ¨Î«—Ëœ VFK� [play(he)
a-role, high quality, build bridges from confidence, under arms,
break the-ice] and a plethora of other expressions do not get us
anywhere. Such expressions have become part of the linguistic
repertoire of all educated Arabic speakers (for more on this, see
Darwish 2005, who is an example par excellence of this category
of prescriptionists). It is understood that when languages come
in contact, they influence one another tremendously in terms
67
of lexis and phraseology, with a bias in the direction of more
influential languages, such as English these days). To cite another
interesting incident in this respect, I was struck to hear from some
students that their translation teacher insisted on having W�UO)« —«œ
[house the-images] (which sounds funny and is hardly used, and
even hardly known, by the most educated Arabic speaker) as
the only equivalent to ʻcinemaʼ. One could be creative enough
to imagine how an Arabic native speaker would economically
tell his interlocutor that ʻhe had a flat tire/he had a punctureʼ in
standard Arabic without employing the English borrowing dAM�
or a highly localized vernacular Arabic term. It should be made
clear to students of translation that borrowing is a legitimate and
natural word formation process in human languages, Arabic being
no exception. This important process manifests itself in two forms:
loan words, e.g. Æ¡U�eO� ¨WO�«dI1œ ¨ÊU*d� ¨d�uO�L� ü�œ«— [democracy,
radio, computer, parliament, physics], etc. and loan translations,
e.g. iO�√»öI�«¨…œ—U��« »d(«¨»U��W��U�¨»u�U�¨ŸU�c� [radio, computer,
skyscraper, the cold war, white coup], and so on. Both categories
of borrowings have become an indispensable component of the
Arabic translatorʼs linguistic repertoire which cannot be simply
erased by dictates that are completely based on illusions. In point
of fact, the sophistry associated with such matters does more harm
than good, if any, to translator training which, in the final analysis,
aims to drive home the fact that translating is communicating.
68
1.9 Translation as a Multi-stage Process
It is not uncommon for some teachers and many students

to think of translation as a one-stage-process which starts with
translating the first segment of a text, be it a word, a phrase, a
sentence, or a paragraph and ends with rendering the last segment.
In this way, translation is viewed as a mechanical exercise
involving the transfer of meaning between two languages in small,
successive doses. The lack of dynamism in this orientation may
result in many translational mishaps such as disconnectedness,
unnaturalness, and, at worst, communication breakdowns, among
other things. To overcome problems like these, translation activity
needs to be regarded as a multi-stage process encompassing three
integrated phases: pre-translating, translating, and re-translating.
The pre-translating stage is preparatory before pen is put to

paper to translate proper. It aims to secure a good understanding
of the SL text, be it a news report, an editorial, a legal document, a
poem, a novel, or any other type of text and tune oneself with the
atmosphere of the text in order to establish a linguistic and cognitive
rapport with the discourse in question. This phase is oriented toward
translation rather than an ordinary reading situation. Therefore,
the translator is required to provide meticulous interlinear notes
which are meant to facilitate his work at the second stage. This
exploratory mission ranges between moderately easy tasks, e.g.
69
the comprehension of a news report to highly challenging ones,
e.g. the unravelling of symbolism in a poem. During this stage,
the translator should be forming, abandoning, and re-forming
translational hypotheses along the way. For instance, a translational
hypothesis relating to the title of a newspaper commentary may
be re-formed or even abandoned after reading the first paragraph.
Witness how the Kuwaiti newspaper commentary title Áu�ô l�U� œ«u�«
[the-boy take-after father-his] (Al-Watan 2006) may initially lend
itself to the translational hypothesis embracing the rendition ʻLike
father like sonʼ. Only after reading the first paragraph will the
translator abandon this hypothesis in favor of one that supports the
polemic that the sons born to supposedly Kuwaiti fathers and non-
Kuwaiti mothers may take after anyone but their presumed fathers.
Thus, a rendition such as ʻLike son like motherʼ or even ʻLike son
like neighbourʼ would be needed, in order to reflect the content
of the commentary whose title ironically tells a different story.
Similarly, a hypothesis relating to the translation of a symbolic
title of a novel may undergo numerous reformulations along the
way before a sound settlement is adopted. Whatever the case is, a
good understanding of the SL text remains the first milestone of
the translation process. Other things being equal, it can be argued
that good comprehension begets good translation.
The second stage (the translating stage) constitutes the

cornerstone in translation activity as it involves the re-encoding of
70
the SL material by phrasing out the STʼs meaning/message in TL
semiotic signs. At this stage, the translator engages in intensive
decision making about form and content and, subsequently, the
type of equivalence/resemblance settled for, a process which
is always informed by contextual factors. Thus, the notion of
equivalence, which may be theoretically motivated (see Section
1.2 above), becomes a correlative of context. Needless to say,
translation competence (transfer competence in particular),
cultural competence and schematic competence play a pivotal role
in producing a workable TL version during the execution of the
multi-faceted task at this stage.
Lastly, we have the retranslating stage where the translator

goes over the entire TL text in search of small corrections and
refinements here and there. These may range from simple
amendments relating to grammar and diction to more subtle ones
pertaining to textuality and discourse. Regardless how competent
the translator is (see Section 1.9 below), it can be argued that the
retranslating stage is essential because it inevitably renders the
translation a better one at, of course, varying degrees, depending on
the quality of work at the second stage and the level of translation
competence on the translatorʼs part. The amendments made at this
stage may be thought of as the final touches added to different
human states of affairs – touches which, though cosmetic in the
main, may prove indispensable in the translation profession.
71
1.10 A Practical Exercise in Translation Criticism
Based on my own experience and remarks made by

other colleagues as translation teachers at Arab universities (e.g.
Yarmouk University/Jordan and Kuwait University/Kuwait),
one of the rock hard problems in translator training is to teach
students how to critique a translation academically. Most students
do not go in their criticism beyond the attempt to find translation
mistakes and merely state that they are wrong renditions, and
subsequently suggest alternative renditions they believe to be
correct. In many cases, they go too far by replacing workable
renditions with erroneous ones and, in effect, frequently slip into
fallacious reasoning, thus adding insult to injury in critiquing a
translation where there is a likely bone of contention.
The following exercise is based on a text excerpted from

Muneer Balabkiʼs translation d��«Ë aOA�« al-šayx wa-l-bahr
(1985:13-14) of E. Hemingwayʼs novelette The Old Man and the
Sea (1952:10). Our subject is a contemporary, celebrity Lebanese
translator and lexicographer. His Al-Mawrid (English-Arabic
bilingual dictionary) is probably the most used dictionary in the
Arab world. The choice of the study text is intentional – it is meant
to show that there are no taboos in translation criticism. Therefore,
in the hands of a competent translation critic, any translation,
regardless of the calibre of the translator, can be subjected to
72
critical analysis, which constitutes the heart of the academic aspect
of translation programs and the translator training therein.
To get the discussion started, following are the English

original excerpt and its Arabic translation:
They picked up the gear from the boat. The old man carried the mast on his
shoulder and the boy carried the wooden box with the coiled, hard-braided
brown lines, the gaff and the harpoon with its shaft. The box with the baits was
under the stern of the skiff along with the club that was used to subdue the big
fish when they were brought alongside. No one would steal from the old man
but it was better to take the sail and the heavy lines home as the dew was bad
for them and, though he was quite sure no local people would steal from him,
the old man thought that a gaff and a harpoon were needless temptations to
leave in a boat. (The Old Man and the Sea, 1952:10).
w�A)« ‚ËbMB�« ÂöG�« qL�Ë ¨tH�� vK� W�—U��« aOA�« qL�Ë Æ»—UI�« s� …bF�« UFL�Ë
‚ËbM ÊU�Ë ÆÊu�d(«Ë ¨s�;«Ë ÎÜLJ�� Î «dH{ …—uHC*« WH�K*« ¡«dL��« ◊uO)« vK� ÍuDM*«
U�bO bF� ÂU�C�« UJL��« ŸUC�ù lMDB� w��« …Ë«dN�« V�U� v�≈ »—UI�« …d�R� w� ÂUFD�«
v�≈ WKOI��« ◊uO)«Ë Ÿ«dA�« qL�� Ê√ dO)« sL� p�– l�Ë Æt�b� aOA�« VK�� s� Î «b�√ Ê≈ ÆUN�c�Ë
bK��« q�√ s� Î «b�√ Ê√ s� 5IO�« q�� vK� ÊU� aOA�« Ê√ s� r�d�« vK�Ë ÆULN�–R� ÈbM�« Â«œ U� XO��«
ô W�d��U� ¡«d�≈ U� »—U� dF� w� Êu�d�Ë s�� „d� w� Ê≈ t�H� «– w� ‰U� bI� ¨t�d�� s�
©¥±≠≥±∫µ∏π± ¨d��« Ë aOA�«® Æt� w�«œ
Examining the Arabic translation as a text in its own right,

independently of the English original, the Arabic reader may
question the odd collocation ¡«dL��« ◊uO)« (supposedly employed
for the natural collocation ¡«œu��« ◊uO)«® and the use of the
73
phrase dO)« s� ʻbe goodʼ (which is the opposite of dA�« s� ʻbe evilʼ
in Arabic) in a context and co-text that do not tolerate such a
dichotomy, because what is being stated is a matter of preference
(i.e. qC�_« s� ʻbe betterʼ) rather than a matter of dichotomizing
things in terms of good vs. evil. In addition, the reader may question
the use of indefiniteness in the last sentence when referring to
¨Êu�d� ¨s�� and U� »—U� in a context where Arabic would employ
the definite article (i.e. »—UI�« ¨Êu�d(« ¨s�;«) to refer to entities that
have already been introduced into the context. Fixing these overt
errors (as opposed to covert errors) (Farghal and Al-Hamly 2004;
Hickey 2003 and House 1977, 1997) would definitely render the
text more readable. One should note that the competent reader who
is not familiar with the original can readily discern overt errors
because they run counter to his linguistic expectations/intuitions
(be they grammatical, semantic or discoursal).
By contrast, covert errors can only be detected by the

competent translation critic (be he an expert or a student) when he
juxtaposes the original with the translation. Examining the study
text at hand for covert errors, one can discern many translation
problems. For the sake of brevity, I will discuss only three
illustrative covert errors, though a suggested translation that takes
cares of all the translation errors will be provided at the end of this
section.
74
For a start, let us look at the translatorʼs choice of the word
Âö� (which roughly corresponds to manservant) for the English
word boy (which corresponds to walad or sabiy in Arabic). There
are two fatal errors with this translation. First, the two words Âö�
and boy differ in terms of denotation, that is, one of the sense
components of the Arabic word is [+ adult], whereas the English
word includes [- adult] as a sense component. The second problem
relates to the fact that the Arabic word inalienably connotes
servitude, which is completely missing in the word boy as used by
Hemingway. In fact, this covert error renders itself an overt one
to a reader who is familiar with the English novelette where the
relationship between the old man and the boy is a typical example
of true friendship and cooperation rather than of servitude.
Balabkiʼs option here is hard to understand. Probably, he made
this fatal error in the heat of looking for a big, formal word.
The second error involves a morpho-lexical mishap. Given

the rendition of ʻthe box with the baitsʼ as ÂUFD�« ‚ËbM ʻthe box
with the foodʼ, the reader would straightforwardly understand
that the old man and the boy had a supply of food for themselves
during their fishing expedition, which makes a lot of sense in such
a situation. When examining the original, however, the translation
critic is struck by the fact that the reference is to the specific lexeme
baits rF� rather than the general lexeme food ÂUF�. The two Arabic
75
words are morphologically related, with rF� being generally
a hyponym of ÂUF�, but with more specific sense components,
including [+ contrived] and [+ deceptive]. This covert error can be
observed only when juxtaposing the translation with the original.
Let us now turn to our third illustrative covert error which

relates to epistemic modality (the speakerʼs degree of (un)certainty
towards states of affairs). The SL text describes the old man as being
quite sure that no one would steal anything from him. However,
the translator renders this optimal degree of certainty as 5IO�« q��
(which corresponds to nearly/almost sure) instead of the correct
‫ ﹰ‬U�U9 Î UMIO��ØÎ«b�Q�� (which corresponds to quite sure/certain). Thus,
what is free of doubts in the original is projected as involving
little amount of doubt in the translation. This modality mismatch
(being a covert error) can be discovered only when we compare
the translation with the original. To have a fuller picture of the
kind of things that may be critiqued in the study sample, following
is a suggested translation [my own]:
‚ËbMB�« w�B�« qL�Ë ¨tH�� vK� W�—U��« aOA�« qL� YO� ¨»—UI�« s� …bF�« UFL�Ë
ÆÊu�d(«Ë ¨s�;«Ë ÎÜLJ�� Î «dH{ …—uHC*«Ë WH�K*« WOM��« ◊uO)« vK� ÍuDM*« w�A)«
pL��« ŸUC�ù Âb�� w��« …Ë«dN�« V�U� v�≈ »—UI�« …d�R� w� rFD�« ‚ËbM ÊU�Ë
s� sJ�Ë äOA�« …b� vK� b�« Íb�F� Ê√ l�u�*« dO� s�Ë Æt�c�Ë ÁbO bF� r�C�«
Ê√ s� r�d�« vK�Ë ÆULN�–R� ÈbM�« Â«œ U� XO��« v�≈ WKOI��« ◊uO)«Ë Ÿ«dA�« c�√ qC�_«
w� Ê√ —b� bI� ¨t�b� s� Î U�O� ‚d�� s� bK��« q�√ s� Î «b�√ Ê√ s� Î U�U9 Î UMIO�� ÊU� aOA�«
Æt� w�«œ ô W�d��U� ¡«d�≈ »—UI�« w� Êu�d(«Ë s�;« „d�
76
1.11 Conclusion
This chapter shows that the training of potential translators

should start with addressing the nature of the raw material of
translation activity, i.e. language, by bringing out the fact that
human communication is realized by operating two complementary
principles: the OP and the IP. The twinning of these two principles
forms the basis for the possibility of offering more than one good
translation of the same SL text. This dynamic understanding of
human communication lays the foundation stone for the realization
of translation equivalence, which is, in practice, a correlative of
the macro-contextual factors – the text, the audience, the author,
and the translator as an active mediating agent. At the micro-level,
context in translation activity involves both the linguistic as well
as the physical and/or psychological context. Therefore, whereas
the macro-level context is mainly priority-oriented, the micro-
level context is overwhelmingly meaning-oriented.
It also shows that Arab universitiesʼ translation programs

still regard translation studies as derivative rather that a discipline
in its own right. This erroneous belief has led to giving the
assignment of teaching translation courses to generalists in
linguistics and/or literature who have no interest in translation
studies beyond being bilingual in Arabic and English. To remedy
this serious problem, we should make sure that translator trainers
77
possess an adequate knowledge of translation studies before they
are entrusted with teaching translation courses. In particular, an
important distinction is drawn between a theory translating and a
theory of translation. While we explain how a theory of translation
is necessary, such a theory is argued to functionalize and perfect
translational competence rather than create it.
Equally important, it is argued that translation activity is

essentially a question of relevance and priority. Thus, contextual
factors are of paramount importance when it comes to deciding
what is relevant and what is not. Regardless of differing
translational decisions along the way, the fitness of a translation
is gauged against a principle of communicativeness whereby
translation is viewed as an act of communicating rather than an act
of prescribing. Thus, translation mistakes, which are described in
terms of right or wrong, are differentiated from translation errors,
which are critically analyzed in terms of potential TL versions.
Next, it is shown that translation activity is a multi-stage

rather than a one-stage process. While the translating stage
constitutes the backbone of the process, the pre-translating and
the re-translating stages are argued to be integral to the process
if cohesion and coherence are to be catered to optimally in the
translation. It is of utmost importance, therefore, to introduce this
procedural parameter into student translator training.
78
Finally, a practical exercise in translation criticism is
provided. The exercise shows that the competent (student)
translation critic can engage in different levels of analysis and can
attack various types of translation issues whether he deals with the
translation independently of the original or when he juxtaposes
both. The ability to critique a translation is argued to be an integral
part of translator training programs.
1.12 Practices
Practice 1:
Translate the following sentences between English and Arabic,

paying special attention to the idiomatic and proverbial expressions
in them. Then try to justify your decision in terms of types of
equivalence (formal, functional, and ideational):
1. I am sad to say that yesterdayʼs meeting was a dog-eat-
dog affair.
2. This new development in the issue of oil production puts
us between the rock and the hard place.
3. The agreement has remained dead letter since it was
singed two years ago.
4. It is quite natural in the course of events that one manʼs
meat is another manʼs poison.
5. You can ask whatever questions you have because this
area is my cup of tea.
79
ÆwM�u�« bOF�U� ‰UH��ô« q�√ s� ‚U�Ë Âb� vK� WO�uJ(« «œ«bF��ô« Íd& Æ6
Æs��« w� t� w�d� Ê√ q�� Î U�d{ hK�« w�dA�« l��√ bI� Æ7
ÆÁUO�œ w� tO�≈ vF�� U� q� w� q�u��Ë qIF� Ê√ ¡d*« vK� Æ8
ÆtODF� ô ¡wA�« b�U� Ê≈ –≈ ¨wK� t�d��« U0 q�I� Ê√ ‰uIF*« dO� s� Æ9
Æt�√— w� —Ëb� U� cH�Ë jzU(« ÷d� WM�K�« UOu�� d�b*« »d{ bI� Æ10
Practice 2:
Translate the following text into Arabic, paying special attention

to the co-text in rendering the multiple senses of the verb run
(boldfaced) in it (taken from Larson 1998: 163). Is there one
Arabic verb that can render the multiple senses of run? If not,
what is the solution?
The motor of his car stopped running. The man didnʼt know what to do. He
was near a brook which was running under the road through the culvert. He
thought about using some of the water to cool the engine. But he decided he
would run back to town and see if he might run into someone who could help
him.
Practice 3:
Examine the following excepts from Najeeb Mahfouzʼs novel

awlaad haaritna, and then decide whether the form of the boldfaced
80
expressions is relevant or not when rendering them into English.
∫‰uI� w�Ë U�U�≈ t�D�Q� W�UHK� ©WMOJ�® œU�Ë ©√

ÆUHA�«Ë UMN�U� …dOD� ≠
Ær�U� rKF� U� …uNI�« ≠ ©»

ÆÎözU� t�ËUM�� ¨ÊU�MH�« qL% åW�—b�ò È√d� Á¡«—Ë XH��«
øVF��« r� ≠
ÆÍbO� U� W�«— p�F� ∫X�UI�
∫ÂU�e�« j�Ë U�d� ÕUË ©Ã

ÆÊU�e�« d�¬ vK� q�� ‰P� Êu��UF�« Y�F� nO� dE�«Ë ‰UI� U� lL�« ‰UF� ≠
Æ.d� `�U�*«Ë tK�« «Ëb�Ë ∫ÎU�d� Áb�� XH�N�
`�H� »U��« d�dB� «–≈Ë ÆÆÆ “d�U� U�” ∫‰uI� u�Ë W�FM�« c�QO� dL� ‘u� q�œ ©œ
°dO)« ÕU� ∫‰uI� X��« uË
Practice 4:
Examine the rendition of the Islamic term al-zakat (boldfaced in

the verse below) in the following three English translations, and
then answer the questions below them:
U0 tK�« Ê≈ tK�« bM� ÁËb& dO� s� rJ�H�_ «u�bI� U�Ë …U�e�« «u�¬Ë …öB�« «uLO�√Ë
©…dI��« ¨ 110® ÆdOB� ÊuLKF�
a) Establish worship, and pay the poor-due; and whatever of good

you send before (you) for your souls, you will find it with Allah.
81
Lo! Allah is Seer of what you do. (110) (Pickthall, 1930/2006,
p. 18)
b) And perform the prayer, and pay the alms; whatever good you
shall forward to your soulsʼ account, you shall find it with God;
assuredly God sees the things you do. (110) (Arberry, Vol. 1,
1930/1996, p. 42)
c) Keep up prayer and pay the welfare tax; you will find any
good you have sent on ahead for your own soulsʼ sake is already
[stored up] with God. God is Observant of whatever you do. (110)
(Irving, 1985/2005, p. 9)
Question 1: Which rendition of the term al-zakat do you prefer

and why?
Question 2: Why would one accept the rendition of al-salat as

ʻprayerʼ but not accept the rendition of al-zakat as ʻcharityʼ or
ʻalmsʼ?
Question 3: Is the welfare tax as currently known in modern states

paid by both the rich and the poor? If so, what would that imply
for the reader of the translation in (d) above?
Practice 5:
Examine, and then edit, the Google Translate renditions of the

sentences below. What do you think the main problem in Google
82
Translate is? And how could the problem be technically solved?
a) The manager stuck to his guns and refused to withdraw his

resignation.
Æt��UI��« V�� i�—Ë t�O�bM�� d�b� p�9
b) John is still wet behind the ears despite the fact that he is
thirty years old already.
ÆWM� 5�ö� qFH�U� t�√ WIOI� s� r�d�« vK� 5�–_« ¡«—Ë V�d�« ‰«e� ô Êu�
ÆWO�UO��« qzU�*« w� —U�� t� oA� ô Î U��U� bL�� bF� ©
Mohammed is a writer is not so difficult to him in the

dust of political issues.
ÆWM�b*« e�d� w� Î ULzU� t��√— U�bM� ”«b�Q� Î U�UL�√ »dC� bL�� ÊU� © À
Mohammed was hit fifths Basdas when I saw him

running about in the city center.
Practice 6:
Examine the opening sentence in Hemingwayʼs novella The Old

Man and the Sea and its Arabic translation, and then answer the
questions below (for more details, see Abdulla 2005).
He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream
83
and he had gone eighty-four days now without taking a fish.
(Hemingway, 1952, p. 4).
w� bOB�« VKD� Î «bO�Ë ¨t�—Ë“ w� Î UC�«— ‰«e� ô tMJ�Ë Î UO�� dLF�« s� mK� b� q�d�« ÊU�
d��« tOK� b�� r� Î U�u� 5�UL�Ë WF�—√ ¨W�U��« v�� t� d�� b�Ë Æå.d�� b�u�ò ZOK�
©1991 Ü�d�“ œU�“ ¨åd��«Ë aOA�«ò® Æ‚“d�« s� TA�
Question 1: Does the Arabic translation reflect Hemingwayʼs

simple style and diction? Explain.
Question 2: Give an Arabic translation that matches Hemingwayʼs

simple style and diction.
Question 3: Are there any mistranslations?
84
CHAPTER TWO
INTRINSIC MANAGING:
NATURALIZING THE TL TEXT
85
iO�«
86
2. CHAPTER TWO
INTRINSIC MANAGING:
NATURALIZING THE TL TEXT
2.0 The Concept
As a term, managing was historically introduced by

Beaugrande de and Dressler (1981), who view it as an inherent
manifestation of argumentation in discourse where situation
managing is intended to steer the text in a way that serves the
text producerʼs goals by commending, criticizing, substantiating,
rebutting, etc. a given state of affairs in a text. By contrast,
exposition, where the text writer describes, analyzes, recounts, etc.,
exhibits monitoring the situation in which a reasonably detached
account of a state of affairs is provided. In this way, managing and
monitoring are a discoursal parameter that correlates with text type,
i.e. argumentative vs. expository texts. In the words of Beaugrande
de (1984:39), “Monitoring occurs when the text serves mainly to
give an account of the situation; managing occurs when the text
serves mainly to guide the evolution of the situation towards oneʼs
goals”. In the process of discoursing, therefore, the writer may opt
for managing and/or monitoring depending on the text type he has
87
chosen as well as his personal inclinations. Whereas the author
of an argumentative text cannot escape managing the situation at
varying degrees, his personal inclinations may induce a dose of
managing in an otherwise expository text such as a news report.
Shunnaq (1986) borrows the dichotomy of managing

and monitoring from Beaugrande de and Dressler (1981) and
applies it to the process of translating. As a result, the translator
rather than the writer becomes the controller of this discoursal
parameter; if he chooses to intervene in the message of the text,
then managing will occur, while if he just renders the message
as is, monitoring will occur. However, Shunnaq (ibid) confuses
the process of discoursing with the process of translating when
he commends the translatorʼs managing in argumentative texts
and condemns it in expository texts, because managing in the
process of translation will alter the text to serve the translatorʼs
purposes regardless of whether it is argumentative or expository.
One should note that the distinction between argumentation and
exposition in terms of managing and monitoring is inherently
relevant to the process of discoursing rather than the process of
translating; the translator may either manage or monitor a text
independently of its being argumentative or expository. The only
difference is that an expository text will acquire, explicitly or
implicitly, some argumentative features when managed, whereas
88
an argumentative text will stay argumentative by default either
if argumentation is maintained or, alternatively, will be rendered
expository if the thread of argumentation is obliterated. In either
case, however, the text is steered toward the translatorʼs rather
than the text producerʼs goals.
Due to the fuzziness of the term managing in translation

literature and circles, this chapter aims to tighten this notion
by spelling out what it means in the context of translation.
Most importantly, a distinction is drawn between two types of
managing: intrinsic and extrinsic managing. Intrinsic managing,
on the one hand, refers to the alterations effected in the TL text
due to the mismatches existing between the TL and the SL. These
mismatches range from the most micro- to the most macro-levels
including phonic, syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, textual, and
cultural disparities. The appropriate managing of these disparities
is a prerequisite in the process of translation, for leaving them
unmanaged would produce unintelligible and/or awkward
translations, which, in many cases, cause communication
breakdowns in the TL. Extrinsic managing (see Chapter 3), on the
other hand, involves the translatorʼs ideological superimposition
on the TL text which aims at gearing the TL textʼs message toward
meeting his own goals. This premeditated intervention in the TL
text may manifest itself in the syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and
89
culture of the translations. In this Chapter, we shall explore intrinsic
managing with elaborate examples from Arabic and English. We
shall draw on authentic as well as concocted examples in our
pursuit of normative concepts.
2.1 Intrinsic Managing
The fact that human languages phonologize, morphologize,

syntacticize, lexicalize, phraseologize, pragmaticize, textualize
and culturalize differently makes intrinsic managing inevitable in
the process of translating. Krazeszowki (1971:37-48) states that
there are few, if any, congruent structures between languages. One-
to-one strict correspondence is, therefore, practically not available
in translation. However, as Kachru, (1982:84) puts it “Whatever
can be said in one language can be said equally well in any other
language”. While not subscribing to this statement in an absolute
sense, we believe that the picture that emerges between languages
is one of asymmetric equivalence or resemblance. The existing
translation models selectively focus on different asymmetries:
Cultural (Casagrande 1954), Situational or Sociolinguistic (Vinay
and Darbelnet 1958), Dynamic or Psycholinguistic (Nida 1964),
Formal or Grammatical (Catford 1965), Semiotic (Jäger 1975),
Texual (Van Dijk 1972; Beaugrande de 1980; Beaugrande de
and Dressler 1981), Functional (Waard de and Nida 1986), and
Ideational (Farghal 1994). The SL text must be subjected to intrinsic
90
managing at one or more of its linguistic and/or cultural levels, as
this is the only guarantee to offer natural/idiomatic translations.
2.1.0 Phonology and Morphology
Although all human languages employ sets of sounds in

the production of verbal communication, there is no one-to-one
correspondence between individual sounds, a fact which gives
rise to phonetic gaps between different languages. The existence
of phonetic gaps calls for phonological naturalization/adaptation
(Weinreich 1968; Suleiman 1981; Stanlaw 1987; and Al-Khatib
and Farghal 1999, among others) when lexical borrowing (which
is an important translation strategy) is used. The following Arabic
example, along with its English rendition, illustrates this point (from
now onwards, the relevant segments in examples are bold-faced):
91
Historically, phonological naturalization must have been
Historically, phonological The Arabic most naturalization
ofexample
the localization
in (1) must have
of
features proper beennouns
three behindbetween
instances of Arabic and
honological
most naturalization
of the localization phonological of must proper
Examples havenouns
naturalization, been
such betweenbehind
as
viz., /butrus/Arabic
/qanaat/ ��and
instead �� forEnglish.
of /čæn/pit�r/ l/, 'Peter',
/ /mer�/ 'M
rically,
tion of proper
Examples phonological
such nouns as naturalization
/butrus/Historically,
between
diimuqraatiyya/ ��Arabic
��
for for phonological
must
/dImôkr and
/pit�r/have
English.
sI/ been
naturalization
'Peter',
and behind
/mer�/
/ barlamaanaat 'Mary'must for have/ been behind
/ instead
/maryam/ ��, /jek�b/ 'Jacob' for /ya‘quub/ ��, and /devId/ 'D
localization
butrus/ �� of/jek�b/
formost
proper
/pit�r/ofnts/.
nouns
the'Peter',localization
between/mer�/ Arabic
of�� proper and nouns
English. inbetween Arabic and English.
maryam/ ��, parlIm 'Jacob' For
for
/daawuud/its turn,�the
/ya‘quub/ ��'Mary'
English for
bear��,strong andversion
/devId/
traces (2)ofincludes
'David' suchfora two naturalization proce
b/uch as /butrus/
'Jacob' for Examples
��strong
��
instances,
��/ya‘quub/ forviz.such
,/pit�r/
��traces/k tær/
and as /butrus/
'Peter',
/devId/instead a/mer�/
of ��
/qatar/ 'Mary'
for
and /pit�r/for
/ær 'Peter',
b/ for is/mer�/
/ʻarab/. As 'Mary' for
daawuud/ bear interesting of such to 'David'
note for
naturalization
that process.
these historically It localized forms often
��,
strong/jek�b/
traces can
of /maryam/
'Jacob' for
such be/ya‘quub/
seen,
athese both
��,
naturalization consonants
/jek�b/
��, and and
'Jacob' /devId/vowels
for are subject
It /ya‘quub/
'David' for�� tocompete
phonological
�� , and /devId/ 'David' for
nteresting to note that with their process.
historically localized
recent isforms
phonologically often naturalized versions in transla
bear
�� these naturalization when phonetic gaps occur, e.g. an English /p/
hat
with theirstrong
recenttraces
historically /daawuud/ of such
localized
phonologically �� forms
abear
example,
naturalization
strong
naturalizedoften
the choice
traces
compete process.
versions of such
between in Ittranslation,
is
a naturalization process. It is
/biitar/ �� for and �� for renderin
o note that becomes an Arabic /b/ and an Arabic /q/ becomes an English /k/.often compete
onologically
example, the these interesting
historically
naturalized
choice between to/biitar/
versions localized
noteinthat
and /daawuud/
forms
these
translation,
�� and and historically
often
�� for compete
for
/devId/
localized'Peter'
rendering forms
for �� (for an authentic tra
Historically, Historically,phonological phonologicalnaturalization naturalization have must have been behi
ecent
between
and phonologically
/daawuud//biitar/ with �� and
and their
naturalized
/devId/ recent
�� forfor versions
phonologically
rendering
�� (forin translation,
'Peter'
an naturalized
authentic for must versions
translation
been
in translation, for
illustration, see examples (63) and (64) below where the translato
behind most
most of
ofand the localization
the localizationofof proper
proper nouns nouns between Arabic and Engli
ellustration,
choice between
/devId/ for example,
��
see examples /biitar/
(for(63) ��
the
anchoosechoice
and ��
authentic
(64) between
belowfor rendering
translation/biitar/
where the ��
'Peter'andbetween
translators �� had
Arabic
for
to rendering 'Peter'
between Yusuf and Joseph for the same Arabic prop
and English. Examples Examples such such as /butrus/
as / butrus�� for
/ ”dD� /pit�r/
for /pit 'Peter', /mer�/ 'Mary'
r/ ʻPeterʼ,
uud/
ples and
(63) /devId/
and (64) and
choose between Yusuf and /yuusuf/ for
below /daawuud/
��
where (for
the
Joseph for and an /devId/
authentic
translators had for
the sametranslation). translation
to ��
Arabic proper (for an authentic
namethe choice translation
/merI/ ʻMaryʼ for /maryam/
in Quranic
.d�, /jekôb/
Notably, by the co
/maryam/ ��, /jek�b/ 'Jacob' ʻJacobʼ for /ya‘quub/ for /yaʻquub/ ��»uIF�,
, and /devId/ 'David'
see and
suf examples
yuusuf/ Joseph
in Quranic(63) illustration,
forand the(64) same
translation). below
seeArabicexamples
whereproper
Notably, the(63) translators
and
name (64)by had
below to competent
where the translators had to
and /devId/ translator
ʻDavidʼ for maythe
/daawuud/ have choice
œË«œtobear do strong the
with the kind
traces of such of atranslation activi
/daawuud/ �� bear strong traces of such a naturalization process. It
ween Yusuf
translation).
ranslator may and
Notably,
have Joseph
choose to thebetween
doforchoice
withthe the Yusuf
same
by the
kind Arabic
and Joseph
competent
of properforname
translation the
activity samebeing Arabic proper name
performed, i.e. whether
naturalization process. It is interesting to note that these historically it is translation proper (where recent vers
interesting to note that these historically localized forms often comp
Quranic
to do with
performed, translation).
i.e.the /yuusuf/
kind Notably,
whether of intranslation
it is Quranicthe choice
translation translation).
activity
proper by (where
the Notably,
being competent
recent the choiceareby the competent
localized forms more oftencommon) compete orwithadaptation
their (inversions
recent which historically naturalized
phonologically
with their recent phonologically naturalized versions in translation,
may
moreithave
her to door
is translation
common) translator
withproper the (where
adaptation
naturalized kind
may of
have
(inmore
versions translation
recent
which
in to historically
do with
versions
translation, activity
forarethe kind
being
naturalized
example, theofchoice
translation
versions activity being
are preferable) or, alternatively, bybetween
the translator's linguisti
example, the choice between /biitar/ �� and �� for rendering 'Pe
i.e. more
are whether
daptation (initwhich
is performed,
preferable) translation
/biitar/historically
or,d�O� and proper
i.e.
alternatively,
”dD� whether(where
naturalized
for by itthe
rendering is
recenttranslation
versions versions
ʻPeterʼ
translator's andproper are (where
/daawuud/
linguistic and
and/or recent versions are
/devId/
cultural background. In some cases, the traces can hardly be dete
and /daawuud/ and /devId/ for �� (for an authentic translati
on) or adaptation
or, alternatively,
cultural background. more
for
by(in‫ﺩﺍﻭﺩ‬
the
In which
common)
(for historically
an cases,
translator's
some or adaptation
authentic naturalized
translation
linguistic
the traces (inillustration,
and/or
can which versions historically
see examples naturalized
(63) versions
example, Avicenna forhardly
Ibn Sina be detected,
�� , forAviroce for Ibn Rushed
andfor (64) illustration, seethe examples (63)hadand (64) below where the translators had
eferable) or, alternatively,
In some Avicenna
example, cases, are
the more
traces Ibnbelow
preferable)
by
can
Sina thewhere
hardly translator's
�� be
��, translators
or,detected,
alternatively,
Aviroce linguistic
for Ibnto
by choose
and/or
Rushed
Aleppo for /�alab/ �� and the Tigris for /dijlah/ ��. For someon
between
the translator's
�� Yusuf
�, linguistic and/or
and Josephchoose for between
the same Yusuf proper
Arabic and Joseph name for theinsame
/yuusuf/ Quranic Arabic proper na
kground.
or
Aleppo forIn/�alab/
Ibn Sina somecultural
�� cases,
��,
�� andthe
Aviroce background.
thenottraces
for
Tigris Ibn can Inhardly
Rushed
for some��
/dijlah/ be
cases,detected,
��
��. �, the
For traces
for
someone canwho hardlyis be detected, for
familiar with these Anglicized names, it would be too dif
translation). /yuusuf/ Notably,in Quranic the choice translation).
by��
the competent Notably, the choice
translator may by the compet
vicenna
� and
not familiar Ibn
theforTigris with Sina
example,
for /dijlah/
these Avicenna
��Anglicized
��,
��. Aviroce
For for forIbn
someone
names, Ibn Sina
it Rushed
who
would is ��
��,too
be ��, difficult
Aviroce for Ibnto Rushed �� ,
establish reference between them and their Arabic counterparts.
have totranslator
do with the may kindhave to do with
of translation activity the being kind performed,
of translation activity bei
�alab/
ese ��
Anglicized
establish and the
reference Tigrisit
Aleppo
names,
between for
for would
them /dijlah/
/�alab/ be
and ��.
too
theirand For
difficult
Arabic Tigris
thesomeone to forwho
counterparts. /dijlah/
is ��. For someone who is
i.e. whether Intrinsic managing
it is translation proper (where is also recent required
versions at the level of inflecti
are recent
performed, i.e. whether it is translation proper (where versions
withIntrinsic
etween these
them and Anglicized
not
theirfamiliar
managing Arabicnames,
is also with it these
counterparts. wouldAnglicized
required atbethe toolevel difficult
names,
of toit wouldand
inflectional be too difficult to
derivational morphology 92 when translating between Arabic and
more common) or adaptation (in which historically naturalized versio
erence
ging is between
also morphologythem
establish
required and
at the reference
their level Arabic between
counterparts.themand and their Arabic counterparts.
derivational when theof level
At translating inflectional between
of inflections, Arabic and English.
subject-verb agreement is much r
are more preferable) or, alternatively, by the translator's linguistic and
sic managing
ogythe when is inflections,
leveltranslating also required Intrinsic
between atmanaging
the level
Arabic is
ofEnglish.
also
inflectional
required andat thericher level in of inflectional and
At of subject-verb
Arabic thanand it agreement
is in English. is much By way of illustration, consider th
cultural background. In some cases, the traces can hardly be detected,
morphology
ections,
Arabic than it when
is derivational
subject-verb translating
in English. agreement morphology
By between
wayis much of (3),Arabic
when
richer
illustration, translating
and English.
in consider between
the Arabic Arabic and English.
example in along with its intrinsically managed English trans
example, Avicenna for Ibn Sina �� , Aviroce for Ibn Rushed ��
l of inflections,
English.
example By(3),
in way At
alongsubject-verb
of thewithlevel
illustration,
its(4): ofagreement
inflections,
consider
intrinsically theis Arabic
managed much
subject-verb richer in
English agreement in
translation is much richer in
example, the choice between /biitar/ �� and �� for rendering 'Peter'
and /daawuud/ and /devId/ for �� (for an authentic translation
illustration, see examples (63) and (64) below where the translators had to
choose between Yusuf and Joseph for the same Arabic proper name
/yuusuf/ in Quranic translation). Notably, the choice by the competent
more common) or adaptation (in which historically naturalized
translator may have to do with the kind of translation activity being
versions
performed, i.e.are more itpreferable)
whether or,proper
is translation alternatively, by theversions
(where recent translatorʼs
are
morelinguistic
common) and/or cultural(inbackground.
or adaptation In some
which historically cases, the
naturalized traces
versions
can hardly
are more be detected,
preferable) for example,
or, alternatively, by the translator's for Ibn Sina
Avicenna linguistic s�‫ﺍ‬,
and/or
cultural Aviroce forInIbn
¡UMO�background. Rushed
some cases,b�—
thes�‫ﺍ‬ , Aleppo
traces for /ħalab/
can hardly VK� andfor
be detected, the
for /dijlah/
TigrisAvicenna
example, For��
WK�œ.Sina
for Ibn someone who isfor
��, Aviroce notIbn
familiar
Rushedwith
�� these
��,
Aleppo
Anglicized
for /�alab/names,
�� anditthe Tigrisbefor
would too difficult
/dijlah/ ��.toFor
establish
someonereference
who is
not familiar
betweenwith
themthese Anglicized
and their Arabicnames, it would be too difficult to
counterparts.
establish reference between them and their Arabic counterparts.
Intrinsic managing is also required at the level of inflectional
Intrinsic managing is also required at the level of inflectional and
and derivational morphology when translating between Arabic
derivational morphology when translating between Arabic and English.
and English. At the level of inflections, subject-verb agreement is
At the level of inflections, subject-verb agreement is much richer in
much richer in Arabic than it is in English. By way of illustration,
Arabic than it is in English. By way of illustration, consider the Arabic
consider the Arabic example in (3), along with its intrinsically
example in (3), along with its intrinsically managed English translation in
(4):
managed English translation in (4):
(3) ’uriidukunna ’an taðhabna ’ilaa

I-want-you (pl+fem) that you go (pl+fem) to
makaatibikunna fawran
67
offices-your (pl+fem) immediately
.��
(4) I want you to go to your offices immediately.
As can be seen, the addressee number and gender agreement on the

two verbs and the noun
As can in (3),
be seen, which are number
the addressee essentialand
in gender
Arabic, agreement
are done
awayon
with
thein two
the English
verbs version,
and thethus
nounleaving the which
in (3), suppressed
are information
essential in
for the context to take care of. In some cases, what is inflectional in
Arabic must be lexicalized in English, as
93can be illustrated below:
(5) katabat ba��ayni ‘an- it-tarjamati
wrote (she) two-papers about the-translation
.��
(6) She wrote two papers about translation.
The feminine marker and the dual form in Arabic (which are both
makaatibikunna fawran
offices-your (pl+fem) immediately
.��
(4) I want you to go to your offices immediately.
As can be seen, the addressee number and gender agreement on the

Arabic, are done away with in the English version, thus leaving
two verbs and the noun in (3), which are essential in Arabic, are done
the suppressed information for the context to take care of. In some
away with in the English version, thus leaving the suppressed information
cases, what is inflectional in Arabic must be lexicalized in English,
for the context to take care of. In some cases, what is inflectional in
as can be illustrated below:
Arabic must be lexicalized in English, as can be illustrated below:
(5) katabat ba��ayni ‘an- it-tarjamati
wrote (she) two-papers about the-translation
.��
(6) She wrote two papers about translation.
The feminine marker and the dual form in Arabic (which are both
The feminine marker and the dual form in Arabic (which
inflectional in (5) above) are lexicalized as she and two in the English
are both inflectional in (5) above) are lexicalized as she and two in
rendition in (6), respectively.
the English rendition in (6), respectively.
At the level of derivational morphology, there are many
At thegaps
morphological levelbetween
of derivational morphology,
Arabic and there need
English which are many
to be
intrinsically managed.
morphological gaps Working
between from Arabic
Arabic into English,
and English whichoneneed
should
to
note that Arabic managed.
be intrinsically is capableWorking
of deriving
frommany
Arabicverbs with different
into English, one
meanings fromthat
should note the Arabic
same verbal root. For
is capable instance,many
of deriving the triconsonantal
verbs with
abstract rootmeanings
different /ktb/ can from
produce
the the following
same verbal verbs: /kataba/
root. For 'to write',
instance, the
/kaataba/ 'to correspond with'. /takaataba/ 'to correspond with one
triconsonantal abstract root /ktb/ can produce the following verbs:
another', /kattaba/ 'to make write', /’aktaba/ 'to dictate', /’istaktaba/ 'to ask
/kataba/ ʻto writeʼ, /kaataba/ ʻto correspond withʼ. /takaataba/
to write' and /’iktataba/ 'to underwrite'. Except for the verb 'to underwrite'
ʻto correspond with one anotherʼ, /kattaba/ ʻto make writeʼ,
(which is the output of compounding), the English correspondents, as can
/ʼaktaba/ ʻto dictateʼ, /ʼistaktaba/ ʻto ask to writeʼ and /ʼiktataba/
be seen, are all examples of suppletion rather than derivation.
ʻto underwriteʼ. Except for the verb ʻto underwriteʼ (which is the
In terms of translation, the competent translator should intrinsically
output of compounding), the English correspondents, as can be
manage such morphologically related verbs by usually adopting lexical
seen, are all
paraphrase, examples
as can of suppletion
be illustrated below: rather than derivation.
94
68
In terms of translation, the competent translator should
intrinsically manage such morphologically related verbs by usually
adopting lexical paraphrase, as can be illustrated below:
(7) ’istaktaba mudiiru- l-šarikati xabiir-ayni fi- t-taaqati-

asked-to-write manager the-company expert-two in the-energy
š-šamsiyyati
the-solar
.��
(8) The manager of the company requested two experts to write
on solar energy.
(9) The manager of the company solicited research from two
experts in solar energy.
(10) ’istar�ama- l-muttahamu- l-malika fii qadiyyati-h
asked-for-mercy the-defendant the-king in case-his
.��
(11) The defendant asked for the king's mercy in his case.
(12) The defendant begged the king's mercy in his case.
As can be noted, 'to ask to write' and 'to solicit research' lexically
As can be noted, ʻto ask to writeʼ and ʻto solicit researchʼ
explicate the meaning of ’istaktaba in Arabic. Similarly, the English 'to
lexically explicate the meaning of ʼistaktaba in Arabic. Similarly,
ask for mercy' and 'to beg mercy' lexically paraphrase the Arabic
the English ʻto ask for mercyʼ and ʻto beg mercyʼ lexically
’istar�ama.
paraphrase
In somethe Arabic
cases, ʼistarhama.
however, the translator should be able to employ
formally In
unrelated individual
some cases, English
however, verbs (suppletion
the translator rather
should be ablethan
to
morphology or lexical
employ formally paraphrase)
unrelated thatEnglish
individual reflect verbs
the (suppletion
meaning of
morphologically derived Arabic
rather than morphology or verbs, as can
lexical be shown below:
paraphrase) that reflect the
(13) kaataba-
meaning t-taalibu
of morphologically 'ustaaða-hu
derived Arabicfii jaami‘ati
verbs, ashaarfard
can be
corresponded with the-student prof-his in university Harvard
shown below: .��
(14) The student corresponded with his professor at Harvard
University. 95
(15) 'aktabat- il-’ummu ’ibnata-haa risaalatan min saf�atayn
dictated the-mother daughter-her letter from two-pages
.��
(16) The mother dictated her daughter a two-page letter.
In (14) and (16), the English verbs 'to correspond with' and 'to dictate',
’istar�ama.
In some cases, however, the translator should be able to employ
formally unrelated individual English verbs (suppletion rather than
morphology or lexical paraphrase) that reflect the meaning of
morphologically derived Arabic verbs, as can be shown below:
(13) kaataba- t-taalibu 'ustaaða-hu fii jaami‘ati haarfard
corresponded with the-student prof-his in university Harvard
.��
(14) The student corresponded with his professor at Harvard
University.
(15) 'aktabat- il-’ummu ’ibnata-haa risaalatan min saf�atayn
dictated the-mother daughter-her letter from two-pages
.��
(16) The mother dictated her daughter a two-page letter.
In (14) and (16), the English verbs 'to correspond with' and 'to dictate',
which do In
not(14) and (16), the
derivationally English
relate to the verbs ʻtowrite'
verb 'to correspond withʼ
are properly
and ʻto dictateʼ, which do not derivationally relate to the verb ʻto
writeʼ are properly employed as correspondents to the Arabic verbs
kaataba and ʼaktaba, which are both derived from the abstract
69
triconsonantal root /ktb/.
Similarly, when working from English into Arabic

the translator may also encounter morphological gaps at the
derivational level. The productive English derivational morpheme
ʻ-ableʼ, which denotes the ability to execute the action in question,
is a case in point, because Arabic overwhelmingly employs lexical
paraphrase rather than morphology to express this aspect of
meaning. Following are some illustrative examples:
96
may also encounter morphological gaps at the derivational level. The
productive English derivational morpheme '-able', which denotes the
ability to execute the action in question, is a case in point, because Arabic
overwhelmingly employs lexical paraphrase rather than morphology to
express this aspect of meaning. Following are some illustrative examples:
(17) The American peace envoy to the Middle East said that all
issues relating to the Arab-Israeli conflict are negotiable.
(18) qaala- l-mab‘uu�u- l-’amriikiyyu li-s-salaami fi- l-šarqi-

said the-envoy the-American for-the-peace in-the-east
l-’awsati ’inna jamii‘a- l-qadaayaa- l-muta‘alliqati bi-s-

the-middle that all the-issues the-concerning with-the-
siraa‘i- l-‘arabiyyi- l-’israa’iiliyyi qaabilatun li-t-tafaawudi

conflict the-Arab the-Israeli accepting for-the-negotiation
�� /

/��
(19) Many verbs with different meanings are derivable from the
abstract triconsonantal root in Arabic.
(20) yumkinu- ištiqaaqu- l-‘adiidi min- al-’af‘aali bi-ma‘aanin
possible deriving the-many from the-verbs with-meanings
muxtalifatin min- al-jaðri- �-�ulaa�iyyi- l-mujarrad

different from the-root the-triconsonantal the-abstract
bi-l-lu�ati- l-‘arabiyyati
in-the-language-the Arabic
�� /

/��
As can be As canwhat
seen, be seen, what is morphologically
is morphologically expressed
expressed in the English in the
bold-
English
faced words bold-faced
in (17) andwords in (17)
(19) must and (19) must
be intrinsically be intrinsically
managed to become
managed to become expressible by way of lexical paraphrase as is
clear in the bold-faced material
70
in (18) and (20) above.
Conversion (changing word class without introducing any
97
expressible by way of lexical paraphrase as is clear in the bold-faced
material in (18) and (20) above.
formal alterations in the word, e.g. a chair becomes to chair) is
Conversion (changing word class without introducing any formal
another productive process in English morphology that often calls
alterations in the word, e.g. a chair becomes to chair) is another
for paraphrase
productive processininArabic
Englishfor lack of formal
morphology counterparts,
that often as can be
calls for paraphrase
in illustrated below:
Arabic for lack of formal counterparts, as can be illustrated below:
(21) After a long chase, the dog treed the cat.
(22) a. ba‘da mutaaradatin tawiilatin ’ajbara- l-kalbu- l-qittata
after chase long forced the-dog the-cat
‘alaa tasaluqi šajaratin

on climbing tree
.��
b. ba‘da mutaaradatin tawiilatin ’aflatat- il-qittatu min-

after chase long escaped the-cat from
al-kalbi bi-tasaluqi šajaratin

the-dog with-climbing tree
.��
(23) The company will be bottling spring water soon.
(24) sa-taquumu- l-šarikatu bi-ta‘bi’ati miyaahi- n-nab‘i
will-do the-company with-filling water the-springs
fii qawaariira qariiban

in bottles soon
.��
As can be observed, the conversion-verbalized English nouns in

(21) and (23) call for
As can be paraphrase
observed, in
theArabic translation in (22) and
conversion-verbalized (24).
English
The translator
nouns in (21)should note call
and (23) thatfor
Arabic lacks conversion
paraphrase as a word
in Arabic translation
formation
in (22) process because
and (24). The changing
translatorword classnote
should requires
that making
Arabic formal
lacks
alterations in the
conversion as aArabic word. Therefore,
word formation processwhenever
because itchanging
is possible
wordto
handle English conversion formally, Arabic will have recourse to
98
derivation, as can be seen in (25) below:
71
class requires making formal alterations in the Arabic word.
Therefore, whenever it is possible to handle English conversion
formally, Arabic will have recourse to derivation, as can be seen
in (25) below:
(25) sa-taquumu al-šarikatu bi-ta‘liibi- s-smaki qariiban

will-do the-company with-canning the-fish soon
.��
(26) The company will can fish soon.
While it is possible to derive the Arabic verb yu‘allib ‘to can’ from the
While it is possible to derive the Arabic verb yuʻallib ʻto
noun ‘ulbah ‘a can’ and subsequently derive a verbal noun from it in (25),
canʼ from the noun ʻulbah ʻa canʼ and subsequently derive a verbal
this derivational process is not available in the case of qaaruurah ‘a
noun from it in (25), this derivational process is not available in
bottle’, hence the recourse to paraphrase in (24).
the case of qaaruurah ʻa bottleʼ, hence the recourse to paraphrase
in (24).
2.1.1 Syntax
2.1.1 Syntax
Syntactic asymmetries which call for intrinsic managing are so common
in translation between English and Arabic. Most importantly, the
Syntactic asymmetries which call for intrinsic managing
translator should be aware of the mismatches at the sentence level which
are so common in translation between English and Arabic. Most
involve word order variation. English (which relatively has a fixed word
importantly, the translator should be aware of the mismatches at the
order), for example, overwhelmingly employs the unmarked 'Subject
sentence level which involve word order variation. English (which
Verb Object/Complement' word order. By contrast, Arabic (which is
relatively has a fixed word order), for example, overwhelmingly
more flexible in word order) uses the unmarked 'Verb Subject
employs the unmarked ʻSubject Verb Object/Complementʼ word
Object/Complement) word order as well as the less unmarked 'Subject
order. By contrast, Arabic (which is more flexible in word order)
Verb Object/complement' word order, which, at face value, corresponds
uses the unmarked ʻVerb Subject Object/Complement) word order
to the unmarked English word order. The competent translator, however,
as well as the less unmarked ʻSubject Verb Object/complementʼ
should dismiss this superficial correspondence as inappropriate, as the
Arabic word order corresponding to
99English S V O/C is the V S O/C
rather than the S V O/C, which coincides with the English word order.
The following examples are illustrative:
(27) The Egyptian president received his Syrian counterpart in
Cairo yesterday.
(28) ’istaqbala-r-ra’iisu- l-masriyyu naðiira-hu-
translator should be aware of the mismatches at the sentence level which
involve word order variation. English (which relatively has a fixed word
order), for example, overwhelmingly employs the unmarked 'Subject
Verb Object/Complement' word order. By contrast, Arabic (which is
more flexible in word order) uses the unmarked 'Verb Subject
Object/Complement) word order as well as the less unmarked 'Subject
word order, which, at face value, corresponds to the unmarked
Verb Object/complement' word order, which, at face value, corresponds
English word order. The competent translator, however, should
to the unmarked English word order. The competent translator, however,
dismiss this superficial correspondence as inappropriate, as the
should dismiss this superficial correspondence as inappropriate, as the
Arabic word order corresponding to English S V O/C is the V S
Arabic word order corresponding to English S V O/C is the V S O/C
O/C rather than the S V O/C, which coincides with the English
rather than the S V O/C, which coincides with the English word order.
word order. The following examples are illustrative:
The following examples are illustrative:
(27) The Egyptian president received his Syrian counterpart in
Cairo yesterday.
(28) ’istaqbala-r-ra’iisu- l-masriyyu naðiira-hu-
received the-president the-Egyptian couterpart-his
l-suuriyya fi- l-qaahirati ’amsi

the-Syrian in the-Cairo yesterday
/�� /

(29) ar-ra’iisu- l-masriyyu ’istaqbala naðiira-hu-
the-president the-Egyptian72received counterpart-his
s-suuriyya fi- l-qaahirati ’amsi

the-Syrian in the-Cairo yesterday
/�� /
Whereas (27) and (28) are about 'the Egyptian president's receiving
x' (in thisWhereas
case 'the(27) andpresident')
Syrian (28) are about
and, inʻthe Egyptian
effect, presidentʼs
correspond to each
receiving
other, (29) xʼ
is (in this'the
about case ʻthe Syrian
Egyptian presidentʼ)
president and,
doing x' (in inthis
effect,
case
correspond
'receiving to eachpresident')
the Syrian other, (29)
and,isconsequently,
about ʻthe Egyptian president
does not correspond
todoing xʼ fact,
(27). In (in (29)
this iscase ʻreceiving thesentence
a Topic-Comment Syrian in
presidentʼ)
which the and,
noun
consequently,
phrase does notis correspond
at the beginning to (27).
the Topic and In fact,
the rest of the(29) is a Topic-
sentence is the
Comment (for more on this, see Bakir 1979, Farghal 1986; also see Hatim
100
and Mason 1990, Hatim 1997 for a text-typological perspective).
At lower syntactic levels, the Tense/Aspect of the verb may
involve mismatches which need special attention in translation. For
instance, the English present perfect (which is a familiar and important
verbal realization) completely lacks a formal correspondent in the Arabic
Comment sentence in which the noun phrase at the beginning is
the Topic and the rest of the sentence is the Comment (for more
on this, see Bakir 1979, Farghal 1986; also see Hatim and Mason
1990, Hatim 1997 for a text-typological perspective).
At lower syntactic levels, the Tense/Aspect of the verb may

involve mismatches which need special attention in translation.
For instance, the English present perfect (which is a familiar
and important verbal realization) completely lacks a formal
correspondent in the Arabic verbal system. English utilizes the
present perfect to express something that happened or never
happened before now at an unspecified time in the past. Arabic, by
contrast, uses the simple past (which exists in English as distinct
from the present perfect) along with appropriate adverbial markers
to convey the meaning of the present perfect. Further, the English
present perfect may be employed to express a situation that began
in the past and continues to the present, in which case Arabic
mainly uses the simple present form of the verb. Following are
some illustrative examples (for more on the translation of tense/
aspect in English and Arabic, see Farghal and Shunnaq 1999):
(30) Zayd and Layla have moved into a large apartment.
(31) ’intaqala zaydun wa laylaa ’ilaa šaqqatin waasi‘atin
moved zayd and Layla to apartment large
mu’axxaran
lately
/�� /
101
(32) Mary has lived in London for two years.
(33) taskunu maarii fii landana munðu sanat-ayni
live Mary in London since year-two
/�� /
As can be seen, the Arabic translation in (31) may employ the

(30) Zayd and Layla have moved into a large apartment.
(31) ’intaqala zaydun wa laylaa ’ilaa šaqqatin waasi‘atin
moved zayd and Layla to apartment large
mu’axxaran
lately
ØÎ«d�R� WF�«Ë
/�� WI��
�� v�≈��
vKO�Ë
��b�“ qI��«Ø
� �� /
(32) Mary has lived in London for two years.

(33) taskunu maarii fii landana munðu sanat-ayni
live Mary in London since year-two
/�� /
As can be seen, the Arabic translation in (31) may employ the

simple past
As plus
can bean seen,
adverbial to indicate
the Arabic the relevance
translation in (31) of theemploy
may state of
affairs in the
the simple pastsentence
plus an to the present.
adverbial Suchtherelevance
to indicate relevancemay
of thebe
communicated
state of affairsindependently of to
in the sentence anthe
adverbial
present.bySuch
the relevance
employment of be
may the
present perfect in English
communicated (30 above).
independently of anAlternatively,
adverbial bytranslators of English
the employment of
into Arabic often utilize the Arabic simple past with or without the
the present perfect in English (30 above). Alternatively, translators
affirming preverbal discoursal particle laqad as a correspondent to the use
of English into Arabic often utilize the Arabic simple past with
of the present perfect in (30). As for (33), Arabic mainly employs the
or without the affirming preverbal discoursal particle laqad as a
simple present as a correspondent to the present perfect in (32), in order
correspondent to the use of the present perfect in (30). As for (33),
to indicate the continuation of the concerned state of affairs in the
Arabic mainly employs the simple present as a correspondent to
present.
the present perfect in (32), in order to indicate the continuation of
Epistemic modality (which constitutes the ways speakers view the
the concerned state of affairs in the present.
world around them in terms of (un)certainty, Halliday 1970 and Lyons
1977) alsoEpistemic modality (which
involves mismatches betweenconstitutes
English andthe waysInspeakers
Arabic. fact, one
view assume
cannot the world around them
a one-to-one in terms of (un)certainty,
correspondence Halliday
between English 1970
and Arabic
and Lyons
modal 1977)
verbs. A also involves
grammatical mismatches
gap may between
sometimes cause Englishtoand
a translator use
anArabic. In fact,translation
inappropriate one cannotcorrespondent.
assume a one-to-one correspondence
For example, the English
modal
between must isand
verbEnglish bi-valent, as it isverbs.
Arabic modal utilized deontically to
A grammatical gapexpress
may
strong obligation
sometimes andaepistemically
cause translator totouse
express strong conjecture,
an inappropriate whereas
translation
102
74
correspondent. For example, the English modal verb must is bi-
valent, as it is utilized deontically to express strong obligation
and epistemically to express strong conjecture, whereas its formal
itsArabic
formalcorrespondent yajibu may
Arabic correspondent express
yajibu strong obligation
may express only.
strong obligation
ThisThis
only. problematic mismatch
problematic is illustrated
mismatch is illustratedininthe
thetranslations
translationsinin(34)
(34)
and
and (35)
(35) of of
thethe bold-faced
bold-faced segment
segment in (36):
in (36):
(34) … They [the fish] are moving out too fast and too far. But
perhaps I [the old man] will pick up a stray and perhaps my big
fish is around them. My big fish must be somewhere.
(Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea, 1952:28).
(35) ’inna samakat-i- l-kabiirata yajibu ’an takuuna fii makaanin

verily fish-my the-big must that be in place
maa
some (Balabki 1985:35)
/�� /
(36) laa budda 'an takuuna samakat-i- l-kabiiratu- l-marjuwwatu

must that be fish-my the-big the-sought
mawjuudatan fii makaanin maa

existing in place some (Mohammed 1988:35)
/�� /
The translation in (35) is far-fetched because it expresses the fish's

The translation in (35) is far-fetched because it expresses
obligation to be somewhere, whereas the rendition in (36) succeeds in
the fishʼs
relaying the obligation to be somewhere,
strong conjecture whereasemployment
by the translator's the rendition in
of the
(36) succeeds
appropriate in modal
Arabic relaying
laathe strong
budda, conjecture
which by thetotranslatorʼs
corresponds the English
logical necessity reading. Thus,
103 yajibu communicates the
deontic/obligation interpretation while laa budda conveys the
epistemic/conjecture reading in Arabic, whereas the dual use is performed
by the same modal in English.
In some cases, a number of grammatical resources may be found in
employment of the appropriate Arabic modal laa budda, which
corresponds to the English logical necessity reading. Thus,
yajibu communicates the deontic/obligation interpretation while
laa budda conveys the epistemic/conjecture reading in Arabic,
whereas the dual use is performed by the same modal in English.
In some cases, a number of grammatical resources may be

found in addition to the apparently structural paradigm between
English and Arabic. A good example is the English passive sentence
which may be rendered in Arabic via many strategies, including
passivization, activization, nominalization and adjectivalization/
past participles (Farghal and Al-Shorofat 1996; Khafaji 1996).
In contrast with the oft-cited claim in the literature that agentive
English passive sentences should be translated into Arabic active
sentences because Arabic tends to avoid agentive passives (Al-
Najjar 1984; Mouakket 1986; Saraireh 1990; Farghal 1991;
Khalil 1993; El-Yasin 1996), there is ample empirical evidence
that Arabic falls back on different strategies including agentive
passivization to render English passives. Following are some
illustrative examples, which were all excerpted from an article
titled ʻSoviets in Spaceʼ published in Scientific American (Vol.
260, No. 2, 1989) and its Arabic translation which appeared in the
Kuwait-based Majallat Al-Oloom (Vol.6, No. 8, 1989):
104
passivization to render English passives. Following are some illustrative
examples, which were all excerpted from an article titled 'Soviets in
Space' published in Scientific America (Vol. 260, No. 2, 1989) and its
Arabic translation which appeared in the Kuwait-based Majallat Al-
Oloom (Vol.6, No. 8, 1989):
(37) Buran (the Russion word for snowstorm) was lifted into orbit
by the world's largest rocket.
(38) rufi‘a buuraanu (ta‘nii bi-l-ruusiyyati l-‘aasifata-
was lifted Buran means in-the-Russian the-storm
�-�aljiyyata) ’ilaa madaari-hi biwaasitati ’akbari saaruuxi

the-snow to orbit-its by largest rocket
daf‘in fi- l-‘aalami

pushing in the-world
�� (�� ) �� /
/��
(39) New-generation space stations would be needed to house

assembly workers.
(40) wa-sa-tabruzu- l-�aajatu ’ilaa jiilin jadiidin min-

and-will-occur the-need to generation new from
al-ma�a��aati- l-fadaa’iyyati li-suknaa ‘ummaali- l-tajmii‘i

the-stations the-space for-housing workers the-assembly
�� /

/��
76
(41) The space-endurance record was systematically extended.
(42) wa-rtafa‘a- r-raqamu- l-qiyyaasiyyu li-l-baqaa’i fi-

and-increased the-number the-record for-the-staying in
l-fadaa’i ’irtifaa‘an munaððaman

the-space increasing systematic
/�� /
(43) Salyut 7 was equipped with

105 a redesigned docking adapter.
(44) wa-kaanat saalyut 7 muzawadatan bi-wi�datin
and-was Salyut 7 equipped with-unit
muhayya’tin ’u‘iida tasmiimu-ha

ready was returned design-its
/�� (��) �� 7 �� /
/��
(41)and-increased the-number
The space-endurance recordthe-record for-the-staying
was systematically extended. in

l-fadaa’i ’irtifaa‘an
and-increased the-number aman
munaððthe-record for-the-staying in
the-space increasing systematic
/�� /
l-fadaa’i ’irtifaa‘an munaððaman
Salyut 7 was
(43)the-space equipped
increasing with a redesigned docking adapter.
systematic
/�� /
(44) wa-kaanat saalyut 7 muzawadatan bi-wi�datin
(43)and-was
Salyut 7 wasSalyut 7 equipped
equipped with-unit
with a redesigned docking adapter.
(44)muhayya’tin ’u‘iida 7 muzawadatan

wa-kaanat saalyut tasmiimu-ha bi-wi�datin
ready
and-was Salyut was returned
7 equippeddesign-its with-unit
/�� (��) �� 7 �� /
muhayya’tin ’u‘iida tasmiimu-ha
As Asis clear,
ready the
is clear, wasauthentic
thereturned translation
authentic examplesexamples
translation
design-its above instantiate
above
/ �� ( �� ) �� 7 ��
agentive passivization (38), nominalization (40), activization (42) and �� / the
instantiate agentive passivization (38), nominalization (40),
past participle
activization (44)
(42)as
As is clear, workable
and
the the paststrategies
authentic participle to (44)
translation render
as English
workable
examples passives.
above This
strategies
instantiate
empirical
agentive fact English
to render led Khafaji
passivization (38),(1996:37)
passives. to conclude
This empirical
nominalization "Hence
fact Arabic,
led
(40), activization as has
(42)Khafaji
and the
been
past demonstrated
participle
(1996:37) to(44) in workable
as this section,
conclude “Hence does not
strategies to avoid
Arabic, as haspassivity
render English [sic] but only
passives.
been demonstrated This
expresses
empirical itfact
differently".
in this section,led does
Khafaji
not(1996:37) to conclude
avoid passivity "Hence
[sic] but onlyArabic, as has
expresses it
been Working from
demonstrated
differently”. Arabic
in this intodoes
section, English, thepassivity
not avoid translator
[sic]may also
but only
encounter
expresses itseveral syntactic hurdles which call for intrinsic managing.
differently".
Working from Arabic into English, the translator may
One interesting
Working example is the evaluative
from Arabic cognate
into English, theaccusative
translatorwhere
mayanalso
act
also encounter several syntactic hurdles which call for intrinsic
is emphasized
encounter by deriving
several masdarwhich
syntactic ahurdles (present
callparticiple) frommanaging.
for intrinsic the verb
managing. One interesting example is the evaluative cognate
predicator instead
One interesting of employing
example an adverbial
is the evaluative or emphatic
cognate particle,
accusative where as
an can
act
accusative where an act is emphasized by deriving a masdar
be illustrated below:
is emphasized by deriving a masdar (present participle) from the verb
(present participle) from the verb predicator instead of employing
predicator šara�a-of employing
(45) instead l-mu‘allimu-an d-darsa šar�an
adverbial or emphatic particle, as can
an adverbial or emphatic
explained particle,
the-teacher as can explaining
the-lesson be illustrated below:
be illustrated below: /� �� /
(45) šara�a- l-mu‘allimu- d-darsa šar�an
explained the-teacher the-lesson explaining
77
/� �� /
77
106
(46) šara�a- l-mu‘allimu- d-darsa fi‘lan
explained the-teacher the-lesson indeed
/�� /
(47) ’inna- l-mu‘allima

(46) šara�a- l-mu‘allimu- fi‘lan
d-darsa d-darsa
šara�a-
explained the-teacher
verily the-teacher the-lesson
explained indeed
the-lesson
/��/��
��
�� /
��
(47) ’inna-
The three examplesl-mu‘allima šara�a-are d-darsa
in (45)-(47) all emphatic sentences that
verily the-teacher explained the-lesson
emphasizeThe thethree examples
relevant state inof(45)-(47)
affairs by area all emphatic
cognate sentences
accusative, an
/�� /
that emphasize
adverbial and a the relevant
particle state of affairs
respectively. The by a cognate
three accusative,
sentences are true
The three examples in (45)-(47) are all emphatic sentences that
an adverbial
paraphrases of and
eachaother
particle
and,respectively.
in effect, mayTheinterchange
three sentences are
in Arabic
emphasize the relevant state of affairs by a cognate accusative, an
true paraphrases of each other and, in effect, may interchange in
discourse.
adverbial and a particle respectively. The three sentences are true
Arabic
In discourse.
terms of translation, the cognate accusative constitutes a
paraphrases of each other and, in effect, may interchange in Arabic
grammatical gap in English and, consequently, it should be managed
In terms of translation, the cognate accusative constitutes
discourse.
intrinsically by rendering it as an adverbial or grammatical emphatic
a grammatical gap in English and, consequently, it should be
In terms of translation, the cognate accusative constitutes a
marker. In this way, English offers two rather than three strategies to
managed intrinsically by rendering it as an adverbial or grammatical
grammatical gap in English and, consequently, it should be managed
emphasize the act in the Arabic sentences above, as can be shown below:
emphatic marker.
intrinsically In thisitway,
by rendering as an English offers
adverbial or two rather than
grammatical three
emphatic
(48) * The teacher explained the lesson explaining.
strategies
marker. to teacher
In The
(49) this emphasize
way, English theoffers
explained act
theinlesson
the rather
two Arabic
indeed. sentences
than above, asto
three strategies
The teacher did explain the lesson.
(50)shown
can be
emphasize the actbelow:
in the Arabic sentences above, as can be shown below:
(48) * The
The rendition (48) isexplained
in teacher the lesson
unacceptable becauseexplaining.
it employs the cognate
(49) The teacher explained the lesson indeed.
accusative, which is not available in English (for more on evaluativeness
(50) The teacher did explain the lesson.
and the cognate accusative, see Farghal 1991, 1993a, 1993b).
The rendition in (48) isinunacceptable because it because
employs ittheemploys
cognate
To The rendition
observe (48)may
the loss that is unacceptable
result from overlooking the cognate
the cognate
accusative accusative,letwhich
in translation, is not the
us consider available
followingin English
excerpt (for
takenmore
from
on evaluativeness
Elyas' and theofcognate
(1987:105) translation accusative,
N. Mahfouz's (1973)see Farghal
novel al-liss 1991,
wa al-
To observe the loss that may result from overlooking the cognate
kilaab (The Thief and the Dogs), along with a suggested translation that
accusative in translation, let us consider
107 the following excerpt taken from
maintains the role of the cognate accusative, among other things:
Elyas' (1987:105) translation of N. Mahfouz's (1973) novel al-liss wa al-
(51) My father was able to understand you. You have avoided me
kilaab (Theuntil
Thief and theyou
I thought Dogs),
werealong
tryingwith
to geta rid
suggested translation
of me. With my ownthat
free will I came back to the atmosphere of incense and to
maintains the role of the cognate accusative, among other things:
anxiety. That's what the homeless and the deserted do.
marker. In this way, English offers two rather than three strategies to
emphasize the act in the Arabic sentences above, as can be shown below:
(48) * The teacher explained the lesson explaining.
(49) The teacher explained the lesson indeed.
(50) The teacher did explain the lesson.
The rendition in (48) is unacceptable because it employs the cognate

1993a, 1993b).
To observe the loss that may result from overlooking the
cognate accusative
To observe in translation,
the loss let from
that may result us consider the the
overlooking following
cognate
excerpt taken
accusative from Elyasʼ
in translation, let us(1987:105)
consider thetranslation of N. Mahfouzʼs
following excerpt taken from
(1973)
Elyas' novel al-liss
(1987:105) wa al-kilaab
translation (The Thief
of N. Mahfouz's andnovel
(1973) the Dogs),
al-liss along
wa al-
with (The
kilaab a suggested translation
Thief and the Dogs),that maintains
along the role oftranslation
with a suggested the cognate
that
accusative,
maintains among
the role other
of the things:
cognate accusative, among other things:
until I thought you were trying to get rid of me. With my own
free will I came back to the atmosphere of incense and to
anxiety. That's what the homeless and the deserted do.
(52) My father was able to understand you. So many times did you
78
avoid me that I thought you were dumping me indeed! With
my own free will I came back to the atmosphere of incense and
to anxiety. That's what the homeless and the deserted do.
It should be noted
It should that thethat
be noted translator's disregard disregard
the translatorʼs of the exclamation
of the
(aexclamation
taxing construction in construction
(a taxing this case) andinthe
thiscognate accusative
case) and in the
the cognate
original has compromised
accusative in the originalthehasemotiveness of the
compromised the text. The second
emotiveness of
sentence
the text.inThe
(51)second
is unduly under-emotive
sentence in (51) isand relatively
unduly detached when
under-emotive and
compared with its duly highly emotive and involved counterpart in (52).
relatively detached when compared with its duly highly emotive
Unfortunately, this kind of loss can go unnoticed for long, as the
and involved counterpart in (52). Unfortunately, this kind of loss
inadequate translation may read smoothly and relevantly, hence the
can go unnoticed for long, as the inadequate translation may read
urgent need for sensitizing translators to the fact that grammar is
smoothly and relevantly, hence the urgent need for sensitizing
meaning- bearing, just like lexis.
translators to the fact that grammar is meaning-bearing, just like
To further observe the translation loss due to the inadvertent
lexis.
omission of the evaluative cognate accusative by the translator, consider
108
the following example from Najeeb Mahfouz (1970) Qasr Al-Shawq
'Palace of Desire', along with its English translation by William Hutchins,
Lorne Kenney and Olive Kenny (1991):
(53) li-šiddati maa ’a�bab-tu- l-’injliiza fii si�ar-ii …’unður
for-strength what love-I the-English in young-my … see
sentence in (51) is unduly under-emotive and relatively detached when
compared with its duly highly emotive and involved counterpart in (52).
Unfortunately, this kind of loss can go unnoticed for long, as the
inadequate translation may read smoothly and relevantly, hence the
urgent need for sensitizing translators to the fact that grammar is
meaning- bearing, just like lexis.
omission of the evaluative cognate accusative by the translator,
omission of the evaluative cognate accusative by the translator, consider
consider the following example from Najeeb Mahfouz (1970) Qasr
the following example from Najeeb Mahfouz (1970) Qasr Al-Shawq
Al-Shawq
'Palace ʻPalace
of Desire', ofwith
along Desireʼ, along translation
its English with its English translation
by William by
Hutchins,
William
Lorne Hutchins,
Kenney Lorne
and Olive Kenney
Kenny (1991):and Olive Kenny (1991):
(53) li-šiddati maa ’a�bab-tu- l-’injliiza fii si�ar-ii …’unður
for-strength what love-I the-English in young-my … see
kayfa ’amqutu-hum al’aana maqtan

how hate(I)-them now hating (p. 17)
/��
� �� ... �� /
(54) I really loved the English when I was young. But see how I
hate them now. (p. 14)
The rendition in (54) falls short of relaying the intensity of the hate
The rendition in (54) falls short of relaying the intensity
borne by the speaker toward the English now, which is linguistically
of the hate borne by the speaker toward the English now, which
conveyed by employing the Arabic evaluative cognate accusative (the
is linguistically
bold-faced segmentsconveyed
in (53)). by
Theemploying the Arabic
English version soundsevaluative
as if the
cognate accusative (the bold-faced segments in (53)). The English
version sounds as if the speaker
79
were asking the addressee
to observe the way the speaker hates the English, which is far
from reflecting the intended meaning in the Arabic text. Had the
translators been sensitive to the function of the cognate accusative,
they would have captured the emphasis in many possible ways, as
can be noted below:
109
speaker were asking the addressee to observe the way the speaker hates
speaker were asking the addressee to observe the way the speaker hates
the English, which is far from reflecting the intended meaning in the
the English, which is far from reflecting the intended meaning in the
Arabic text. Had the translators been sensitive to the function of the
Arabic text. Had the translators been sensitive to the function of the
cognate accusative, they would have captured the emphasis in many
cognate accusative, they would have captured the emphasis in many
possible ways, as can be noted below:
possible ways, as can be noted below:
(55) … But see how much I hate them now.
(55)
(56) … But see how much I now Ihate
hatethem
themindeed.
now.
(56)
(57) … But see how I now reallyhate
hatethem
themindeed.
now.
(57)
(58) … But see how I reallydo hatehatethemthem
now.now.
(58) … But see how I do hate them now.
Another
Another example
example of syntactic
of syntactic asymmetry
asymmetry that needs that intrinsic
needs
Another
intrinsic exists example
managing of
exists syntactic asymmetry that needs intrinsic
managing between thebetween
Arabic andthe Arabic
Englishand English
definite definite
article. Both
managing exists between the Arabic and English definite article. Both
article. Both
languages use thelanguages use the
definite article definite article
referentially referentially
with plural and non-countwith
languages use the definite article referentially with plural and non-count
pluralHowever,
nouns. and non-count only nouns.
Arabic However,
may employ onlyitArabic may employ
generically with bothit
nouns. However, only Arabic may employ it generically with both
generically
categories with both
of nouns, categories
in which of nouns,
case English must inusewhich
the zero case English
article. This
categories of nouns, in which case English must use the zero article. This
must usemay
mismatch the pose
zero article.
problems, This mismatch
even mayprofessional
to the most pose problems, even
translators,
mismatch may pose problems, even to the most professional translators,
astocan
thebemost professional
illustrated translators,inas(60)
by the translations canand
be (61)
illustrated by the
of the Quranic
as can be illustrated by the translations in (60) and (61) of the Quranic
verse in (59) below:
translations in (60) and (61) of the Quranic verse in (59) below:
verse in (59) below:
(59) fa-’arsal-naa ‘alay-him- it-tuufaana wa- l-jaraada wa-
(59)so-send-we
fa-’arsal-naa on-them it-tuufaanaand
‘alay-him- the-flood l-jaraada wa-
wa-the-locusts and
so-send-we on-them the-flood and the-locusts and
l-qummala wa- d-dafaadi‘a wa- d-dama ’aayaatin
l-qummala
the-lice wa- -dafaadi‘a wa-
anddthe-frogs and d-dama
the-blood ’aayaatin
verses
the-lice and the-frogs and the-blood verses
mufassalaatin fastakbar-uu wa kaanuu qawman mujrimiin
mufassalaatin fastakbar-uu
clear be arrogant-they wa and kaanuu
were-theyqawman
peoplemujrimiin
criminal
clear
(Al-’araaf:133)be arrogant-they and were-they people criminal
(Al-’araaf:133)
�� /
��
/��
�� /
� ��
/��
(60) So We sent on them: the flood, the locusts, the lice, the
(60)frogs,
So Weand sentthe
onblood
them:(as theaflood, the locusts,
succession the lice,
of manifest signs),theyet
frogs,remained
they and the arrogant,
blood (asand a succession
they wereofofmanifest signs),
those people whoyet
they
wereremained
Mujrimun arrogant,
(criminals,and polytheists,
they were ofsinners,
those people who
etc.). (Al-
were
Hilali Mujrimun (criminals, polytheists, sinners, etc.). (Al-
and Khan 1993)
Hilali and Khan 1993)
110
80
80
(61) So We sent down on them the flood, the locusts, the
vermins, the frogs, and the blood; these were clear miracles,
but they were arrogant and guilty people. (Al-Hayek 1996)
(61) So We sent down on them the flood, the locusts, the
As As
can be be
can seen,
vermins, the the fiveand
frogs,
seen, the bold-faced
fivethe blood;nouns
bold-facedthese (3 plural
were
nouns count
clear
(3 nouns
miracles,
plural count
and but they
2 non-count were arrogant
nouns) in (59), and guilty
which people. (Al-Hayek 1996)
nouns and 2 non-count nouns) in involve genericinvolve
(59), which reference in the
generic
Quranic
As verse,
caninbeare
reference the rendered
seen, the fiveerroneously
Quranic are as
bold-faced
verse, nouns
nouns involving
(3 plural
rendered countspecific
erroneously nouns
as
reference.
and
nouns This comes
2 non-count
involving asinan(59),
nouns)
specific immediate consequence
which involve
reference. This of reference
generic
comes as theimmediate
an translators’
in the
not being verse,
Quranic sensitive
consequence areto
of a syntactic
rendered
the asymmetry
erroneously
translatorsʼ at the
as
not being levelinvolving
nouns
sensitiveofto
definiteness.
specific
a syntactic
In some
reference.
asymmetry cases,
Thisatcomes a specific
as an
the level use of the consequence
immediate
of definiteness. article may beofavailable in both
the translators’
Arabic andsensitive
not being Englishtobut the scopeasymmetry
a syntactic of such useatisthe
different
level of(itdefiniteness.
is completely
In some cases, a specific use of the article may be available
unconstrained in Arabic,
In some cases, whereas
a specific use of ittheisarticle
contextually constrained
may be available in
in both
in both Arabic and English but the scope of such use is different (it
English).
Arabic andToEnglish
explain,but
both
thelanguages may use
scope of such employ the definite
is different (it is article with
completely
is completely unconstrained in Arabic, whereas it is contextually
a singular countinnoun
unconstrained generically.
Arabic, whereasThisit pseudo- or partial correspondence
is contextually constrained in
constrained in English). To explain, both languages may employ
may landTothe
English). translator
explain, both in erroneous
languages mayinterpretations whenarticle
employ the definite rendering
with
the definite article with a singular count noun generically. This
aArabic texts
singular intonoun
count English, as canThis
generically. be illustrated
pseudo- orby Quranic
partial translation
correspondence
pseudo- or partial correspondence may land the translator in
below:land the translator in erroneous interpretations when rendering
may
erroneous interpretations when rendering Arabic texts into English,
Arabic(62) qaal-uu
texts yaa ’abaa-naa
into English, as can ’innaa ðahab-naa
be illustrated by nastabiqu
Quranic wa
translation
as can besaid-they
illustrated
oh by Quranic translation
father-our that went-we below:
race and
below:
(62)tarak-naa
qaal-uu yuusufa ‘inda mataa‘i-naa
yaa ’abaa-naa fa-’akala-hu
’innaa ðahab-naa al-ði’bu
nastabiqu wa
left-we Yusuf
said-they oh at things-our
father-our then-ate-him
that went-we race the-wolf
and
wa maa ’anta
tarak-naa yuusufabimu’minin lanaa wa fa-’akala-hu
‘inda mataa‘i-naa law kunaa saadiqiin
al-ði’bu
and not you
left-we Yusuf believe us andthen-ate-him
at things-our if were truthfulthe-wolf
(Yusuf: 17)
wa maa ’anta bimu’minin lanaa wa law kunaa saadiqiin
and not��
you ��believe
��
us ��and
� ��
if ��
were�� /
truthful
(Yusuf: 17) /��
(63) They said: 'O our

�� father!
�� We went
��
111 �� racing with�� one
�� another,
��/
and left Yusuf by our things, /so the wolf
�� ate
�� him.
��But�� you
�
will not believe us even though we are telling the truth'. (al-
(63)Hayek 1996)'O our father! We went racing with one another,
They said:
and left Yusuf by our things, so the wolf ate him. But you
Hayek 1996)
81
said-they oh father-our that went-we race and
tarak-naa yuusufa ‘inda mataa‘i-naa fa-’akala-hu al-ði’bu

left-we Yusuf at things-our then-ate-him the-wolf
wa maa ’anta bimu’minin lanaa wa law kunaa saadiqiin

and not you believe us and if were truthful
(Yusuf: 17)
�� /
/��
(63) They said: 'O our father! We went racing with one another,
and left Yusuf by our things, so the wolf ate him. But you
Hayek 1996)
(64) They said: 'O our father: We went racing with one another,
and left Joseph with our things; and the wolf devoured him …
But thou wilt never believe81 us even though we tell the truth'.
(Ali: 1964)
It is unfortunate that the generic 'wolf' in the Quranic verse in (62)

It is unfortunate that the generic ʻwolfʼ in the Quranic
is turned into a referential/specific 'wolf' in the English renditions.
verse in (62) is turned into a referential/specific ʻwolfʼ in the
Clearly, mishaps like these are caused by the lack of good intuitions on
English renditions. Clearly, mishaps like these are caused by the
the part of the translator in the SL and/or the TL. The only way to
lack of good intuitions on the part of the translator in the SL and/
guarantee the translator's ability to intrinsically manage such structural
or the TL. The only way to guarantee the translatorʼs ability to
asymmetries is to bring them to his consciousness in translator training
intrinsically manage such structural asymmetries is to bring them
programs.
to his consciousness in translator training programs.
2.1.2 Lexis
2.1.2 andand
Lexis Phraseology
Phraseology
Lexis and phraseology between a language pair are probably the clearest
area that Lexis
calls forand phraseology
intrinsic between
managing at a language
two lexical levels (the pair are
individual
probably
lexeme andthe
theclearest area that
multi-word calls
unit), as for intrinsic
both evolvemanaging at two
within different
lexical levels
linguistic, social(the
and individual lexemeand
cultural habitats andsubsequently
the multi-word unit),well-
become as
both evolve
established within
within thedifferent linguistic,ofsocial
lexical repertoire and cultural
the native habitats
speakers of any
and language.
given subsequently
At thebecome well-established
word level, within
approximation of the lexical
SL lexemes in the
repertoire
TL of the
is perhaps the native speakersstrategy
most practiced of any in
given language.
translation, as At
canthe
be
illustrated in the following examples:
112
(65) laa ’ilaaha ’illaa ’allaah
no God except God
/�� /
(66) There is no God but God.
(67) ’istušhida filistiiniyyun fii musaadamaatin ma‘a- l-quwwaati-

Lexis and phraseology between a language pair are probably the clearest
area that calls for intrinsic managing at two lexical levels (the individual
lexeme and the multi-word unit), as both evolve within different
linguistic, social and cultural habitats and subsequently become well-
established within the lexical repertoire of the native speakers of any
wordlanguage.
given level, approximation of SLapproximation
At the word level, lexemes in the
ofTL
SLislexemes
perhapsinthe
the
most
TL practicedthestrategy
is perhaps in translation,
most practiced as can
strategy be illustrated
in translation, in the
as can be
following
illustrated in examples:
the following examples:
(65) laa ’ilaaha ’illaa ’allaah
no God except God
/�� /
(66) There is no God but God.
(67) ’istušhida filistiiniyyun fii musaadamaatin ma‘a- l-quwwaati-

fell martyr Palestinian in clashes with the-forces
l-’israa’iiliyyati ’amsi
the-Israeli yesterday
/�� /
(68) a. A Palestinian was killed in clashes with the Israeli forces

82
yesterday.
b. A Palestinian fell as a martyr in clashes with the Israeli
forces yesterday.
(69) sa-yazuuru ’a�madu xaalata-hu haðaa al-masaa’
will-visit Ahmed maternal aunt-his this the-evening
/�� /
(70) Ahmed will visit his aunt this evening.
(71) �aawalat saaratu ’an taxnuqa durrata-haa laylan

attempted Sarah to suffocate co-wife-her nighttime
/�� /
(72) Sarah attempted to suffocate her co-/fellow wife at night.
AllAll
thethe
English renditions
English of theofArabic
renditions sentences
the Arabic above involve
sentences above
intrinsic managing at the word level. In (65) and (66), the familiar lexical
involve intrinsic managing at the word level. In (65) and (66), the
approximation of Arabic ’allaah to English God (and vice versa) is well
familiar lexical approximation of Arabic ʼallaah to English God
documented in translating between Arabic and English. On the face of it,
113
there seem to be both formal and functional correspondence between the
two lexemes. However, a closer examination of them reveals that the
concept of God in Christianity (the divine religion with which English-
speaking peoples affiliate) is different from that in Islam. To explain, the
semantic feature [+ oneness] is an inherent, most important attribute of
(and vice versa) is well documented in translating between Arabic
and English. On the face of it, there seem to be both formal and
functional correspondence between the two lexemes. However,
a closer examination of them reveals that the concept of God in
Christianity (the divine religion with which English-speaking
peoples affiliate) is different from that in Islam. To explain,
the semantic feature [+ oneness] is an inherent, most important
attribute of ʼallaah, whereas it is clearly not in the case of God,
as Christians strongly believe in the concept of Trinity whereby
we have a tri-faceted Lord. In this way, the widely acceptable
correspondence between the two lexical items is the working of
lexical intrinsic managing.
Similarly, intrinsic managing is responsible for rendering

ʼistušhida in (67) as was killed in (68a), as the Arabic fatalism-
laden expression (which is familiarly and naturally employed
in the general register to indicate an ideological stance) cannot
be left unmanaged in the general English register (68b), hence
the dire need for the rendition in (68a). In this way, it is not the
lack of correspondence between the two languages that should
be blamed but rather a register reality that unleashes the scope
of use of ʼistušhida in Arabic but seriously constrains the use of
fall as a martyr in English. By way of illustration, it would be
so pretentious (if not unimaginable) for the CNN newsreader to
utilize fall as a martyr instead of be killed in a news bulletin, but
114
quite imaginable for a priest (or even George W. Bush for that
matter) to employ it in reference to American soldiers killed in
Iraq while speaking on the CNN. By contrast, it is absolutely
natural for the Jazeera newsreader to choose between ʼistušhida
and qutila ʻbe killedʼ in light of the ideological position embraced
by the TV channel. For instance, Jazeera newsreaders employ the
former in the Palestinian context but the latter in the Iraqi context.
Thus, what is overwhelmingly register-motivated in English is
ideology-instigated in Arabic, hence the need for lexical intrinsic
managing in cases like that in (67) above.
For its part, the Arabic example in (69) includes a word that
relates to a lexical distinction between xaalah ʻmaternal auntʼ and
ʻammah ʻpaternal auntʼ. This distinction is culturally irrelevant in
English, hence the successful approximation of Arabic xaalah in
(69) to English aunt in (70). Other things being equal, the lexical
approximation of partial lexical and cultural gaps in translation
for general purposes between Arabic and English is a well-
attested strategy in translation practice. Other examples include
maintenance for nafaqah, dowry for mahr, charity/alms for zakaah,
pilgrimage for haj, tribute for jizyah, etc. To enlarge on one of
these examples, let us examine the religious term zakaah, which
is a hyponym of the superordinate giving to the poor and a co-
hyponym of sadaqah in Arabic. This lexical distinction is relevant
115
in the Arab-Islamic culture (as zakaah, which is one of the pillars of
Islam, is compulsory when certain revenue conditions are met but
sadaqah is both optional and unconditioned), but it is irrelevant in
English (as ʻgiving to the poorʼ comes only in one form (charity/
alms), which is both optional and unconditioned). Consequently,
approximation is often called for when such a lexical distinction
is irrelevant in Anglo-American culture. However, when such a
distinction is relevant, the translator should employ other strategies
such as transliteration plus definition or descriptive translation in
which the overlap is brought out to the reader.
As for the last Arabic example in (71), it presents a

complete lexico-cultural gap durrah, which is both lexically and
culturally missing in English. The workable rendition of such gaps
into English can be very taxing on the part of the translator, as it
calls for his ingenuity to employ the strategy of lexical creation
in the TL, hence the use of co-wife or fellow wife in the English
translation in (72). Other examples of bridging gaps by lexical
creation include poor-dues for zakat, breast brother/sister/mother
for ʼax/ʼuxt/ʼum bi-l-ridaaʻah ʻbrother/sister/mother by breast
feedingʼ, sexual honor for ʻird and what is creatively reffered to as
honor crimes [an Arab killing one of his female family members
for having an affair outside marriage] for jaraaʼim al-šaraf ʻcrimes
the-honorʼ. Some gaps may prove inaccessible to lexical creation
116
such as maħram (a legally capable male Muslim who is sexually
immune to an adult female Muslim due to a close blood or non-
blood kinship relation such as son, brother, uncle, father, father-
in-law, etc. required to accompany the female when performing
haj ʻpilgrimageʼ in the absence of the femaleʼs husband) and
ʻadiil (a non-blood Arabic kinship term denoting the person who
is married to the sister of oneʼs wife). As a result, such gaps may
lend themselves only to transliteration and/or definition. Arabic
examples of lexical creation in the area of culture may include ʻiid
al-šukr dJA�«bO� for Thanksgiving, ʻiid al-hub V(« bO� for Valentineʼs
Day, wasiifah for best woman, al-zawaaj al-ʻurfii w�dF�« Ã«Ëe�« for
co-habitation, hukuumat al-ðil qE�« W�uJ� for shadow government,
naatihat sahaab »U�� W��U� for skyscraper, etc.
Perhaps the gap-filling strategy between languages in

general, and Arabic and English in particular, is most noticeable in
the area of science and technology (Ferguson 1968; Gravin 1973;
Grosjean 1981; Faslod 1984; and Al-Khatib and Farghal 1999,
among others). When medieval Arabs were pioneer producers of
knowledge, scores of Arabic scientific terms entered Latin and
Greek and were subsequently borrowed into all modern European
languages including English. Terms like algebra for al-jabr,
chemistry for al-kiimyaaʼ, zero for sifr are only a few examples
from a multitude. Nowadays, the influx of scientific terminology
117
and inventions comes from English into other languages, including
Arabic. Arabic language academies and translators can hardly
cope with the huge number of English terms accompanying the
current scientific and technological revolution in the west. To keep
abreast of this unprecedented flow of terminology, the translator
has two gap-filling strategies at his disposal: lexical borrowing
(whereby both the form alongside the content of the concept is
borrowed) such /b/ voas ʼuksiid for oxide, st ofor
Lijiin gene, combyuutar for
iced b f Ara
computer, /muubayl m/ bil forilcellular a phone, etc. and biclexical
Phon creation/
abial n bial stop etic S
y mbo
loan-translation/ f/ v oic(whereby a sa l content of the concept is borrowed
the ls
/ð/ vo e le s s labio
ic in form) -d ta as ʼistinsaax for cloning,
independently /ð/ vo ofed the terden ensuch lf
iced in tal fric ricative
/�/forvogene, haatif te n telephone, a
muwarrio iceles rdefor tal em tiveʻadasah for lens, naqqaal/
/d/ vo s interd phone, pha tic
ic for cellular etc. fThese two strategies are
/t/ voi ed alveolar ental fricati ricative
maħmuul/xalawii
celes stop when filling ve terminological gaps
equally voiced sand
/d/important alvelegitimate
olar st
/t/ voWhen
in Arabic. iceles they lar em owith
alveocompete p each other, the final judgment
/z/ vo s a eol p h a st
should be ced al lvto
iaccorded ar em ticand
frequency opacceptability in Arabic. In
/s/ voi v p h
celess eolar fricat atic stop
many /s/ vcases, alveol of doublets
oicelethe presence ive such as haatif vs. talafoon,
ss a a r f ricativ
/n/ alv vs. combyuutar,
ħaasuub eolar lveolar emiðyaaʻ m
e vs. raadyoo, etc. contributes to
/r/ alv nasal phatic
e lar Arabic slexicon
/l/ alv othe
enriching rhotic top and often friccreates
ative stylistic differences
eolar liquid
/š/ voi the members la
between celess teral liqofuiaddoublet, for example, haatif and miðyaaʻ
/j/ voi a veo-
are [+cformal],lwhereas p talafoon and raadyoo are [- formal].
/y/ pa ed alveo-pa alatal frica
la al g latal a tive
/w/ la tPolitical lide culture isffalso
r i c a te rich area for borrowing between
a
bi
/k/ vo o-velar glid
iceleand English. e Familiar English examples include caliph for
/�/ Arabic
voiced ss velar sto
/x/ vxaliifah, velar for ʼamiir, p sultan for sultaan, mullah for mullaa, imam
oicele emir fricati
v
/q/ vo ss e
iceles velar fricat 118
/‘/ voi s uvul ive
c ar
/h / v o e d p h a r y n g s t o p
ic e
/’/ glo eless phary al fricative
tt ngeal
/h/ vo a l s t o p fricati
iceles ve
/i/ hig s laryn
h g
/u/ hig front short eal fricative
hb vow
example, haatif and miðyaa‘ are [+ formal], whereas talafoon and
raadyoo are [- formal].
Political sheik
for ʼimaam, culturefor
is also
šayx,a etc.
rich As
areaforformodern
borrowing between
Arabic Arabic
lexicon, it
and English.
includes Familiar
a large English
number examples
of lexically include caliph
borrowed xaliifah,
forterms
political suchemir
as
forad-dimuqraatiyyah foraan,
’amiir, sultan for sult mullah foral-barlamaan
democracy, mulaa, imam for
for ’imaam, sheik
parliament,
šayx, etc. As for modern
forad-diktaatooriyyah for Arabic lexicon, it ad-diblumaasiyyah
dictatorship, includes a large number
forof
lexically borrowed
diplomacy, political terms
al-burjuwaaziyyah such as ad-dimuqraat
for bourgeoisie, iyyah for
al-ʼimbiryaaliyyah
democracy, al-barlamaan for parliament, ad-diktaatooriyyah for
for imperialism, as-sahyuuniyyah for Zionism, etc. Though less
dictatorship, ad-diblumaasiyyah for diplomacy, al-burjuwaaziyyah for
common, lexical creation/loan-translation is also found in Arabic
bourgeoisie, al-’imbiryaaliyyah for imperialism, as-sahyuuniyyah for
political terminology; examples include ar-raʼsmaaliyyah for
Zionism, etc. Though less common, lexical creation/loan-translation is
capitalism, aš-šuyuuʻiyyah for communism, majlis aš-šuyuux for
also found in Arabic political terminology; examples include ar-
Senate, mustaʻmaraat for colonies, mustawtanaat for settlements,
ra’smaaliyyah for capitalism, aš-šuyuu‘iyyah for communism, majlis aš-
etc.
šuyuux for Senate, musta‘maraat for colonies, mustawtanaat for
To further illustrate borrowing and/or lexical creation at
settlements, etc.
text level, following is my own English translation of a creative
To further illustrate borrowing and/or lexical creation at text level,
excerpt taken from a Jordanian newspaper political commentary
following is my own English translation of a creative excerpt taken from
entitled WO�«d�ËdzUAF�« ʻTribo-mocracyʼ (which was inspired by
a Jordanian newspaper political commentary entitled �� 'Tribo-
some well-known Jordanian tribesʼ decision to hold intra-tribe
mocracy' (which was inspired by some well-known Jordanian tribes'
ballots to nominate candidates for parliamentary elections) by
decision to hold intra-tribe ballots to nominate candidates for
Fakhri Qiʼwar in the late 1990s:
parliamentary elections) by Fakhri Qi'war in the late 1990s:
(73) We hereby add to democracies in the Arab world a new
one. So, in addition to dictatomocracy, patrimocracy and
sheepomocracy, we congratulate the Arabs on their new
invention of … tribomocracy!
The writer's
Theemployment of borrowing-based
writerʼs employment blends to create new
of borrowing-based Arabic
blends to
lexical
create items in order
new Arabic to mock
lexical items in so-called
order toArab
mockdemocracies, viz.
so-called Arab
�� , requires a comparable
strategy of lexical creation in the TL, 119as can be observed in the suggested
87
democracies, viz. WO�«d�uLMG�«Ë WO�«dI�u�ô«ËW�—u�U��u1b�«ËWO�«d�ËdzUAF�«,
requires a comparable strategy of lexical creation in the TL, as
can be observed in the suggested translation above. The output of
lexical creation in Arabic is quite taxing for the SL reader (where
socio-political awareness plays a key role), and it will be even
more so for the TL reader, where some footnotes may turn out to
be necessary.
As is clear, intrinsic managing at the lexical level may

manifest itself in different forms that range between transliteration
(which counts as zero translation in the TL) and borrowing (which
brings into being new lexical items in the TL). The translatorʼs
awareness of the nature of lexical and/or cultural gaps between
any two languages and the various strategies that can be employed
to bridge them is of utmost importance in translation activity.
From here arises the need to sensitize student translators as well
as translation practitioners to the existence of such gaps and the
strategies that may be invoked to accommodate them.
At the phraseological level, collocations and idiomatic

expressions stand out as two important types of multi-word units
that often necessitate intrinsic managing. They constitute a major
component of the lexicon and, consequently, an indispensable
element of lexical competence (Alexander 1978; Yorio 1980;
Nattinger 1980, 1988; Aisensadt 1981; Cowie 1981, 1988;
120
Strassler 1983; Benson et al. 1987; Baker and MacCarthy 1987;
Sinclair 1987, 1991; Farghal and Obeidat 1995; and Farghal and
Al-Hamly 2007, among others). In terms of translation, Shakir and
Farghal (1992) argue that collocations are more communicatively
useful than idioms because they are more familiar in discourse and
can only be hardly replaceable by individual lexical alternates,
for instance, the English collocation public support and its Arabic
counterpart ad-daʻmu-š-šaʻbiyi are only awkwardly paraphraseable
in translation. By contrast, idioms are less common in discourse
and are usually replaceable by lexical alternates, for example, the
Arabic idiomatic expression zaada-t-tiina billatan and its English
counterpart to add insult to injury can be effectively replaced by
ʻaqqada-l-ʼumuura and to complicate things in the two languages,
respectively.
Collocations, to start with, are probably the most problematic

for student translators (and even for practitioners) because of two
reasons: firstly, they are mostly lexicalized differently between
any two languages and secondly, they hardly lend themselves to
acceptable paraphrase in the TL (for more details, see Shakir and
Farghal 1992; Farghal and Obeidat 1995; Farghal and Al-Hamly
2007). As a result, the only guarantee to handle collocations in
translation activity is the translatorʼs possession of a good bank
of them in the language pair. Following are some illustrative
examples:
121
and secondly, they hardly lend themselves to acceptable paraphrase in the
TL (for more details, see Shakir and Farghal 1992; Farghal and Obeidat
1995; Farghal and Al-Hamly 2007). As a result, the only guarantee to
handle collocations in translation activity is the translator's possession of
a good bank of them in the language pair. Following are some illustrative
examples:
(74) qata‘a- l-mulaakimu ‘ahdan ‘alaa nafsihi ’an yuwajjiha
cut the-boxer promise on himself to direct
lakamaatin qaasiyatan li-xasmi-hi fi- l-mubaaraah

blows harsh to-opponent-his in the-match
/�� /
(75) The boxer made a promise upon himself to deliver harsh
blows to his opponent in the match.
(76) The recent American public opinion polls indicate that sexual
harassment has become an all-pervasive phenomenon in
slum areas.
(77) tuðhiru ’istitlaa‘aatu- l-ra’yi- l-‘aami
indicate polls the- opinion the-general
al-’amriikiyyatu ’ann- l-ta�arruša- l-jinsiyya ’asba�a

the-American that the-harassment the-sexual became
ðaahiratan mutafaššiyatan fi- l-manaatiqi- l-ša‘biyyah

phenomenon widely spread in the-areas the-popular
�� /

/��
(78) wa kaanat ma‘rakatan �aamiyata- l-watiisi �ay�u waajah-
and was battle hot the-dust where faced-
89
naa jaišan jarraaran wa takabbad-naa xasaa’ira fadi�atin

we army huge and suffer-we losses serious
�� /
/��
(79) It was a fierce battle in which we faced a formidable army
and suffered heavy losses.
(80) Salim is dialing the number

122 of the hazel-eyed girl he met
yesterday.
(81) yattasilu saalimun al’aana bi-raqami- l-fataati ðaati-
call Salim the-now with-number the-girl with
l-‘uyuuni- l-‘asaliyati- llati qaabala-haa ’amsi

the-eyes the-hazel who met-her yesterday
naa jaišan jarraaran wa takabbad-naa xasaa’ira fadi�atin
we army huge and suffer-we losses serious
�� /
/��
(79) It was a fierce battle in which we faced a formidable army
and suffered heavy losses.
(80) Salim is dialing the number of the hazel-eyed girl he met

yesterday.
(81) yattasilu saalimun al’aana bi-raqami- l-fataati ðaati-
call Salim the-now with-number the-girl with
l-‘uyuuni- l-‘asaliyati- llati qaabala-haa ’amsi

the-eyes the-hazel who met-her yesterday
/�� /
TheThe bold-faced
bold-faced ArabicArabic collocations
collocations in (74)
in (74) literally literally
translate into
translate
cut into upon
a promise cut a himself
promiseand
upondirect
himself andblows,
harsh direct which
harsh blows,
are not
which areinnot
acceptable acceptable
English becauseinthey
English because they
are lexicalized are lexicalized
differently as can be
differently
seen as can
in (75). For theirbepart,
seenthein bold-faced
(75). For English
their part, the bold-faced
collocations in (76)
require different
English lexicalization
collocations at varying
in (76) requiredegrees. Forlexicalization
different example, English
at
public opinion
varying literally
degrees. translates
For example, Arabic general
intoEnglish publicopinion
opinionandliterally
English
slum areasinto
translates into Arabic
Arabic popular
general opinionareas. In some
and English cases, into
slum areas the
collocator/collocate's
Arabic popular areas.use isIn
(almost)
some exclusively
cases, the restricted to a particular
collocator/collocateʼs
collocation. Note how
use is (almost) exclusively collocatestoal-wat
the Arabicrestricted iis and jarraar
a particular in (78)
collocation.
may occur
Note howonly
thein Arabic
the collocations �aamiyat-
collocates al-watiis andiisjarraar
al-wat and jayšinjarraar.
(78)
Similarly, the English collocators dial and hazel in (80) are almost
may occur only in the collocations haamiyat- al-watiis and jayš
exclusively restricted to the collocations dial a number and hazel eyes. To
jarraar. Similarly, the English collocators dial and hazel in (80)
explain, the English adjective formidable enjoys a relatively large scope
are almost exclusively restricted to the collocations dial a number
of occurrence by being able to collocate with army, problems, demands,
and hazel eyes. To explain, the English adjective formidable enjoys
a relatively large scope of occurrence by being able to collocate
90
with army, problems, demands, numbers, conditions, etc., whereas
its Arabic correspondent jarraar in (78) may collocate only with
123
jayš. By contrast, the English verb dial may collocate only with
whereas its
number,conditions,
numbers, Arabic
etc., correspondent
whereas yattasilu in jarraar
its Arabic correspondent (81) canin
freely
(78) may collocate withwith
collocate only other
jayš.nouns such as
By contrast, thebayt ʻhomeʼ,
English sadiiq
verb dial may
ʻfriendʼ,only
collocate madrasah ʻschoolʼ,
with number, šarikah
whereas ʻcompanyʼ,
its Arabic etc. Likewise,
correspondent thein
yattasilu
English
(81) adjective
can freely is practically
hazelwith
collocate other nounsrestricted
such as to the'home',
bayt description
sadiiq
of eyes,
'friend', whereas'school',
madrasah its Arabic counterpart
šarikah etc.can
ʻasalii
'company', be freely
Likewise, theused to
English
describehazel
adjective a wide range of objects
is practically restrictedsuch asdescription
to the shoes, shirts, tables,
of eyes, etc,
whereas
itsinArabic
addition to eyes. As
counterpart cancan
‘asalii be observed, the translatorʼs
be freely used to describe asuccessful
wide range
ofintrinsic managing
objects such ofshirts,
as shoes, collocations between
tables, etc, Arabic
in addition and As
to eyes. English
can be
rests solely
observed, on how sophisticated
the translator's and intuitive
successful intrinsic his of
managing collocational
collocations
competence
between Arabicis. and English rests solely on how sophisticated and
intuitive his collocational competence is.
To demonstrate the impact of failing to naturalize English
To demonstrate the impact of failing to naturalize English
collocations in authentic translation practice, let us consider the
collocations in authentic translation practice, let us consider the following
following excerpts taken from the Arabic Newsweek (a translated
excerpts taken from the Arabic Newsweek (a translated version of the
version of the English original), which is published by Dar Al-
English original), which is published by Dar Al-Watan, Kuwait (the
Watan, Kuwait (the italicized collocations are appropriate Arabic
italicized collocations are appropriate Arabic renditions):
renditions):
(82) fa-ra�ma ’aswa’i rukuudin ’iqtisaadiyyin munðu jiilin
so-because worst recession economic since generation
wa ra�ma- al-�ukuumaati- l-saabiqati wa- l-da‘iifati …./

and because the-governments the-previous and the-weak
(November 26, 2002)
/... �� /
(83) bada’t mas’uulatu- l-‘alaaqaati- l-‘aamati liizi gruubman

started coordinator the-public the-relations Leizy Grubman
124
allati ‘amilat ‘alaa siyaanati- d-darari- n-naajimi ‘an
who worked on maintaining the-damage the-resulting from
’ašxaasin yutliquuna- l-‘anaana li-’ahwaa’i-him mi�li ….

persons unleashing the-rein for-desires-their like
(November 5, 2002)
so-because worst recession economic since generation
wa ra�ma- al-�ukuumaati- l-saabiqati wa- l-da‘iifati …./

and because the-governments the-previous and the-weak
(November 26, 2002)
/... �� /
(83) bada’t mas’uulatu- l-‘alaaqaati- l-‘aamati liizi gruubman

started coordinator the-public the-relations Leizy Grubman
allati ‘amilat ‘alaa siyaanati- d-darari- n-naajimi ‘an

who worked on maintaining the-damage the-resulting from
’ašxaasin yutliquuna- l-‘anaana li-’ahwaa’i-him mi�li ….

persons unleashing the-rein for-desires-their like
(November 5, 2002)
�� /
91
/... ��
Due
Due to to the translatorʼs
the translator's deficiency competence,
deficiency in collocational in collocational
as can
becompetence, as bold-faced
noted, the two can be noted, the in
segments two(82)bold-faced segments
and (83) sound odd
in (82)they
because anddo(83) soundnatural
not reflect odd because they do
word company not reflect
in Arabic. Theirnatural
natural
word company
replacements are inmunðu
Arabic.‘uquudin/
Their natural
munðureplacements
zamanin tare munðu
awiilin 'for
ʻuquudin/ amunðu
decades/for zamanin
long time' tawiilin
and ’is ʻforarari
laa�u al-d decades/for
'to repaira the
long timeʼ
damage',
and ʼislaahu
respectively. presence ofʻto
The al-darari repair
such the damageʼ,
unacceptable respectively.
collocations in the TL
text
Theseriously compromises
presence the naturalnesscollocations
of such unacceptable of its discourse. For TL
in the instance,
text
it seriously
is natural for the English preposition
compromises for to choose
the naturalness noun generation
of itsthediscourse. For
asinstance,
a collocate in natural
it is for the for
the collocation a generation
English to denote
preposition for toa choose
long period,
the
but it is generation
noun unacceptableasfor its Arabic in
a collocate counterpart munðu for
the collocation 'since' to select jiil
a generation
'generation'
to denoteasa along
collocate, hence
period, but the
it isoddness of the failed
unacceptable collocation
for its Arabic
munð jiilin in (82). To appreciate the discrepancy between ill-formed
counterpart munðu ʻsinceʼ to select jiil ʻgenerationʼ as a collocate,
collocations and well-formed ones in translation, you can compare the
hence the oddness of the failed collocation munð jiilin in (82). To
anomaly of the bold-faced collocations above with the acceptability and
appreciate the discrepancy between ill-formed collocations and
naturalness of the italicized ones, viz. rukuudin ’iqtisaadiyyin and
well-formed ones in translation, you can compare the anomaly
yutliquuna al-‘anaana in (82) and (83), respectively.
125 restrictions in word company,
In addition to different selectional
the need for collocations between Arabic and English may not coincide,
for what is a familiar collocation in Arabic (or vice versa) may or may not
correspond to a collocation in English (or vice versa). By way of
illustration, witness the following examples:
text seriously compromises the naturalness of its discourse. For instance,
it is natural for the English preposition for to choose the noun generation
as a collocate in the collocation for a generation to denote a long period,
but it is unacceptable for its Arabic counterpart munðu 'since' to select jiil
'generation' as a collocate, hence the oddness of the failed collocation
munð jiilin in (82). To appreciate the discrepancy between ill-formed
of the bold-faced collocations above with the acceptability and
collocations and well-formed ones in translation, you can compare the
naturalness of the italicized ones, viz. rukuudin ʼiqtisaadiyyin and
anomaly of the bold-faced collocations above with the acceptability and
yutliquuna al-ʻanaana in (82) and (83), respectively.
naturalness of the italicized ones, viz. rukuudin ’iqtisaadiyyin and
In addition to different selectional restrictions in word
yutliquuna al-‘anaana in (82) and (83), respectively.
company, the need
In addition for collocations
to different selectionalbetween Arabic
restrictions and company,
in word English
may
the notforcoincide,
need for between
collocations what is aArabic
familiar
andcollocation
English mayinnot
Arabic (or
coincide,
forvice versa)
what may orcollocation
is a familiar may not correspond tovice
in Arabic (or a collocation
versa) mayinorEnglish
may not
(or vice versa).
correspond By way of
to a collocation illustration,
in English witness
(or vice the By
versa). following
way of
examples:witness the following examples:
illustration,
(84) yušakkilu- l-qadaa’u wa- l-qadaru mafhuuman
constitutes the-Fate and the-Destiny concept
muhimman fi- l-’islaami

important in the-Islam
/�� /
(85) a. Fate constitutes an important concept in Islam.

b. Destiny constitutes an 92
important concept in Islam.
c.* Fate and Destiny constitute an important concept in Islam.
(86) šaahadat laylaa ba��an �ayyan wa mubaašran

watched Layla transmission live and direct
li-muqaabalti- l-ra’iisi- t-tilvizyuuniyyati s abaa�an

of-interview the-president the-televised morning
/�� /
(87) a. Layla watched a live transmission of the President's
televised interview this morning.
b.* Layla watched a live and direct transmission of the
President's televised interview this morning.
(88) Each and every one of you

126 must attend the meeting
tomorrow.
(89) a. yajibu ‘alaa kulli waa�idin min-kum ’an ya�dura-
must on every one from-you to attend
l-’ijtima‘a �adan
the-meeting tomorrow
li-muqaabalti- l-ra’iisi- t-tilvizyuuniyyati s abaa�an
of-interview the-president the-televised morning
/�� /
(87) a. Layla watched a live transmission of the President's
televised interview this morning.
b.* Layla watched a live and direct transmission of the
President's televised interview this morning.
(88) Each and every one of you must attend the meeting
tomorrow.
(89) a. yajibu ‘alaa kulli waa�idin min-kum ’an ya�dura-
must on every one from-you to attend
l-’ijtima‘a �adan
the-meeting tomorrow
/�� /

b.* yajibu ‘alaa kulli waa�idin wa fardin min-kum ’an
must on every one and each from-you to
ya�dur- l-’ijtima‘a �adan

attend the-meeting tomorrow
/�� */
(90) The teacher has got sick and tired of the students' complaints
about the exam.
(91) a. sa’ima- l-mu‘allimu šakaawa- t-talabati ‘an-
get tired the-teacher complaints the-students about
il-’imti�aani
the-exam
/�� /
b. malla- l-mu‘allimu šakaawa- t-talabati ‘an
get bored the-teacher complaints the-students about
il-’imti�aani
the-exam 93
/�� /
c.* sa’ima wa malla- l-mu‘allimu šakaawa-

got tired and got bored the-teacher complaints
t-talabati ‘an- il-’imti�aani

the-students about the-exam
127�� */
/��
On the one hand, the examples in (84) and (86) show that the bold-
faced Arabic collocations correspond to individual English lexical items
(85a and b) and (87a and b) rather than collocations; hence the
unacceptability of the starred collocations in (85c) and (87b). On the
il-’imti�aani
the-exam
/�� /
il-’imti�aani
the-exam
/�� /
the-students about the-exam
/�� */
On the one hand,about
the-students the examples
the-examin (84) and (86) show that the
On the one hand, the examples in (84) and (86) show that the bold-
/�� */
bold-faced Arabic collocations correspond to individual English
faced Arabic collocations correspond to individual English lexical items
lexical
On items
the one(85a hand,andtheb)examples
and (87ainand (84)b)and
rather
(85a and b) and (87a and b) rather than collocations; hence the
(86)than
showcollocations;
that the bold-
faced
henceArabic collocations correspond
the unacceptability to individual Englishinlexical items
unacceptability of the starredofcollocations
the starred collocations
in (85c) and (87b). (85c)Onandthe
(85a and
(87b). b)
Onthe and (87a
thebold-faced
other hand, and b) rather
the bold-faced than collocations; hence the
other hand, English collocationsEnglish
in (88) collocations
and (90) do not in
unacceptability
(88) and to (90) ofdothenot starred collocations
correspond in (85c) and (87b). Onand the
correspond Arabic collocations (89atoand
Arabic
b) and collocations
(91a and b);(89a
hence the
other hand,
b) and (91a the bold-faced English collocations
of thein (88) and (90) do not
oddness of theand b); hence
collocations inthe oddness
(89b) and (91c). collocations
Consequently, inwe(89b)
need
correspond
and (91c). toConsequently,
Arabic collocations we need (89aintrinsic
and b) and (91a andinb); hence the
intrinsic managing in such cases because what managing
is a collocationsuch cases
in the SL
oddness
because of the collocations in (89b)theand SL(91c). Consequently, we need
may not bewhat is a collocation
a collocation in the TL,inand vice may
versa.not be a collocation in
intrinsic
the TL, managing
and vice in such cases because what is a collocation in the SL
versa.
Idiomatic expressions, for their part, usually require intrinsic
may not be a collocation in the TL, and vice versa.
managingIdiomatic
in order toexpressions,
naturalize them forin their
translation
part,(for more details
usually requireon
Idiomatic expressions, for their part, usually require intrinsic
strategies
intrinsictomanaging
translate idioms,
in orderseetoNewmark
naturalize 1988 and in
them Baker 1992), as(for
translation can
managing in order to naturalize them in translation (for more details on
bemore
illustrated
details in on
the strategies
following examples:
to translate idioms, see Newmark 1988
strategies to translate idioms, see Newmark 1988 and Baker 1992), as can
and Baker 1992),raining
(92) It started as can be catsillustrated
and dogs in when
the Peter blind
met hisexamples:
following
date
be illustrated in at
thethe park. examples:
following
(93) a. bada’at tumtiru ka-’fwaahi- l-qirabi ‘indamaa qaabala
(92) It started raining cats and dogs when Peter met his blind
started raining like-mouths the-skins when met
date at the park.
(93) a. bada’at tumtiru ka-’fwaahi- l-qirabi ‘indamaa qaabala
biitar fataata-hu-llatii yajhalu huwiyyata-ha fi-
started raining like-mouths the-skins when met
Peter girl-his whom not know identity-her in
biitar fataata-hu-llatii yajhalu huwiyyata-ha fi-
l-mutanazzahi
Peter girl-his whom not know identity-her in
the-park
l-mutanazzahi
the-park
94
128
94
/�� /
b.* bada’at tumtiru qitatan wa kilaaban ‘indamaa qaabala

started raining cats and dogs when met
biitar maw‘ida-hu-l-’a‘maa fi l-mutanazzahi

Peter date-his the-blind in the-park
/�� */
(94) rakiba-l-muwaððafu ra’sa-hu wa daraba bi-tawjiihaati-

rode the-employee head-his and hit with-instructions
l-mudiiri ‘urda al-�aa’iti

the-manager width the-wall
/�� /
(95) a, The employee stuck to his guns and turned a deaf ear to
the manager's instructions.
b.* The employee rode his head and hit the manager's
instructions against the wall.
TheThe intrinsic
intrinsic managing
managing of the
of the two two bold-faced
bold-faced idiomatic
idiomatic expressions
inexpressions in in
(92) succeeds (92) succeeds
offering in offering
a readily a readily Arabic
comprehensible comprehensible
translation
inArabic translation
(93a), viz. the first in
is (93a), viz.into
rendered theafirst is rendered
functional into a (tumt
equivalent functional
iru ka-
equivalent (tumtiru
fwaahi-l-qirab), while theka-fwaahi-l-qirab), while
second is ideationally the By
treated. second is
contrast,
ideationally
failing treated.
to naturalize Byincontrast,
them failingdiscourse
(93b) produces to naturalize
alienthem in (93b)
to Arabic and,
consequently, presents formidable
produces discourse problems
alien to Arabic to the
and, Arab reader. Similarly,
consequently, presents
theformidable
English renditions
problemsof the intrinsically
to the managed
Arab reader. Arabic idioms
Similarly, in (94)
the English
read smoothly
renditions of and naturally in managed
the intrinsically (95a), butArabic
they sound
idiomsodd in (95b),
in (94) read
because of failing to naturalize the Arabic idiomatic segments.
129
To further see how the failure to handle an idiomatic expression
may cripple the TL discourse, we give the following excerpt from the
Arabic Newsweek, along with a successfully naturalized version (my
own):
smoothly and naturally in (95a), but they sound odd in (95b),
because of failing to naturalize the Arabic idiomatic segments.
To further see how the failure to handle an idiomatic

expression may cripple the TL discourse, we give the following
excerpt from the Arabic Newsweek, along with a successfully
naturalized version (my own):
�� (96)
��
.��
(November 5, 2002)
/wa ’iðaa tafaawadat- il-’idaaratu- l-’amriikiyyatu bi-suuratin
and if negotiated the-administration the-American in-picture
�asanah mustaxdimatan maziijan min-l-‘asaa wa al-jazari

good using mixture from the-stick and the-carrots
fa-’inna bi-wis‘i-haa ta�siina ’itifaaqi klintun ’allaðii yu‘aanii

then-that in-ability-its improve agreement Clinton which suffer
min- l-ka�iiri min nuqaati-l-da‘fi wa- l-nuqaati-

from the-lot from points the-weakness and the-points
l-xatiirati bi-suuratin kabiiratin jiddan/

the-dangerous in-picture big very
�� (97)

��
.��
/wa ’iðaa tafaawadat -il-’idaaratu- l-’amriikiyyatu bi-suuratin

130 min siyaasati-l-‘asaa

�asanah mustaxdimatan maziijan
good using mixture from policy the-stick
wa al-jazarah fa-’inna bi-wis‘i-haa ta�siina ’itifaaqi klintun

and the-carrot then-that in-ability-its improve agreement Clinton
’allaðii yu‘aanii min- al-ka�iiri min nuqaati-d-da‘fi

which suffer from the-lot from points the-weakness
�� (97)
��
.��
/wa ’iðaa tafaawadat -il-’idaaratu- l-’amriikiyyatu bi-suuratin

�asanah mustaxdimatan maziijan min siyaasati-l-‘asaa

good using mixture from policy the-stick
wa al-jazarah fa-’inna bi-wis‘i-haa ta�siina ’itifaaqi klintun

and the-carrot then-that in-ability-its improve agreement Clinton
’allaðii yu‘aanii min- al-ka�iiri min nuqaati-d-da‘fi

which suffer from the-lot from points the-weakness
wa- n-nuqaati- l-xatiirah bi-suuratin kabiiratin jiddan/

and the-ponits the-dangerous in-picture big very
As As
is clear, the the
is clear, bold-faced expression
bold-faced al-‘as
expression aa wa al-jazar
al-ʻasaa 'the
wa al-jazar
stick and
ʻthe the and
stick carrots, i.e. the stick
the carrots, andstick
i.e. the the carrot'
and thein carrotʼ
(96) does not sound
in (96) does
natural in Arabic
not sound dueintoArabic
natural problems in problems
due to wording asin well as clarity.
wording as wellThe
as
clarity. The wording problem results from using the plural instead
96
of the singular form in the second conjunct. It should be noted that
idioms are frozen expressions that usually do not accommodate any
wording changes, hence the oddness of the version of the Arabic
idiom in (96) in contrast with the naturalness of the authentic
version in (97). As for the clarity problem, it would result from
the opaqueness of the Arabic idiom (even when the wording
is corrected) because of the absence of a framing noun such as
sisyaasati ʻpolicyʼ or ʼusluubi ʻstyleʼ, which should preface the
idiom to render Arabic discourse natural, as is the case in (97)
above.
To sum up, naturalizing lexical items, collocations and
131
idiomatic expressions via intrinsic managing between Arabic and
English in translation activity is of utmost importance. At the word
level, translators should be sensitive to lexical and/or referential
gaps and should be aware of the various strategies that may
selectively be used to manage them intrinsically, including lexical
and/or cultural approximation, lexical creation, transliteration
plus definition, description, footnoting, etc. At the phraseological
level, translators should know how to handle both collocations and
idiomatic expressions, as failure to do so would adversely affect
the naturalness, as well as the comprehensibility, of discourse in
translation practice.
2.1.3 Pragmatics
Pragmatics is usually defined as language in actual use

where context is a determining factor. It mainly deals with the
various ways and means to encode and decode contextually
based implicit information, including illocutions, conversational
implicature, relational address terms, politeness, etc. (Levinson
1983; Leech 1983; Thomas 1995; Farghal and Shakir 1994;
Farghal 2003). In terms of translation, there are cases where the
translator has to employ intrinsic managing in order to maintain
normal or unmarked pragmatic use in the TL. The translatorʼs
main role is, therefore, to relay the intended meaning while paying
utmost attention to corresponding pragmatic TL norms.
132
normal or unmarked pragmatic use in the TL. The translator's main role
is, therefore, to relay the intended meaning while paying utmost attention
Let us start with speech acts (Austin 1962) which may
to corresponding pragmatic TL norms.
encode illocutions differently between languages. For example,
Let us start with speech acts (Austin 1962) which may encode
Arabic native speakers usually employ the imperative form to
illocutions differently between languages. For example, Arabic native
make offers, whereas English native speakers customarily utilize
speakers usually employ the imperative form to make offers, whereas
a statement form that includes a modal verb (for more details, see
English native speakers customarily utilize a statement form that includes
Farghal and Borini 1996, 1997; Aziz 1999), as can be illustrated
a modal verb (for more details, see Farghal and Borini 1996, 1997; Aziz
below:
1999), as can be illustrated below:
(98) a. ’ibqa ma‘a-naa haaðihi al-laylata yaa ‘aliyyu
stay with-us this the-night oh Ali
/�� /
b. xalliik ma‘-na il-leelih ya ‘ali

stay with-us the-night oh Ali
/�� /
(99) You can stay with us tonight, Ali.
As can be seen, offering in standard Arabic (98a) and colloquial Arabic

As can be seen, offering in standard Arabic (98a) and
(98b) is usually more direct than offering in English where a modal is
colloquial Arabic (98b) is usually more direct than offering
employed (99). The translator between Arabic and English should be
in English where a modal is employed (99). The translator
aware of this pragmatic asymmetry.
between Arabic and English should be aware of this pragmatic
Another related pragmatic mismatch occurs in the speech act of
asymmetry.
thanking following an offer. In Arabic, both a negated and an affirmed
Another
šukran 'thank you'related pragmatic
customarily mean mismatch occurs in
a polite rejection. Bythe speechin
contrast,
act of athanking
English following
negated 'thank you' an offer. aInpolite
indicates Arabic, both awhereas
rejection, negatedan
and anone
affirmed affirmed meansʻthank
šukran
routinely a politeyouʼ customarily
acceptance meanThis
of the offer. a polite
being
therejection. By contrast,
case, a šukran intoEnglish
response a negated
the offer ʻthank youʼ
in (98) indicates indicates
a pending a
polite
polite rejection,
rejection, whereas
because an an affirmed
Arab expects one routinely
the offerer to repeatmeans a polite
the offer many
times with an increasing degree of strength in order for him to accept it.
133
(Note that this expectation often lands new Arab students in the UK and
the USA in undesirable situations because an offer is only made once by
98
acceptance of the offer. This being the case, a šukran response to
the offer in (98) indicates a pending polite rejection, because an
Arab expects the offerer to repeat the offer many times with an
increasing degree of strength in order for him to accept it. (Note
that this expectation often lands new Arab students in the UK
and the USA in undesirable situations because an offer is only
made once by American and English people, so the first rejection
may deprive the Arab offeree of a highly desired something.) By
American
contrast,and English
a thank youpeople, so thetofirst
response therejection
offer in may
(99) deprive
shows athe Arab
polite
offeree of a of
acceptance highly desiredin something.)
the offer English. AsBy contrast,
is clear, thank you
thisa pragmatic
response to therequires
asymmetry offer inthe
(99) shows a polite
translatorʼs utmostacceptance
care. of the offer in
English. As is clear, this pragmatic asymmetry requires the translator's
In some cases, the expression of an illocution in the language
utmost care.
pair may share some structural paradigms and differ in others. For
In some cases, the expression of an illocution in the language pair
example, the illocution of suggesting in English and Arabic can be
may share some structural paradigms and differ in others. For example,
performed using the imperative paradigm as can be seen in (100)
the illocution of suggesting in English and Arabic can be performed using
and (1001):
the imperative paradigm as can be seen in (100) and (1001):
(100) Let’s go shopping tomorrow.
(101) li-naðhab li- i-tasawwuqi �adan
to-go to- the-shopping tomorrow
‘Let’s go shopping.’
However, English also customarily employs the interrogative paradigm to
However, English also customarily employs the
make suggestions, while Arabic does not, as can be illustrated below:
interrogative paradigm to make suggestions, while Arabic does
(102) What about going shopping tomorrow?
not, as can be illustrated below:
(103) maaðaa ‘an- ið-ðahaabi li-t-tasawwuqi �adan?
what from the-going to-the-shopping tomorrow
‘What about the plan to go shopping tomorrow?
134
Whereas (102) functions as a suggestion in English, (103) the illocution
of questioning in Arabic.
Pragmatic mismatches may sometimes call for two levels of
intrinsic managing. By way of illustration, consider the following excerpt
(100) Let’s
the illocution go shopping
of suggesting tomorrow.
in English and Arabic can be performed using
(101) li-naðhab
the imperative paradigmli- as can be seen�adan
i-tasawwuqi in (100) and (1001):
(100)‘Let’s
Let’s go
go shopping
shopping.’tomorrow.
(101)
However, li-naðhab
English alsoli- i-tasawwuqi
customarily �adan the interrogative paradigm to
employs
make suggestions, while
‘Let’s go Arabic does not, as can be illustrated below:
shopping.’
(102)
However, What about
English going shopping
also customarily tomorrow?
employs the interrogative paradigm to
(103) maaðaawhile
make suggestions, ‘an- Arabic
ið-ðahaabi li-t-tasawwuqi
does not, �adan? below:
as can be illustrated
what from the-going to-the-shopping tomorrow
(102) Whatabout
‘What aboutthe
going
planshopping tomorrow?
to go shopping tomorrow?
(103)
Whereas maaðaa
(102) ‘an- as
functions ið-ðahaabi li-t-tasawwuqi
a suggestion in English, �adan?
(103) the illocution
Whereas
what (102) functions as
from the-going a suggestiontomorrow
to-the-shopping in English, (103)
of questioning in about
Arabic.
performs‘What the plan
the illocution to go shopping
of questioning tomorrow?
in Arabic.
Pragmatic
Whereas mismatches
(102) functions may sometimes
as a suggestion call (103)
in English, for two levels of
the illocution
Pragmatic mismatches may sometimes call for two levels of
intrinsic managing.
of questioning By way of illustration, consider the following excerpt
in Arabic.
intrinsic managing. By way of illustration, consider the following
from Najeeb Mahfouz's
Pragmatic mismatches Awald
novelmay Haritna call
sometimes (1959),
for along with its
two levels of
excerpt from Najeeb Mahfouzʼs novel Awald Haritna (1959),
English translation Children of Gebelawi,
intrinsic managing. (Philip
By wayStewart's
of illustration, consider 1981): excerpt
the following
along withqaala
(104) its ’adham
Englishmasaa’u
translation (Philip
al-xayri Stewartʼs
yaa ‘am Children of
kariim.
from Najeeb Mahfouz's novel Awald Haritna (1959), along with its
Gebelawi,said Adham evening the-good o uncle Kareem
1981):
English translation (Philip Stewart's Children of Gebelawi, 1981):
(104)fa-qaala al-rajulu
qaala ’adham bi-ta’a��urin
masaa’u al-xayri la‘alla-ka ’anta wa
yaa ‘am kariim.
and-said the-man with-emotion perhaps-you
said Adham evening the-good o uncle Kareem you and
fa-qaala al-rajulu bi-ta’a��urin la‘alla-ka ’anta wa

and-said the-man with-emotion perhaps-you you and
’ahlu-ka bi-xayr? 99
family-your with-good
- al-�amdu li-laah yaa 99

‘am kariim
the-thanking to-God o uncle Karim
.�� :�� /

�� :��
/.�� -
(105) Adham: 'Good evening Mr Karim.'
The man said with undisguised emotion:
'How is your family? I hope they are well.'
Adham: 'Quite well, thank God.'
Stewart, being a professional

135translator, was well aware of the
pragmatic function of the bold-faced Arabic formula as a routine response
to inquiries about health, family, conditions, etc. in Arabic, and this is
clearly reflected in his translation of it in (105). This pragmatic function,
however, may not be accessible to some student translators (who are
Stewart, being a professional translator, was well aware of
the pragmatic function of the bold-faced Arabic formula as a
routine response to inquiries about health, family, conditions, etc.
in Arabic, and this is clearly reflected in his translation of it in
(105). This pragmatic function, however, may not be accessible
to some student translators (who are stuck with locutionary rather
than illocutionary force), viz. 8 out of 20 Yarmouk University
translation MA students rendered the said expression as Thank
God in the above excerpt (for more details, see Farghal and Borini
1996, 1997). Consequently, student translators should be alerted to
frequently occurring divergences between the literal/locutionary
meaning and the pragmatic/illocutionary meaning, which seriously
need intrinsic managing between Arabic and English.
A closer examination of Stewartʼs rendition of that

expression also shows that he performed intrinsic managing only
in part by combining SL and TL pragmatic norms. To explain, the
first part of his rendition Quite well reflects TL pragmatic norms,
whereas the second part maintains SL pragmatic norms, i.e.
routinely thanking God in response to inquiries like that, which
is, though comprehensible in this context, falls short of TL norms.
That is, in similar situations, English native speakers routinely
thank the inquirer rather than God. Stewart must have been aware
of this pragmatic asymmetry, but, probably, he wanted to hit two
136
birds with one stone by bringing out the intended meaning and
preserving a tinge of the SL norms simultaneously.
Another interesting instance of intrinsic managing in

Stewartʼs translation is his rendition of the solidarity-oriented
Arabic address term ʻam in (104) as English Mr, which is,
unfortunately, distance- rather than solidarity-oriented. It should
be noted that ʻam, in addition to its use as an absolute kinship term,
is widely used as a relational address term in Arabic. The English
kinship term uncle, however, can only be used relationally (i.e. to
show solidarity) on a small scale in child/youth–adult interaction
(e.g. an old man addressing a child/youth or vice versa), which
does not apply to the context in (104), as we have two adults
communicating with each other. Therefore, Stewart rightly opted
out of using the formally corresponding English address term
uncle. His option for Mr, however, marks the relationship between
Adham and Karim as formal rather than intimate and, consequently,
distorts the pragmatic function of the Arabic relational address
term ʻam. To manage this pragmatic asymmetry properly, Stewart
could have employed an English solidarity address term such as
my friend, my dear friend, my dear, etc.
In terms of implicit pragmatic information, languages may

observe or flout different maxims of conversation in order to give
rise to various implicatures (for a discussion of implicature theory,
137
formal rather than intimate and, consequently, distorts the pragmatic
function of the Arabic relational address term ‘am. To manage this
pragmatic asymmetry properly, Stewart could have employed an English
solidarity address term such as my friend, my dear friend, my dear, etc.
In terms of implicit pragmatic information, languages may observe
or flout different maxims of conversation in order to give rise to various
see Grice 1975 and Levinson 1983). The following examples
implicatures (for a discussion of implicature theory, see Grice 1975 and
illustrate this:
Levinson 1983). The following examples illustrate this:
(106) I am not going to give you any more money. Enough is
enough!
(107) lan ’u‘�iya-ka ’ayyata nuquudin ’uxraa laqad
will not give-you any money other indeed
tafa�a- l-kaylu
overflowed the-measurement
/!�� .�� /

101
(108) (Employee addressing his manager)
’unaašidu-kum ’an ta’xuð-uu mataaliba-naa bi-‘ayni-
call on-you(pl) to take-you(pl) demands-our in-eye
l-’i‘tibaar
the-consideration
/�� /
(109) I call upon you sir to take our demands into consideration.
In (106), the speaker flouts the maxim of Quantity (Use the right
In (106), the speaker flouts the maxim of Quantity (Use
amount of language, no more no less) by employing the tautological
the right amount of language, no more no less) by employing
expression Enough is enough, in order to conversationally implicate that
the tautological expression Enough is enough, in order to
he cannot take the state of affairs in question any more. The
conversationally implicate that he cannot take the state of affairs
corresponding Arabic rendition in (107), by contrast, flouts the maxim of
in question any more. The corresponding Arabic rendition in
Quality (Speak the truth) by opting for the metaphorical expression
(107), by contrast, flouts the maxim of Quality (Speak the truth)
tafa�a al-kaylu, in order to communicate the same message implicitly. In
by opting for the metaphorical expression tafaha al-kaylu, in
both cases, the two languages exploit a conversational maxim for the
order to communicate the same message implicitly. In both cases,
same communicative purpose, thus managing interlingual pragmatics
the two languages exploit a conversational maxim for the same
properly. Similarly, the English translation in (109) succeeds in bridging
138 ad English. The Arabic ka-kum
the pragmatic asymmetry between Arabic
distinction marks the tenor between speaker and addressee just like the
tu-vous distinction in French. English (in which such a distinction is not
available) invokes the familiar address term sir, which effectively
indicates that the addressee enjoys a higher social status or has more
communicative purpose, thus managing interlingual pragmatics
properly. Similarly, the English translation in (109) succeeds in
bridging the pragmatic asymmetry between Arabic ad English.
The Arabic ka-kum distinction marks the tenor between speaker
and addressee just like the tu-vous distinction in French. English
(in which such a distinction is not available) invokes the familiar
address term sir, which effectively indicates that the addressee
enjoys a higher social status or has more authority than the
speaker does. Thus, the conventional implicature communicated
by addressing one person using the plural rather than the singular
form in Arabic is successfully relayed by utilizing an English
address form that carries the same pragmatic function.
Finally, norms of politeness may differ from one language

to another (for more details, see Chapter 5). The translator of
modern English fiction into Arabic, for example, may find himself
obliged to replace some obscene words (four-letter words in
particular) with euphemistic ones, in order to comply with the
norms of politeness in the Arab culture, which is much more
conservative than the American and English cultures. Apart from
obscenities (which we shall not illustrate here out of decency), the
translator may deem a concrete euphemism incongruent with the
norms of politeness in the TL and, consequently, replaces it with
an abstract one. By way of illustration, following is an example
from Shakespeare along with its Arabic rendition (which are both
139
English cultures. Apart from obscenities (which we shall not illustrate
here out of decency), the translator may deem a concrete euphemism
incongruent with the norms of politeness in the TL and, consequently,
replaces it with an abstract one. By way of illustration, following is an
example from Shakespeare along with its Arabic rendition (which are
cited
both in Aziz
cited 1999:
in Aziz 1999:72):
72):
(110) Petruchio: Come Kate, we'll to bed. (The Taming of the
Shrew, 1953:184).
(111) batruušyuu: halumma yaa keet nabda’ �ayaata-na-
Petruchio come oh Kate start life-our
z-zawjiyyata
the-marital (Qalamawi, 1960)
/�� :��/
As can be Asseen,
can the
be reference
seen, thetoreference
husband-wife sexual activitysexual
to husband-wife by the
concrete
activityeuphemism we'll toeuphemism
by the concrete bed is replaced with
weʼll to the
bedabstract euphemism
is replaced with
nabda’ �ayaatana-z-zawjiyyata
the abstract euphemism nabdaʼ'start ħayaatana-z-zawjiyyata
our marital life'. The Arabic
ʻstart
euphemism only
our marital remotely
lifeʼ. refers euphemism
The Arabic to sexual activity, among many
only remotely refersother
to
things, whereas the English one practically narrows reference down to
sexual activity, among many other things, whereas the English
such activity.
one practically narrows reference down to such activity.
2.1.4 Textuality
2.1.4 Textuality
Texuality represents the essential features that qualify a stretch of
language Texuality represents
to be called a text. the essential features
Beaugrande de and that qualify
Dressler a stretch
(1981) talk
of language
about to be called
seven standards a text. Beaugrande
of textuality: de and Dressler
cohesion, coherence, (1981)
informativity,
talk about intentionality,
situationality, seven standards of textuality:
acceptability cohesion, coherence,
and intertextuality. The first
informativity, situationality, intentionality, acceptability and
intertextuality. The first two standards, i.e. cohesion and coherence,
103
stand out as encompassing attributes of texts and may be argued to
include the other textuality features. To start with cohesion, Arabic
and English discourse exhibit noticeably different behavior when
140
it comes to conjunctions, which are an important cohesion type in
two standards, i.e. cohesion and coherence, stand out as encompassing
language. Arabic discourse is well known for its explicit paratactic
attributes of texts and may be argued to include the other textuality
nature, with a heavy use of conjunctions (Kaplan 1966; Johnstone
features. To start with cohesion, Arabic and English discourse exhibit
1991; Hatim 1997). One of the familiar functions of wa ʻandʼ and
noticeably different behavior when it comes to conjunctions, which are an
fa ʻsoʼ (among others, of course), is to make the text hang together
important cohesion type in language. Arabic discourse is well known for
and provide it with naturalness. By contrast, English discourse is
its explicit paratactic nature, with a heavy use of conjunctions (Kaplan
considerably asyndetic and hypotactic, a fact which creates ample
1966; Johnstone 1991; Hatim 1997). One of the familiar functions of wa
room for textual intrinsic managing. Consequently, the translator
'and' and fa 'so' (among others, of course), is to make the text hang
from English into Arabic should take utmost care to cater for this
together and provide it with naturalness. By contrast, English discourse is
textual asymmetry.
considerably asyndeticTextually, this means
and hypotactic, a factthat an Arabic
which creates translation
ample room
forshould
textualcontain
intrinsicmore conjunctions
managing. than the
Consequently, the English
translatororiginal and,
from English
inversely,
into an English
Arabic should take translation
utmost careshould
to caterfeature fewer
for this conjunctions
textual asymmetry.
than the this
Textually, Arabic original.
means that anFollowing are two should
Arabic translation excerpts from more
contain the
than theto English
Arabic Newsweek
conjunctions illustrateoriginal
the translatorʼs inabilityan toEnglish
and, inversely, cope
translation
with this should
textual feature
mismatchfewer conjunctions
(The than the Arabic
missing conjunctions original.
are given in
Following are and
parentheses excerpts from the Arabic Newsweek to illustrate the
two bold-faced):
translator's inability to cope with this textual mismatch (The missing
Â«b t� ÂuI� dO�� w�U�—≈ Âu�� ÀU��« v�≈ »d(« ÍœR� Ê√ sJ1 ©112®
conjunctions are given in parentheses and bold-faced):
«–≈ ©·® ÆVN�K� Ê√ ÊUJ� q� w� 5LK�*« d�UA* sJ1 ©Ë® ÆÊËd�¬ Ë√
�� (112)
�� (�) .��
Æ—«dI��ô« Â«bF�«��w�UF��
��
U�d�Q� WIDM*« �ÊS�
��q�«b�« (�)‚«dF�«
�� s� .��
d�H�
.��
(January
(January 21, 2003)
21, 2003)
/yumkinu ’an tu’addiya-l-�arbu ’ila-sti��aa�i hujuumin

possible to lead the-war to urging attack
’irhaabiyyin kabiirin yaquumu bihi saddamu ’aw ’aaxaruun.

terrorist big done 141by Saddam or others
(wa) yumkinu li-mašaa‘iri-l-muslimiina fii kulli makaanin

(and) possible for-feelings the-Muslims in every place
’an taltahib. (fa) ’iðaa tafajjara-l-‘iraaqu min al-daaxili

to inflame (so) if explode the-Iraq from the-inside
�� (112)
�� (�) .�� (�) .��
.��
(January 21, 2003)
/yumkinu ’an tu’addiya-l-�arbu ’ila-sti��aa�i hujuumin

possible to lead the-war to urging attack
’irhaabiyyin kabiirin yaquumu bihi saddamu ’aw ’aaxaruun.

terrorist big done by Saddam or others
(wa) yumkinu li-mašaa‘iri-l-muslimiina fii kulli makaanin

(and) possible for-feelings the-Muslims in every place
’an taltahib. (fa) ’iðaa tafajjara-l-‘iraaqu min al-daaxili

to inflame (so) if explode the-Iraq from the-inside
fa-’inna-l-man�iqata bi-’asri-haa sa-tu‘aanii ’in‘idaama-

so-that the-area in-all-it 104 will-suffer absence
l-’istiqraar/
the-stability.
�� (113)
�� .��
�� (�) .�� .��
�� (�) .��
(January 21, 2003) .��
/’inna- l-�alla qasiira- l-’amadi- l-wa�iida huwa-

verily the-solution short the-run the-only it
l-bid’u fi -l-ta�addu�i ’ilaa kuurya- -šamaaliyyati

the-beginning in the-talking to Korea the-North
‘an manaafi‘i taxfiidi- l-tawatturi wa bid’i ‘alaaqatin

about benefits reducing the-tension and starting relation
jadiidatin ma‘a-haa. ’inna-naa nuriidu haaða-l-nið aama ’an yaf‘ala

new with-it verily-we want this the-regime to do
šay’an. ’aw bil’a�raa ’an yatawaqqafa ‘an fi‘li šay’in.

something or rather to stop from doing something
(fa)- d-da�tu qad yanja�u142

wa kaðaalika yumkkinu
(so)-the-pressure may succeed and so possible
li- l-�awaafizi. (wa) laysa ’amaama-naa min xayaarin siwaa

for-the-incentives (and) not before-us from choice except
’an nujarriba-l-nahjayn/
to try thetwo methods
jadiidatin ma‘a-haa. ’inna-naa nuriidu haaða-l-nið aama ’an yaf‘ala
new with-it verily-we want this the-regime to do
šay’an. ’aw bil’a�raa ’an yatawaqqafa ‘an fi‘li šay’in.

something or rather to stop from doing something
(fa)- d-da�tu qad yanja�u wa kaðaalika yumkkinu

(so)-the-pressure may succeed and so possible
li- l-�awaafizi. (wa) laysa ’amaama-naa min xayaarin siwaa

for-the-incentives (and) not before-us from choice except
’an nujarriba-l-nahjayn/
to try thetwo methods
AsAs
cancan
be benoted,
noted,
thethe Arabreader
Arab reader
willwill outright
outright observe
observe the
the restrained
restrained flow offlow of thein texts
the texts (112)inand
(112) andwhich
(113), (113),
is which is an
an immediate
immediate ofconsequence
consequence the translator'soffailure
the translatorʼs failure to the
to manage intrinsically manage
use of
intrinsicallybetween
conjunctions the use English
of conjunctions between
and Arabic. English
Moreover, theand Arabic.
lack of an
Moreover, the lack of an adequate number of conjunctions in the
Arabic translations above constrains
105 the impetus of the evaluative
adequate number of conjunctions in the Arabic translations above
tone and, as a result, weakens the impact of the argument. To cast
constrains the impetus of the evaluative tone and, as a result, weakens the
more light on the importance of this textual asymmetry, let us
impact of the argument. To cast more light on the importance of this
examine the English paragraph corresponding to (113) above (The
textual asymmetry, let us examine the English paragraph corresponding
tonull
(113)sign Ø indicates
above the place
(The null sign wherethea place
Ø indicates conjunction
where a is needed inis
conjunction
Arabic):
needed in Arabic):
(114) The only short-term solution is to start talking to North
Korea about the benefits of de-escalating and starting a new
relationship. Ø We want the regime to do something – or
rather to stop doing something. Ø Pressure might work, so
might incentives. Ø We have no option but to try both.
It isItclear
is clear thatasyndetic
that the the asyndetic
orderingordering of the sentences
of the sentences in
in the English
the English
paragraph paragraphand
is appropriate is appropriate and natural;
natural; it conforms to the it conforms
textual normstoin
the textual
English, norms
in which it isinpossible
English,toinsuppress
which intersentential
it is possible to suppress
relations (for
more details, see Hatim 2001). In Arabic, on the other hand, these
143
implicit conjunctions are needed in order to naturalize the discourse. Note
how the translator managed to fill the first conjunction gap in (113) with
the emphatic marker ’inna 'verily', which compensates for the lack of a
conjunction (e.g. � 'fa' cliticized to the pronoun na�nu 'we' to give fa-
na�nu 'so we' instead of the combination of the emphatic marker and the
intersentential relations (for more details, see Hatim 2001). In
Arabic, on the other hand, these implicit conjunctions are needed in
order to naturalize the discourse. Note how the translator managed
to fill the first conjunction gap in (113) with the emphatic marker
ʼinna ʻverilyʼ, which compensates for the lack of a conjunction
(e.g. · ʻfaʼ cliticized to the pronoun naħnu ʻweʼ to give fa-naħnu
ʻso weʼ instead of the combination of the emphatic marker and
the clitic ʼinna-naa ʻverily weʼ). However, he failed to fill in the
other two gaps and, in effect, produced an asyndetic text which is
incongruent with natural Arabic discourse.
Norms of repetition as a manifestation of lexical cohesion

may be asymmetrical between Arabic and English. While Arabic
can tolerate a high degree of formal and synonymous repetition,
English usually keeps this to a minimum. Following is an Arabic
text (taken from Farghal and Shunnaq 1999:134), along with two
English translations - the first renders the Arabic textualization
unmanaged, while the second naturalizes it:
�� (115)

.��
/’inna salafa wa �atrasata- l-kiyaani- l-‘unsuriyyi
verily arrogance and haughtiness the-entity the-racist
fii briitooryaa tuðakkiraani-naa bi-salafi wa ‘anjahiyyati-

in Pretoria remind-us with-arrogance and haughtiness
l-kiyaani- s-sahyuuniyyi fii falastiina-l-mu�tallah/

the-entity the-Zionist in Palestine the-occupied
144
(116) The arrogance and haughtiness of the racist entity in Pretoria

remind us of the arrogance and haughtiness of the Zionist
entity in occupied Palestine.
(117) The extreme arrogance of the racist regime in Pretoria does
remind us of that of Israel in occupied Palestine.
�� (115)
.��
/’inna salafa wa �atrasata- l-kiyaani- l-‘unsuriyyi
verily arrogance and haughtiness the-entity the-racist
fii briitooryaa tuðakkiraani-naa bi-salafi wa ‘anjahiyyati-

in Pretoria remind-us with-arrogance and haughtiness
l-kiyaani- s-sahyuuniyyi fii falastiina-l-mu�tallah/

the-entity the-Zionist in Palestine the-occupied
(116) The arrogance and haughtiness of the racist entity in Pretoria

remind us of the arrogance and haughtiness of the Zionist
entity in occupied Palestine.
(117) The extreme arrogance of the racist regime in Pretoria does
remind us of that of Israel in occupied Palestine.
As can beAsseen,
can be
theseen,
textthe
in text in (115)
(115) showsshows
a higha high degree
degree of formal
of formal and
synonymous repetition
and synonymous (which sounds
repetition (whichnatural
soundsin Arabic). By Arabic).
natural in contrast, By
this
repetition
contrast,sounds awkward
this repetition and awkward
sounds unacceptable in (116), hence
and unacceptable the
in (116),
necessary replacement
hence the necessaryofreplacement
(116) with (117) in English
of (116) translation,
with (117) where
in English
repetition is kept to a minimum.
translation, where repetition is kept to a minimum.
For its part, coherence, which is brought to the text by the reader,
For its part, coherence, which is brought to the text by the
affects the global comprehensibility of the translation. Bell (1991:165)
reader,
views affectsasthe
coherence global comprehensibility
consisting of and
of "the configuration the translation.
sequencing ofBell
the
(1991:165)and
CONCEPTS views coherence asofconsisting
REALATIONS of “theWORLD
the TEXTUAL configuration
which
and sequencing
underline of the by
and are realized CONCEPTS and REALATIONS
the surface text'. Consequently, if of
the the
TL
TEXTUAL
text WORLD
does not make which underline
sense, regardless and areit realized
of how cohesive by the
is, it is judged as
incoherent and Consequently,
surface textʼʼ. is doomed in translation,
if the because
TL text does interlingual
not make sense,
communication, just cohesive
regardless of how like intralingual communication,
it is, it is judged aims and
as incoherent at
communicating
is doomed inmeaningful messages.
translation, becauseTherefore, in addition
interlingual to reading
communication,
smoothly, a translation should make sense to the reader. To see how
just like intralingual communication, aims at communicating
serious problems of coherence can affect translation, let us consider the
meaningful messages. Therefore, in addition to reading smoothly,
a translation should make sense to the reader. To see how serious
107
145
problems of coherence can affect translation, let us consider the
following two excerpts from the Arabic Newsweek, along with
following two excerpts from the Arabic Newsweek, along with their
their coherent rewrites:
coherent rewrites:
�� .�� (118a)
��
(November 12, 2002) .��
/�amdan li-l-iaahi ‘alaa al-wuduu�i-l-’axlaaqii. fa-�uuratu-
thanks to-the-God on the-clarity the-moral so-picture
l-ra’iisi booš bi-l-lawnayni- l-’abyad i wa- l-’aswadi

the-president Bush in-the-two-colors the-white and the-black
faqat li- l-�arbi ‘ala-l-’irhaabi tafahhamat ‘alaa maa yabduu

only for-the-war on the-terrorism understood on what seem
kifaa�a ruusya-l-mu‘aqqada ma‘a-l-šiišaan/

struggle Russia the-complicated with the-Chechens
�� .�� (118b)

��
.��
/�amdan li-laahi ‘ala-l-wuduu�i-l-’axlaaqii. fa-r-ra’iisi
thanks to-God on the-clarity the-moral so-the-president
booš bi-mawqifi-hi- l-waadi�i tijaaha- l-�arbi ‘ala-l-’irhaabi

Bush in-position-his the-clear towards the-war on the-terrorism
tafahama ‘alaa maa yabduu siraa‘a ruusya-l-mu‘aqqada

understood on what seem struggle Russia the-complicated
ma‘a-š-šiišaan/
with the-Chechens
�� (119a)
146
(January 28, 2003) .��
/laqad fa‘alat ’idaaratu booš al-ka�iira li-tanfiiri-
surely did administration Bush the-lot to-drive away
l-‘aalami bi-’af‘aali-haa wa laakin ’aydan bi-’usluubi-haa

the-world with-deeds-its and not also with style-its
Bush in-position-his the-clear towards the-war on the-terrorism
tafahama ‘alaa maa yabduu siraa‘a ruusya-l-mu‘aqqada

understood on what seem struggle Russia the-complicated
ma‘a-š-šiišaan/
with the-Chechens
�� (119a)
(January 28, 2003) .��
/laqad fa‘alat ’idaaratu booš al-ka�iira li-tanfiiri-
surely did administration Bush the-lot to-drive away
l-‘aalami bi-’af‘aali-haa wa laakin ’aydan bi-’usluubi-haa

the-world with-deeds-its and not also with style-its
wa nabrati-haa/
and tone-its
wa nabrati-haa/
and tone-its 108
�� (119b)
.��
��
/laqd ��’idaaratu
fa‘alat � �� booš
��
al-ka�iira �� (119b)
li-tanfiiri
surely did administration Bush the-lot .��to-drive
��
away
/laqd fa‘alat ’idaaratu booš al-ka�iira li-tanfiiri
surely did min-haa
al-‘aalami administration
laysa faqat Bush the-lot to-drive
bi-’af‘aali-haa away
wa laakin
the-world from-it not only with-deeds-its and but
al-‘aalami min-haa laysa faqat bi-’af‘aali-haa wa laakin
the-world from-it not wa
’aydan bi-’usluubi-haa only with-deeds-its and but
nabrati-haa/
also with style-its and tone-its
’aydan bi-’usluubi-haa wa nabrati-haa/
also
As As iswith
is clear style-its
clear
by and (118a)
comparing tone-its
by comparing (118a) with (118b),
with (118b), the former
the former suffers
suffers
from from
serious
As is serious
coherence
clear coherence
by comparing problems.
problems. Thewith
(118a) Themay
reader reader
(118b), may wonder
thewonder
former how to
suffers
howserious
from toorinterpret
interpret make or make
sense
coherence it sense
of problems.of the
because itThe
because
readerthehas
translator translator
may failed tohas
wonder failed
textualize
how to
to intended
the textualize
interpret or makethe intended
message
sense message
ofcoherently
it because coherently
in translator
the his hasin
translation his translation
(118a),
failed to which
textualize
(118a),
corresponds
the which
to the
intended corresponds to text
originalcoherently
message English the original
inin (120)
his English (118a),
below:
translation text in (120)
which
(120) Thank
below:
corresponds goodness
to the original for moral
English textclarity.
in (120)President
below: Bush's black-
and-white picture of the war on terror has apparently made
(120)sense
Thankofgoodness for moral clarity.
Russia's complicated President
struggle Bush's
with the black-
Chechens.
and-white picture of the war on terror has apparently made
sense
Similarly, the textofinRussia's complicated
(119a) is awkward andstruggle
hard with the Chechens.
to process by the Arab
reader. This
Similarly, thecoherence problem
text in (119a) can be and
is awkward readily
hardobserved bybycomparing
to process the Arab
147
(119a)
reader. with
Thisitscoherence
coherent rewrite
problemincan
(119b) above. observed by comparing
be readily
(119a)Coherence problems
with its coherent can in
rewrite be(119b)
more subtle
above.in translation. Whereas it
is easyCoherence
to recognize cases where
problems can bethemore
TL text clearly
subtle does not make
in translation. much
Whereas it
sense
is easysuch as (118a)cases
to recognize and (119a) above,
where the thereclearly
TL text are instances
does notinmake
which the
much
TL text
sense suchmay superficially
as (118a) makeabove,
and (119a) sensethere
but are
genuinely failin to
instances do the
which so,
Similarly, the text in (119a) is awkward and hard to process
by the Arab reader. This coherence problem can be readily observed
by comparing (119a) with its coherent rewrite in (119b) above.
Coherence problems can be more subtle in translation.

Whereas it is easy to recognize cases where the TL text clearly
does not make much sense such as (118a) and (119a) above, there
are instances in which the TL text may superficially make sense
but genuinely fail to do so, especially when the global meaning of
the discourse is taken into consideration. Following is an excerpt
from a poem titled ÊU�� l� ‘UIM�« W9U� ʻEnd of a Discussion with
a Jailerʼ by the Palestinian poet Sameeh Al-Qasim, along with its
English translation (Al-Udhari 1984):
�� (121)

��
��
��
��
��
��
/min kuwwati zinzaanati-s-su�raa
from window cell-my the-micro
’ubsiru ’ašjaaran tabsimu lii

see (I) trees smiling to-me
wa sutuu�an yamla’u-haa ’ahlii

and roofs filled-them folks-my
wa nawaafiða tabkii wa tusallii

and windows crying and praying
148
min ’ajlii
for me
min kuwwati zinzaanati-s-su�raa

’ubsiru ’ašjaaran tabsimu lii

see (I) trees smiling to-me
wa sutuu�an yamla’u-haa ’ahlii

and roofs filled-them folks-my
wa nawaafiða tabkii wa tusallii

and windows crying and praying
min ’ajlii
for me
min kuwwati zinzaanati-s-su�raa

’ubsiru zinzaanata-ka-l-kubraa
see (I) cell-your the-macro/
(122) From the window of my small cell

I can see trees smiling at me,
Roofs filled with my people,
Windows weeping and praying for me.
From the window of my small cell
I can see your large cell.
Notably,
Notably, the the poetʼs
poet's use use
of of
thethe superlative
superlative forms
forms as-sas-suyraa
u�raa 'the
ʻthe smallestʼ
smallest' and al-kubraa
and al-kubraa 'the largest'ʻthe
is tolargestʼ is to be
be construed construed
in an absolute in an
sense
absolute
rather than sense
relativerather
sensethan
if itrelative
were tosense
cohereif with
it were
the topoet's
cohere with
thought-
world. To explain,
the poetʼs the two superlative
thought-world. formsthe
To explain, represent adverse situations:
two superlative forms
therepresent
micro-celladverse
where situations:
the Palestinian
the prisoner is held
micro-cell whereandthe
thePalestinian
macro-cell
prisoner is held and the macro-cell where all Palestinians are held
under occupation. The translator
110 Abdullah Al-Udhari, however,
inadvertently translated the two forms into gradable adjectives,
viz. small and large, respectively. Consequently, the translatorʼs
option distorts the poetic image by moving from ungradabilty,
i.e. micro-cell and macro-cell to gradability, i.e. small cell
149
and large cell. In this way, the poetic thought-world initiates a
concrete entity (the macro-cell) as a point of departure to establish
a symbolic entity (occupied Palestine). Although this area of
cognitive correspondence between the two entities is largely lost,
the translation above, independently of the original, may prove
coherent in a less symbolic way. Thus, this subtle coherence
asymmetry becomes clear only when the SL and TL texts are
juxtaposed. Actually, one may come across scores of translation
examples that sound reasonably coherent despite the fact that they
sail away in various ways and at varying degrees from the meaning
intended by SL text.
Finally, coherence may have to do with norms of genre

acceptability (Swales, 1990). Faced with a genre asymmetry,
the translator should intrinsically manage the SL text in order to
improvise genre acceptability in the TL. Shakir and Farghal (1994)
discuss the translatability into English of an authentic Arabic
recommendation letter (not meant to be taken as the norm in
Arabic) that deviates from English genre norms in terms of degree
of intimacy and organization. They conclude that naturalization of
a deviating genre into the TL is an inevitable act if acceptability
is to be secured. For instance, it is unacceptable in English to
transgress the formality of a recommendation letter by inducing
it with an inappropriate degree of personalization and intimacy.
This can be seen in the literal translation in (123) of the opening
150
sentence in the Arabic version (which is a little adapted in terms of
presentation
presentation butbut
is isintact
intactasas to
to content),
content), along
along with
with its
itsintrinsically
intrinsically
managed
managed version
version (124):
(124):
(123) I would like to highly recommend the efforts of my student
and son X Y. I was honored to supervise his MA thesis
in theater.
(124) I am writing this letter of recommendation on behalf of my

student X Y. I was the supervisor of his MA thesis in theater.
As can be readily noted, the literal translation in (123) fails to conform to

the normsAs can be readily
of texualizing noted,
letters the literal translation
of recommendation in (123)
in English and it fails
is, as
a to conform
result, to the norms
unacceptable of texualizing
to the TL reader. letters
Faced of recommendation
with such an alien
in English and
texualization, the ittranslator
is, as a result,
shouldunacceptable
naturalize thetotext
the TL reader.ofFaced
in terms genre
withinto
norms such an alienlike
something texualization,
(124). the translator should naturalize
the text in terms of genre norms into something like (124).
2.1.5 Culture
2.1.5 Culture
Culture consists in a complex whole which includes all walks of life such
as beliefs,Culture
customs, politics,
consists in aart,complex
morals, whole
law, ecology, habits, etc.
which includes all
Language,
walks ofwhich is theas
life such main vehicle
beliefs, to express
customs, culture,art,
politics, is the foundation
morals, law,
stone upon habits,
ecology, which etc.
culture rests. Itwhich
Language, is notisenough
the mainforvehicle
translators to be
to express
bilingual; they should also be bi-cultural. Nida and Reyburn (1981:2)
culture, is the foundation stone upon which culture rests. It is not
argue, “Difficulties arising out of differences in culture constitute the
enough for translators to be bilingual; they should also be bi-
most serious problem for translators and have produced the most far-
cultural. Nida and Reyburn (1981:2) argue, “Difficulties arising out
reaching misunderstandings among readers”. When the co-pilot of
of differences in culture constitute the most serious problem for
Egypt Air fatal crash of flight No. 990 (1999) uttered the Arabic
translators and have produced the most far-reaching
theocentric expression tawakkaltu ‘alaa ’allaah (I put trust in God), was
151 a problem or was he crashing the
he calling upon God to help him solve
plane on purpose? The American investigators claimed that he was intent
on crashing the plane, they not being aware that the said expression
cannot preface such a presumed evil act.
misunderstandings among readers”. When the co-pilot of Egypt
Air fatal crash of flight No. 990 (1999) uttered the Arabic theocentric
expression tawakkaltu ʻalaa ʼallaah (I put trust in God), was he
calling upon God to help him solve a problem or was he crashing
the plane on purpose? The American investigators claimed that he
was intent on crashing the plane, they not being aware that the said
expression cannot preface such a presumed evil act.
Cultural asymmetries which seriously call for intrinsic

managing abound between English and Arabic. When Shakespeare
Cultural asymmetries which seriously call for intrinsic managing
compared his beloved to ʻa summerʼs dayʼ in ʻShall I compare thee
abound between English and Arabic. When Shakespeare compared his
to a summerʼs dayʼ, he was basing his comparison on the good
beloved to 'a summer's day' in 'Shall I compare thee to a summer's day',
attributes of summer weather and ecology in England rather than
he was basing his comparison on the good attributes of summer weather
anywhere else in the world. To transfer a comparable atmosphere
and ecology in England rather than anywhere else in the world. To
to an Arab audience may entail a shift from ʻsummerʼ, which is
transfer a comparable atmosphere to an Arab audience may entail a shift
characterized by sweltering heat in the Arab culture, to ʻspringʼ,
from 'summer', which is characterized by sweltering heat in the Arab
which is the season of vegetation, flowering, and temperate weather
culture, to 'spring', which is the season of vegetation, flowering, and
conditions. So, the ʻsummerʼs dayʼ in the English sonnet may
temperate weather conditions. So, the 'summer's day' in the English
well be rendered as wFO�— Âu� ʻa springʼs dayʼ in Arabic translation.
sonnet may well be rendered as �� 'a spring's day' in Arabic
Following is another example from Shakespeareʼs King Henry
translation. Following is another example from Shakespeare's King Henry
IV (Part 2), where the translator intrinsically manages a cultural
IV (Part 2), where the translator intrinsically manages a cultural element
element relating to ecology:
relating to ecology:
(125) Suffolk: A wilderness is populous enough,
So Suffolk had thy heavenly company.
(1952:360-1)
152 �� :�� (126)

��
.��
(Habib, 1959)
/safook: fa-l-sa�raa’u-l-muqfiratu tusbi�u ’aahilatan bi-
Suffolk so-the-desert the-empty become populated with-
s-sukaan
the-people
translation. Following is another example from Shakespeare's King Henry
IV (Part 2), where the translator intrinsically manages a cultural element
relating to ecology:
(125) Suffolk: A wilderness is populous enough,
So Suffolk had thy heavenly company.
(1952:360-1)
�� :�� (126)

.��
(Habib, 1959)
/safook: fa-l-sa�raa’u-l-muqfiratu tusbi�u ’aahilatan bi-
Suffolk so-the-desert the-empty become populated with-
s-sukaan
the-people
’iðaa �aðiya fii-haa safook bi-su�bati-ka- l-qudsiyyah/

if receives in-it Suffolk with-company-your the-holy
As is clear,
Asthe wilderness
is clear, of Englandofwith
the wilderness its rich
England vegetation
with is replaced
its rich vegetation
with the dry desert of Arabia. Despite this shift, the translation
is replaced with the dry desert of Arabia. Despite this shift, the
communicates the same message in the original, for both the wilderness
translation communicates the same message in the original, for
of England and the desert of Arabia are hardly populated.
both the wilderness of England and the desert of Arabia are hardly
populated.
Sometimes, the intrinsic managing of culture becomes

113
inevitable in translation, as can be illustrated in the following
Sometimes, the intrinsic managing of culture becomes inevitable in
examples:
translation, as can be illustrated in the following examples:
(127) The British Home Office issued new immigration
regulations yesterday.
(128) ’asdarat wazaaratu-l-daaxiliyyati-l-baritaaniyyatu

issued ministry the-interior the-British
ta‘liimaatin jadiidatin li-l-hijrati ’amsi

regulations new for-the-immigration yesterday
/�� /
(129) fašilat waziiratu-l-xaarijiyyati-

153 l-’amriikiyyatu
failed minister the-exterior the-American
fii ’iqnaa‘i- l-’iiraaniyyiina bi-t-taxallii ‘an

in convincing the-Iranians to-the-abandonment from
barnaamaji-him an-nawawii
program-their the-nuclear
’asdarat wazaaratu-l-daaxiliyyati-l-barit
(128)regulations yesterday. aaniyyatu
issued ministry the-interior the-British
(128) ’asdarat wazaaratu-l-daaxiliyyati-l-baritaaniyyatu
ta‘liimaatin
issued jadiidatin
ministry li-l-hijrati the-British
the-interior ’amsi
regulations new for-the-immigration yesterday
ta‘liimaatin jadiidatin li-l-hijrati ’amsi
/��
regulations new��
for-the-immigration ��/
yesterday
waziiratu-l-xaarijiyyati-
(129) fašilat/�� l-’amriikiyyatu
�� /
failed minister the-exterior the-American
(129) fašilat waziiratu-l-xaarijiyyati- l-’amriikiyyatu
fii ’iqnaa‘i-
failed minister l-’iiraaniyyiina
the-exterior bi-t-taxallii
the-American ‘an
in convincing the-Iranians to-the-abandonment from
fii ’iqnaa‘i- l-’iiraaniyyiina bi-t-taxallii ‘an
barnaamaji-him
in an-nawawii to-the-abandonment from
convincing the-Iranians
program-their the-nuclear
barnaamaji-him an-nawawii
/��
program-their �� /
the-nuclear
(130) American
/�� Secretary
�� of State
�� failed
�� to convince
�� /
Iranians to abandon their nuclear program.
(130) American Secretary of State failed to convince
As As
can can be
be noted,
Iranians noted,
termsterms
to abandon belonging
belonging
their nuclear to to political
political
program. culture
culture between
between
English andEnglish
Arabic andhaveArabic
been have been intrinsically
intrinsically managed, viz.managed, viz.
the British
As can be noted, terms belonging to political culture between
the British
Home Office inHome
(127)Office
becamein (127) became wazaaratu-l-daaxiliyyati-
wazaaratu-l-daaxiliyyati-l-biraat aaniyyatu
English and Arabic have been intrinsically managed, viz. the British
in l-biraataaniyyatu in (128) and waziiratu-l-xaarijiyyati-l-
(128) and waziiratu-l-xaarijiyyati-l-’amriikiyyatu in (129) was
Home Office in (127) became wazaaratu-l-daaxiliyyati-l-biraataaniyyatu
ʼamriikiyyatu
rendered in (129)
as American was ofrendered
Secretary State in as American
(130). Secretary
The failure to manageof
in (128) and waziiratu-l-xaarijiyyati-l-’amriikiyyatu in (129) was
State
these in (130).
political termsThe failure
would to manage
result these political
in unacceptable terms
translations, as would
can be
rendered as American Secretary of State in (130). The failure to manage
result ininunacceptable
illustrated the rendition of translations, as can
(128) as (131) be which
below, illustrated
wouldinstrike
the
these political terms would result in unacceptable translations, as can be
therendition
reader as of (128) as
unnatural and(131)
odd: below, which would strike the reader
illustrated in the rendition of (128) as (131) below, which would strike
as unnatural
(131) Theand odd: Foreign Minister failed to convince Iranians to
American
the reader as unnatural and odd:
abandon their nuclear program.
(131) The American Foreign Minister failed to convince Iranians to
abandon their nuclear program.
114
If we replace The American Foreign Minister with The
114 it will be perfectly acceptable.
Saudi Foreign Minister in (131),
Political culture, therefore, requires intrinsic managing in cases
154
If we replace The American Foreign Minister with The Saudi Foreign
Minister in (131), it will be perfectly acceptable. Political culture,
like these.
therefore, requires intrinsic managing in cases like these.
Cultural allusions often invoke intrinsic managing and can
Cultural allusions often invoke intrinsic managing and can be more
be more challenging in translating between Arabic and English.
challenging in translating between Arabic and English. The Arabic
The Arabic example in (132), along with two suggested English
example in (132), along with two suggested English translations,
translations, illustrates this:
illustrates this:
(132) wa kaanat laylaa-hu haaðihi-l-marrata fataatan min-
and was Layla-his this the-time girl from
al-badwi
the-Bedouins
/�� /
(133) His Juliet this time was a Bedouin girl.

(134) His date this time was a Bedouin girl.
The allusion in (132) idiomatically refers to Layla, the famous

Arab girl The allusionherinPlatonic
who caused (132) idiomatically
lover poet Qaysrefers to Layla,
to go crazy in thethe
7th
famoushence
century, Arabthe
girl who
love caused
story her Platonic
majnuun lover
Laylaa 'The poetofQays
Crazy to The
Layla'. go
crazy inwho
translator the opts
7th century, hence
to preserve thisthe love allusion
cultural story majnuun Laylaa
will have ʻThe
to bring out
Crazy
this of Laylaʼ.
background The translator
information in a who opts to
footnote. In preserve this however,
most cases, cultural
allusion choose
translators will have to bring out
to intrinsically this background
manage information
such allusions, in a
especially when
employed
footnote.casually, by falling
In most cases, back translators
however, on TL cultural heritage
choose to find a
to intrinsically
cultural
manage substitute (Larson 1984),
such allusions, as can when
especially be witnessed in (133),
employed in which
casually, by
thefalling
familiar allusion
back on TL Juliet is utilized
to cultural heritagetotocorrespond to the substitute
find a cultural allusion to
Layla. Alternatively,
(Larson theybeopt
1984), as can to reduce
witnessed the cultural
in (133), allusion
in which to its
the familiar
communicative import,isasutilized
allusion to Juliet can be observed in (134),towhere
to correspond the familiar
the allusion to
word dateAlternatively,
Layla. is meant to correspond to Layla.
they opt to reduceBelow is another
the cultural example,
allusion to
taken from King Henry IV (Part 2, 1952:230-1), along with its Arabic
155
translation (Habib, 1959), as cited in Aziz (1999:73), in which the
translator employs a cultural substitute:
115
its communicative import, as can be observed in (134), where
the familiar word date is meant to correspond to Layla. Below is
another example, taken from King Henry IV (Part 2, 1952:230-1),
along with its Arabic translation (Habib, 1959), as cited in Aziz
(1999:73), in which the translator employs a cultural substitute:
(135) Warwick: Unworthy though thou art, I'll cope with thee
And do some service to Duke Humphrey’s ghost.
�� :�� (136)

.��
In his attempt to improvise an Arab cultural substitute for ghost

In hisghost
(the deceased's attempt to improvise
calling anthe
for avenging Arab cultural
dead person),substitute for
the translator
ghost (the
managed deceasedʼs
to look ghost
up the word calling(afor
haamah avengingmythical
pre-Islamic the deadbird
person),
which
the translator
would cry on themanaged
grave oftothe
look up the word
murdered until he(awas
personhaamah pre-Islamic
avenged).
mythical
This birdcarries
effectively which the
would
samecry on the
idea, grave
albeit the of the murdered
pre-Islamic person
allusion may
beuntil
alienheto was
mostavenged). This Arab
contemporary effectively
readers.carries
A more thedown-to-earth
same idea,
albeitsuch
option the pre-Islamic allusion
as li-ruu�i 'for maywould
the soul' be alien to most
render contemporary
the text much more
Arab readers.toAthe
comprehensible more
Arabdown-to-earth
reader. option such as li-ruuħi ʻfor
the soulʼ
One ofwould rendercomponents
the cultural the text much
that more comprehensible
requires to the
considerable intrinsic
Arab reader.
managing is the system of religious beliefs between Arabic and English.
Farghal (1993),
One offorthe
example,
culturalshows that the linguistic
components behavior
that requires of Muslim
considerable
Arabs is overwhelmingly
intrinsic fatalistic,
managing is the system whereas beliefs
of religious fatalism is kept
between to a
Arabic
minimum in English,
and English. in (1993),
Farghal which people are viewed
for example, asthat
shows freethe
agents rather
linguistic
than subjectsofofMuslim
behavior a supernatural
Arabs isagent (Berofsky 1971;
overwhelmingly Strawson
fatalistic, 1986;
whereas
Lacey 1986). Fatalistic/religious expressions pervade all walks of life in
the Arab culture. One can hardly interact
156 appropriately in Arabic without
making use of many routine fatalistic expressions such as ’in šaa’a
’allaah 'If God permitted', wallaahi 'I swear by God', ’allaah yixallii-k
'May God preserve you', ’allaah yir�amuh 'May God have mercy on him',
wa��iduu ’allaah 'Say God is one', and ’ittaqi ’allaah 'Fear God', among
fatalism is kept to a minimum in English, in which people are
viewed as free agents rather than subjects of a supernatural agent
(Berofsky 1971; Strawson 1986; Lacey 1986). Fatalistic/religious
expressions pervade all walks of life in the Arab culture. One can
hardly interact appropriately in Arabic without making use of
many routine fatalistic expressions such as ʼin šaaʼa ʼallaah ʻIf
God permittedʼ, wallaahi ʻI swear by Godʼ, ʼallaah yixallii-k ʻMay
God preserve youʼ, ʼallaah yirħamuh ʻMay God have mercy on
himʼ, waħħiduu ʼallaah ʻSay God is oneʼ, and ʼittaqi ʼallaah ʻFear
Godʼ, among a multitude of similar expressions (for more details,
see Morrow 2006). Most of these expressions have become multi-
valent by acquiring a variety of pragmatic imports that go well
beyond the original semantic imports. Farghal (1995), for example,
shows that ʼinšaalla (the version of ʼin šaaʼa ʼallaah in Jordanian
Arabic), in addition to pegging the occurrence of a future event
’in šaa’a ’allaah in Jordanian Arabic), in addition to pegging the
to the will of Allah, can naturally accompany the performance
occurrence of a future event to the will of Allah, can naturally accompany
of a variety of other illocutions such as questioning, threatening,
the performance of a variety of other illocutions such as questioning,
promising, offering, thanking, etc. By way of illustration, let us
threatening, promising, offering, thanking, etc. By way of illustration, let
consider the Jordanian Arabic utterance in (137) along with its
us consider the Jordanian Arabic utterance in (137) along with its English
English translation in (138):
translation in (138):
(137) ’inšaalla ba-šuuf-ak hoon marra �aanyi
will-see-you here time second
ØtO�U�
/��Ád�
��Êu�
��p�uA�
��tK�UA�≈Ø
�� /
(138) I dare you to come here again!
Without ’inšaalla, (137) functions as a friendly parting expression, i.e.
'I'll see you here again'. However, the introduction of ’inšaalla with a fall-
157
rise contour in (137) changes the meaning to an act of threatening, as the
English rendition in (138) shows.
To see intrinsic managing of routine Arabic religious expressions
at work, let us examine the following excerpts from Najeeb Mahfouz's
the performance of a variety of other illocutions such as questioning,
threatening, promising, offering, thanking, etc. By way of illustration, let
us consider the Jordanian Arabic utterance in (137) along with its English
translation in (138):
(137) ’inšaalla ba-šuuf-ak hoon marra �aanyi
will-see-you here time second
Without ʼinšaalla, (137) functions/��
as�� parting
a friendly �/
(138) I dare you to come here again!
expression, i.e. ʻIʼll see you here againʼ. However, the introduction
Without ’inšaalla, (137) functions as a friendly parting expression, i.e.
of ʼinšaalla with a fall-rise contour in (137) changes the meaning
'I'll see you here again'. However, the introduction of ’inšaalla with a fall-
to an act of threatening, as the English rendition in (138) shows.
rise contour in (137) changes the meaning to an act of threatening, as the
To see inintrinsic
English rendition managing of routine Arabic religious
(138) shows.
expressions at work,
To see intrinsic let us examine
managing theArabic
of routine following excerpts
religious from
expressions
at Najeeb
work, letMahfouzʼs
us examineAwlaad Haaritnaa
the following (1959)
excerpts from and their
Najeeb Arabic
Mahfouz's
renditions
Awlaad by Philip
Haaritnaa Stewart
(1959) in Arabic
and their Children of Gebelawi
renditions (1981):
by Philip Stewart in
Children of Gebelawi (1981):
�� :�� (139)
.��
.�� :��
/baltiiqii ’inna-ka šadiidu-l-�aðari wa laakinna-ka

Balkiti verily-you strong the-care and but-you
sa-ta’nasu ’ila-yya sarii‘an wa tufdii l-ii bi-kulli

will-get used to-me quickly and tell to-me with-all
’asraari-k
secrets-your
jabal ’in šaa’a ’allaah

Gebel if permitted God
(140) Balkiti: You are very cagey, but you'll soon get used to me
and tell me all your secrets.
Gebel: Perhaps so! 117
:�� (141)

.�� 158
�� -
/fa-qaala wa huwa yarmii qit‘ata-l-�ašiiši fii �ijrihaa
then-said and he throwing piece the-hashish in lap-her
- haaða-s-sinfu laa yudaxxinu-hu fii �aarati-naa

this the-brand not smoked-it in neighborhood-our
(140) Balkiti: You are very cagey, but you'll soon get used to me
and tell me all your secrets.
Gebel: Perhaps so!
:�� (141)

.�� -
/fa-qaala wa huwa yarmii qit‘ata-l-�ašiiši fii �ijrihaa
then-said and he throwing piece the-hashish in lap-her
- haaða-s-sinfu laa yudaxxinu-hu fii �aarati-naa

this the-brand not smoked-it in neighborhood-our
’illa- l-naaðiru wa- l-‘abdu li-llahi yaa sayyidat-ii/

except the-Chief and the-slave to-God oh madam-my
(142) Ali said humbly:

'No one in the alley smokes this brand except for the Chief
and yours truly.
:�� (143)

.�� -
/fa-ntafada ‘arafatu waaqifan wa madda li-d-dayfi

then-shook Arafa standing and extended to-the-guest
yaday-hi wa huwa yaquul:

hands-his and he say
- ’ahlan ’ahlan zaara-na-n-nabiyyu
welcome welcome visited-us the-prophet
(144) Arafa jumped up and stretched out his arms in greeting the
guest: 'Welcome! This is a great honor'.
As As
is clear, thethe
is clear, translator succeeded
translator in in
succeeded intrinsically managing
intrinsically the
managing
Arabic religious
the Arabic expressions
religious in the inabove
expressions examples,
the above for leaving
examples, them
for leaving
unmanaged would sound
them unmanaged awkward
would and odd in
sound awkward English.
and odd inInEnglish.
(139), the
In
religious expression
(139), the ’inexpression
religious šaa’a ’allaah is meant
ʼin šaaʼa to express
ʼallaah hope,
is meant or even
to express
cast doubt, rather than communicate commitment conditioned on God's
159 rendition of it as Perhaps so in

permission, hence Stewart's successful
118
hope, or even cast doubt, rather than communicate commitment
conditioned on Godʼs permission, hence Stewartʼs successful
rendition of it as Perhaps so in (140). In (141), the religious
expression al-ʻabdu li-llahi is a humble routine formula used by
a speaker
(140). to refer
In (141), the to himself.
religious The translator
expression wasli-llahi
al-‘abdu awareisofathis and
humble
successfully
routine formula translated it into yours
used by a speaker to refertruly in (142);
to himself. Theittranslator
would havewas
beenofincomprehensible
aware to render
this and successfully thisit expression
translated literally
into yours truly as theit
in (142);
would
slavehave beeninincomprehensible
of God to render
English. For its part, (143)this expression
features literally as
the frequently
theused
slaveEgyptian
of God inwelcoming
English. Forformula
its part,zaara-na-n-nabiyyu,
(143) features the frequently
which
used
mayEgyptian
not be welcoming formula zaara-na-n-nabiyyu,
rendered literally into English, hencewhich may not be
the translatorʼs
rendered literally
relaying into English,
it as This hence
is a great theintranslator's
honor relaying it as
(144). Apparently, This is
intrinsic
a great honorof
managing in scores
(144). Apparently, intrinsic
of such Arabic managing
religious of scores of
expressions such
seems
Arabic religious
necessary, expressions
if not seems
inevitable, necessary,
in English if not inevitable, in English
translation.
translation.
One may wonder what would happen to the all-pervasive
One may wonder what would happen to the all-pervasive religious
religious tinge of Arabic discourse when the translator is working
tinge of Arabic discourse when the translator is working from English
from English into Arabic. I believe that competent translators
into Arabic. I believe that competent translators should be resourceful
should be resourceful enough to improvise this cultural flavor in
enough to improvise this cultural flavor in their Arabic translations, as
their Arabic translations, as can be illustrated below:
can be illustrated below:
(145) Should anything happen to you during this assignment,
we shall take a good care of your family.
�� (146)
.��
/’iðaa �ada�a la-ka šay’un laa qaddara ’allaahu
if happened to-you something not destined God
fa-sa-nuulii ‘aa’ilata-ka xayra-r-ri‘ayati/

160best the-care
then-will-give (we) family-your
(147) I like the designs you suggested a lot. Go ahead with them.
.�� .�� (148)
/tu‘jibu-ni-l-tasaamimu-llati- iqtara�ta-ha ka�iiran.
like-I the-designs which suggested-it (you) a lot
(145) Should anything happen to you during this assignment,
we shall take a good care of your family.
�� (146)
.��
/’iðaa �ada�a la-ka šay’un laa qaddara ’allaahu
if happened to-you something not destined God
fa-sa-nuulii ‘aa’ilata-ka xayra-r-ri‘ayati/

then-will-give (we) family-your best the-care
(147) I like the designs you suggested a lot. Go ahead with them.
.�� .�� (148)
/tu‘jibu-ni-l-tasaamimu-llati- iqtara�ta-ha ka�iiran.
like-I the-designs which suggested-it (you) a lot
’imdi ‘alaa barakati-illahi fii tanfiiði-haa/

go on blessing God in executing-them
As can be seen, the Arabic translations in (146) and (148)

improvise the routine religious119
expressions laa qaddara ʼallaahu
As can be seen, the Arabic translations in (146) and (148)
ʻGod forbidʼ and ʻalaa barakati-illahi ʻwith Godʼs blessingʼ (which
improvise the routine religious expressions laa qaddara ’allaahu 'God
are not found in the English originals) respectively, in order to
forbid' and ‘alaa barakati-illahi ‘with God's blessing' (which are not
naturalize the discourse in Arabic. Existing translation practice
found in the English originals) respectively, in order to naturalize the
also testifies to the improvisation of such a cultural tinge when
discourse in Arabic. Existing translation practice also testifies to the
translating from English into Arabic. Following are two examples
improvisation of such a cultural tinge when translating from English into
from Shakespeareʼs King John (1954:77) and The Taming of the
Arabic. Following are two examples from Shakespeare's King John
Shrew (1953:8), along with their Arabic translations (Mohammed
(1954:77) and The Taming of the Shrew (1953:8), along with their Arabic
1960) and (Qalamawi 1960), respectively:
translations (Mohammed 1960) and (Qalamawi 1960), respectively:
(149) Bastard: Fair fall the bones that took the pains for me.
.�� (150)

/wa ’as’alu ’allaaha ’an yu�sina ’ilaa tilka al-‘iðaami
and ask (I) God to do good to those the-bones
allati ta‘ibat bi-�aml-ii

which tired with-bearing-me
161
(151) Baptesta: Well mayst thou woo, and happy be thy seed.
.�� :�� (152)

/baabtistaa: waffaqa-ka ’allaahu fii sa‘yi-ka ’ilay-haa
Baptesta help-you God in endeavor-your to-her
wa ’as‘ada �aðða-ka ma‘a-haa/

translations (Mohammed 1960) and (Qalamawi 1960), respectively:
(149) Bastard: Fair fall the bones that took the pains for me.
.�� (150)

/wa ’as’alu ’allaaha ’an yu�sina ’ilaa tilka al-‘iðaami
and ask (I) God to do good to those the-bones
allati ta‘ibat bi-�aml-ii

which tired with-bearing-me
(151) Baptesta: Well mayst thou woo, and happy be thy seed.
.�� :�� (152)

/baabtistaa: waffaqa-ka ’allaahu fii sa‘yi-ka ’ilay-haa
Baptesta help-you God in endeavor-your to-her
wa ’as‘ada �aðða-ka ma‘a-haa/

and gladden luck-your with-her
Both
Both Arabic
Arabic translations
translations in (150)inand
(150)
(152)and (152)
feature thefeature the
word ’allah
in word ʼallah in the
the invocations invocations
�� ‰Q�√��ʻI��
tK�«and
'I ask God' ask 'May
GodʼGod
and help
tK�« pI�Ë
you
ʻMay God
succeed', help
despite theyou
fact succeedʼ, despite
that the English the fact
originals do that the English
not mention God.
originals
The do have
translators not done
mention
well God. The translators
by employing have
this feature doneculture
of Arab well
in by
the employing
rendition of this
the English
featurepseudo-subjunctive
of Arab culture informs fair fall and
the rendition ofWell
the
mayst in (149)
English and (151), respectively.
pseudo-subjunctive forms fairByfall
doing so, the
and Well Arabic
mayst texts
in (149)
sound
and more
(151),natural and acceptable.
respectively. By doing so, the Arabic texts sound more
natural and acceptable.
Proverbs, which virtually touch on all aspects of a given

120
culture, are a common target of intrinsic managing. Quite
often, translators search for functional correspondence between
proverbs in translation. In this way, the SL proverb is completely
integrated into the TL culture, as can be illustrated in the following
examples:
162
Proverbs, which virtually touch on all aspects of a given culture,
are a common target of intrinsic managing. Quite often, translators search
Proverbs, which virtually touch on all aspects of a given culture,
for functional correspondence between proverbs in translation. In this
are a common target of intrinsic managing. Quite often, translators search
way, the SL proverb is completely integrated into the TL culture, as can
for functional correspondence between proverbs in translation. In this
be illustrated in the following examples:
way, the SL proverb is completely integrated into the TL culture, as can
(153) A word is enough to the wise.
(154) ’inna-
be illustrated in thel-labiiba
followingmin al-’išaarati yafhamu
examples:
verily the-clever from the-signal understand
(153) A word is enough to the wise.
‘Lit. Verily the clever person understands (the message) by a
(154) ’inna- l-labiiba min al-’išaarati yafhamu
signal.’
verily the-clever from the-signal understand
/�� /
‘Lit. Verily the clever person understands (the message) by a
signal.’
(155) ’ištaddii ’azmatu tanfarijii
/�� /
intensify crisis ease off
'Lit. O crisis intensify, so you would ease off.'
(155) ’ištaddii ’azmatu tanfarijii
/�� /
intensify crisis ease off
(146) After
(156)'Lit.
Aftera storm
a stormcomes a calm.
comessoa youcalm.
O crisis intensify, would ease off.'
/�� /
TheTheEnglish proverb
English in (153)(153)
proverb may be translated into theintoArabic
(146) After a storm comes aincalm. may be translated the
proverb
Arabicin proverb
(154), forinboth proverbs
(154), for perform a similarperform
both proverbs function ain similar
the two
The English proverb in (153) may be translated into the Arabic
cultures.
function Similarly,
in the two thecultures.
Arabic proverb
Similarly,in (155) may well
the Arabic be translated
proverb in (155)
proverb in (154), for both proverbs perform a similar function in the two
into
mayits well
functionally corresponding
be translated English proverb
into its functionally in (156). Failure
corresponding English to
cultures. Similarly, the Arabic proverb in (155) may well be translated
integrate
proverbsuch in proverbs culturally
(156). Failure to into the TL such
integrate may land the translator
proverbs into
culturally
into its functionally corresponding English proverb in (156). Failure to
serious comprehension
into the TL may land problems, as can beinto
the translator evidenced
seriousincomprehension
Peter Theroux's
integrate such proverbs culturally into the TL may land the translator into
translations
problems,(158 and 159
as can below) of the
be evidenced ArabicTherouxʼs
in Peter proverb (157 below) in
translations
serious comprehension problems, as can be evidenced in Peter Theroux's
two different (but thematically similar) contexts in Abdelrahman Munif’s
(158 and 159 below) of the Arabic proverb (157 below) in two
translations (158 and 159 below) of the Arabic proverb (157 below) in
(1992) novel mudunu al-mal�i: taqaasiimu al-layli wa al-nahaari 'Cities
different (but thematically similar) contexts in Abdelrahman
two different (but thematically similar) contexts in Abdelrahman Munif’s
of Salt: Variations on Day and Night' (1993):
Munifʼs (1992) novel mudunu al-malħi: taqaasiimu al-layli wa
(1992) novel mudunu al-mal�i: taqaasiimu al-layli wa al-nahaari 'Cities
(157) al-‘aynu basiirah wa al-yadu qasiirah
al-nahaari ʻCities of Salt:and
the-eyeonsighted
Variations
the-hand
on Day and Nightʼ (1993):
short
of Salt: Variations Day and Night' (1993):
/�� /
(157) al-‘aynu basiirah wa al-yadu qasiirah
(158) The eye sees far but the hand is short.
the-eye sighted and the-hand short
(159) Sight is long but our hand is short.
/�� /
(158) The eye sees far but the hand is short.
(159) Sight is long but our hand is short.
163
121
121
The TL reader may wonder what the utterances in (158)
and (159) mean, because the images they include are considerably
alienThe
to TL
thereader
TL culture: they can
may wonder whathardly be riddled
the utterances out, and
in (158) even(159)
by
the most
mean, creative
because TL readers.
the images In this
they include way, one can
are considerably confidently
alien to the TL
claim they
culture: that can
translation hasriddled
hardly be faltered
out,aseven
an act of communication.
by the most creative TL
InsteadInofthis
readers. clutching at SL
way, one cultural
can elements,
confidently claimthethat
translator should
translation has
have attempted
faltered as an act oftocommunication.
integrate the Arabic
Insteadproverb aboveatinto
of clutching SL the TL
cultural
culture. the
elements, Following
translatorthis option
should mayattempted
have yield ʻThe
to spirit is willing
integrate but
the Arabic
the flesh
proverb is weakʼ
above or TL
into the ʻThe reach Following
culture. falls short this
of the desiresʼ,
option may probably
yield 'The
among
spirit other possibilities.
is willing but the flesh is weak' or 'The reach falls short of the
desires', probably among other possibilities.
In some cases, the translatorʼs attempt at intrinsically
In some cases, the translator's attempt at intrinsically managing the
managing the SL culture into the TL may falter. Consider the
SL culture into the TL may falter. Consider the following Arabic proverb,
following Arabic proverb, along with its two translations by Le
along with its two translations by Le Gassick (1966:25) and the revised
Gassick (1966:25) and the revised Le Gassick (1975:20): (Mrs.
Le Gassick (1975:20): (Mrs. Afify (in N. Mahfouz’s ziqaqu al-madaqqi,
Afify (in N. Mahfouzʼs ziqaqu al-madaqqi, 1947:26) uttered the
1947:26) uttered the proverb as an ironical response reflecting her
proverb as an ironical response reflecting her dissatisfaction with
dissatisfaction with Umm Hamada's suggestion to her to marry an old
Umm Hamadaʼs suggestion to her to marry an old man).
man).
(160) ’asuum wa ’aftir ‘alaa basalah
fast (I) and breakfast on onion
'Lit. I fast and have an onion for breakfast.'
/�� /
(161) I am willing to go on a diet and have just an onion for

breakfast.
(162) What, 'break a fast by eating an onion'?!
On the one hand, in the first edition of the translation (1966) Le

164
Gassick in (161) made a serious error by equating between fasting and
dieting. The former is a familiar religious concept not only in Islam but
also in all divine religions, while the latter is a familiar cultural concept in
modern societies, which is widely believed to be the product of western
civilization's awareness of the importance of the individual's appearance
On the one hand, in the first edition of the translation (1966)
Le Gassick in (161) made a serious error by equating between fasting
and dieting. The former is a familiar religious concept not only in
Islam but also in all divine religions, while the latter is a familiar
cultural concept in modern societies, which is widely believed to be
the product of western civilizationʼs awareness of the importance
of the individualʼs appearance and health. The two concepts are
completely incongruent: fasting being a religious duty while
dieting being a volitional act that has nothing to do with religion.
This problem alone can render (161) unworkable (Note that an
equallyduty
religious serious
whileproblem
dieting in (161)
being is the translatorʼs
a volitional failure
act that has to relay
nothing to do
thereligion.
with irony inThis
(160), whichalone
problem makes
canthe proverb
render (161)communicate exactly
unworkable (Note that
anthe opposite
equally of problem
serious what it in
says, i.e.is the
(161) the speakerʼs
translator'sprotesting against
failure to relay the
irony in (160), which
the interlocutorʼs makes the
suggestion. proverb
In his communicate
revised exactly
edition (1975), the
on the
opposite of what
other hand, it says,ini.e.
Le Gassick thesucceeded
(162) speaker's inprotesting against the
both approximating
interlocutor's suggestion.
the partial cultural gapInand
hisrelaying
revised edition (1975),
the irony on the other hand,
in (160).
Le Gassick in (162) succeeded in both approximating the partial cultural
Sometimes, the subtlety of the SL proverb may impede
gap and relaying the irony in (160).
correct comprehension and, as a result, the translatorʼs attempt
Sometimes, the subtlety of the SL proverb may impede correct
to integrate such proverbs culturally may fail. Following is an
comprehension and, as a result, the translator's attempt to integrate such
English proverb used as an illustration of cultural approximation/
proverbs culturally may fail. Following is an English proverb used as an
accommodation by Ghazala (2006):
illustration of cultural approximation/accommodation by Ghazala (2006):
(163) Love me love my dog.
Unfortunately, Ghazala misunderstands the above proverb by interpreting
the reference to dogs positively. Contrasting Western and Arab cultures
165
in this regard, he wrties, "In western societies, however, the dog is a
member of the family, which is quite inconceivable in an Arab, Muslim
society". While his statement is generally true, it has nothing to do with
the interpretation of the proverb in question, where the dog stands for
negative things (e.g. faults) rather than positive things. Based on this
Le Gassick in (162) succeeded in both approximating the partial cultural
gap and relaying the irony in (160).
Sometimes, the subtlety of the SL proverb may impede correct
comprehension and, as a result, the translator's attempt to integrate such
proverbs culturally may fail. Following is an English proverb used as an
illustrationUnfortunately, Ghazala misunderstands the
of cultural approximation/accommodation above proverb
by Ghazala (2006):
by (163)
interpreting
Love methe
lovereference
my dog. to dogs positively. Contrasting
Western andGhazala
Unfortunately, Arab cultures in this the
misunderstands regard,
aboveheproverb
wrties,by“In western
interpreting
thesocieties, to dogs positively.
referencehowever, the dog is aContrasting
member ofWestern andwhich
the family, Arab is
cultures
quite
in inconceivable
this regard, heinwrties, "In western
an Arab, Muslim societies,
society”. however,
While histhestatement
dog is a
member of the true,
is generally family, which
it has is quite
nothing to inconceivable in an Arab, Muslim
do with the interpretation of the
society".
proverbWhile his statement
in question, whereisthe
generally true,for
dog stands it has nothingthings
negative to do(e.g.
with
the interpretation of the proverb in question, where the dog stands for
faults) rather than positive things. Based on this erroneous reading,
negative things (e.g. faults) rather than positive things. Based on this
Ghazala offers the following faulty cultural approximations,
erroneous reading, Ghazala offers the following faulty cultural
among other ideational equivalents:
approximations, among other ideational equivalents:
.�� (164)
/kirmaanan li-‘ayn tikram marji‘yuun/
for sake for-eye honor Marjiyun
or
for sake for-eye honor meadow of eyes
�� (165)

/’u�ibbu-ha wa tu�ibbu-nii
love (I)-her an love (she)-me
wa yu�ibbu naaqata-haa ba‘iir-ii/

and love she-camel-her he-camel-my
123
The Arabic rendition in (164) is a colloquial proverb (mainly
The Arabic rendition in (164) is a colloquial proverb
Lebanese) that may have two readings: the first refers to the city
(mainly Lebanese) that may have two readings: the first refers to
Marji‘yuun in southern Lebanon and the second interprets Marji‘yuun as
the city Marjiʻyuun
comprising two wordsinmarj
southern Lebanon
‘meadow’ and the
‘uyuun second
‘eyes’. interprets
Thus, it may
communicate as messages:
Marjiʻyuuntwo comprising‘thetwo words
entire city ofmarj ʻmeadowʼ
Marji‘yuun ʻuyuun
is worthy of
honor for the sake of one eye (a beautiful
166 girl)’ or, alternatively, ‘for the
sake of one eye (a beautiful girl, hosts of eyes are worthy of honor’. For
its part, (165) is a line of medieval Arabic poetry which refers to the love
between a he-camel and a she-camel (both are highly valued animals in
medieval Arab culture) as a result of their owners' falling in love. These
wa yu�ibbu naaqata-haa ba‘iir-ii/
and love she-camel-her he-camel-my
The Arabic rendition in (164) is a colloquial proverb (mainly

Lebanese) that itmay
ʻeyesʼ. Thus, mayhave two readings:
communicate the first refers
two messages: to the
ʻthe entire citycity
of
Marji‘yuun
Marjiʻyuunin southern
is worthyLebanon and
of honor forthethesecond one eyeMarji‘yuun
interprets
sake of as
(a beautiful
comprising two words marj
girl)ʼ or, alternatively, the sake of‘uyuun
ʻfor ‘meadow’ ‘eyes’.
one eye Thus, itgirl),
(a beautiful may
communicate twoare
hosts of eyes messages:
worthy‘the entire city
of honorʼ. Marji‘yuun
Forofits is worthy
part, (165) of
is a line
honor for the sake
of medieval Arabic eye (a which
of onepoetry beautifulrefers
girl)’ to
or,the
alternatively, ‘for the
love between a
sake of one eye (a beautiful girl, hosts of eyes are worthy of honor’. For
he-camel and a she-camel (both are highly valued animals in
its part, (165) is a line of medieval Arabic poetry which refers to the love
medieval Arab culture) as a result of their ownersʼ falling in love.
between a he-camel and a she-camel (both are highly valued animals in
These messages, albeit so interesting, do not correspond in any
medieval Arab culture) as a result of their owners' falling in love. These
way to the theme conveyed by the English proverb, which simply
messages, albeit so interesting, do not correspond in any way to the theme
means ʻIf you want to keep me as a friend, you have to put up with
conveyed by the English proverb, which simply means 'If you want to
my faultsʼ. To accommodate this proverb culturally, the translator
keep me as a friend, you have to put up with my faults'. To accommodate
may, among other possibilties, employ the following colloquial
this proverb culturally, the translator may, among other possibilties,
proverb (mainly Jordanian):
employ the following colloquial proverb (mainly Jordanian):
�� (��) �� (166)
/’illi badduh yi‘aašir il-bis (il-qut) badduh yisbir ‘ala
he who want play with the-cat want put up on
maxaamiiš-uh/
paws-its
ʻHewho
'He whowants
wantstotoplay
playwith
withaa cat
cat should
should put
put up
up with
with its
its paws.'
paws.ʼ
In this the
In this proverb, proverb, the paws
way the way the pawsinfunction
function in the
the context of context
playing
of playing
(making (making
friends) friends)
with cats with cats
is comparable to is
thecomparable
way the dogto(the
thefaults)
way
the dogin(the
functions faults) functions
the context of making in the context
friends of making
with humans. friends
Consequently,
with humans.
understanding the Consequently,
culture of an SLunderstanding the culture
proverbial expression of an SL
is a pre-requisite
for accommodating it appropriately in the TL.
167
124
proverbial expression is a pre-requisite for accommodating it
appropriately in the TL.
2.2 Summary
Intrinsic managing, as we have seen, is an integral component
of translation activity and practice which may operate at various
linguistic and cultural levels. The account above is only meant
to provide a small taste of the nature and parameters of intrinsic
managing between Arabic and English in the hope of bringing this
process to the consciousness of student and practitioner translators
alike. The ultimate goal is to facilitate the work of translators and
render it more systematic. It should be clear that the areas and
the examples used in demonstrating intrinsic managing in this
chapter are selective in nature and their scope is not intended to
be exhaustive. They merely constitute representative samples
of what happens when translators attempt to naturalize their
products in the TL. A more elaborate and comprehensive account
of intrinsic managing in this language pair will definitely require
an entire volume, which would be a welcome move in Arabic-
English translation studies. The next chapter will address itself to
the antithesis of intrinsic managing – extrinsic managing, where
translatorial ideological moves stand out.
168
2.3 Practices
Practice 1:
Translate the following English sentences into Arabic, paying
special attention to problems caused by morphological
mismatches:
a) Scientific discourse lends itself to translatability between
languages better than literary discourse.
b) Messaging by the mobile has become an important means
of communication among people.
c) Western feminist writers have become more influential
these days.
d) Human cloning will remain an arguable issue for several
decades to come.
e) The greenish field looks so beautiful at daybreak.
f) Most of this information is retrievable from the database.
g) The president was knifed as he was leaving the meeting.
Practice 2:
Arabic is well known for its ability to derive several morphologically
related verbs from the same triconsonantal root, which may cause
some problems to translators. Translate the following Arabic
sentences into English, paying special attention to this morphological
property:
169
Æ «—ôËb�« s� W�“— Ãd�√Ë W�e)« wK� `�� ©√
ÆlMBLK� Î «b�b� Î U�d� d�b*« `��« ©»
Æl�u�� dO� qJA� Ÿu{u*U� Á–U��√ V�UD�« #U� ©
ÆtM� X�d��« U�bM� »U��« `�H�« ©À
ÆÊUJ� q� w� UN��—√ WK�d� œË—u�« X��H� ©Ã
ÆÕU�B�« «c� —UM�b� d�U��« `�H��« ©Õ
Practice 3:
Both English and Arabic use formal passives but they differ in
the frequency and orientation. Whereas English passives are
overwhelmingly structure- oriented, Arabic passives are meaning-
oriented. Bearing this in mind, translate the following English
text into Arabic, paying special attention to the different Arabic
structures that can be employed to render the English passives:
The eating habits of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent are influenced by

historical and geographical factors. Since the earliest times, the sub-continent
has been invaded by many tribes from the North. Later on, it was occupied
by the British. Only recently was the region divided into the two independent
countries of India and Pakistan.
The influence of all the different invasions can be found in the culture and the
eating habits of the sub-continent. Indian and Pakistani food are very similar,
but regional and religious influences can be observed. The consumption of
beef is forbidden to the Hindu, and the consumption of pork is not allowed
for Muslims.
170
(Extracted from H. Wekker and L. Haegerman (1985), which was adapted
from A. Hosain and S. Pasrichaʼs Cooking the Indian Way)
Practice 4:
Translate the following English text (Wikipedia material) into
Arabic, paying special attention to the rendition of articles:
÷—_« vK� ¡U*« dA�M� Æ5��_« s� …—–Ë 5�Ë—bO� w�—– s� ÊuJ� wzUOLO� V�d� ¡U*«
ö�Ë ¨Êu� ö� Î U�UH� ÊuJ� WKzU��« W�U(« w�Ë ÆW�“UG�«Ë W�KB�«Ë WKzU��« ¨WHK��*« t�ôU��
”U�√ ¡U*« ¡ULKF�« d��F�Ë Æ¡U*U� vDG� ÷—_« `D� s� % 70 Ê√ UL� ÆW�z«— Ë√ ¨rF�
ÆV�u� Í√ vK� …UO(«
Practice 5:
The pronominal chart in English marks gender only in 3rd person
singular (he vs. she), whereas Arabic pronouns involve many
more distinctions, e.g. øW�—b*« v�≈ X��– q� for ʻDid you(FEM/SG)
go to school? Using the above sentence as a model, give the other
Arabic sentences involving gender distinctions, along with their
English counterparts.
Practice 6:
The semantic blanket of a language is never complete – there are
always some gaps. Based on the English kinship chart (reproduced
from Larson 1998, p. 90), design an Arabic chart of kinship terms,
giving particular attention to the lexical gaps. Which chart makes
more distinctions? And how can the gaps be handled in translation
171
activity.
linear colineal
ablineal
masculine feminine masculine feminine
second grandfather grandmother
generation
previous
uncle aunt
previous father mother
generation
same generation ego brother sister
next generation son daughter cousin
second
generation grandson granddaughter nephew niece
following
Practice 7:
Collocations represent a challenging aspect of translation activity

because they rarely lend themselves to paraphrase. Give the Arabic
collocations corresponding to the English ones below, whose
collocator is the adjective heavy.
a) heavy rain
b) heavy sleep
c) heavy meal
d) heavy fog
e) heavy smoker
f) heavy sea
172
g) heavy industry
h) heavy metal
i) heavy vote
Practice 8:
Examine the following excerpts from Najeeb Mahfouzʼs ‚uA�« dB�
along with their English translations (Hutchins and Kenny 1989),
and then decide whether the two boldfaced similar segments in the
Arabic texts can be rendered in the same way, giving utmost care
to the illocutionary force (pragmatic import) of each them:
ÆtFDI� tK�« ¨h�d� u�Ë —UH�« dEM� bOF��«Ë f�_« …dN� d�c�√ „—uC� qO�� XM� ≠
©333 ’ ¨‚uA�« dB�®
“Just before you arrived I was remembering last night and what
al-Far looked dancing. May God strike him down.” (Palace of
Desire p. 323)
ÆpFDI� tK�« ¨pKL� v�≈ wN��« ¨5LNH� ô ULO� wK�b�� ô ¨wMMOF�UI� ô ¨rJK�√ wMO�œ ≠
©348 ’ ¨‚uA�« dB�®
“Let me speak! Donʼt interrupt me. Donʼt interfere in things you
canʼt comprehend. Pay attention to your work. May God strike
you down.” (Palace of Desire, p. 337)
Practice 9:
Examine the following Arabic sentences that all involve tolerable
repetition (boldfaced), and then decide whether the same type
173
of repetition is tolerated when the sentences are rendered into
English.
Æ…b�F*« ‚dD�« »UO� w� Â«b�_« vK� Î UOA� rN�uI� v�≈ Êu�—«e*« V�c� ©√
w� U�“UM*«Ë »Ëd(« s� W&UM�« ö�u�«Ë w�P*« VM�� Î U�u� qLF� Ê√ UMOK�©»
Ær�UF�« s� WHK�� o�UM�
ÆUM�Ëœ ¡U�—Ë —U�œ“« q�√ s� sJ2 X�Ë Ÿd�Q� …b�UF*« Ác� cOHM�Ë oO�D� s� b� ô©
‚dA�« WIDM� w� Â“Q��«Ë d�u��« s� W�U� wJ�d�_« fOzd�« U��dB� XIK�©À
Æj�Ë_«
Æ «—«dI�« –U��U� ŸËdA�« q�� Î U�UI�Ë Î U�� Ÿu{u*« «c� w�u�� Ê√ ÷d�H� ©Ã
Question: Can you think of cases of repetition which are tolerated

in English but not in Arabic? Give five English sentences involving
such repetition, along with their Arabic counterparts, where no
repetition occurs.
Practice 10:
Arabic texture is argued to be more explicit than its English

counterpart is. Translate the following English sentences, paying
particular attention to this alleged feature.
a) The boy being depressed, he stopped going to school behind
his parentsʼ back.
b) Having finished his homework, John went to the movies.
c) These conditions are too difficult to meet.
d) To be a university professor involves several requirements.
174
e) Rich and happily married, the Johnsons have decided to travel
the world.
Practice 11:
Translate the following Arabic sentences into English, paying special

attention to political culture expressions (boldfaced) in them:
ÍbM� d�¬ »U��« l� XN��« b� ‚«dF�« w� »d(« ÊQ� wJ�d�_« ŸU�b�« d�“Ë Õd ©1
Æ„UM� s� wJ�d�√
Í—öO� WOJ�d�_« WO�—U)« …d�“u� q�dO� öO$√ WO�U*_« …—UA��*« XFL��« ©2
ÆWO*UF�« WO�U*« W�“_« d�√ s� nOH��K� W�ËU�� w� Êu�MOK�
Æ% 30 W��M� WO�uJ(« U��R*« w� 5H�u*« V�«Ë— …œU�“ 5H�dA�« 5�d(« ÂœU� —d� ©3
WO�UO��« UO�«b��« WA�UM* W�d�A� W�K� Êœ—_« w� ÊUO�_«Ë »«uM�« w�K�� bI� ©4
ÆWIDM*« w� w�dF�« lO�dK�
s� ·ôü« qO�d� s� WO�UD�d��« WOK�«b�« …—«“Ë wM� w� WOzUCI�« œuN'« `KH� r� ©5
Æ5O�dA�« dO� s�d�UN*«
‚uI� „UN��« ÊQA� wJ�d�_« fOzd�« U��dB� w�Ëd�« »«uM�« fK�� bI��« ©6
ÆUO�Ë— w� ÊU��ù«
Practice 12:
The warning in the carʼs side mirrors (OBJECTS IN THE

MIRROR ARE CLOSER THAN THEY APPEAR) in the
Wikipedia image below is a familiar feature in American made
cars. Drivers readily interpret the illocutionary force of the text
as a warning. The following Arabic text s� »d�√ …¬d*« w� WMO�*« ¡UO�_«
175
l�«u�« appears in the side mirrors of my Jeep Compass car. Examine
this text closely and decide whether it can convey the intended
illocution. If not, what do you suggest?
176
CHAPTER THREE
EXTRINSIC MANAGING:
AN EPITAPH TO TRANSLATORIAL
IDEOLOGICAL MOVES
177
iO�«
178
3. CHAPTER THREE
EXTRINSIC MANAGING: AN EPITAPH TO
TRANSLATORIAL IDEOLOGICAL MOVES
3.0 Introduction
Ideology, one may argue, is a cumulative value system
that exerts both influence and control over human behavior, and
may vary among communities as well as individuals. Van Dijk
(1996: 7) views ideologies as basic systems of shared social
representations with the potential to control and influence more
specific group beliefs (knowledge and attitudes) through the
instantiation in “models of situations and experiences”. Being
part of human behavior, translation activity involves a process of
negotiation among different agents: translators, authors, critics,
publishers, editors and readers (Tahir-Gürcğlar 2003) and is guided
by ideological criteria, whether consciously or unconsciously
(Nord 2003). Similarly, Tymoczko (2003) states, “the ideology
of translation resides not simply in the text translated, but in the
voicing and stance of the translator, and in its relevance to the
receiving audience” (see also Mason 1994 and Fandi 2005).
Translatorial ideological moves manifest themselves in
179
extrinsic managing, which constitutes the converse of intrinsic
managing, which was discussed in Chapter 2. These ideological
moves involve the translatorʼs superimposing certain directionality
on the TL text, in order to approximate it to, or even have it meet,
his own or some other agentʼs goals. In this way, it represents the
translatorʼs ideological intervention in the SL text, which clearly
shows up in the world views that he intentionally chooses to
present in the TL text. Being a framing process, extrinsic managing
provides a mechanism through which individuals (translators in
our case) can ideologically connect with movement goals and,
subsequently, become potential participants in movement actions
(Cunningham and Browning 2004; Baker 2006). In this way,
translation is not only an interpretive frame; it is also a performance
frame (Behl 2002; Muhawi 2007), where the translator becomes
an active participant in interlingual communication.
Like intrinsic managing, extrinsic managing is largely
conscious and intentional. However, unlike intrinsic managing,
which, apart from ideological intervention, is meant to facilitate
things for the TL reader by offering translations that read smoothly
and naturally, extrinsic managing mainly aims to reorient and/
or delude the TL reader by presenting thought-worlds that are
different at varying degrees from those expounded in the SL text.
Other things being equal, therefore, intrinsic managing may be
presented as commendable, whereas extrinsic managing may be
180
argued to be condemnable. Notably, the relation between the SL
and the TL in translation activity was and still is one of the central
concerns among translation theorists.
Some scholars view the ST as a ʻsacred originalʼ, whether
in terms of function, form, or both (Nida 1964; Catford 1965;
Newmark 1982, 1988; and de Waard and Nida 1986, among
others). In an extreme position, Newmark (1982:389) sees the
translatorʼs task as an activity “to render the original as objectively
as he can, rigorously suppressing his own natural feelings; a text
with which he passionately agrees must be treated similarly to
a text with which he passionately disagrees”. However, the real
picture in translation practice is not as clear and straightforward
as Newmark articulates it in this quotation, for, more recently,
some translation theorists regard the translatorʼs task as mainly
reflecting the skopos (purpose) of the TT rather than that of the
ST (Schäffner, 2003, 1998a and b; Hönig 1998; and Vermeer
2000, among others). On this latter view, the translation may be
steered by the skopos of the TT prospectively rather than informed
by the skopos of the ST retrospectively. In this spirit, Schäffner
(1998a:238) views the translator as a TT author who is freed from
the “limitations and restrictions imposed by a narrowly defined
concept of loyalty to the source text alone”.
The present chapter seeks to explore the scope and nature
of the translatorʼs ideological intervention in translating between
181
English and Arabic, apart from commending or condemning this
translatorial action. The fact that translatorial ideological moves
are a noticeable translational practice calls for a close examination
of this phenomenon, in order to disentangle the various intricacies
surrounding it. According to Bassnett (1996:22), the translation,
“once considered a subservient, transparent filter through which
a text could pass without adulteration”, “can now be seen as a
process in which intervention is crucial”.
The scope of extrinsic managing can be as wide-ranging as
that of intrinsic managing. It may manifest itself relatively locally
at the levels of lexis and syntax, or globally at the levels of discourse
and/or culture. In both cases, the translator manipulates ideology
in varying degrees. However, it should be noted that extrinsic
managing, unlike intrinsic managing, which can be considerably
localized and categorized at different linguistic levels, can evade
strict categorization because it is ideology- rather than naturalness-
oriented, as is the case in its intrinsic counterpart. Consequently,
any act of extrinsic managing, regardless of how small it is, would
involve an ideological move whose weight usually far exceeds its
size. A classic example is the political fuss created over the Arabic
translation of the English original (which was mischievously
subjected to managing prior to translation activity) of the UN
resolution 242 in the aftermath of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War.
The English version called for the Israeli withdrawal from Arab
182
territories occupied in 1967, viz. “Withdrawal of Israel armed
forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict” (which
is syntactically ambiguous between an exhaustive and partitive
reading) rather than ʻʻthe territories occupied in in the recent conflictʼʼ
(which unambiguously produces the exhaustive interpretation).
Later on, when the resolution had to be translated into Arabic, a
serious problem arose from the rendition of the above phrase, as
monitoring the structure (rather than the pragmatic import) of the
said phrase would deviate from what was genuinely agreed upon,
thus generating a row over a premeditated Israeli interpretation
and an uncompromising Arab interpretation. Consequently, there
was a dire need for the Arabic version to extrinsically manage what
was originally managed (by way of creating the ambiguity) in the
English version by rendering the above phrase into al-ʼaraadiya-
l-ʻarabiyyati allati ʼuhtullat ʻthe Arab lands occupiedʼ rather than
ʼaraadin ʻarabiyyatin ʼuhtullat ʻArab lands occupiedʼ.
Reading into ST, therefore, may sometimes create
ideological obstacles. Witness how Khan and Hillali (1999)
interpretively read into verse 7 of the opening sura (fateha) of the
Holy Quran. They render it as “The way of those on whom You
have bestowed Your Grace, not (the way) of those who earned Your
Anger (such as the Jews), nor of those who went astray (such as the
Christians)”. The exemplification (i.e. the Jews and the Christians)
of the general references (i.e. those who earned Godʼs anger and
183
those who went astray) respectively points to a premeditated
ideological move on the translatorsʼ part. The translators have not
confined themselves to the unspecific/general references in the
Quranic verse. For some reason, possibly in an attempt to account
for the deeply rooted enmity between Muslims and Jews for one
thing, and the recently renewed friction between Muslims and the
Christian West for another thing, they decided to bring out what
they deem to be suppressed information by way of freely reading
into the above verse. By contrast, other translators of the Holy
Quran (Ali 1934; Arberry 1980; Pickthall 1980; and Zidan and
Zidan 1996) have confined themselves to the general references in
the verse. Zidan and Zidan, for example, offer the following: “The
way of those on whom you have endowed Your Grace, not the
way of those who earn Your wrath, nor of those who go astray”.
In the following pages, we shall examine translatorial ideological
moves at different levels by employing a variety of concocted and
authentic examples.
3.1 Lexis
At the lexical level, extrinsic managing is readily noted
in the translatorʼs choice between competing lexical items that
represent different ideologies or thought-worlds. The choice
is inherently motivated by the translatorʼs socio-political
commitments, convictions and background. News reports, which
184
3.1 Lexis
At the lexical level, extrinsic managing is readily noted in the translator's
choice between competing lexical items that represent different
ideologies or thought-worlds. The choice is inherently motivated by the
translator's socio-political commitments, convictions and background.
are supposed to monitor (relay the information as objectively as
News reports, which are supposed to monitor (relay the information as
possible) rather than manage the content, are full of instances of
objectively as possible) rather than manage the content, are full of
extrinsic managing at the lexical level. The following example
instances of extrinsic managing at the lexical level. The following
(whose Arabic rendition is typical of the Arabic discourse in the
example (whose Arabic rendition is typical of the Arabic discourse in the
pre-Oslo peace pact period and is still echoed by some anti-peace
pre-Oslo peace pact period and is still echoed by some anti-peace Arab
Arab parties), along with its extrinsically managed translation and
parties), along with its extrinsically managed translation and a back-
a back-translation, is only illustrative:
translation, is only illustrative:
(1) In an interview with Newsweek yesterday, the Israeli
Defense Minister said that the Palestinian suicide operations
constitute the main cause for the Israeli troops' entering
cities in the West Bank.
�� (2)

��
.��
/’ida‘aa waziiru- l-�arbi-s-suhyuuniyyu fii muqaabalatin

claimed minister the-war the-Zionist in interview
ma‘a majallati- l-nyuuzwiik ’amsi ’anna-l-‘amaliyyati-

with magazine the-Newsweek yesterday that the-operations
l-’istišhaadiyyata-l-filistiiniyyata hiya-s-sababu-l-ra’iisu fi-

the-martyrdom the-Palestinian 136 it the-cause the-main in
jtiyaa�i quwaati-l-’i�tilaali- s-suhyuuniyyi li-l-mudini-

storming forces the-occupation the-Zionist of- the-cities
l-fiilistiiniyyati fi-l-diffati- l-�arbiyyati- l-mu�tallah/

the-Palestinian in the-Bank the-West the-occupied
(3) In an interview with the Newsweek yesterday, the Zionist

War Minister claimed that the Palestinian martyrdom
185
operations are the main cause for the Zionist troops'
storming Palestinian cities in the occupied West Bank.
A simple comparison between the English text in (1) and the

English back-translation in (3) of the Arabic translation in (2) can readily
reveal the considerable amount of extrinsic lexical managing the text in
the-martyrdom the-Palestinian it the-cause the-main in
jtiyaa�i quwaati-l-’i�tilaali- s-suhyuuniyyi li-l-mudini-

storming forces the-occupation the-Zionist of- the-cities
l-fiilistiiniyyati fi-l-diffati- l-�arbiyyati- l-mu�tallah/

the-Palestinian in the-Bank the-West the-occupied
(3) In an interview with the Newsweek yesterday, the Zionist

War Minister claimed that the Palestinian martyrdom
operations are the main cause for the Zionist troops'
storming Palestinian cities in the occupied West Bank.
A simple comparison
A simple between
comparison the English
between text intext
the English (1) inand
(1)the
and
English
the back-translation in (3) of the
English back-translation inArabic
(3) of translation
the Arabicintranslation
(2) can readily
in (2)
reveal
canthereadily
considerable
revealamount of extrinsic lexical
the considerable amountmanaging the text
of extrinsic in
lexical
(1) has been subjected to. The thought-world which is presented in (3) is
managing the text in (1) has been subjected to. The thought-world
considerably different from that in (1). Until recently (and still in many
which is presented in (3) is considerably different from that in
Arab countries' discourse) in the Arab-Israeli context, texts such as (1)
(1). Until recently (and still in many Arab countriesʼ discourse) in
are usually subjected to extensive extrinsic managing by Arab translators
the Arab-Israeli context, texts such as (1) are usually subjected to
and/or editors. This act produces natural discourse in Arabic and receives
extensive extrinsic managing by Arab translators and/or editors.
a wide approval from the Arab audience. To a Western audience,
This act produces natural discourse in Arabic and receives a
however, a text like (3) sounds unnatural and biased; hence the dire need
wide approval from the Arab audience. To a Western audience,
to naturalize such texts by subjecting them to extensive intrinsic
however, a text like (3) sounds unnatural and biased; hence the
managing, in order to produce something like the text in (1). In cases
dire need to naturalize such texts by subjecting them to extensive
such as these, considerations relating to the audience’s expectations play
intrinsic managing, in order to produce something like the text in
a pivotal role, because they, in addition to the general policy/ideology
(1). In by
advocated cases
thesuch as these, considerations
agency/institution, determinerelating to the
the type of audienceʼs
discourse
optedexpectations play a pivotal
for. For example, it wouldrole, because they,for
be unimaginable in addition
Newsweekto to
the
general
employ policy/ideology
the expression advocated
the Zionist Entity by
for the agency/institution,
Israel in a political
determine
commentary or the typereport
a news of discourse optedconflict
as this would for. Forwith
example, it would be
the expectations
unimaginable for Newsweek to employ the expression the Zionist
Entity for Israel in a political137
commentary or a news report as this
would conflict with the expectations and taste of its mainstream
186
readers. One could argue that the ideology held by an institution
and generally
taste of itsreflects whatreaders.
mainstream the target
One audiences
could argueexpect of ideology
that the it. In the
and taste of its mainstream readers. One could argue that the ideology
held final
by an institution generallyisreflects whatasthe target audiences
and theexpect
held by ananalysis, discourse
institution presented
generally reflects what thecommodity
target audiences reader
expect
of it.asInconsumer
the final analysis,
(for morediscourse is presented
details, see Fairclough as commodity
1996). and the
of it. In the final analysis, discourse is presented as commodity and the
reader as consumer
One (for morefeature
important details,ofseeextrinsic
Fairclough 1996).managing is the
lexical
reader as consumer (for more details, see Fairclough 1996).
One important
translatorʼs feature
swapping of extrinsic
framing lexicalas managing
verbs (such say, claim,is the
One important feature of extrinsic lexical managing isadmit,
the
translator's swapping framing verbs
etc.) when (such as say, claim, admit, confirm,
confirm,
translator's concede,
swapping framing verbsreporting an event,
(such as say, claim,which
admit,isconfirm,
meant to
concede,
twist etc.) when reporting
the position toward the an state
event,of which
affairs is meant to Following
in question. twist the
concede, etc.) when reporting an event, which is meant to twist the
position
is antoward the state
illustrative of affairs
example in question.
(cited in ShunnaqFollowing is an Farghal
1994:106; illustrative
and
position toward the state of affairs in question. Following is an illustrative
example (cited1999:118),
Shunnaq in Shunnaq 1994:106; with Farghal and translation
Shunnaq 1999:118),
example (cited in Shunnaqalong 1994:106; an English
Farghal involving
and Shunnaq 1999:118),
alongdifferent
with an English
framingtranslation
verbs: involving different framing verbs:
along with an English translation involving different framing verbs:
�� (4)
�� (4)
.��
.��
(BBC, 23 Jan. 1991)
(BBC, 23 Jan. 1991)
/qaalat wazaaratu-d-difaa‘i- l-faransiyyatu ’inna taa’iraati-
/qaalat wazaaratu-d-difaa‘i- l-faransiyyatu ’inna taa’iraati-
said ministry the-defense the-French that planes
said ministry the-defense the-French that planes
l- jaaqwar al-qaaðifata al-muqaatilata qad qasafat mawaaqi‘a
l- jaaqwar al-qaaðifata al-muqaatilata qad qasafat mawaaqi‘a
the-Jaguar the-fighting the-bombing had bombed positions
the-Jaguar the-fighting the-bombing had bombed positions
�asiinatan li-l-madfa‘iyyati-l-‘iraaqiyyati fi-l-kuwayti wa
�asiinatan li-l-madfa‘iyyati-l-‘iraaqiyyati fi-l-kuwayti wa
fortified for-the-artillery the-Iraqi in the-Kuwait and
fortified for-the-artillery the-Iraqi in the-Kuwait and
‘aadat ’ilaa qawaa‘idi-haa saalimah/
‘aadat ’ilaa qawaa‘idi-haa saalimah/
returned to bases-their safe
returned to bases-their safe
(5) The French Defense Ministry said/claimed/admitted/
(5) The French Defense Ministry said/claimed/admitted/
confirmed/conceded that its Jaguar jet fighters had bombed
confirmed/conceded that its Jaguar jet fighters had bombed
well-fortified positions of the Iraqi artillery in Kuwait and
well-fortified positions of the Iraqi artillery in Kuwait and
they returned to their base safely.
they returned to their base safely.
187 could be attested only in the
It should be noted that monitoring
It should be noted that monitoring could be attested only in the
case of employing the framing verb said in (4); all the other framing
case of employing the framing verb said in (4); all the other framing
verbs involve extrinsic lexical managing. While the translator's option for
verbs involve extrinsic lexical managing. While the translator's option for
the verb claimed casts doubt on the credibility of the state of affairs in
the verb claimed casts doubt on the credibility of the state of affairs in
question, the use of the verb admitted and conceded indicates a previous
question, the use of the verb admitted and conceded indicates a previous
It should be noted that monitoring could be attested only
in the case of employing the framing verb said in (4); all the
other framing verbs involve extrinsic lexical managing. While
the translatorʼs option for the verb claimed casts doubt on the
credibility of the state of affairs in question, the use of the verb
admitted and conceded indicates a previous denial of that state
of affairs. As for the verb confirmed, it shows that the original
denial of that state of affairs. As for the verb confirmed, it shows that the
source of the news segment was not the French Defense Ministry.
original source of the news segment was not the French Defense
It is clear that the translatorʼs decision to monitor or manage in
Ministry. It is clear that the translator's decision to monitor or manage in
news reports is inherently relevant to his choice of framing verbs.
news reports is inherently relevant to his choice of framing verbs.
Different framing verbs usually embrace distinct thought-worlds
Different framing verbs usually embrace distinct thought-worlds or
or ideological moves.
ideological moves.
In some cases, extrinsic lexical managing is more subtle
In some cases, extrinsic lexical managing is more subtle than we
than we find in the examples above, as can be illustrated below:
find in the examples above, as can be illustrated below:
(6) On breaking news by the French News Agency, tens of Iraqi
civilians were killed and injured in an American air attack on
the city of Fallujah.
(7) On breaking news by the French News Agency, tens of

Palestinian civilians were killed and injured in an Israeli air
attack on Gaza Strip.
(8) fii xabarin ‘aajilin li-wakaalati-l-’anbaa’i-l-faransiyyati

in news urgent by-agency the-news the-French
qutila wa juri�a ‘ašaraatu-l-‘iraaqiyyiina-

be killed and injured tens the-Iraqis
l-madaniyyiina fii hujuumin jawwiyyin ’amriikiyyin

the-civilians in attack air
188 American
‘alaa madiinati-l-falluujah
on city the-Fallujah
�� /
/.��
attack on Gaza Strip.

qutila wa juri�a ‘ašaraatu-l-‘iraaqiyyiina-

be killed and injured tens the-Iraqis
l-madaniyyiina fii hujuumin jawwiyyin ’amriikiyyin

the-civilians in attack air American
‘alaa madiinati-l-falluujah
on city the-Fallujah
�� /
/.��

’istušhida wa juri�a ‘ašaraatu-l-filistiiniyyiina-

fell as martyrs and injured tens the-Palestinian
l-madaniyyiina fii hujuumin jawwiyyin ’israa’iiliyyin

the-civilians in attack air Israeli
‘alaa qitaa‘i �azzah

on Strip Gaza 139
�� /
/.��
TheThe Arabic
Arabic rendition
rendition of be
of be killed killedinas(8)qutila
as qutila in (8) and
and ’istušhida in
(9) depends on inthe
ʼistušhida (9)ideological
depends onorientation of the orientation
the ideological Arab medium. While
of the Arab
virtually all Arab
medium. media
While refer toall
virtually Palestinians
Arab mediakilled
referintoclashes with Israeli
Palestinians killed
forces as martyrs, these media split on the Iraqi issue – only very few
in clashes with Israeli forces as martyrs, these media split on the
refer to Iraqis killed in the aftermath of the American invasion as martyrs.
Iraqi issue – only very few refer to Iraqis killed in the aftermath of
To give an example, the widely viewed Al-Jazeera Channel in Qatar
the American invasion as martyrs. To give an example, the widely
would categorically use (8) in the Iraqi context but (9) in the Palestinian
viewed
context. intentionalChannel
ThisAl-Jazeera in Qatarthe
choice reflects would categorically
ideology use said
held by the (8) in
the Iraqi
medium. context
In this way, but
the (9) in the managing
extrinsic Palestinianofcontext. Thislexeme
one single intentional
can
subtly indicate deeply rooted ideologies.
189
Below are more examples of extrinsic lexical managing that
involve different ideological moves:
(10) a. al-�ukuumatu- l-suuriyyah vs. al-niðaamu-s-suurii
the-government the-Syrian the-regim the-Syrian
(9) depends on the ideological orientation of the Arab medium. While
virtually all Arab media refer to Palestinians killed in clashes with Israeli
forces as martyrs, these media split on the Iraqi issue – only very few
refer to Iraqis killed in the aftermath of the American invasion as martyrs.
To give an example, the widely viewed Al-Jazeera Channel in Qatar
would categorically use (8) in the Iraqi context but (9) in the Palestinian
choice reflects the ideology held by the said medium. In this way,
context. This intentional choice reflects the ideology held by the said
the extrinsic managing of one single lexeme can subtly indicate
medium. In this way, the extrinsic managing of one single lexeme can
deeply rooted ideologies.
subtly indicate deeply rooted ideologies.
Below are more examples of extrinsic lexical managing
Below are more examples of extrinsic lexical managing that
that involve different ideological moves:
involve different ideological moves:
(10) a. al-�ukuumatu- l-suuriyyah vs. al-niðaamu-s-suurii
the-government the-Syrian the-regim the-Syrian
�� : ��

'The Syrian government vs. The Syrian regime'
b. ar-ra’iisu- l-‘iraaqiyyu l-saabiq vs. ar-ra’iisu-

the-president the-Iraqi the-former the-president
l-‘iraaqiyyu-l-maxluu‘
the-Iraqi the-deposed
�� : ��

'The former Iraqi President vs. The deposed Iraqi
President'
c. �arbu-l-sab‘ati wa-sitiin vs. �arbu-l-’ayyaami-s-sittah

war the-seven and-sixty war the-days the-six
140
�� : ��
The 1967 War vs. The Six-day War
d. ‘amaliyyatun fidaa’iyyah vs. ‘amaliyyatun ’irhaabiyyah

operation resistance operation terrorist
�� : ��

'A resistance operation vs. A terrorist attack'
e. ad-duwalu- l-naamiyah vs. ad-duwalu-

190 the-countries
the-countries the-developing
l-mutaxallifah
the-backward
�� : ��

'Developing countries vs. Underdeveloped countries'
The 1967 War vs. The Six-day War
d. ‘amaliyyatun fidaa’iyyah vs. ‘amaliyyatun ’irhaabiyyah

operation resistance operation terrorist
�� : ��

'A resistance operation vs. A terrorist attack'
e. ad-duwalu- l-naamiyah vs. ad-duwalu-

the-countries the-developing the-countries
l-mutaxallifah
the-backward
�� : ��

'Developing countries vs. Underdeveloped countries'
f. muðaaharaat vs. ’a‘maalu ša�ab

demonstrations acts rioting
�� : ��

'demonstrations vs. riots'
h. quwwaatu-t-ta�aalufi fi-1-
fii al-‘iraaq vs. quwwaatu-
forces the-coalition in the-Iraq forces
t-’i�tilaali fi-l-‘iraaq
the-occupation in the-Iraq
�� : ��

'The coalition forces in Iraq vs. The occupation forces in
Iraq'
i. ’azmatu-s-suways vs. al-‘udwaanu- �-�ulaa�iyyu

crisis the-Suez the-aggression tripartite
‘alaa misr
on Egypt
��
141 �� : ��
The Suez Crisis vs. The Tripartite Aggression on Egypt
g. al-xaliiju-l-‘arabii vs. al-xaliiju-l-faarisii

the-Gulf the-Arab the-Gulf the-Persian
191
�� : ��
'The Arab Gulf vs. The Persian Gulf'
Let us examine only the first and last examples. The choice
between al-�ukuumatu-l-suuriyyah/The Syrian government and an-
�� : ��
The Suez Crisis vs. The Tripartite Aggression on Egypt
g. al-xaliiju-l-‘arabii vs. al-xaliiju-l-faarisii

the-Gulf the-Arab the-Gulf the-Persian
�� : ��

'The Arab Gulf vs. The Persian Gulf'
Letexamine
Let us us examine
onlyonly
the the
firstfirst
andand
lastlastexamples.
examples.The
Thechoice
choice
al-�ukuumatu-l-suuriyyah/The
between
between Syrian Syrian
al-ħukuumatu-l-suuriyyah/The government and an-
government and
niðaamu-s-suurii/The Syrian regime
an-niðaamu-s-suurii/The in regime
Syrian a translated text between
in a translated textEnglish
between
and English
Arabic isand
a significant
Arabic is aone. While the
significant one.former
While involves neutral
the former or
involves
objective reference,
neutral the reference,
or objective latter shows
the biased or pejorative
latter shows biased orreference.
pejorative
Similarly, the choice
reference. Similarly, theal-xaliiju-l-‘arabii
between choice between and al-xaliiju-l-faarisii
al-xaliiju-l-ʻarabii and
in a translation reflects rival claims over the Gulf by the Arabs and the
al-xaliiju-l-faarisii in a translation reflects rival claims over the
Persians. The choice between x and y may be costly for the translator, as
Gulf by the Arabs and the Persians. The choice between x and y
any oversight may cost him his job, if not something dearer to him. It
may be costly for the translator, as any oversight may cost him his
would be so odd, if not fatal, for a translator working for a newspaper or
job, if not something dearer to him. It would be so odd, if not fatal,
any other medium in an Arab country to render The Persian Gulf in an
for a translator working for a newspaper or any other medium in
English text as al-xaliiju-l-faarisii in his Arabic translation.
an Arab country to render The Persian Gulf in an English text as
Consequently, there are cases where extrinsic managing may be
al-xaliiju-l-faarisii in his Arabic translation. Consequently, there
necessary for practical considerations, which include commissioners’
are cases
dictates where extrinsic
and readers’ managing
expectations. mayinbesome
However, necessary for practical
cases where such
considerations,
considerations which includea commissionersʼ
are marginalized, dictates
rendition reflecting the and readersʼ
producer’s
expectations.
ideology However,To
becomes necessary. in give
somea cases
recent where such
example, considerations
when the Iranian
are marginalized,
President Ahmadi Najada (a
rendition reflecting
guest observer) the producerʼs
addressed the Gulf ideology
States’
becomes
summit necessary.
conference To this
in Qatar giveyear
an (2007),
example,
he when the Persian
used the Iranian
expression corresponding
President to ‘the
Ahmadi Najad (a Persian Gulf” several
guest observer) times. the
addressed Every
Gulf
time, the interpreter rightly rendered it as �� [the-Gulf the-
192
Persian] because it represents a premeditated ideological move that
carries political consequences. Later on, some Arab commentators
142
Statesʼ summit conference in Qatar in 2007, he used the Persian
expression corresponding to ʻthe Persian Gulf” several times.
Every time, the interpreter rightly rendered it as w�—UH�« ZOK)« [the-
Gulf the-Persian] because it represents a premeditated ideological
move that carries political consequences. Later on, some Arab
commentators blamed Arab Gulf Statesʼ Heads for remaining
quiescent about such a sensitive matter.
As can be noted, the examples of managing given in this
section involve more predicates (common nouns, verbs, and
adjectives) than proper nouns (which have unique reference). This
does not mean that proper nouns are less vulnerable to managing
than predicates in translation. The choice between proper nouns
denoting the same thing such as Israel vs. Palestine, Hebron vs.
Al-Khalil, Jerusalem vs. Al-Quds, Solomon vs. Suleiman, David
vs. Dawood, etc. may also indicate ideological moves. To explain,
the avoidance of proper nouns that have a biblical ring to them
may mean to emphasize the Arab-Islamic identity of the referents.
For example, the employment of Palestine rather than Israel or
Al-Khalil instead of Hebron, when translating between Arabic
and English, may transpire deep historical and political claims
and convictions on the part of the translator and/or the party
commissioning the translation. Witness how the Arab translator in
(11) renders the Temple Mount in (12) as al-masjidu-l-ʼaqsaa ʻAl-
Aqsa Mosqueʼ rather than jabalu-l-haikal in the following text:
193
English, may transpire deep historical and political claims and
convictions on the part of the translator and/or the party commissioning
the translation. Witness how the Arab translator in (11) renders the
Temple Mount in (12) as al-masjidu-l-’aqsaa 'Al-Aqsa Mosque' rather
than jabalu-l-haikal in the following text:
(11) After Israeli police and Palestinian demonstrators clashed on
the Temple Mount a year ago and 21 Arabs were shot dead,
a number of Palestinians retaliated with knife attacks on Jews
inside Israel proper. (The Washington Post, Jan. 21, 1992)
�� (12)

��
.��
(Al-Ra'i, Jan. 27, 1992)
/ba‘da ’an ’istadamat-š-šurtatu- l-’israa’iiliyyatu wa-
after that clashed the-police the-Israeli and
l-mutaðaahiruuna-l-filistiiniyyuuna fi-l-masjidi- l-’aqsaa

the-demonstrators the-Palestinian in the-Mosque the-Aqsa
qabla sanatin …./

before year
Translating
Translating a newsareport,
news itreport,
would itbewould
143 be ridiculous
ridiculous for the
for the translator
translator
addressing addressing
an Arab audience an Arab The
to render audience
Temple to render
Mount The ��
as �� Temple
for
reasons.asFirstly,
two Mount andfor
qJON�« q�� twoimportantly,
most reasons. Firstly, and most
this would importantly,
give credence to
thisclaims
Jewish wouldover
give
thecredence to Jewish
referent and, claims over
consequently, shockthe referent
informed and,
Arab
readers. Secondly, some
consequently, shockuninformed
informed Arab
Arabreaders maySecondly,
readers. not be ablesome
to
understand the signification
uninformed of the
Arab readers reference
may not be(i.e. the tofactunderstand
able that the two
the
referring of jabalu-l-haikal
expressions
signification the reference and
(i.e.al-masjidu-l-aqsaa represent
the fact that the the
two referring
sameexpressions
denotatum), jabalu-l-haikal
thus creating serious
and processing problems. To
al-masjidu-l-aqsaa avoid
represent
suchthe
mishaps, the translator'sthus
same denotatum), ideological
creatingintervention proves necessary.
serious processing problems.
However, one could imagine a context where the translator of an
To avoid such mishaps, the translatorʼs ideological intervention
argumentative text should render The Temple Mount as �� , in order
proves necessary. However, one could imagine a context where
to have his audience realize where, for example, the American
the translator of an argumentative text should render The Temple
government stands on the issue of reference to the denotatum in question.
194 managing relating to a proper
Another similar example of lexical
name, though some may argue that it is less justified, is Abdel-Sabour's
(1999) translation of Frinklestone's (1996) book's title Anwar Sadat:
Visionary who dared into �� :�� 'Sadat: The Illusion of
Challenge'. One can readily observe the contrasting orientations created
Mount as qJON�« q��, in order to have his audience realize where,
for example, the American government stands on the issue of
reference to the denotatum in question.
Another similar example of lexical managing relating to
a proper name, though some may argue that it is less justified,
is Abdel-Sabourʼs (1999) translation of Frinklestoneʼs (1996)
bookʼs title Anwar Sadat: Visionary who dared into r�Ë ∫ «œU��«
Íb��« ʻSadat: The Illusion of Challengeʼ. One can readily observe
the contrasting orientations created by the original title (which
presents Al-Sadat as a visionary) and its Arabic translation (which
presents Al-Sadat as a deluded leader). This clear translatorial
ideological move is borne out throughout the translation. Given
the controversial, but mostly negative, position toward Anwar
Al-Sadat, who sailed away from his Arab brethren and all alone
concluded a peace agreement with Israel in 1979, the translator
opted to twist the originalʼs thought-world by presenting one that
is more congruent with the mainstream sentiment of his target
audience (Arab readers). Of course, one can raise the question
of fidelity in this case, that is, the translator turning a pro-Sadat
original into an anti-Sadat translation. However, considerations
of the translator as active agent and the audience as an influential
contextual factor may play down the relevance of fidelity. Actually
and apart from translation critics, one can hardly imagine that
an ordinary reader would ever juxtapose the original with the
195
is, the translator turning a pro-Sadat original into an anti-Sadat
translation. However, considerations of the translator as active agent and
the audience as an influential contextual factor may play down the
relevance of fidelity.
translation Actually
to check and apart
fidelity. from translation
Normally, the readercritics,
would onegocan
for
hardly imagine
either that an ordinary
the original reader would
or the translation but ever juxtapose
not both, the original
depending on his
with linguistic
the translation to check
repertoire. fidelity.
It is only inNormally, the reader
the contrived worldwould go for
of academia
eitherthat
thetheoriginal or the
translation translation
is often but in
analyzed notlight
both,of depending on his
the original.
linguistic repertoire. It is only in the contrived world of academia that the
3.2 Syntax
translation is often analyzed in light of the original.
At the syntactic level, extrinsic managing may manifest
3.2 Syntax
itself through the translatorʼs treatment of agency, modality and
At the syntactic level, extrinsic managing may manifest itself through the
evaluativeness, among other things. Agency refers to whether
translator's treatment of agency, modality and evaluativeness, among
the agent or doer of an action is mentioned or suppressed in the
other things. Agency refers to whether the agent or doer of an action is
translation. The translator may choose to befog the responsibility
mentioned or suppressed in the translation. The translator may choose to
of a wrongdoing by hiding the agent, despite the fact that it is
befog the responsibility of a wrongdoing by hiding the agent, despite the
explicit in the original. Following is an illustrative example, along
fact that it is explicit in the original. Following is an illustrative example,
with its extrinsically managed renditions:
along with its extrinsically managed renditions:
(13) qatalat-il-quwwatu-l-’israa’iiliyyatu �alaa�ata šubbaanin
killed the-forces the-Israeli three youths
filistiiniyyiina fi-l-qudsi- š-šarqiyyati haða-s-sabaa�

Palestinian in the-Jerusalem the-East this the-morning
�� /

/.��
(14) Three Palestinian youths were killed in East Jerusalem

this morning.
(15) Three Palestinian youths were killed in clashes with Israeli
troops in East Jerusalem this morning.
Both (14) and (15) show extrinsic syntactic managing at different

degrees. On the one hand, the translator
196hides the agent of the killing in
145
Both (14) and (15) show extrinsic syntactic managing at
different degrees. On the one hand, the translator hides the agent
of the killing in (14), despite the fact that the doer is explicitly
(14), despite the fact that the doer is explicitly stated in the Arabic
stated in the Arabic version; hence, the uninformed receiver may
version; hence, the uninformed receiver may wonder who did the killing.
wonder who did the killing. On the other hand, the translator in
On the other hand, the translator in (15) befogs the responsibility of the
(15) befogs the responsibility of the killing by ascribing the agency
killing by ascribing the agency to both Palestinians and Israeli forces,
to both Palestinians and Israeli forces, thus intentionally avoiding
thus intentionally avoiding putting the blame on the Israeli troops in this
putting the blame on the Israeli troops in this incident.
incident.
Extrinsic syntactic managing may also target modality (the
Extrinsic syntactic managing may also target modality (the way the
way the text producer views states of affairs in terms of degrees of
text producer views states of affairs in terms of degrees of certainty
certainty (epistemic modality) or obligation (deontic modality)),
(epistemic modality) or obligation (deontic modality)), thus seriously
thus seriously altering the thought-world presented in the SL text,
altering the thought-world presented in the SL text, as can be illustrated
as can be illustrated in the following English example, along with
in the following English example, along with its extrinsically managed
its extrinsically managed Arabic translation:
Arabic translation:
(16) The Head of the International Investigation Commission in
the assassination of the Lebanese former Prime Minister
Rafiq Al-Hariri said that some Syrian officials may have
been involved in this crime.
(17) qaala ra’iisu lajnati- t-ta�qiiqi- d-duwaliyyati

said head committee the-investigation the-international
fi- �tiyaali ra’iisi-l-wuzaraa’i-l-lubnaaniyyi-s-saabiqi

in assassination head the-ministers the-Lebanese the-former
rafiiq- il-�ariirii ’inna ba‘da-l-mas’uuliyyiina-l-suuriyyiina

Rafiq thel-Hariri that some the-officials the-Syrian
mutawarrituuna fii haaðihi-l-jariimah

are involved in this 197 the-crime
�� /
/��
As can be noted, the alleged Syrian involvement, which is a mere

possibility in (16), becomes an absolute certainty in the Arabic translation
said head committee the-investigation the-international
fi- �tiyaali ra’iisi-l-wuzaraa’i-l-lubnaaniyyi-s-saabiqi

in assassination head the-ministers the-Lebanese the-former
rafiiq- il-�ariirii ’inna ba‘da-l-mas’uuliyyiina-l-suuriyyiina

Rafiq thel-Hariri that some the-officials the-Syrian
mutawarrituuna fii haaðihi-l-jariimah

are involved in this the-crime
�� /
/��
As can be As can the

noted, be noted,
alleged the alleged
Syrian Syrian involvement,
involvement, which
which is a mere
is a mere
possibility possibility
in (16), becomesinan(16), becomes
absolute an absolute
certainty certainty
in the Arabic in the
translation
Arabic
in (17), translation
due to in (17),
the translator's due to the
intervention translatorʼs
in the modality ofintervention
the original. in
the modality of the original.
In some cases, the translator may opt to change epistemic
146
modality to deontic modality, thus twisting a cautious tone into
In some cases, the translator may opt to change epistemic modality
an aggressive one. The following excerpt comes from an English
to deontic modality, thus twisting a cautious tone into an aggressive one.
translation of an editorial (in the form of an open letter) addressed
The following excerpt comes from an English translation of an editorial
to Dr. Bashar Al-Asad (who was then charged with the Lebanese
(in the form of an open letter) addressed to Dr. Bashar Al-Asad (who was
file / now president of Syria) by Jubran Tweni of the leading
then charged with the Lebanese file / now president of Syria) by Jubran
Lebanese
Tweni daily Lebanese
of the leading on 23/3/2000,
Al-Nahardaily Al-Nahar onalong with along
23/3/2000, the Arabic
with
original
the Arabic (for more
original details,
(for more see see
details, Badran 2001):
Badran 2001):
(18) You must understand that there is bad blood between some
Lebanese and the Syrian Army, that our generation inherited
the civil war, but did not initiate it, that we were not
warmongers, and that there are no such things as eternal wars
and eternal enemies.
�� (19)
��
.��
/’anta ta’rifu ’anna �ammata daman bayna ba‘di-l-lubnaaniyyiina

you know that there blood between some the-Lebanese
198 wa ta‘rifu ’anna jiila
wa al-jayši- l-suuriyyi fii lubnaan
and the-army the-Syrian in Lebanon and that that generation
-naa wari�a- l-harba wa lam yakun sababa-haa wa ’anna-na

-our inherited the-war and not was reason-it and that-we
las-naa huwaati huruubin ’abadiyyatin wa ’annahu laysa

�� (19)
��
.��
/’anta ta’rifu ’anna �ammata daman bayna ba‘di-l-lubnaaniyyiina

you know that there blood between some the-Lebanese
wa al-jayši- l-suuriyyi fii lubnaan wa ta‘rifu ’anna jiila

and the-army the-Syrian in Lebanon and that that generation
-naa wari�a- l-harba wa lam yakun sababa-haa wa ’anna-na

-our inherited the-war and not was reason-it and that-we
las-naa huwaati huruubin ’abadiyyatin wa ’annahu laysa

not-we mongers wars eternal and that not
hunaalika min huruubin ’abadiyyatin ’aw ‘adaa’aatin ’abadiyyah/

there from wars eternal or enemies eternal
It is It
clear that that
is clear what is viewed
what as as
is viewed epistemically known
epistemically bybythe
known the
addressee in the
addressee in SL
the text (i.e.(i.e.
SL text ‘You know
ʻYou thatthat
know …’) is isprojected
…ʼ) asasanan
projected
obligation to betomet
obligation be by
metthe
byaddressee (i.e. ‘You
the addressee must must
(i.e. ʻYou understand that
understand
…’).that
This…ʼ).
pervasive
This feature of the
pervasive Englishoftranslation
feature in question
the English turnsin
translation
question turns the cautious original into an aggressive translation,
although the content is generally preserved.
147
In other cases, changing the modality, perhaps inadvertently,
can seriously affect the ideology embodied in the discourse. The
following example, taken from Victims of a Map – a group of
selected poems by M. Darwish, S. Al-Qasim, and A. Adonis,
and translated by Abdullah Al-Udhari (1984), demonstrates how
altering a remote possibility (epistemic modality) to general
obligation (deontic modality) renders a different ideological move.
(The excerpt comes from Darwishʼs poem W�«b��« bO�√ Ê√ w� ÊU� «–≈ ʼIf I
Were to Start All Over Againʼ):
199
Darwish, S. Al-Qasim, and A. Adonis, and translated by Abdullah Al-
Udhari, demonstrates how altering a remote possibility (epistemic
modality) to general obligation (deontic modality) renders a different
ideological move. (The excerpt comes from Darwish's poem ��
�� 'If I Were to Start All Over Again'):
�� (20)
.��
/’a‘uudu ’iðaa kaana l-ii ’an ’a‘uuda ’ilaa wardat-ii
return (I) if was for-me that return to rose-my
nafsihaa wa laakinna-nii laa ’a‘uudu ’ilaa qurtubah/

itself and but-I not return to Cordova
(21) I will return if I have to return, to my roses, to my steps

But I will never go back to Cordova.
In apart
In (21), (21), from
apartproblems
from problems
with thewith thesymbols
poetic poetic symbols (for
(for details,
details, and
see Farghal see Naji
Farghal
2000and
andNaji 20004),
Chapter andtheChapter 4),ofthe
modality themodality
discourseof
the discourse
presented presented
by the translator by the translator
is significantly is significantly
different different
from that entertained
from
by the thatTo
poet. entertained by the
explain, the poet. Toviews
translation explain,
'the the translation
return' views
in terms of
general
ʻtheobligation
returnʼ in (if I have
terms to return),
of general thus calling
obligation intotoquestion
(if I have return), the
thus
cherished desire
calling to return the
into question to the occupieddesire
cherished land to
(Palestine),
return to whereas the
the occupied
poet land
envisions 'the return'
(Palestine), as athe
whereas remote possibilityʻthe
poet envisions (’iðaa kaana
returnʼ as aliiremote
’an
’a‘uuda 'if I were
possibility to return'),
(ʼiðaa kaana liiwhile
ʼan maintaining
ʼaʻuuda ʻif this long-cherished
I were to returnʼ),
desire. As maintaining
while is clear, we this
havelong-cherished
two different desire.
modalities which
As is clear,embrace
we have
considerably diverging
two different ideologies.
modalities Taken
which in good
embrace faith, this modality
considerably diverging
mismatch may beTaken
ideologies. a mereininaccuracy
good faith,onthis
the modality
translator’s part. However,
mismatch may be
a mere inaccuracy on the translatorʼs part. However, regardless
148
of how we view it, such a mismatch produces consequential
ideological outcomes.
The translator may also opt to fiddle with the evaluativeness

of a rebutting SL text by ignoring some syntactic (and lexical)
200
regardless of how we view it, such a mismatch produces consequential
ideological outcomes.
The translator may also opt to fiddle with the evaluativeness of a
emphatic
rebutting markers
SL text (for details,
by ignoring somesee Farghal(and
syntactic 1991). This will
lexical) result
emphatic
in weakening
markers (for details,the
seeimpact of1991).
Farghal the message in the
This will TL,inas
result can be shown
weakening the
impact of the message in the TL, as can be shown below:
below:
�� (22)
��
.��
/’inna- l-‘ulamaa’a wa- l-mufakkiriina- l-‘araba- llaðiina
verily the-scientists and the-intellectuals the-Arab who
haajaruu min ’awtaani-him- il-’asliyyati wa- staqrruu fi-

migrated from countries-their the-original and settled in
l-�arbi qaddamuu wa maazaaluu yuqaddimuuna ’ishaamaatin

the-West made and still making contributions
ma‘rifiyyatan haamatan li-l-bašariyyati jam‘aa’/

epistemological important for-the-humanity all
(23) Arab scientists and intellectuals who migrated from their

home countries and settled in the West have made some
epistemological contributions for humanity.
(24) Arab scientists and intellectuals who migrated from their

home countries and settled in the West indeed made and
are still making important epistemological contributions
for humanity at large.
A simple
A simple comparison
comparison betweenbetween the renditions
the renditions in (24)
in (23) and (23)can
and
show(24)
the can show theindiscrepancy
discrepancy the degree ofintheir
the degree of their (While
evaluativeness evaluativeness
(23) is
(While
hardly (23) is
evaluative, hardly
(24) evaluative,
is highly (24)due
evaluative), is to
highly evaluative),
the translator's due
toning
downtothe
themessage
translatorʼs toning text).
in the Arabic downTherefore,
the message in the Arabic
to strengthen text.
the impact
Therefore,
of the to text
message, the strengthen
producerthe
mayimpact
employof thesyntactic
both message,and the text
lexical
evaluativeness markers (such as the boldfaced segments in (22)), which
201
149
producer may employ both syntactic and lexical evaluativeness
markers (such as the boldfaced segments in (22)), which an
intolerant translator may just dispense with by exercising extrinsic
managing.
As is clear in this section, extrinsic managing at the level

of syntax can be linguistically discerned and described, but its
impact is ideologically far-reaching, regardless of how small the
managed feature is. It should be noted that, in some cases, the
translation loss may result from the translatorʼs inability to relay,
for instance, an evaluativeness marker properly. In such cases,
what we have are mishaps relating to translational competence
rather than a conscious option for extrinsic managing on the part
of the translator. In the next section, we shall examine global
extrinsic managing at the levels of discourse and/or culture.
3.3 Discourse and/or Culture

Unlike extrinsic lexical and syntactic managing, extrinsic
managing at the levels of discourse and/or culture is difficult to
pinpoint in terms of managed linguistic features because of its
global rather than local nature. A classic example is Fitzgeraldʼs
translation of Omar Al-Khayyamʼs Rubaiyat, where the translator
intentionally renders the religious, mystical atmosphere in the
Persian SL text into a secular, hedonistic one in his English
translation. Hence, divine love and wine in the original Persian
202
poem become human love and wine in the English translation.
His decision to do so was apparently motivated by the literary
and cultural taste of his target audience rather than a commitment
to relay SL culture values. Fitzgerald himself wrote in a letter
to his friend E. B. Cowell (cited in Lefevere, 1992: 77) “It is an
amusement for me to take whatever liberties I like with these
Persians, who (as I think) are not Poets enough to frighten one
from excursions and who really do want a little art to shape them”.
In this context, Lefevere (1992) rightly remarks, “Fitzgerald would
never have taken the same liberties with classical Greek or Roman
authors, not only because they represented a superior culture but
would never have taken the same liberties with classical Greek or Roman
also because there were too many experts around who could check
authors, not only because they represented a superior culture but also
his translation”.
because there were too many experts around who could check his
translation".Interestingly, the celebrity translation of Rubaiyat by
Ahmed Rami, the
Interestingly, which was translation
celebrity performedofby the renowned
Rubaiyat Egyptian
by Ahmed Rami,
woman
which singer Umby
was performed Kulthum, was based
the renowned on thewoman
Egyptian Frenchsinger
translation
Um
(which
Kulthum, apparently
was used
based on the the English
French translation
translation as a ST) rather
(which apparently than
used the
the translation
English Persian original.
as a ST)Byrather
way than
of illustration,
the Persian witness
original. the
By thematic
way of
similarity
illustration, between
witness the English
the thematic excerpt
similarity inthe
between (25) and excerpt
English its Arabic
in
(25) counterpart
and its Arabicincounterpart
(26) below:in (26) below:
(25) Dreaming when Dawn's Left Hand was in the Sky
I heard a Voice within the Tavern cry,
"Awake, my little ones, and fill the Cup
Before Life's Liquor in its Cup be dry."
�� :�� (26)

�� 203��
/sami‘tu sawtan haatifan fi- s-sa�ar
heard (I) voice shouting in the-dawn
naadaa min- al-�aan �ufaata- l-bašar

calling from the-tavern sleeping the-humans
hubbuu ’imla’uu ka’sa-l-munaa qabla ’an

illustration, witness the thematic similarity between the English excerpt in
(25) and its Arabic counterpart in (26) below:
(25) Dreaming when Dawn's Left Hand was in the Sky
I heard a Voice within the Tavern cry,
"Awake, my little ones, and fill the Cup
Before Life's Liquor in its Cup be dry."
�� :�� (26)

��
/sami‘tu sawtan haatifan fi- s-sa�ar
heard (I) voice shouting in the-dawn
naadaa min- al-�aan �ufaata- l-bašar

calling from the-tavern sleeping the-humans
hubbuu ’imla’uu ka’sa-l-munaa qabla ’an

hurry on fill glass the-desired before that
tamla’a ka’sa-l-‘umri kaffu- l-qadar/

fill glass the-age palm the-Destiny
In particular,
In particular, one note
one should should note the
the secular, secular,atmosphere
hedonistic hedonistic
atmosphere
created created
in the Arabic in the Arabic
translation translation
which exactly which
mirrors that exactly mirrors
of the English
one. that
In of
both
the cases,
Englishwe witness
one. In bothextrinsic
cases, wemanaging at the levels
witness extrinsic of
managing
discourse
at theand culture,
levels although and
of discourse this culture,
managingalthough
is in disguise in the Arabic
this managing is in
text, disguise
as it is a in
relay
thetranslation (a as
Arabic text, translation of a translation
it is a relay translation into a fourth
(a translation
language
of a -translation
Arabic) rather than
into a afourth
translation of the -Persian
language Arabic)original.
rather than a
translation of the Persian original.
151
News reports are probably the most vulnerable to extrinsic
managing at the level of discourse. News translators and/or editors
often intervene in the original news item by changing, deleting
or adding segments, in order to make ideological moves that are
congruent with institutionalized policies set by various political
bodies. To see the difference between monitoring and extrinsic
managing in news reporting, let us first look at two BBC news
204
managing at the level of discourse. News translators and/or editors often
intervene in the original news item by changing, deleting or adding
segments, in order to make ideological moves that are congruent with
institutionalized policies set by various political bodies. To see the
difference between monitoring and extrinsic managing in news reporting,
let usitems (one at
first look in two
English
BBC and
newsthe other
items in Arabic),
(one in Englishwhere monitoring
and the other in
is predominant.
Arabic), They both
where monitoring reflect the objectivity
is predominant. They bothand neutrality
reflect the
of the and
objectivity BBC radio service
neutrality (These
of the BBC examples
radio and theexamples
service (These related and
ones
below ones
the related are cited
belowinareAl-Shamali (1992); also
cited in Al-Shamali seealso
(1992); Shunnaq (1994)
see Shunnaq
forfor
(1994) similar
similardata):
data):
(27) PLO Chairman Mr. Yaser Arafat opened the Palestine
National Council meetings in Tunis today. The PNC will
discuss the Palestinian participation in the proposed Mideast
peace conference to be held in Madrid next month. Israel
rejects any role for the PLO in the conference and insists that
it will only talk to Palestinian representatives from the
occupied territories.
�� (28)
�� .��
��
�� .��
��
��
.��
/’iftata�a-s-sayyid yaasir ‘arafaat ra’iisu munaððmati-
opened the-Mr Yaser Arafat president organization
t-ta�riiri- l-filistiiniyyati ’ijtimaa‘aati-l-majlisi- l-wataniyyi-

the-liberation the-Palestinian meetings the-council the-national
l-filistiiniyyi fii tuunisa- lyawma wa sawfa yunaaqišu-l-majlisu-

the-Palestinian in Tunis today and will discuss the-council
l-mušaarakata- l-filistiiniyyata fii mu’tamari-s-salaami-

the-participation the-Palestinian in conference the-peace
152
205
l-muqtara�i �awla-š-šarqi- l-’awsati wa- l-mutawaqa‘i
l-muqtara�i
the-proposed �awla-š-šarqi- the-Easti wa-
about the-Middle l-’awsat l-mutawaqa‘i
and the-expected
the-proposed about the-Middle the-East and the-expected
’in‘iqaadu-hu fi-l-‘aasimati- l-’isbaaniyyati madriida fi-š-
’in‘iqaadu-hu in
holding-it fi-l-‘aas imati-the-Spanish
the-capital l-’isbaaniyyatiMadrid
madriidainfi-š-
the-
holding-it in the-capital the-Spanish Madrid in the-
šahri- l-qaadim haaðaa wa tarfudu ’israa’iilu ’ayya dawrin
šahri-
month l-qaadim
the-next haaðaa
this wa rejectu ’israa’iilu
and tarfud Israel ’ayyaany dawrin
role
month the-next this and reject Israel any role
li-munaððamati- t-ta�riiri- l-filistiiniyyati fi-l-mu’tamar

li-munaðð amati- t-ta�riiri- l-filistiiniyyati in
for-organization the-liberation the-Palestinian fi-l-mu’tamar
the-conference
for-organization the-liberation the-Palestinian in the-conference
wa tusirru ‘alaa ’anna-haa lan tata�adda�a ’illaa ma‘a
wa tus
and irru ‘alaa
insist ’anna-haa lan
on that-she not tata�adda�a
talk ’illaa
except ma‘a
with
and insist on that-she not talk except with
muma��iliina filistiiniyyiina min- al-’ardi-l-mu�talah/
muma��iliina filistiiniyyiinafrom
representatives Palestinian al-’ardi-l-mu�talah/
min-the-land the-occupied
representatives Palestinian from the-land the-occupied
One can Onereadily note note
can readily the strict monitoring
the strict monitoringprocess between
process the
between
One can readily note the strict monitoring process between the
BBCthe English
BBC and Arabic
English andversions
Arabicofversions
the newsofitem the in
news(27)item
and in
(28).
(27)This
and
BBC English and Arabic versions of the news item in (27) and (28). This
institutionalized policy has won the
(28). This institutionalized BBC has
policy an unrivalled
won the BBC popularity all over
an unrivalled
institutionalized policy has won the BBC an unrivalled popularity all over
the world. Unfortunately,
popularity all over monitoring
the world.news reports is themonitoring
Unfortunately, exception rathernews
the world. Unfortunately, monitoring news reports is the exception rather
than reports
the rule,is as thecan be illustrated
exception ratherbythan the the
Arabic
rule,versions
as can be of the same
illustrated
than the rule, as can be illustrated by the Arabic versions of the same
newsby item
theas relayed
Arabic by Radio
versions of Israel
the sameand news
Radioitem
Jordan as in (29) and
relayed by (30),
Radio
news item as relayed by Radio Israel and Radio Jordan in (29) and (30),
respectively:
Israel and Radio Jordan in (29) and (30), respectively:
respectively:
�� (29)
��
��
��
��
��
��
�� (29)
��
��
��
��
��
��
� ��
��
� ��
��
.��
�
/’iftata�a yaasir ‘arafaat ra’iisu- l-munaðð.amati �� ’ijtimaa‘aati-
��
/’iftata�a yaasir ‘arafaat ra’iisu- l-munaðð
opened Yaser Arafat president the-organization meetings amati ’ijtimaa‘aati-
opened Yaser Arafat president206 the-organization meetings
l-majlisi- l-wataniyyi- l-filistiiniyyi fii tuunisa- lyawma
l-majlisi- l-wat
the-council aniyyi- the-Palestinian
the-national l-filistiiniyyi fii in tuunisa-
Tunis today lyawma
the-council the-national the-Palestinian in Tunis today
news item as relayed by Radio Israel and Radio Jordan in (29) and (30),
respectively:
�� (29)
��
��
��
.��
/’iftata�a yaasir ‘arafaat ra’iisu- l-munaððamati ’ijtimaa‘aati-
opened Yaser Arafat president the-organization meetings
l-majlisi- l-wataniyyi- l-filistiiniyyi fii tuunisa- lyawma

the-council the-national the-Palestinian in Tunis today
wasat
wasat a xilaafaatin
a xilaafaatin �awla
�awla iiniyyiina
mušaarakati-l-filist
mušaarakati-l-filist fiifii
iiniyyiina
among
among differences about
differences participation
about the-Palestinian
participation the-Palestinianin in
153 �awla-
mu’tamari-s-salaami-l-muqtara�i
mu’tamari-s-salaami-l-muqtara�i š-šarqi-
�awla- l-’awsat
š-šarqi- i i
l-’awsat
conference
conference the-peacethe-proposed
the-peace the-proposed about
about the-East
the-East the-Middle
the-Middle
wa-
wa- l-manwiyyi’in‘iqaadu-hu
l-manwiyyi ’in‘iqaadu-hufiifii madriida
madriida fi-fi- š-šahri- l-qaadim
š-šahri- l-qaadim
and
and the-intended
the-intended holding-its in in
holding-its Madridin in
Madrid the-month
the-month the-next
the-next
wawalanlan yakuuna
yakuunali-li-l-munaðð
l-munaðð amati
amati ’ayyu
’ayyu dawrin
dawrin fi-fi-
and
and won't
won't bebe for-the-organization
for-the-organization any role
any role in in
l-mu’tamar wawasa-yuma��ilu-l-jaaniba-l-filist
l-mu’tamar sa-yuma��ilu-l-jaaniba-l-filist iiniyya
iiniyya
the-conference
the-conference and
and will-represent
will-represent the-sidethe-Palestinian
the-side the-Palestinian
muma��iluunamin
muma��iluuna minsukaani-
sukaani- l-manaat iq/iq/
l-manaat
representatives
representatives from
from population
population the-territories
the-territories
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
�� (30(30
) )
��
��
��
��
��
� ��
��
��
��
��
��
��
� ��
��
��
��
��
.��
.��
��
��
��
/’iftata�a-s-sayyid
/’iftata�a-s-sayyid yaasir
yaasir ‘arafaat
‘arafaat ra’iisu dawlati
ra’iisu dawlati filist
filist iina
iina
openedthe-Mr
opened the-Mr Yaser YaserArafat
Arafatpresident
president state Palestine
state Palestine
’ijtimaa‘aati-l-majlisi-l-wat
’ijtimaa‘aati-l-majlisi- l-wat aniyyi-
aniyyi- l-filist iiniyyifiifii
iiniyyi
l-filist tuunisa-
tuunisa-
meetings the-council
meetings the-council the-national
the-national the-Palestinian
the-Palestinian inTunis
inTunis
lyawma
lyawma wawasawfa
sawfa yunaaqišu-l-majlisu-l-mušaarakata-
yunaaqišu-l-majlisu- l-mušaarakata-
today and
today and will discuss
will discuss the-council
the-council the-participation
the-participation
l-filist
l-filist iiniyyata
iiniyyata fiifii mu’tamari-s-salaami-l-muqtara�i
mu’tamari-s-salaami-l-muqtara�i
207 �awla-
�awla-
the-Palestinian
the-Palestinian in in conference
conference the-peacethe-proposed
the-peace the-proposed about
about
š-šarqi-l-’awsat
š-šarqi- l-’awsat
i i wa-
wa- llaðii
llaðii sa-yu‘qadufi-fi-
sa-yu‘qadu l-‘aas
l-‘aas imati-
imati-
the-East
the-East the-Middle
the-Middle and
and which
which will-be
will-be held
held in in the-capital
the-capital
l-’isbaaniyyati
l-’isbaaniyyati madriida
madriida fi-fi- š-šahri- l-qaadim/
š-šahri- l-qaadim/
the-Spanish Madrid
the-Spanish Madridin in the-month
the-month the-next
the-next
opened the-Mr Yaser Arafat president state Palestine
’ijtimaa‘aati-l-majlisi- l-wataniyyi- l-filistiiniyyi fii tuunisa-

meetings the-council the-national the-Palestinian inTunis
lyawma wa sawfa yunaaqišu-l-majlisu- l-mušaarakata-

today and will discuss the-council the-participation
l-filistiiniyyata fii mu’tamari-s-salaami-l-muqtara�i �awla-

the-Palestinian in conference the-peace the-proposed about
š-šarqi- l-’awsati wa- llaðii sa-yu‘qadu fi- l-‘aasimati-

the-East the-Middle and which will-be held in the-capital
l-’isbaaniyyati madriida fi- š-šahri- l-qaadim/

the-Spanish Madrid in the-month the-next
Extrinsic
Extrinsic managing
managing of the in
of the discourse discourse
the news in
itemthe news item
broadcast by
broadcast
Radio Israel inby Radio
(29) Israel
cannot in (29)
escape evencannot escapeIteven
the layman. startsthewith
layman.
the
It starts with the deletion of the social honorific Mr (which is
the given title of address for154
a person like Yaser Arafat) and the
use of the pejoratively dismissive and elliptical al-munaððamah
ʻorganizationʼ instead of the full name munaððamatut-taħriiri-
l-filistiiniyyah ʻPalestine Liberation Organization (PLO)ʼ. The
former is meant to show disrespect to the referent and the latter
indicates that Israel does not recognize PLO as a liberation
movement. The next manifestation of extrinsic managing involves
giving the impression to receivers that there are differences among
Palestinians about their participation in the conference, thus
blurring the fact that it is Israel which opposes such participation
in the first place. The systematic ideological intervention in the
discourse culminates in the decisive statement (which jumps
the gun, of course) that there will be no place for the PLO at the
Madrid conference, which was then a negotiable issue. Finally, the
politically-oriented label al-ʼardi-l-muħtalah ʻthe occupied landʼ
208
is relegated to the administratively-oriented term al-manaatiq ʻthe
territoriesʼ. This intricate web of extrinsic managing effectively
creates a discourse that reflects Israelʼs policy toward the state of
affairs in question at that time.
As for Radio Jordanʼs version of the news item, it also reflects

Jordanian government positions. To start with, the employment
of the disputed label dawlatu filistiin ʻState of Palestineʼ reflects
an official Jordanian political stance toward the political status of
Mr. Arafat, which was not then recognized internationally. More
subtly, this version omits the mention of the Israeli objection to
allowing the PLO to participate in the conference. The suppression
of this important information may have to do with the Jordanian
governmentʼs desire to form a joint delegation with the Palestinians
to the conference. Therefore, apparently, they chose not to take a
stance toward this issue by just eschewing it, in anticipation of
unfolding developments which may come to their favor. Silence,
in this way, can accomplish ideological moves of which speech
may fall short.
Sometimes, cultural concepts may come under the

translatorʼs fire. In the Arab-Islamic context, we often hear of the
orientalists and some Western writersʼ distorting Islamic culture.
For example, the Danish blasphemous caricatures of Prophet
Mohammed (February 2006), which stirred Muslim people round
209
this way, can accomplish ideological moves of which speech may fall
short.
Sometimes, cultural concepts may come under the translator's fire.
In the Arab-Islamic context, we often hear of the orientalists and some
Western writers' distorting Islamic culture. For example, the Danish
blasphemous caricatures of Prophet Mohammed (February 2006) , which
the globe and, in effect, created an international crisis, may have
stirred Muslim people round the globe and, in effect, created an
evolved in the minds of their author(s) from extensive extrinsic
international crisis, may have evolved in the minds of their author(s) from
managing of Islamic culture in original and translated material. To
extensive extrinsic managing of Islamic culture in original and translated
illustrate extrinsic managing at the level of culture, let us examine
material. To illustrate extrinsic managing at the level of culture, let us
the following concocted Arabic text (31), along with two English
examine the following concocted Arabic text (31), along with two
translations exemplifying monitoring (32) and extrinsic managing
English translations exemplifying monitoring (32) and extrinsic
(33) of culture,
managing (33) ofrespectively:
culture, respectively:
�� (31)
��
�� .��
.��
/fii šahri ramadana-l-mubaaraki yanhadu-l-muslimuuna min
in month Ramadan the-blessed rise the-Muslims from
nawmi-him fii saa‘atin muta’axiratin min-al-layli ’aw qubayla-

sleep-their in hour late from the night or just before
al-fajri li-tanaawuli wajbati-l-su�uuri- llatii tu‘iinu-hum

the-dawn to-have meal the-suhuur which help-them
‘alaa siyaami yawmin tawiilin qabla- l-’iftaari ‘inda-

on fasting day long before the-breakfast at
l-ma�iib wa ba‘da tanaawul-il-sa�uuri yatawajjahu

the-sunset and after having the-suhuur head
mu‘ðamu-r-rijaali ’ila-l-masjidi li-’adaa’i salati-

most the-men to the-mosque to-perform prayers
l-fajr/
the-dawn
156
(32) In the fasting month of Ramadan, Muslims awake late at
210
night or just before dawn to have a meal called Al-Sahur,
thus preparing themselves for a long day before breakfast
is permitted at sunset. Having had this meal, most men
make for the mosque to perform their dawn prayers.
(33) In the fasting month of Ramadan, Muslims strangely awake

late at night or just before dawn to stuff themselves with food
l-fajr/
the-dawn
(32) In the fasting month of Ramadan, Muslims awake late at

night or just before dawn to have a meal called Al-Sahur,
thus preparing themselves for a long day before breakfast
is permitted at sunset. Having had this meal, most men
make for the mosque to perform their dawn prayers.
(33) In the fasting month of Ramadan, Muslims strangely awake

late at night or just before dawn to stuff themselves with food
that could last them for a tediously long day before a meal is
permitted at sunset. Still worse, most men, having supplied
themselves with enough ammunition (food), make for the
mosque to perform their dawn rituals.
AAsimple
simple comparison
comparison between
between (32)
(32) and (33)and (33)shows
readily readily
how
shows how
objective and objective and
tolerant the tolerant
former the how
is and former is and
biased and how biasedthe
intolerant
and is.
latter intolerant
While thethe latter of
translator is.(32)
While the translator
just monitors of belonging
the values (32) justto
monitors
Islamic the values
culture, belonging
the translator of (33)toseriously
Islamic disparages
culture, the translator
these values by
of (33) seriously
engaging disparages
in extrinsic managingthese values
of the by engaging
SL culture in lightin of
extrinsic
different
managing
values of theofTL
theculture.
SL culture in light people
For instance, of different
do notvalues
awake of
latethe TL
at night
toculture.
eat in Western culture,people
For instance, so an activity
do notofawake
this sort is deemed
late at nighteccentric
to eat inby
those lacking
Western tolerance
culture, of different
so an activity of thiscultural values. Therefore,
sort is deemed eccentric bythe
translator of (33)
those lacking intentionally
tolerance employs
of different pejorative
cultural and/or negative
values. Therefore, the
vocabulary such
translator of strangely, stuff
asintentionally
(33) themselves
employs with food,
pejorative tediously,
and/or negativestill
worse, ammunition,
vocabulary such asetc. in order stuff
strangely, to gear the text toward
themselves his own
with food, goals.
tediously,
The extrinsic
still worse, managing
ammunition, etc. inoforder
religious
to gearculture
the textcan be his
toward very
consequential,
own goals. as can be illustrated by the English translation of the
opening statement of Bin Laden’s speech on October 2001, along with
The extrinsic managing of religious culture can be very
the Arabic original:
consequential, as can be illustrated by the English translation of
(34) Thanks to God, he who God guides will never lose. And I
believe that there’s only 211
one God. And I believe there’s no
prophet but Mohammed. (CNN, ABC, and FOX networks)
157
those lacking tolerance of different cultural values. Therefore, the
translator of (33) intentionally employs pejorative and/or negative
vocabulary such as strangely, stuff themselves with food, tediously, still
worse, ammunition, etc. in order to gear the text toward his own goals.
The extrinsic managing of religious culture can be very
consequential, as can be illustrated by the English translation of the
the opening statement of Bin Ladenʼs speech in October 2001,
opening statement of Bin Laden’s speech on October 2001, along with
along with the Arabic original:
the Arabic original:
(34) Thanks to God, he who God guides will never lose. And I
believe that there’s only one God. And I believe there’s no
prophet but Mohammed. (CNN, ABC, and FOX networks)
�� (35)

�� ... ��
157 ... ��
/’inna- l-�amda li-llaahi na�madu-hu wa nasta‘iinu
Verily the-thanking to-God thank(we)-him and seek help
bi-hi wa nasta�firu-hu wa nasta‘iiðu bi-hi min

in-him and ask forgiveness-him and seek refuge in-him from
šuruuri ’a‘maali-na … wa ’ašhadu ’an laa ’ilaaha ’ilaa

evils deeds-our and bear witness(I) that no God except
allahu wahdahu laa šariika la-hu wa ’ašhadu ’anna

Allah alone no partner for-him and bear witness(I) that
mu�ammadan ‘abdu-hu wa rasuulu-h, …/

Mohammed slave-his and prophet-his
AsAsisis clear,
clear, the translation offered
the translation offered by
by CNN,
CNN,ABC
ABCand
andFOX
FOX
networks
networksdistorts
distortsoneone
of of
the the
basic teachings
basic of Islam,
teachings that is,that
of Islam, Prophet
is,
Mohammed is only oneisprophet,
Prophet Mohammed only onebutprophet,
the last,but
among manyamong
the last, other prophets
many
mentioned in the mentioned
other prophets Holy Quran.inThis
theideological
Holy Quran.moveThis
blasphemes Islam
ideological
and instigates
move non-Muslims
blasphemes Islam against it. Uninformed
and instigates readers who
non-Muslims belong
against it.to
other divine religions
Uninformed would
readers who be dumbfounded
belong to other divinebyreligions
this statement,
would benot
knowing that it is premeditated misinformation. One may argue that it
could have been a slip of the tongue
212by the interpreter/translator, but the
fact that it had not been post-edited negates such an argument. The
extrinsically managed translation in (34) can be contrasted with the
following translation offered by the Associated Press: ‘I bear witness that
there is no God but Allah and that Mohammed is his messenger’.
dumbfounded by this statement, not knowing that it is premeditated
misinformation. One may argue that it could have been a slip of
the tongue by the interpreter/translator, but the fact that it had
not been post-edited negates such an argument. The extrinsically
managed translation in (34) can be contrasted with the following
translation offered by the Associated Press: ʻI bear witness that
there is no God but Allah and that Mohammed is his messengerʼ.
Although this translation has deleted some formulaic/ritualistic
material, it has monitored the main religious information with no
ideological intervention. Another point that could be raised here
concerns the repetition of the matrix verb believe, which presents
the relevant propositions as belonging to the speaker (Bin Laden)
only, i.e. they are contentious.
propositions as belonging to the speaker (Bin Laden) only, i.e. they are
Sometimes, the extrinsic managing of religious culture
contentious.
comes close to intrinsic managing (naturalizing the text). Consider
Sometimes, the extrinsic managing of religious culture comes close
totheintrinsic
following excerpt(naturalizing
managing (along withtheitstext).
Arabic original)
Consider thefrom Le
following
Gassickʼs
excerpt (1975)
(along withtranslation
its Arabicof original)
Mahfouzʼs (1947)
from novel Zuqaqu
Le Gassick’s (1975)
Al-midaqqi
translation of (Midaq Alley):
Mahfouz’s (1947) novel Zuqaqu Al-midaqqi (Midaq Alley):
(36) “My intentions are completely pure. Don’t rush off Hamida,
let’s turn into Azhar street. I’m sure you know what I want to
say. Don’t you feel anything? One’s emotions are the best
guide.” (p. 57)
�� .�� .�� – (37)
�� .�� .�� .��
�� .��
(p.46) ... ��
/taahiru-l-niyyati wa sayyidi-na-l-�usayn laa tusri‘ii
pure the-intention and master-our 213 the-husayn not hurry
haakðaa yaa �amiidah miilii binaa ’ila-š-šaari‘i- l-’azhar

like this oh Hamida turn us to the-street the-Azhar
’uriidu ’an ’aquula la-ki kalimatan haammah yanba�ii ’an

want(I) that say(I) to-you word important should that
(36) “My intentions are completely pure. Don’t rush off Hamida,
let’s turn into Azhar street. I’m sure you know what I want to
say. Don’t you feel anything? One’s emotions are the best
guide.” (p. 57)
�� .�� .�� – (37)
�� .�� .�� .��
�� .��
(p.46) ... ��
/taahiru-l-niyyati wa sayyidi-na-l-�usayn laa tusri‘ii
pure the-intention and master-our the-husayn not hurry
haakðaa yaa �amiidah miilii binaa ’ila-š-šaari‘i- l-’azhar

like this oh Hamida turn us to the-street the-Azhar
’uriidu ’an ’aquula la-ki kalimatan haammah yanba�ii ’an

want(I) that say(I) to-you word important should that
tus�ii ’ila-yya ’anti ta‘lamiina wa laa šakka bima ’uriidu ’an

listen to-me you know and no doubt what want(I) that
’aquula-hu ’alaa ta‘lamiina ’alaa taš‘uriina qalbu-l-mu’mini

say(I)-it not know(you) not feel(you) heart the-believer
daliilu-h/
guide-his
AsAscan
can be
be observed,
observed, the Arabic
Arabic text
textincludes
includestwo
tworeligious
religious
references,
references,which
whichare are
indicated in bold
indicated in type
boldabove.
type The firstThe
above. expression
first
(swearing by(swearing
expression a religiousby
figure) is a familiar
a religious figure)emphatic feature
is a familiar of Arabic
emphatic
conversation, that is,
feature of Arabic it is meant that
conversation, to emphasize the to
is, it is meant truthfulness
emphasizeofthethe
relevant proposition
truthfulness of theand drive away
relevant doubts on
proposition andthe part away
drive of the doubts
interlocutor.
on
the part of the interlocutor. The second religious expression makes
proverbial reference to the soundness
159 of a ʻbelieverʼs feelingsʼ, viz.
ʻA believerʼs heart is his guideʼ. Unfortunately, both references are
extrinsically managed by replacing them with general expressions
in the TL, thus depleting the translation of the religious tinge the SL
text has. One may argue that the translator has done that by way of
naturalizing the TL text, e.g. it is not customary to emphasize the
214
The second religious expression makes proverbial reference to the
soundness of a ‘believer’s feelings’, viz. ‘A believer’s heart is his guide’.
Unfortunately, both references are extrinsically managed by replacing
them with general expressions in the TL, thus depleting the translation of
truthfulness
the religious tinge of
thea SL
proposition by amay
text has. One swearing expression
argue that in English.
the translator has
done Itthat
remains
by waytrue, however, that
of naturalizing transferring
the TL text, e.g. itthe tastecustomary
is not and spiritto of
the original
emphasize is an essential
the truthfulness aspect of translating
of a proposition creative
by a swearing works.in
expression
English. It remains true,and
Our next, however, that transferring
last, example the taste
of extrinsic and spiritatofthe
managing
the original
levels is
ofan essential and
discourse aspect of translating
culture creative
is excerpted works.
from a translation by
Our next,
Hasan and last,
Mishʼal example
(1984) of extrinsic
of a book titled managing at theby
Black Sunday levels of
Thomas
discourse and
Harris cultureThe
(1975). is excerpted
extrinsic from a translation
managing by Hasan Mish'al
in the translation starts at
(1984)
theoftitle
a book titled
of the Black
book, Sunday
which by Thomas
is rendered Harris (1975). The
as al-ʼaħadu-l-ʼaswadu
extrinsic managing ʼamriikiyyun
tasawwurun in the translation starts at the title
sahyuuniyyun of the book, which
li-l-ʻamali-l-fidaaʼiyyi-
is rendered
l-filistiinii as al-’a�adu-l-’aswadu
ʻBlack tasawwurun
Sunday: An American, Zionist’amriikiyyun
Account of
sahyuuniyyun
Palestinianli-l-‘amali-l-fidaa’iyyi-l-filist
Guerrilla Warʼ. The added iiniisubtitle
'Blackclearly
Sunday:
showsAnthe
American, Zionistdecision
translatorʼs Accounttoofintervene
Palestinianin Guerrilla War'.
the content of The added
the SL text.
subtitle clearly shows the translator's decision to intervene in the content
Following is the study excerpt (38), along with its English original
of the SL text. Following is the study excerpt (38), along with its English
(39), a back-translation of the Arabic version (40), and a monitored
original (39), a back-translation of the Arabic version (40), and a
Arabic translation of the English original (41):
monitored Arabic translation of the English original (41):
�� (38)
��
(p. 9) ...... ��
/kaana �aafið naðiir wa huwa-l-’aamiru- l-�aqiiqiyyu
was Hafiz Nazeer and he the-commander the-real
li-jihaazi rasdi fat�in yu’minu bi-�aqqi ’istirjaa‘i

for-tool detection Fatah believed in-right retoration
filistiina xalisatan li-l-‘arabi wa-l-’intiqaami min kulli-

Palestine complete for-the-Arabs and the-revenge from all
215
160
llaðiina ‘aððabuu ša‘ba-hu tiwaala-l-siniina- al-maadiyah/
who tortured people-his through the-years the-past
(39) Najeer was the commander of Black September. He did

not believe in the concept of a "Middle East situation."
The restoration of Palestine to the Arabs would not
have elated him. He believed in holocaust, the fire that
purifies. (p. 2)
(40) Hafiz Nazeer, who was the real commander of Fatah

Detection Tool, believed in the right of restoring entire
Palestine to the Arabs and taking revenge upon all those
who tortured his people through the past years.
�� ."�� " �� (41)
.�� "�� "
.�� - ��
/kaana naðiirun ’aamira katiibati ’ayluuli- l-’aswad
was Nazeer commander regiment September the-black
wa huwa lam yu’min bi-mafhuumin yusamma qadiyyatu-

and he not belived in-concept called issue
l-šarqi- l-’awsati wa lam takun li-tasurra-hu ‘awdatu

the-East the-Middle and not be to-please-him restoration
filistiina li-l-‘arab. fa-kullu maa kaana ya‘niihi huwa

Palestine for-the-Arabs for-all what was concerned it
’iraaqatu- l-dami al-damu- llaðii yušfi- l-�aliil/

shedding the-blood the-blood which cures the-insides
A quick look at the extrinsically managed Arabic translation in

(38) can show us how different this is from the monitored Arabic version
216
in (41). The two texts present significantly different thought-worlds. In
the managed version, the translator (Mish'al) presents Nazeer (the Black
September's commander) as a freedom fighter striving to restore occupied
Palestine and take revenge for his wronged people. By contrast, the
A quick look at the extrinsically managed Arabic translation
in (38) can show us how different this is from the monitored
Arabic version in (41). The two texts present significantly different
thought-worlds. In the managed version, the translator (Mishʼal)
presents Nazeer (the Black Septemberʼs commander) as a freedom
fighter striving to restore occupied Palestine and take revenge for
his wronged people. By contrast, the monitored version (my own),
which reflects the English original, presents him as an extremist
who is completely unconcerned with the restoration of occupied
Palestine, as he is totally possessed by nothing but an urge to kill
all those who oppressed his people.
Another important feature of extrinsic managing in (38) is

the translatorʼs avoidance of the true name of the Fatah faction,
that is, Black September (ʼayluulu-l-ʼaswadu), which he replaced
with a Fatah office position, viz. Fatah Detection Tool (jihaazu
rasdi fatħ). Apparently, the translator, being a Jordanian national
of a Palestinian origin, wanted to eschew this label because of
its sensitive political connotations in the Jordanian context.
To explain, the Fatah faction chose this label in the aftermath
of the clashes between the Jordanian Armed Forces and armed
Palestinian guerrillas based in Jordan, which resulted in driving
the guerrillas out of the country and terminally ending the armed
Palestinian presence there. The said clashes peaked in September
217
(1970), hence the label Black September.
In this way, we have a double-layered scheme of extrinsic

managing in (38). On the one hand, and most importantly, Mishʼal
(the translator) intentionally reconstructs the thought-world
presented by Harris (the author) in a way such that it comes closer
to what he (Mishʼal) believes. Thus, the translator reshapes what
he deems a biased American and/or Zionist account of Palestinian
guerrilla war against Israel and its allies. On the other hand, the
translator is aware of political sensitivities in the Jordanian-
Palestinian context; hence, he extrinsically manages labels such
as Black September.
One may wonder whether the translator has done his target
Arab audience good or not by having the author (Thomas Harris)
sound sympathetic to the Palestinian cause at some junctures
(e.g. the excerpt in (40) above), despite the fact that the title he
has given to his translation reflects an anti-Palestinian stance.
Apparently, the translator found it too difficult to detach himself
from what American Zionists think of Palestinian guerrilla war,
hence his serious ideological intervention in the propositions that
condemn Palestinian resistance. In this case, we are in the presence
of a translator who functions as an active agent operating his own
skopi, regardless of whether they are congruent or not with the
readersʼ expectations.
218
3.4 CONCLUSION
This chapter has shown through a variety of examples that

extrinsic managing is a basic component of translation activity
whereby translation agents can intervene to twist the ideologies
in the SL text in many ways. This ideological intervention may
be performed locally at the lexical and syntactic levels or globally
at the levels of discourse and culture. Regardless of the level at
which extrinsic managing is carried out, the ideological weight of
such an act is usually far-reaching.
The question whether extrinsic managing should or
should not be sanctioned in translation activity loses much of its
appeal when we consider the contexts in which such managing is
performed. On the one hand, translation activity may be viewed
as a transferring enterprise based on a sacred original, where
the translator functions as a mere mediator. On the other hand,
translation activity may be regarded as an authoring enterprise
based on the skopos of the translation, where the translator functions
as a free agent. In-between, there are a host of cases in which
differing judgments can be passed regarding extrinsic managing.
All the same, the proverbial expression ʻcircumstances alter casesʼ
may constitute a signpost when attempting to pass a judgment on
translatorial ideological moves. Therefore, an ideological move
that may be judged as commendable in one circumstance may turn
out to be condemnable in another.
219
3.5 Practices
Practice 1:
Translate the following Arabic sentences into English, paying
special attention to the rendition of the framing verb (boldfaced),
which seriously changes the ideological move:
a) The UN Secretary General said that the Israeli Forces had
committed war crimes against civilians in Gaza Strip.
b) The UN Secretary General stated that the Israeli Forces
had committed war crimes against civilians in Gaza Strip.
c) The UN Secretary General confirmed that the Israeli
Forces had committed war crimes against civilians in Gaza
Strip.
d) The UN Secretary General questioned that the Israeli
Forces had committed war crimes against civilians in Gaza
Strip.
e) The UN Secretary General claimed that the Israeli Forces
f) The UN Secretary General denied that the Israeli Forces
g) The UN Secretary General condemned the Israeli Forces
for having committed war crimes against civilians in Gaza
Strip.
h) The UN Secretary General accused the Israeli Forces of
having committed war crimes against civilians in Gaza
Strip.
i) The UN Secretary General reiterated that the Israeli Forces
220
j) The UN Secretary General ignored that the Israeli Forces
k) The UN Secretary General admitted that the Israeli Forces
Practice 2:
Translate into English the following Arabic expressions which

are generally neutral and/or unbiased in terms of ideology, and
then replace them with ideology-loaded expressions, giving their
English renditions as well:
o�U��« ÍdB*« fOzd�« ©‫ﺃ‬
‚«dF�« w� wJ�d�_« œu�u�« ©»
WO�dG�« ‰Ëb�« ©
qOz«d�≈ ©À
WO�UM�« ‰Ëb�« ©Ã
wKOz«d�ù« ŸU�b�« d�“Ë ©Õ
WO�dG�« WHC�« ©Œ
o�U��« w�«dF�« ÂUEM�« ©œ
W�—U��ô« UOKLF�« ©–
WO�ö�ù« U�d(« ©—
Practice 3:
Study the following excerpt (corresponding to the first two

paragraphs in the original) which is taken from an English
221
translation of an editorial (in the form of an open letter) addressed
to Dr. Bashar Al-Asad (who was then charged with the Lebanese
file/ now president of Syria) by Jubran Tweni of the leading
Lebanese daily Al-Nahar on 23/3/2000, along with the Arabic
original (for more details, see Badran 2001). Then decide whether
the renditions of the modal expressions (boldfaced) maintain the
same ideological moves in the original:
Please forgive me for addressing you so frankly at this delicate and decisive
time in the history of our region -- a moment that necessitates the utmost
straightforwardness and candor. You have visited Lebanon several times and
met with many politicians who have perhaps told you what you want to hear,
not what you should hear about the opinions of many Lebanese regarding
Syrian policy in Lebanon.
oO�b�« ·dE�« «c� w� `�dB�« ‰UI*« «cN� ¨W�dF� o�U� ÊËœË pO�≈ t�u�√ ÊQ� w� `L�«
ÆW�—UB*«Ë W�«dB�« UM� V�u�� Íc�«Ë WIDM*« Á“U�& Íc�« ÍdOB*«Ë
U� pO�≈ «uKI� U0— s�c�« 5O�UO��« s� dO�J�« XOI��«Ë ¨ÊUM�K� …b�b� «—U�e� XL� bI�
W�UO� ‰u� 5O�UM�K�« iF� ¡«—√ s� pO�≈ qIM� Ê√ V�� U� Î ULz«œ fO�Ë tFL�� Ê√ „bF��
ÆÊUM�� w� U�—u�
Practice 4:
Examine the following extract from ʻA Message to Israel: Stop
Playing the Victim Roleʼ by Philip Slater carefully, and then work
out two translations of it: one maintaining the impetus of the strong
ideological moves and the other seriously toning these ideological
moves down.
222
Calling Hamas the ʻaggressorʼ is undignified. The Gaza Strip is little more than
a large Israeli concentration camp, in which Palestinians are attacked at will,
starved of food, fuel, energy – even deprived of hospital supplies. They cannot
come and go freely, and have to build tunnels to smuggle in the necessities
of life. It would be difficult to have any respect for them if they didnʼt fire a
few rockets back. (from Huffington Post Internet Newspaper, USA: 1,7, 2009
[cited in Ghazala, 2011])
Practice 5:
Study the following extract from The Life of Mahomet by

Washington Irving (1969-2002), along with its Arabic translation
(Kharbutli 1960/1966), and then discuss the ways in which it is
extrinsically managed, i.e., ideologically distorted. Do you agree
with this kind of manipulation? Does it do justice to the author
and the Arab reader alike? (for more details, see Einboden 2009):
Much of the Koran may be traced to the Bible, the Hishnu and the Talmud of
the Jews, especially its wild though often beautiful traditions concerning the
angels, the prophets, the patriarchs, and the good and evil genii. [Mahomet]
had at an early age imbibed a reverence for the Jewish faith, his mother, it is
suggested, having been of that religion.
oKF�� w��« U�ü« WU��Ë ¨qO$ù«Ë …«—u��« w� ¡U� Ê√ o�� Ê¬dI�« w� ¡U� U� iF�
Êu�d�� v�Ë_« …d�H�« w� ÊuLK�*« ÊU� «c�Ë Æ—«d�_«Ë —UO�_« s'«Ë ¨¡UO��_«Ë WJzö*U�
ÆÍœuNO�« s�b�«
223
iO�«
224
CHAPTER FOUR
DECODING AND ENCODING
IN TRANSLATION:
A SCHEMA-THEORETIC
PERSPECTIVE
225
iO�«
226
4. CHAPTER FOUR
DECODING AND ENCODING IN TRANSLATION:

A SCHEMA-THEORETIC PERSPECTIVE
4.0 Introduction
Over the years, reading theorists have been trying to explain

how readers may comprehend smoothly (or by implication fail
to comprehend) a diversity of texts affiliating with variegated
social contexts and different disciplines. In this regard, schema
theory emerges as a robust mechanism that enables us to see
how text comprehension is a function of activating the readerʼs
existing schemata such that schematic relatedness between texts
and readers becomes a determining factor. A schema, according to
Rumelhart (1980), is “a data structure for representing the generic
concepts stored in memory”. These concepts, which represent the
readerʼs experiences as well as past and potential relationships, are
evoked by the printed word in reading (McNell, 1992). Schematic
knowledge is made up of content and formal schemata. The
language userʼs background knowledge about the subject matter
of various texts represents his/her content schemata. By contrast,
formal schemata comprise the language userʼs knowledge about
227
formal, rhetorical, and organizational structures of different types
of texts. Examples of formal schemata include those for poems
and advertisements (for further information, see Anderson et al.,
1977; Steffensen, et al., 1979; Meyer & Rice, 1982; Carrell, 1983,
1987; Grabe, 1991; Block, 1992; Wallace, 1992; Day and Bamford,
1998; Nuttal, 2000; Nist and Holschuh, 2000). In addition, there
are lower level schemata which represent sentence structure,
grammatical inflections, spelling and punctuation, vocabulary,
and cohesive structures (Cohen, 1994).
In this way, schemata furnish cognitive harbors where text

comprehension evolves. Carrell (1983:200) writes, “Meaning does
not just reside in the text, rather meaning is constructed out of the
interaction between a readerʼs activated background knowledge
[i.e. existing schemata] and whatʼs in the text.” On this theory,
schemata are analyzed in light of three parameters: familiar vs.
novel schemata, contextualized vs. non-contextualized schemata,
and lexically transparent vs. lexically opaque schemata (for further
details, see Anderson et al., 1977; Reynolds et al., 1982; Carrell,
1987; Shakir and Farghal, 1991; Farghal, 2003).
Schemata are held to perform three major functions: to

activate socio-cultural knowledge, to fill the gaps in the text,
and to establish meta-cognition (Schank and Abelson, 1977;
Rumelhart, 1984; Steffensen et al., 1985; and Casanave, 1988,
228
among others). The effective and relevant functionalization of
schematic knowledge, therefore, leads readers to interpret texts
appropriately. Their interpretation involves the ability to work
out a discourse topic (Giora, 1985), in which a cognitive rapport
is established with one proposition or a set of propositions. The
cognitive rapport results in text coherence which, according to
Brown and Yule (1983:225), is based on three factors: calculating
the communicative function (how to take the message), utilizing
general socio-cultural knowledge, and determining the inferences
to be made.
The decoding of a textʼs import is a function of optimal

relevance, which is triggered by the successful interaction between
the reader and the text and, subsequently, results in producing
cognitive effects (Gutt, 1996). These cognitive effects constitute
a touchstone for the process of text comprehension and, in the
final analysis, will herald a change in the readerʼs encyclopedic
knowledge. The readerʼs failure to integrate the textʼs import into
his/her world knowledge (i.e. failing to make the text optimally
relevant) represents the antithesis of text comprehension or,
simply, a failed comprehension enterprise. In a general theory of
human learning (Ausubel, 1968), successful text comprehension
manifests itself in meaningful learning where cognitive relatability
and subsumption are major processes, whereas minimal or no
229
comprehension at all affiliates with rote learning in which arbitrary
relations predominate.
Text comprehension, which is an intralingual activity,

must be followed by text ideation in the TL during the translating
process, which is an interlingual activity. This interlingual feat
involves essentially the cognitive and linguistic encoding of
the SL text in the TL. At first glance, the cognitive code may be
argued to be a constant in interlingual communication because the
propositions that comprise the meaning/content of a text are held to
be universal. However, on a closer examination, we soon discover
that the alleged constancy is apparent in nature, due to the fact that
it is the reader who brings coherence (i.e. assigns meaning) to the
text and, consequently, reconstructs the cognitive code of the SL
text in light of his/her schematic interpretation of any given text.
As a result, the same text may receive different interpretations
from different readers. This potentiality, which is essentially a
function of existing schemata and the multi-layerdness of texts,
especially literary texts, accounts for the presence of differing text
ideations in translation.
Despite this dynamic nature of texts, it should be borne in

mind that not all texts are multi-layered or potentially ambiguous.
In fact, a large number of the texts that we encounter on a daily
basis receive single, straightforward interpretations. In such cases,
230
one can speak of the constancy of the cognitive code in translation.
That is, the SL text may tolerate one interpretation only which
duly receives one text ideation in the TL. Consequently, the
cognitive code can be adequately described as a pseudo-constant
in translation activity.
The pseudo-constancy of the cognitive code contrasts

sharply with the clear variability of the linguistic code. The
translatorʼs ability to vary the linguistic code gives rise to many
types of translation equivalence including cultural (Casagrande
1954), situational (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958), dynamic (Nida,
1964), formal (Catford, 1965), textual (Van Dijk, 1972), functional
(Waard de and Nida, 1986), and ideational (Farghal, 1994), among
others. Text ideation in the TL may be argued to be a function
or correlate of contextual factors such as text-type, author, and
audience, which should constantly inform the translatorʼs option
for one rather than another type of equivalence. This functional
interpretation of equivalence in terms of contextual factors has
given rise to a more liberated, and probably more realistic, view
that considers the output of translation activity as ʻinterpretive
resemblanceʼ rather than ʻtranslation equivalenceʼ (Gutt, 1996).
The tug of war between form and content, or what Newmark

(1988) calls semantic and communicative translation, will always
be a bone of contention in translation studies. To Hatim and Mason
231
(1990), the translator in this situation is faced with what amounts
to a conflict of interests. In their words (p.8) “The ideal would of
course be to translate both form and content, without the one in
any way impinging on the other. But many would claim that this is
frequently not possible.” Not only in interlingual communication
is the complete rendition of form and content often impossible, but
this is also the case in intralingual communication, where stylistic
variation bears witness to discrepancy in form. But, after all, who
would ever dare claim total translation if total communication
were ruled out within the same language.
In addition to this introduction, the present chapter includes
three main sections on schemata and lexis in translation, discourse
and schemata, and a schemtatic model of literary translation. The
objective is to bring together data that clearly show the relevance
of schemata to the translating process.
4.1 Shemata and Lexis in Translation

4.1.0 Lexical Aspect of Schemata
As a form of communication, translational activity is
subject to appropriate schematic interpretation. Correct text
comprehension is based on a successful matching and integration
between the textʼs schematic structure and the schemata available in
the translatorʼs encyclopedic repertoire and is, therefore, essential
232
for the production of an adequate translation. Lexical competence
may mediate between schemata and their activation.
A Jordanian study by Shakir and Farghal (1991) used an

untitled text which was open to two interpretations, namely a prison
and wrestling schema. It was assumed that the two schemata were
culturally transparent to both native and non-native speakers of
English, for although wrestling is a sport not practiced in Jordan,
it is often shown on Jordanian television, so that most Jordanians
can be expected to know the sport. Nevertheless, only native
speakers of English were able to activate the wrestling schema
in the passage, whereas the prison schema proved accessible to
all subjects, independently of their levels of lexical competence.
This indicates that lexical markedness is important for schematic
interpretation by non-native speakers of English, but it is relevant
to point out that, even so, most native speakers of English opted
for the prison schema.
One way to ascertain the psychological reality of

lexical markedness in relation to schematic interpretation is to
check dictionaries, since lexical items reflect lexicographersʼ
(subconscious) awareness of lexical markedness: if one sense is
presented before another, then the second one is considered more
marked than the first one. This implies that an interpretation of a text
will be based on linearly precedent senses of lexically ambiguous
233
words and that, consequently, there will be more interpretations
based on unmarked schemata than on subsequent senses which
of lexically
involveambiguous wordsschemata.
more marked and that, consequently,
If this is so, there will be more
dictionariesʼ linear
interpretations based on unmarked schemata than on subsequent senses
presentation of ambiguous words will correlate with the markedness
which involve more marked schemata. If this is so, dictionaries' linear
of schemata based on such words in passages without any context.
presentation of ambiguous words will correlate with the markedness of
Interestingly, attempts at communicating in a foreign language
schemata based on such words in passages without any context.
may result in accidental humor relating to ambiguous lexical
Interestingly, attempts at communicating in a foreign language may result
items. Witness how the failed attempt to employ the unmarked
in accidental humor relating to ambiguous lexical items. Witness how the
sense of a word produces humor by calling up a marked sense (the
failed attempt to employ the unmarked sense of a word produces humor
ambiguous items are italicised):
by calling up a marked sense (the ambiguous items are italicised):
(1) [At a Budapest zoo)] Please do not feed the animals. If you
have any suitable food, give it to the guard on duty.
(2) [In a Japanese hotel] You are invited to take advantage of the
chambermaid.
In (1) and (2) above, the produced humorous schemata accidentally result
In (1) and (2) above, the produced humorous schemata
from lexical ambiguity. To explain, the unintended use of the marked
accidentally
senses result from
(i.e. to give meaning to feedlexical ambiguity.
and to take Toofexplain,
advantage the
meaning to
unintended
exploit) instead ofuse
theoftarget
the marked senses
senses (i.e. (i.e.meaning
to give to give meaning to feed
to leave and to
take and to takeofadvantage
advantage meaning
meaning toofmake exploit) instead
use oftosomeone’s services)ofgives
the target
rise
senses
to these (i.e. toschemata
humorous give meaning
in these to leave
public and to
notices (fortake
moreadvantage
details, seeof
meaning
Farghal 2006). to make use of someoneʼs services) gives rise to these
humorous schemata in these public notices (for more details, see
4.1.1 Material
Farghal 2006).
The study text was taken from Yule (1985) and ran as follows:
(3) Rocky slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape. He
hesitated a moment and thought.
234 Things were not going well.
What bothered him most was being held, especially since
the charge against him had been weak. He considered his
present situation. The lock that held him was strong, but he
thought he could break it.
senses (i.e. to give meaning to feed and to take advantage of meaning to
exploit) instead of the target senses (i.e. to give meaning to leave and to
take advantage of meaning to make use of someone’s services) gives rise
to these humorous schemata in these public notices (for more details, see
Farghal 2006).
4.1.1 Material
4.1.1 Material
(3) Rocky slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape. He
hesitated a moment and thought. Things were not going well.
What bothered him most was being held, especially since
the charge against him had been weak. He considered his
present situation. The lock that held him was strong, but he
thought he could break it.
The text in (3) permits two headings: ʻRocky in Prisonʼ and

ʻRocky in the Wrestling Arenaʼ and, cosequently, it can receive
173on the title of the text.
two interpretations depending
As for the lexicographical material, two dictionaries:

the Oxford Advanced Learnerʼs Dictionary (2002) and Collins
Concise Dictionary (1995) were checked for linear precedence
in their entries on four key ambiguous lexical items in the above
text. The words are escape (get away from prison vs. get away or
avoid dangerous or unpleasant situation), being held (in prison vs.
in wrestling), charge (accusation vs. attack), and lock (of door vs.
wrestling hold). The first sense is linearly precedent to the second
sense for escape, being held, and charge in both dictionaries. As
far as lock is concerned, the first sense is also listed before the
second one in Collins, whereas the second sense ʻwrestling holdʼ
is not included in the Advanced Learnerʼs. This may indicate that
235
the compilers of the latter dictionary considered the second sense
of lock too marked to list in a learnerʼs dictionary.
4.1.2 Experiment
The study text was given the two titles cited above, which
differ in markedness of the cognitive load: the first refers to
an obvious, unmarked schema, while the other has a relatively
marked schema. The two texts were then given to two groups for
translation into Arabic. The first group comprised twenty-three
Yarmouk University (Jordan) MA translation students. They did the
translations in class without dictionaries. The other group consisted
of nine Yarmouk University professors of English and linguistics
who were asked to do the translations on their own without using
a dictionary. Based on lexical markedness of the ambiguous words
in the study text, it was expected that the wrestling schema would
be problematic in terms of interpretation and translation, whereas
the prison schema would be readily interpreted and subsequently
translated correctly by all participants. Therefore, the transparent
text was given to only four MA students, while the wrestling
schema version was given to the other nineteen MA students and
all nine professors.
To ascertain the validity of the marked schema, the wrestling

version was given to two native speakers of American English.
236
schema would be readily interpreted and subsequently translated correctly
by all participants. Therefore, the transparent text was given to only four
MA students, while the wrestling schema version was given to the other
nineteen MA students and all nine professors.
To ascertain the validity of the marked schema, the wrestling
They
version were
was asked
given to give
to two an speakers
native oral and general interpretation
of American of the
English. They
weretext.
askedBoth identified
to give an oralthe
andtext unequivocally
general as aofdescription
interpretation of a
the text. Both
wrestling
identified match,
the text a response
unequivocally as awhich grantsof psychological
description reality
a wrestling match, a
to our which
response schematic interpretation.
grants Bothreality
psychological informants wouldschematic
to our therefore
have produced
interpretation. Both Arabic translations
informants corresponding
would therefore to the wrestling
have produced Arabic
schemacorresponding
translations if they had known
to theArabic.
wrestling schema if they had known
Arabic.
4.1.3 Results and Discussion
4.1.34.1.3.0
ResultsThe Student Groups
and Discussion
As expected,
4.1.3.0 The Student Groupsthe four MA students translated the first version
as involving a prison schema. Their translations distinguished the
As expected, the four MA students translated the first version as
key lexical items by rendering them into al-harab or al-huruub
involving a prison schema. Their translations distinguished the key
ʻrunning awayʼ, muʻtaqal or muhtajaz ʻarrestedʼ, al-tuhmah
lexical items by rendering them into al-harab or al-huruub 'running
ʻaccusationʼ, and al-qifl ʻlock (of prison)ʼ. Following is a sample
away', mu‘taqal or mu�tajaz 'arrested', al-tuhmah 'accusation', and al-qifl
Arabic translation (4), along with its English back-translation (5)
'lock (of prison)'. Following is a sample Arabic translation (4), along with
[All back-translations are my own]:
its English back-translation (5) [All back-translations are my own]:
s��« w� w�Ë— ©4®
ÆdJ�Ë WE�K� œœd??� Æ»ËdNK� jD�� u?��
?�Ë��
…œU��« s� ¡j�� w??�Ë— iN� (4)
X�U�
.�� Áb{ rN��«
� �� Ê√Ë.��
�� WU� ��
¨‰UI��ô«
�� X% ÊU� t�√
� �� u� t��“√
�� Íc�«
�� ¡wA�«
�� tMJ�Ë
lOD�� tO�
�� Íu� ��
ÊU�� qH�
Íc�« s��« ��Ê≈��
Æw�U(« tF{u��dJ�
��
ÆWHOF{
�� .�� .��
ÆÁd�J�
.�� Ê√
/rukii fi-s-sijn
Rocky in the-prison
nahada rukii bibut’in ‘an- il-sijjaadati wa huwa yuxattitu

rose Rocky slowly from the-carpet and he planning
175237
li-l-huruub taraddada li-la�ðatin wa fakkar al-šay’u-llaðii
for-the-escape hesitated for-moment and thought the-thing which
’az‘aja-hu huwa ’anna-hu kaana ta�ta- l-’i‘tiqaali xaasatan

bothered-him it (is) that-him was under the-arrest especially
wa ’anna-l-tuhama didda-hu kaanat da‘iifah

and that the-accusations against-him were weak
fakkara bi-wad‘i-hi- l-�aalii ’inna qifla-s-sijni- llaðii

thought in-situation-his the-present verily lock the-prison which
kaana fii-hi qawiyyun wa laakinna-hu ya’statii‘u ’an yaksira-h/

was in-it strong and but-he can to break-it
(5) Rocky in Prison
Rocky slowly rose from the carpet. planning to run away. He

hesitated a moment and thought. The thing that bothered him
was his being under arrest, especially that the accusations
against him were weak. He thought about his present situation.
The lock of the prison he was in was strong, but he could
break it.
Unambiguously indicating
Unambiguously a prisona schema,
indicating prison itschema,
seems that the
it seems
student
thattranslators in this
the student group successfully
translators employed
in this group a top-down
successfully mode
employed
of processing.
a top-downThe
modemacro-context (the
of processing. Theprison context) dominated
macro-context (the prison
throughout
context)thedominated
text, thus throughout
creating congruence between
the text, thus macro-analysis
creating congruence
and micro-analysis (Van Dijk 1978,
between macro-analysis 1980; Renkema(Van
and micro-analysis 1993) which
Dijk results
1978, 1980;
in a sound schematic
Renkema 1993)translation.
which results in a sound schematic translation.
In the other group of MA student translators, four subjects did not
In the other group of MA student translators, four subjects
translate the title at all, while fifteen translated it correctly. However, in
spite of this awareness of the macro-context,
238 only two participants
rendered the wrestling schema in their translations. Below is the Arabic
version of one of them (6), along with its English back-translation (7):
176
did not translate the title at all, while fifteen translated it correctly.
However, in spite of this awareness of the macro-context, only two
participants rendered the wrestling schema in their translations.
Below is the Arabic version of one of them (6), along with its
English back-translation (7):
W�—UB*« W�K� w� w�Ë— ©6®
�� (6)
ÆdJ�Ë WE( œœd� Æt�U�M� jD�� u�Ë W�K(« WO{—√ s� ¡j�� w�Ë— iN�
Ê√Ë� WU�
.�� UN� ÷dF�
�� .�� w��«
��WC�I�« u� t��“√
�� U� d��√Ë Æ…bO�
�� —u�_«
�� sJ� r�
�� Ê√
WC�I�« ��s�
�� Æs�«d�«
r�d�U�Ë �� tF{u�
�� dJ��ÆÎU��
HOF{ � .ÊU�
��tN�«Ë
��Íc�«
�� Âu�N�«
��
�� .�� .��
ÆUNM�
.�� hK��«
�� t�UJ�S�
�� Ê√
�� bI��√
�� t�√
��ô≈�¨W�u� t��
�� X�U� w��«
/rukii fii �albati-l-musaara‘ah

Rocky in arena the-wrestling
nahada rukii bibutin ‘an ’ardiyyati-l-�alabati wa huwa

rose Rocky slowly from floor the-arena and he
yuxattitu li-najaati-h taraddada la�ðatan wa fakkar lam

planning for-escape-his hesitated moment and thought not
takun-il-’umuuru jayyidatan wa ’ak�aru ma ’az‘aja-hu

were the-things good and most what bothered-him
huwa- l-qabdatu-llati ta‘arrada la-haa xaastan wa ’anna-

it (was) the-fist which exposed to-it especially and that
l-hujuuma-llaðii waajaha-hu kaana da‘iifan fakkara

the-attack which faced-him was weak thought
bi-wad‘i-hi- r-raahin wa bilra�mi min ’anna-l-qabdata-

in-situation-his the-present and despite from that the-fist
llatii tu�abbitu-hu kaanat qawiyyatan ’illaa ’anna-hu

which holding-him was strong 239 but that-he
’i‘taqada ’anna bi’imkaani-hi-t-taxalusi min-haa/

believed that possible-he the-getting out from-it
(7) Rocky in the Wrestling Arena

it (was) the-fist which exposed to-it especially and that
l-hujuuma-llaðii waajaha-hu kaana da‘iifan fakkara

the-attack which faced-him was weak thought
bi-wad‘i-hi- r-raahin wa bilra�mi min ’anna-l-qabdata-

in-situation-his the-present and despite from that the-fist
llatii tu�abbitu-hu kaanat qawiyyatan ’illaa ’anna-hu

which holding-him was strong but that-he
’i‘taqada ’anna bi’imkaani-hi-t-taxalusi min-haa/

believed that possible-he the-getting out from-it
Rocky slowly rose from the arena's floor, planning his escape
(from a difficult situation). He hesitated a moment and thought.
Things were not going well. What bothered him most was the
lock he landed in, especially that the attack he faced had been
weak. He thought about his present situation. Although the
hold was strong, he believed he could get away.
177
The other seventeen translations can be divided into three
categories. The first comprises seven translations featuring a
prison schema. We may assume that these student translators used
bottom-up processing since the macro-context was not borne out
in the translation of the body of the text. Apparently, the relevant
marked schema was overridden by the irrelevant unmarked
schema once they proceeded beyond the translation of the title to
the rest of the passage. It could be the case that the lexical opacity
congruent with the wrestling schema gave way to the lexical
transparency associated with the prison schema. In other words,
the student translators opted for the irrelevant prison schema which
conflicted with the relevant wrestling schema, simply because it
240
case that the lexical opacity congruent with the wrestling schema gave
way to the lexical transparency associated with the prison schema. In
other words, the student translators opted for the irrelevant prison schema
which conflicted with the relevant wrestling schema, simply because it
was cognitively more accessible. Following is a sample Arabic version
was cognitively
(8), along more
with an English accessible. Following
back-translation (9): is a sample Arabic
version (8), along with an English back-translation (9):
�� W�—UB*«
�� W�K� w� w�Ë— (8)©8®
sJ� r� ÆdJ�Ë WE( œœd� Æ»ËdNK� jD�� u�Ë WO{—_« s� ¡j�� w�Ë— iN�
.�� Ê√Ë
WLN��« �� ¨s��«
WU� .��w��
t�√ t��Î U�U�“≈ d��_«��
ÊU��
ÆÂ«d��
U� vK� —u�_«
�� .��
Áe�� Íc�« qHI�« ÊU� Æw�U(« tF{Ë ”—œ ÆWHOF{ X�U� Áb{ WN�u*«
�� .�� .��
.�� ÆÁd��
t��UD��U� ��tMJ�
Ê√ bI��« Ë Î U�u�
��

nahada rukii bibutin ‘an- il-’ardiyyati wa huwa yuxattitu

rose Rocky slowly from the-floor and he planning
li-l-huruub taraddada la�ðatan wa fakkar lam takun

for-the-running away hesitated moment and thought not were
al-’umuuru ‘alaa maa yuraam kaana-l-’ak�aru ’iz‘aajan la-hu

the-things on what good was the-most bothering to-him
’anna-hu fi-s-sijni xaasatan wa ’anna-t-tuhmata-

that-he in the-prison especially and that the-accusation
l-muwajjahati didda-hu kaanat da‘iifah darasa wad‘a-hu-

178 weak studied situation-his
the-directed against-him was
l-haalii kaana-l-qiflu- llaðii ya�tajizu-hu qawiyyan wa

the-present was the-lock which arrested-him strong and
laakinna-hu ’i‘taqada ’anna bi-’istitaa‘ati-hi kasru-h/

but-he believed that in-ability-his beaking-it
Rocky slowly rose from the floor,

241 planning to run away. He
hesitated a moment and thought. Thing were not going well.
What bothered him most was being under arrest, especially
when the accusation pitted against him was weak. He studied
his present situation. The lock that held [lit. arrested] him was
strong, but he believed he could break it.
As can be seen in (8) and (9), the interpretation of the ambiguous

the-present was the-lock which arrested-him strong and
laakinna-hu ’i‘taqada ’anna bi-’istitaa‘ati-hi kasru-h/

but-he believed that in-ability-his beaking-it
Rocky slowly rose from the floor, planning to run away. He

hesitated a moment and thought. Thing were not going well.
What bothered him most was being under arrest, especially
when the accusation pitted against him was weak. He studied
his present situation. The lock that held [lit. arrested] him was
strong, but he believed he could break it.
As can be seen in (8) and (9), the interpretation of the ambiguous

As can be seen in (8) and (9), the interpretation of the
lexical items conflicts with the rendition of the title. The adequate
ambiguous lexical items conflicts with the rendition of the title.
rendition of the title was supposed to lead the translator cognitively to a
The adequate rendition of the title was supposed to lead the
wrestling schema, but, unfortunately, the translation of the rest of the text
translator cognitively to a wrestling schema, but, unfortunately,
activated the irrelevant prison schema. The translation employs phrases
the translation of the rest of the text activated the irrelevant prison
indicating 'planning to run away', 'being under arrest', and 'considering
schema. The translation employs phrases indicating ʻplanning to
the strength of the accusation', all of which refer to prison rather than
run awayʼ, ʻbeing under arrestʼ, and ʻconsidering the strength of
wrestling.
the accusationʼ,
The all of which
second category referfive
includes to prison rather than
translations that wrestling.
vacillate
between theThe
wrestling
secondschema andincludes
category the prison schema.
five It can that
translations be assumed
vacillate
that between
the subjects
theinwrestling
this category were and
schema cognitively confused,
the prison whichIt led
schema. can
them to operate top-down and bottom-up modes of processing
be assumed that the subjects in this category were cognitively
simultaneously. Thus, they were talking about 'running away' and
confused, which led them to operate top-down and bottom-up
'accusations' in the context of' 'wrestling holds' and 'strong fists'. The
modes of processing simultaneously. Thus, they were talking about
cognitive indeterminacy results in the realization of a translation where
ʻrunning awayʼ and ʻaccusationsʼ in the context ofʼ ʻwrestling
holdsʼ and ʻstrong fistsʼ. The cognitive indeterminacy results in
the realization of a translation where potential schemata compete
179
for interpretability. Witness the sample Arabic translation (10),
242
potential schemata compete for interpretability. Witness the sample
along
Arabic with its(10),
translation English
alongback-translation (11):
with its English back-translation (11):
W�—UB*« W�K� w� w�Ë— ©10®
—u�_« sJ� r� ÆdJ�Ë WE( œœd� Æ»dNK� jD��
�� u�Ë W�U��« s� w�Ë— iN�
�� (10)
�� .�� .�� Î ��
ÆWHOF{ X�U� Áb{ WLN��« Ê√Ë WU� U�� ÊU� t�√ t��“√ U� d��√Ë Æ…bO� ��
�� .��
t�UJ�S�
�� Ê√
��bI��«
��tMJ�Ë W�u� t��
�� w��« WC�I�«
.�� X�U��
�� Æw�U(«
�� .tF{Ë
�� w� q�Q�
��
.�� ÆUNM�
��
ö�ù«
nahada rukii min- al-saa�ati wa huwa yuxattitu li-l-harab

rose Rocky from the-yard and he planning for-the-escape
taraddada la�ðatan wa fakkar lam takun- il-’umuuru jayyidah

hesitated moment and thought not were the-things good
wa ’ak�aru ma ’az‘aja-hu ’anna-hu kaana mu�bbatan

and most what bothered-him that-him was fixed
xaasatan wa ’anna-t-tuhmata didda-hu kaanat da‘iifah

especially and that the-accusation against-him was weak
ta’ammala fii wad‘i-hi- l-�aalii kaanat- il-qabdatu-llatii

reflected in situation-his the-present was the-fist which
tu�abbitu-hu qawiyyatan wa laakinna-hu ’i‘taqada ’anna

fixed-him strong and but-he believed that
bi-’imkaani-hi-l-’iflaata min-haa/
in-ability-his the-getting out from-it
Rocky rose from the yard, planning to run away. He hesitated

a moment and thought. Things were not going well. What
bothered him most was being held (in wrestling), especially
243
that the accusation against him was weak. He reflected on his
present situation. The fist that held him was strong, but he
believed he could get away.
180
tu�abbitu-hu qawiyyatan wa laakinna-hu ’i‘taqada ’anna
fixed-him strong and but-he believed that
bi-’imkaani-hi-l-’iflaata min-haa/
in-ability-his the-getting out from-it
Rocky rose from the yard, planning to run away. He hesitated

a moment and thought. Things were not going well. What
bothered him most was being held (in wrestling), especially
that the accusation against him was weak. He reflected on his
present situation. The fist that held him was strong, but he
believed he could get away.
The five remaining translations belong to the third category,

which deviates from both the180wrestling and the prison schema. It
The five remaining translations belong to the third category, which
may be that these student translators failed to activate the prison
deviates from both the wrestling and the prison schema. It may be that
schema because it conflicted with the title, or may be that their
these student translators failed to activate the prison schema because it
lexical competence was insufficiently great to access the wrestling
conflicted with the title, or may be that their lexical competence was
schema. In the
insufficiently greatlatter case,thetheir
to access interpretation
wrestling schema. Infail
theto create
latter case,optimal
their
relevance and
interpretation fail subsequent contextual
to create optimal effects
relevance (Gutt 1996;
and subsequent Sperber
contextual
and Wilson
effects 1987).
(Gutt 1996; To illustrate,
Sperber and Wilsonone of To
1987). theillustrate,
translations inthe
one of this
category runs
translations in thisascategory
followsruns
in back-translation:
as follows in back-translation:
Rocky rose from his shock slowly, planning to run away. He

hesitated a moment and thought. Things were not going well.
What bothered him most was being carried (borne), especially
that the wage he received for that was minimal. He took the
present situation into consideration. The kidnapper who lifted
him was strong, but he thought he could demolish him.
The incoherent back-translation in (12) reveals two things. Firstly,

The incoherent back-translation in (12) reveals two things.
it is probably because of unfamiliarity with wrestling-related terminology
Firstly, it is probably because of unfamiliarity with wrestling-
that this student translator failed to work out the meaning from the
relatedand
context, terminology that for
thus preferred, thisexample,
student'shock'
translator failed
to 'mat' and to work out
'kidnapper'
to 'lock'. However, not only the context but also the co-text work against
244
such renditions: the co-text nahada rukii min sadmati-hi bibutin 'Rocky
rose from his shock slowly' is not acceptable in Arabic, because the verb
nahada 'rose/got up' does not collocate with sadmah 'shock'. This
collocational mismatch results in a flawed translation. Secondly, the
student translator called up contextually irrelevant senses of some words
the meaning from the context, and thus preferred, for example,
ʻshockʼ to ʻmatʼ and ʻkidnapperʼ to ʻlockʼ. However, not only the
context but also the co-text works against such renditions: the
co-text nahada rukii min sadmati-hi bibutin ʻRocky rose from
his shock slowlyʼ is not acceptable in Arabic, because the verb
nahada ʻrose/got upʼ does not collocate with sadmah ʻshockʼ. This
collocational mismatch results in a flawed translation. Secondly,
the student translator called up contextually irrelevant senses
of some words such as wage for charge, minimal for weak, and
carry/lift for hold. The lack of lexical sensitivity and specificity
also proves fatal to the adequacy of the translation corresponding
to the back-translation above.
To summarize, the three categories deviate from the relevant

schema in different ways. Schematic markedness explains why
student translators in the first category rendered a prison rather
than a wrestling match schema in their translations, whereas the
translations of the second category are characterized by schematic
confusion. The solutions in the third category could be ascribed to
lexical incompetence, as well as to a failed attempt to magnify the
macro-context by ruling out the unmarked prison schema.
4.1.3.1 The Professor Group

The nine professors of English and Linguistics received
the wrestling version of the text only. It was assumed that, being
245
graduates of American and British universities, these professors
would neutralize schematic markedness and translate the text into
the wrestling schema.
Surprisingly enough, the wrestling schema was borne
out in only one of these translations. Conversely, just like the
majority of the MA translation students, six professors rendered
the body of the text as the prison schema. It seems as if schematic
markedness played a decisive role for the translation, regardless
of the macro-context stated in the title. This outcome sheds doubt
on lexical competence as triggering relevant schemata. It seems
that schematic markedness is stronger than lexical competence in
translation activity.
The two last translations vacillated between the wrestling
and the prison schema. Both interpreted Rocky as planning to run
away, a scenario relevant to the prison rather than the wrestling
schema. One of them maintained the prison schema until the
end of the text, but added an alternative, wrestling schema-based
rendition of the last sentence, explaining that the title of the text
called for such a translation. Thus, the translator switched to
top-down processing only at the end, which led to an inadequate
translation of the passage since the wrestling hold in the last
sentence does not cohere with the weak accusation, being under
arrest, and planning to run away in the previous sentences in that
translation.
246
The other translation also adhered to the prison schema
throughout. However, the translator went over the translation
again and revised it schematically, replacing the ambiguous words
with ones congruent with the wrestling schema in order to furnish
a text coherent with the macro-context. In the corrected version,
arrested became held in wrestling (Lit. ʻfixedʼ), the accusation
directed at him became the blow he received, lock (of prison)
became arm (of wrestler), and break it became get out of it.
Predictably, there were no nonsensical translations in

this group. Apparently, the professorsʼ lexical competence was
good enough for them to reject renditions lacking a schematic
orientation. However, their competence was not always sufficient
to establish a link between macro-analysis (the title) and micro-
analysis (the specific phrases in the passage). Their competence
allowed them to make lexical choices leading to potentially
feasible schematic orientations, regardless of contextual fitness.
For example, several may have used a word implying accusation
for the polysemous charge simply because of its relevance to the
prison schema, which would have been adequate, were it not for
the macro-context.
4.1.4 Summary and Conclusion
This section furnishes empirical evidence that schematic

competence may override lexical competence in translational
247
activity. While inadequate lexical competence could be the reason
for the MA translation studentsʼ failure to maintain the schematic
congruence with the source text, the professorsʼ inability to adhere
to schematic relevance in their translations cannot be attributed
to lexical incompetence. It seems more plausible to explain their
tendency to opt for the schematically irrelevant prison schema
as the outcome of schematic markedness rather than lexical
competence. In this way, the shift from top-down to bottom-up
processing that occurred after the translation of the title could be
attributed to a principle of lexically based schematic markedness.
When asked why they did not retain the schema of the title, some
of the MA students said it had not occurred to them that this was
a wrestling schema because the text clearly dealt with someone in
prison.
This conclusion is in line with the observation that some

translations make sense in spite of the fact that they are not
congruent with the message intended by the author of the original.
Such ʻcamouflaged relevanceʼ in translation practice (Farghal
2005) may be considered a result of schematic markedness.
Translatorsʼ inadvertent disregard of a macro-contextual feature
may thus trigger an inadequate interpretation and a translation
which even succeeds in creating optimal relevance with target
language readers who cannot access the source text (Sperber and
248
Wilson 1986; Gutt 1996). This is a topic which attracts serious
attention in translation criticism.
Equally, we have seen another important phenomenon:

an unfocussed schematic orientation in translation may lead to
well-written but incoherent and/or nonsensical translation. It is
the translatorʼs inability to interpret cognitive structures in a text
that results in confused comprehension and therefore also in a
schematically inadequate translation. For such translations, lexical
competence is crucial. Lexical competence is thus a pre-requisite
for general schematic competence regardless of markedness,
which, as we have seen, can be viewed as a correlate of lexical
markedness.
4.2 Discourse and Schemata

4.2.0 Discourse vs. Text
Hatim and Mason (1990:240) define discourse as ʻmodes
of speaking and writing which involve participants in adopting
a particular attitude towards areas of socio-cultural activity”.
The expression of attitudes constitutes the core of the notion of
discourse and inherently links up with the affective or interactional
function of language (Brown and Yule 1983; Renkema 1993),
whereas the notion of text can be construed to be more akin to the
referential function whereby information may be conveyed in a
straightforward fashion. This programmatic distinction between
249
discoure and text is not meant to establish a divorce between
them but rather to highlight the fact that attitudinal moves may
predominate in some genres (e.g. literary and political discourse),
where the referential function assumes only a marginal role. In a
more contructive sense, therefore, text is viewed as representation
of discourse whereby the attitudinal and affective parameters are
reflected in stylistic devices as well as diction. Fowler (1996:93)
writes, “The structure of discourse, as opposed to the more limited
structure of text, reflects the whole complex process of people
interacting with one another in live situations and within the
structure of social forces”.
The translator, being a mediator and an actualizer at the

same time, is expected to relay not only the referential content of
what he translates, but also the attitudes embodied in the potentially
boundless range of textualizations. The failure to comprehend the
SL material may, in its simplest form, twist the referential content
in easily discernible ways. However, in more creative and subtle
materials, the permutations may, at face value, do justice to the
text but will, more profoundly, fail the discourse.
Schemata, as we have already seen, constitute the cognitive

structures brought to the text or discourse by the reader (the
translator in our case) which enable him to interact meaningfully
with it and, as a result, arrive at a congruent understanding.
250
While the text carries both textual and discoursal potentialities
for meaning, it often falls short of fulfilling its mission unless
the existing gaps/unsaid propositions in it are filled/spotted by
the reader and/or translator because, as Fowler (1996:93) argues,
“To see language as discourse is to study it in its communicative
context, as language socially and historically situated”. Similarly,
Steffensen and Joag-dev (1985:60) write, “If readers possess the
schemata assumed by the writer, they understand what is stated
and effortlessly make the inferences intended. If they do not, they
distort meaning as they attempt to accommodate even explicitly
stated propositions to their pre-existing knowledge structures”.
The readerʼs/translatorʼs constant monitoring of attitudinal moves
in the process of decoding discourse is usually informed by two
types of context: linguistic and extralinguistic (physical and/or
psychological) context (Yule 1985). Where there is a conflict
between the linguistic message per se and the socio-cultural
knowledge, the competent reader/translator always gives priority
to facts of the world over the encoded linguistic message.
The present section aims to demonstrate that the translatorʼs

failure to effectively invest relevant schemata, which he may or may
not possess, will do much damage to discourse – damage that may
amount, in some cases, to stripping the text of its flesh by offering
no more than a deformed skeleton. Our authentic examples below
251
are examined in light of four parameters: symbolism, explicitness,
coherence, and diction
4.2.1 Symbolism
Symbolism is a key vehicle in literary works in general

and poetic discourse in particular. It is the hallmark of modern
Arabic poetry where the task of the translator becomes even more
complex and challenging. The complexity of modern Arabic poetry
is an immediate consequence of the intricate and creative use of
language, which aims at making ideological moves by employing
symbols. Ismail (1967:174) states, “The orientation of the neo-
poetic movement experience deals with language in a special and
innovative way”. For their part, Pickering and Hooper (1982:570)
write, “No word in great poetry can be moved or replaced without
harming or changing the whole”. According to Adonis (1978), the
modern poem is a case rather than a mere group of words and
meanings. Therefore, argues Lewis (1969:113), “The modern poet
then is faced with a difficulty of communication as great in its way
as the difficulty presented by his subject matter”.
The following example, taken from Victims of a Map – a

group of selected poems by M. Darwish, S. Al-Qasim, and A. Adonis,
and translated by Abdullah Al-Udhari (1984), demonstrates how
making small changes, perhaps inadvertently, can seriously affect
the symbolic poetic discourse. The excerpt comes from Darwishʼs
252
difficulty presented by his subject matter".
The following example, taken from Victims of a Map – a group of
selected poems by M. Darwish, S. Al-Qasim, and A. Adonis, and
translated by Abdullah Al-Udhari, demonstrates how making small
changes, perhaps inadvertently, can seriously affect the symbolic poetic
discourse. The excerpt comes from Darwish's poem ��
poem W�«b��« bO�√ Ê√ w� ÊU� «–≈ ʻIf I Were to Start All Over Againʼ:
'If I Were to Start All Over Again':
�� (13)
.��
/’a‘uudu ’iðaa kaana l-ii ’an ’a‘uuda ’ilaa wardat-ii
return (I) if was for-me to return to rose-my
nafsihaa wa ’ilaa xutwat-ii nafsihaa wa laakinna-nii laa

itself and to step-my itself and but-I not
’a‘uudu ’ilaa qurtubah/

return to Cordova
(14) I will return if I have to return, to my roses, to my steps

But I will never go back to Cordova.
187
In (14), the translator fails the discourse of (13) in two serious
In (14), the translator fails the discourse of (13) in two
ways. Firstly, he destroys the symbolism embodied in the uniqueness of
serious ways. Firstly, he destroys the symbolism embodied in the
the referents which the poet employs, that is, �� wardatii 'my rose' and
uniqueness of the referents which the poet employs, that is, w�œ—Ë
�� xutwatii 'my step' when he renders them as 'my roses' and 'my
wardatii ʻmy roseʼ and w�uD� xutwatii ʻmy stepʼ when he renders
steps', respectively. One should note that the poet utilizes these common
them inasreference
nouns ʻmy rosesʼ andentities,
to unique ʻmy stepsʼ,
viz. my respectively.
rose symbolizesOne should
'Palestine
noteoccupied
(his that the homeland)'
poet utilizes
andthese
my common nouns in'hisreference
step symbolizes infancy'. to
unique entities,
Unfortunately, the viz. my rose
translation symbolizes
relegates these ʻPalestine (his tooccupied
poetic symbols mere
homeland)ʼ
reference and mybelongings.
to common step symbolizes
Secondly,ʻhis infancyʼ.ofUnfortunately,
the modality the discourse
presented by the translator
the translation relegatesis these
significantly
poeticdifferent
symbols from
to that
mereentertained
reference
by
to the poet. To
common explain, theSecondly,
belongings. translation the
views 'the return'
modality in terms
of the of
discourse
general obligation (if I have to return), thus calling into question the
presented by the translator is significantly different from that
cherished desire to return to occupied land, whereas the poet envisions
entertained by the poet. To explain, the translation views ʻthe returnʼ
'the return' as a remote possibility (’iðaa kaana lii ’an ’a‘uuda 'if I were
in terms of general obligation (if I have to return), thus calling into
to return') while maintaining this long-cherished desire. As is clear, we
question the cherished desire to return to occupied land, whereas
have two different schemata (the original's vs. the translation's schema)
253
which embrace considerably diverging discourses.
More seriously, the translator may cripple the discourse if he falls
victim to a phonological miscue involving a key poetic symbol (for more
details, see Sims 1976; Farghal and Naji 2000). The following excerpt,
taken from the same collection, namely from Adonis's poem ��
the poet envisions ʻthe returnʼ as a remote possibility (ʼiðaa kaana
lii ʼan ʼaʻuuda ʻif I were to returnʼ) while maintaining this long-
cherished desire. As is clear, we have two different schemata (the
originalʼs vs. the translationʼs schema) which embrace considerably
diverging discourses.
More seriously, the translator may cripple the discourse if he

falls victim to a phonological miscue involving a key poetic symbol
(for more details, see Sims 1976; Farghal and Naji 2000). The
following excerpt, taken from the same collection, namely from
Adonisʼs poem —u�e� mazmuur ʻPsalmʼ, illustrates this point:
…—U� qL� f�√Ë Æœd� ô rOG�U�Ë W�UG�U� ‰e�√ q�I� ©15®
Æt�UJ� s� d��« qI�Ë
qOK�« ¡«c� dOF��Ë Î «—UN� tO�b� s� lMB� ¨—UNM�« UH� r�d�
Æw�Q�ô U� dE�M� r�
qKC�Ë UO�� ≠ UO�� ¨WM�b� qE�« Ë …dO�� d�(« dOB� YO�
d�AK�Ë Î Î O�U� ¨”QO�«
��¨»¡U��
� �� -w�
��»«d�K�
��UB�«—
�� ¨q�_«
�� W��
�� U��
�� ÆÂUM� ��w�
U�dB� 5�� vK� Î UA�U� ¨·«d�_« l�UI� .��
sKF� �
u� U�Ë
�� Æd��« �� W�ö�
��
.��
/yuqbilu ‘a‘zalu ka-l-�aabati wa ka-l-�aymi laa
come unarmed like-the-forest and like-the-clouds not
yuradd wa ’amsi �amala qaaratan wa naqala-

fought back and yesterday carried continent and transported
l-ba�ra min makaani-h

the-sea from place-its
yarsumu qafaa-l-nahaari yasna‘u min qadamay-hi nahaaran

254
draws back the-day make from two feet-his day
wa yasta‘iiru �iðaa’a-l-layli �umma yantaðiru ma laa ya’tii

and borrow shoes the-night then await what not come
�ay�u yasiiru- l-�ajaru bu�ayratan wa- ð-ðillu madiinah

where become the-stone lake and the-shadow city
/yuqbilu ‘a‘zalu ka-l-�aabati wa ka-l-�aymi laa
come unarmed like-the-forest and like-the-clouds not
yuradd wa ’amsi �amala qaaratan wa naqala-

fought back and yesterday carried continent and transported
l-ba�ra min makaani-h

the-sea from place-its
yarsumu qafaa-l-nahaari yasna‘u min qadamay-hi nahaaran

draws back the-day make from two feet-his day
wa yasta‘iiru �iðaa’a-l-layli �umma yantaðiru ma laa ya’tii

and borrow shoes the-night then await what not come
�ay�u yasiiru- l-�ajaru bu�ayratan wa- ð-ðillu madiinah

where become the-stone lake and the-shadow city
ya�yaa – ya�yaa wa yudallilu-l-ya’sa maa�iyan fus�ata-

live live and fool the-despair erasing room
l-’amal raaqisan li-t-turaabi kay yata�aa’ab wa li-š-šajari

the-hope dancing for-the-soil so yawn (it) and for-the-trees
kay yanaam
so sleep (they)
wa haa huwa yu‘linu taqaatu‘a- l-’atraaf naaqišan

and there he announcing intersecting the-sides inscribing
‘alaa jabiini ‘asri-naa ‘alaamata al-sa�ar/

on forehead age-our sign the-daybreak
(16) He comes unarmed like a forest, like a destined cloud.

Yesterday he carried a continent and changed the position
of the sea.
He paints the back of day and creates daylight out of his feet,
189
borrows the night's shoes and waits for what will not come.
He lives where the stone becomes a lake, the shadow a city –

he lives and fools despair, wiping out the vastness of hope,
dancing for the soil so it can yawn, for the trees so they can
sleep.
And here he is speaking of crossroads, drawing the magic sign

on the forehead of time.
255
Ignoring the overall quality of the translation in (16) and
concentrating only on the bold-faced key symbol in (15) and (16), one
should readily note the translator's misreading this poetic cipher. Adonis,
the poet, intratextually (for more on inter-, intra-, and contra-textuality,
see Martin 1985; Lemeke 1985; Hatim 1997) creates vivid imagery
He paints the back of day and creates daylight out of his feet,
borrows the night's shoes and waits for what will not come.
He lives where the stone becomes a lake, the shadow a city –

he lives and fools despair, wiping out the vastness of hope,
dancing for the soil so it can yawn, for the trees so they can
sleep.
And here he is speaking of crossroads, drawing the magic sign

on the forehead of time.
Ignoring
Ignoring thethe overall
overall quality
quality of of
thethetranslation
translation
in in (16)and
(16) and
concentrating
concentratingonly on on
only the the
bold-faced key symbol
bold-faced in (15)inand
key symbol (15)(16),
andone
(16),
should readily note
one should the translator's
readily note the misreading
translatorʼsthismisreading
poetic cipher. Adonis,
this poetic
the poet, Adonis,
cipher. intratextually (for more
the poet, on inter-, intra-,
intratextually and contra-textuality,
(for more on inter-, intra-,
see Martin 1985; Lemeke 1985; Hatim 1997) creates vivid imagery
and contra-textuality, see Martin 1985; Lemeke 1985; Hatim 1997)
whereby his subject performs extraordinary acts, viz. carrying a
creates vivid imagery whereby his subject performs extraordinary
continent, painting the back of day, creating daylight out of his feet,
acts, viz. carrying a continent, painting the back of day, creating
fooling despair, wiping out the vastness of hope, etc. This intratextual
daylight out of his feet, fooling despair, wiping out the vastness of
weaving of the image culminates in his subject's inscribing the sign of
hope, etc.
daybreak onThis intratextual
the forehead weaving
of time, of the image
thus intertextually culminates
establishing in his
an oft-
subjectʼs
cited inscribing
association the asign
between of daybreak
physical on the(daybreak)
phenomenon forehead and
of time,
a
thus intertextually
spiritual establishing
phenomenon (hope), an oft-cited
which, together, association
function between
as a declaration of
a physical
freedom phenomenon
in the (daybreak)
Palestinian context. Beingand a spiritual
unaware of the phenomenon
subtlety of
discourse embodying
(hope), which, this poetic
together, schema,
function asthe translator falls
a declaration ofvictim to a in
freedom
phono-lexical miscue
the Palestinian that replaces
context. the target of
Being unaware symbol al-sa�arof'daybreak'
the subtlety discourse
with the far-fetched
embodying this one al-si�r
poetic 'magic'. the translator falls victim to a
schema,
phono-lexical miscue that replaces the target symbol al-saħar
4.2.2 Explicitness
ʻdaybreakʼ with the far-fetched one al-siħr ʻmagicʼ.
Schemata in discourse may manifest themselves either explicitly or
4.2.2 Explicitness
implicitly. Regardless of how schemata manage to get across in
Schemata in discourse may manifest themselves either

explicitly or implicitly. Regardless
190 of how schemata manage
to get across in communication, they are supposed to carry
256
into the TL a comparable degree of communicativeness that
triggers effects similar to those created on the SL audience. If the
communication, they are supposed to carry into the TL a comparable
translation
degree produces a discourse
of communicativeness thateffects
that triggers diverges
similarfrom the created
to those original
effects,
on the SLaaudience.
communication breakdown
If the translation mayabecome
produces discourseinevitable. The
that diverges
translation
from of the
the original following
effects, Quranic verse
a communication (Aberry
breakdown 1980:
may 284)
become
bears witness
inevitable. to this: of the following Quranic verse (Aberry 1980:
The translation
tK�« witness
284) bears «uI�«Ë …bF�«
to «uB�«Ë
this: sN�bF� s�uIKD� ¡U�M�« r�IK� «–≈ w�M�« UN�√ U� ©17®
�� ÆÆÆ��rJ�—
(17)
(Al-talaaq: 1) ... ��
(Al-talaaq: 1)
/yaa ’ayyha-l-nabiyyu ’iðaa tallaq-tum an-nisaa’a

oh you the-prophet if divorce-you the-women
fa-talliquu-hunna li-‘iddati-hunna wa ’a�suu

so-divorce-them for-legally prescribed period and count
al-‘iddata wa ’ittaquu ’allaaha rabba-kum/

the-period and fear God Lord-yours
(18) O Prophet [Mohammad] when you divorce women,

divorce them when they have reached their period.
Count the period, and fear your Lord.
In search of enconomy, Aberry undertranslated the Quranic

In search of enconomy, Aberry undertranslated the Quranic
euphemistic term al-‘uddah (the legally prescribed period (three months)
euphemistic term al-ʻuddah (the legally prescribed period (three
before the woman divorcee can remarry, in order to rule out pregnancy)
months) before the woman divorcee can remarry, in order to rule
as period, which coincides with menstrural period in English, thus
out pregnancy) as period, which coincides with menstrural period
creating room for a breakdown in communication. When the text was
in English,
given thusofcreating
to a group room for
20 American a breakdown
native in communication.
speakers, about 75% of them
When the
provided text was given
interpretations to a group
relating to the of 20 American
monthly nativethan
period rather speakers,
the
intended legal sense. However, when the same group was asked whether
the Quranic text made sense, about 257
65% of them said it did. This clear
mismatch between actual erroneous interpretation on the one hand and
belief about comprehensibility on the other in target reader responses
191
about 75% of them provided interpretations relating to the monthly
period rather than the intended legal sense. However, when the same
group was asked whether the Quranic text made sense, about 65%
of them said it did. This clear mismatch between actual erroneous
interpretation on the one hand and belief about comprehensibility
on the other in target reader responses turns out to be a serious
problem in Quranic translation (for more details, see Farghal and
Al-Masri 2000). The outcome of such situations is what Farghal
(2004) calls ʻcamouflaged relevanceʼ, in which the translation
turns out to be a serious problem in Quranic translation (for more details,
succeeds
see Farghalin producing
and Al-Masri cognitive
2000). Theeffects
outcomein of
thesuch
target reader is
situations although
what
they deviate
Farghal (2004)drastically from those
calls ‘camouflaged sought in
relevance’, by which
the original.
the translation
succeedsTo
in producing cognitive
further shed lighteffects
on howin thethe
target reader although
translator theythe
may fail
deviate drastically
discourse by way from
ofthose sought by
befogging the original.
explicit socio-cultural reality, let
To further shed light on how the translator may fail the discourse
us consider the following extract from one of the speeches of the
by way of befogging explicit socio-cultural reality, let us consider the
late King Hussein of Jordan delivered in (1988), along with its
following extract from one of the speeches of the late King Hussein of
Jordan Television accredited English translation:
Jordan delivered in (1988), along with its Jordan Television accredited
¨rJO�≈ Àb%√ Ê√ w�bF��Ë WO% VO�√ rJOO�√ ∫ÊuM�«u*« …u�_« UN�√ ©19®
English translation:
r�b�UF�Ë rJF�UB� w� ¨rJ�—UC�Ë rJ�ULO��Ë r�«d�Ë rJ�b� w�
�� :�� (19)
Èd� vK��
r�M� UL�O� rJO�≈ Àb%√ Ê√ w�bF�� ÆrJ�U��R�Ë rJ��UJ�Ë
� ��
�� ©1988∫7®
�� .Æe�eF�«
��
w�œ—_« UMM�Ë
(1988:7) .��
/’ayyuha-l-’uxwatu- l-muwaatinuun ’u�ayyii-kum ’atyaba

oh the-brothers the-citizens greet(I)-you best
ta�iyyatan wa yus‘idu-nii ’an ’ata�adda�a ’ilay-kum fii

greeting and please-me to speak to-you in
mudini-kum wa quraa-kum 258 wa muxayyamaati-kum

cities-your and villages-your and camps-your
wa madaaribi-kum fii masaani‘i-kum wa ma‘aahidi-kum

and desert dwellings-your in factories-your and institutes-your
wa makaatibi-kum wa mu’assasaati-kum. yus‘idu-nii ’an

and offices-your and corporations-your pleased-me to
�� .��
(1988:7) .��
/’ayyuha-l-’uxwatu- l-muwaatinuun ’u�ayyii-kum ’atyaba

oh the-brothers the-citizens greet(I)-you best
ta�iyyatan wa yus‘idu-nii ’an ’ata�adda�a ’ilay-kum fii

greeting and please-me to speak to-you in
mudini-kum wa quraa-kum wa muxayyamaati-kum

cities-your and villages-your and camps-your
wa madaaribi-kum fii masaani‘i-kum wa ma‘aahidi-kum

and desert dwellings-your in factories-your and institutes-your
wa makaatibi-kum wa mu’assasaati-kum. yus‘idu-nii ’an

and offices-your and corporations-your pleased-me to
’ata�adda�a ’ilay-kum ‘alaa �araa watani-naa- l-’urdiniyyi-

speak to-you on soil homeland-our the-Jordanian
l-‘aziiz/
the-dear
(20) Brother citizens,
I send you greetings and am pleased to address you in your
cities and villages, in your camps and dwellings, in your
factories and institutions 192
of learning and in your offices. It
pleases me to address you in all parts of your beloved
Jordanian soil. (1988:7)
While
While the the emotive
emotive overtones
overtones are reasonably
are reasonably conveyedconveyed into
into the TL,
the
thetranslation fails the discourse
TL, the translation relating
fails the to the relating
discourse socio-cultural schema
to the socio-
which captures
cultural the demographic
schema situation
which captures thein demographic
Jordan. The kingsituation
explicitly in
refers to the four standard demographic categories that comprise
Jordan. The king explicitly refers to the four standard demographic
Jordanian society, viz. urban people (city dwellers), rural people
categories that comprise Jordanian society, viz. urban people (city
(villagers), refugee camps (Palestinian refugees) and Bedouins (desert
dwellers), rural people (villagers), refugee camps (Palestinian
dwellers). However, the translator mystifies the last two categories by
refugees)them
rendering andasBedouins
camps and(desert dwellers).
dwellings. However,
The target the translator
reader would wonder
mystifies
what kind ofthe lastaretwo
camps categories
meant by rendering
and how dwellings stand inthem as tocamps
relation the
and categories
other dwellings.on The target
the list, as allreader
of themwould wonder
are types what Amidst
of dwellings. kind of
this confusion,
camps the straightforward
are meant socio-cultural
and how dwellings stand indemographic
relation totypology
the other
has schematically failed to show up in the translation.
259
4.2.3 Coherence
Coherence is inherently related to schemata in discourse. Whether a text
makes sense or not depends primarily on the reader's ability to invest
his/her encyclopedic knowledge properly in comprehending discourse
categories on the list, as all of them are types of dwellings. Amidst
this confusion, the straightforward socio-cultural demographic
typology has schematically failed to show up in the translation.
4.2.3 Coherence
Coherence is inherently related to schemata in discourse.

Whether a text makes sense or not depends primarily on the
readerʼs ability to invest his/her encyclopedic knowledge properly
in comprehending discourse schemata. Literary discourse in
general and poetic discourse in particular may seriously suffer
from any disruption of coherence. Boulton (1977:152) writes,
“Poetry is made of words and obviously the choice of words is
important in poetry; indeed, in a sense it is the whole art of writing
poetry”. The following stanza from Darwishʼs poem nusaafiru
ka-l-naas ʻWe Travel like Other Peopleʼ, along with Al-Udhariʼs
(1984) translation
translation show howshow
translation how
a small
show a small
disruption
how disruption
a small
of coherence ofdoes
disruption coherence
of coherencedoes
irreparable
does irreparable
irreparable
damage damage
to poetic
damage to poetic
poeticschemata:
schemata:
to schemata:
�� .��
��
� ��
.��
��
(21)�� (21)
��
��
� ��
�� .��
��
�� .��
��
��
��
��
��
� ��
��
.�� .��
��
��
��
��
/nusaafiru ka-n-naasi
/nusaafiru laakinna-naa
ka-n-naasi laalaakinna-naa
na‘uudu ’ilaa
laašay’.
na‘uudu ’ilaa šay’.
travel (we) like-the-people
travel (we) like-the-people
but-we not but-we
return to not
thing
return to thing
ka’anna-s-safar ka’anna-s-safar
as if the-traveling
as if the-traveling
tariiqu-l-�uyuum.
tariiqu-l-�uyuum.
dafan-naa ’a�ibbata-naa
dafan-naa fii
’a�ibbata-naa
ðalaami- fii ðalaami-
way the-clouds wayburied-we
the-clouds
loved
buried-we
ones-our loved
260 in darkness
ones-our in darkness
bayna juðuu‘i-
l-�uyuumi wa l-�uyuumi š-šajarjuðuu‘i- š-šajar
wa bayna
the-clouds and between
the-clouds
branches
and between
the-trees
branches the-trees
wa qul-naa li-zawjaati-naa
wa qul-naa lidna
li-zawjaati-naa
min-naa
lidna
mi’aati-min-naa mi’aati-
and said-we to-wives-our
and said-wegive
to-wives-our
birth from-us
givehundreds
birth from-us hundreds
��
.��
/nusaafiru ka-n-naasi laakinna-naa laa na‘uudu ’ilaa šay’.

travel (we) like-the-people but-we not return to thing
ka’anna-s-safar
as if the-traveling
tariiqu-l-�uyuum. dafan-naa ’a�ibbata-naa fii ðalaami-

way the-clouds buried-we loved ones-our in darkness
l-�uyuumi wa bayna juðuu‘i- š-šajar

the-clouds and between branches the-trees
wa qul-naa li-zawjaati-naa lidna min-naa mi’aati-

and said-we to-wives-our give birth from-us hundreds
l-siniina li-nukmila haaðaa-r-ra�iil

the-years to-complete this the-moving
’ilaa saa‘atin min bilaadin wa mitrin min-al-musta�iil/

to hour from countries and meter from the-impossible
(22) We travel like people, but we return to nowhere. As if

traveling
Is the way of the clouds. We have buried our loved ones in the
darkness of the clouds, between the roots of the trees
And we said to our wives: go on giving birth to people like us
for hundreds of years so we can complete this journey
To the hour of a country, to a meter of the impossible.
The
The translator
translator in (22)
in (22) disrupts
disrupts the coherence
the coherence of the
of the poetic poetic
schema
schema
when when ��
he renders he renders
juðuu‘ 'branches' as rootsʻbranchesʼ
ŸËc� juðuuʻ as roots
�� (juðuur). —Ëc�
Darwish,
the poet, wants
(juðuur). to communicate
Darwish, the message
the poet, wants that the burial
to communicate theismessage
not a
normal one,burial
that the for theisloved
not aones are notone,
normal buried
forunderground; rather,are
the loved ones theynot
buried underground; rather, they are buried in the darkness of

194
clouds and between the branches of trees. This poetic schema
is meant to show that formal attributes of human activities may
not be tokens of their genuine nature, e.g. traveling as a human
activity would be valid only if the traveler returns to a homeland,
which is not the case in the Palestinian context, to which the poet
261
are buried in the darkness of clouds and between the branches of trees.
This poetic schema is meant to show that formal attributes of human
is schematically
activities may not bereferring. The genuine
tokens of their interaction
nature,between the poetic
e.g. traveling as a
imagery
human andwould
activity the socio-cultural
be valid only if realities brings
the traveler coherence
returns to the
to a homeland,
text inis (21).
which not theTherefore,
case in thethe renditioncontext,
Palestinian of thetofictional burial
which the poet as
is a
schematically
commonplace referring. The not
one does interaction
coherebetween theseries
with the poetic of
imagery and
the out-of-
the socio-cultural
the-ordinary realities
acts brings coherence
surrounding it. to the text in (21). Therefore,
the rendition of the fictional burial as a commonplace one does not cohere
Sometimes, the SL discourse is so subtle and intriguing that
with the series of the out-of-the-ordinary acts surrounding it.
the translator, inadvertently, may settle for literalness that may
Sometimes, the SL discourse is so subtle and intriguing that the
lack coherence
translator, in the TL.
inadvertently, mayThe excerpt
settle for in (23) below
literalness thatis may
takenlack
from
Najeeb Mahfouzʼs
coherence novel
in the TL. The al-lissu
excerpt wa al-kilaab
in (23) (1973),
below is taken fromtranslated
Najeeb
by Adel A.
Mahfouz's Elyas
novel (1987)
al-liss as The Thief
u wa al-kilaab andtranslated
(1973), the Dogs.by It involves
Adel two
A. Elyas
anonymous
(1987) characters
as The Thief and theengaging in a somewhat
Dogs. It involves strainedcharacters
two anonymous exchange
engaging
which isinoverheard
a somewhatbystrained exchange
the main which Saeed
antagonist is overheard by the
Mahran, who
main antagonist projects
subsequently Saeed Mahran, who subsequently
its content, albeit he doesprojects its content, it
not understand
albeit he does
clearly, not own
on his understand it clearly, on his own situation.
situation.
... �� - (23)

... �� -
�� -
�� -
.�� -
... �� -
!�� -
/al-ma’saatu-l-�aqiiqiyyatu hiya ’anna ‘aduwwa-naa huwa

the-tragedy the-real it that enemy-our it
sadiiqu-naa fi-l-waqti nafsih …

friend-our in the-time itself
262
195
- ’abadan al- ma’saatu-l-�aqiiqiyyatu hiya ’anna sadiiqa-naa
never the-tragedy the-real it that friend-our
huwa ‘aduwwu-naa …
it enemy-our
- bal ’anna-naa jubanaa’u lima laa na‘tarifu bi-haaðaa …

rather that-we cowards why not admit with-that
- rubbamaa wa laakin kayfa tata’attaa la-naa al-šajaa‘atu fii

perhaps and but how come to-us the courage in
haðaa-l-‘asr ?
this the-age
- aš-šajaa‘atu hiya-l-šajaa‘ah
the-courage it the-courage
- wa-l-mawtu huwa-l-mawt …
and the-death it the-death
- wa- ð-ðalaamu wa-s-sa�raa’u hiya haðaa kullih/

and the-darkness and the-desert it this all
Elyas,
Elyas, thethe translator,
translator, should
should havehave
paid paid special
special attention
attention to the to
the adjacent
adjacent tautological
tautological aš-šajaa‘atu
expressions
expressions hiya-š-šajaa‘ah
aš-šajaaʻatu and wa-
hiya-š-šajaaʻah
l-mawtu huwa-l-mawt
and wa-l-mawtu (for more (for
huwa-l-mawt on more
tautologies, see Gricesee
on tautologies, 1975;
Grice
Wierzbicka 1987; Farghal
1975; Wierzbicka 1987; 1992),
Farghalbecause
1992),they are intended
because they aretointended
issue
competing conversational implicatures the way they are employed by the
to issue competing conversational implicatures the way they are
two interactants. The translator, however, renders them into what seems
employed by the two interactants. The translator, however, renders
to be English tolerance tautologies, viz. Courage is courage and Death is
them into what seems to be English tolerance tautologies, viz.
death, respectively. A careful examination of the above exchange reveals
Courage is courage and Death is death, respectively. A careful
that the translator's interpretation is far-fetched as neither of the
examination of the above exchange reveals that the translatorʼs
characters is calling for the tolerance of adverse, natural consequences of
the referents in question. One should263
note that the two Arabic tautologies
refer to the standards of two human attributes, i.e. courage and death,
each in its own way. To explain, the producer of the first tautology wants
196
interpretation is far-fetched as neither of the characters is calling
for the tolerance of adverse, natural consequences of the referents
in question. One should note that the two Arabic tautologies refer to
the standards of two human attributes, i.e. courage and death, each
in its own way. To explain, the producer of the first tautology wants
to communicate the implicature that ʻCourage has been the same
all along, i.e. there are familiar standards set throughout the agesʼ.
toSimilarly, the speaker
communicate of the second
the implicature tautology
that 'Courage asserts
has been thethat
sameʻDeath
all
is subject
along, to are
i.e. there a similar
familiarset of standardsʼ,
standards but he
set throughout the conversationally
ages'. Similarly,
implicates
the that
speaker of theʻDeath
secondistautology
too dear aasserts
price to pay
that in return
'Death for genuine
is subject to a
courageʼ.
similar set ofThis profound
standards', philosophical
but he polemic
conversationally is achieved
implicates subtly
that 'Death is
too
anddear a price tobypay
effectively in return
means for genuine courage'.
of conversational This profound
implicature, which is
philosophical polemicasisemanating
part of coherence achieved subtly
from and effectively
discourse by means
schemata. of
In light
conversational implicature, which is part of coherence as emanating from
of the above, the two tautologies should be regarded as obligation
discourse schemata. In light of the above, the two tautologies should be
rather than tolerance tautologies, and consequently be rendered
regarded as obligation rather than tolerance tautologies, and consequently
as:
be rendered as:
(24) - Courage means courage.
- And death means death.
These renditions conversationally improvise two rival discourses that

These renditions conversationally improvise two rival
coherently correspond to their counterparts in the Arabic text.
discourses that coherently correspond to their counterparts in the
Let us now consider an example of coherence in which schematic
Arabic text.
moves are presented at the level of poetic cohesiveness rather than socio-
Let us The
cultural reality. nowstanza
consider
belowanis example
extracted of coherence
from in which
a poem titled al-
schematic
tuufaanu wa moves are 'The
al-šajarah presented at the
Flood and thelevel
Tree',ofwhich
poetic cohesiveness
was written in
the aftermath of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War by the Palestinian woman
264
poet, Fadwa Tuqan, and was translated into English by Ibrahim Dawood
(1994:44-45):
�� (25)
��
��
��
(24) - Courage means courage.
- And death means death.
These renditions conversationally improvise two rival discourses that

coherently correspond to their counterparts in the Arabic text.
Let us now consider an example of coherence in which schematic
moves
ratherare presented
than at the levelreality.
socio-cultural of poeticThe
cohesiveness rather than
stanza below socio-
is extracted
cultural
from areality.
poem The stanza
titled below is extracted
al-tuufaanu from a ʻThe
wa al-šajarah titled al-
poem Flood and
tuufaanu wa which
the Treeʼ, al-šajarah
was'The Floodinand
written thetheaftermath
Tree', which was 1967
of the writtenArab-
in
the aftermath of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War by the Palestinian woman
Israeli War by the Palestinian woman poet, Fadwa Tuqan, and was
poet, Fadwa Tuqan, and was translated into English by Ibrahim Dawood
translated into English by Ibrahim Dawood (1994:44-45):
(1994:44-45):
�� (25)
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
/sa-taquumu-l-šajarah
will-rise the-tree
sa-taquumu-l-šajaratu wa- l-’a�saan

197
will-rise the-tree and the-branches
sa-tanmuu fi-š-šamsi wa taxdar

will-grow in the-sun and green
wa sa-tuuriqu da�akaatu-š-šajarah
and will-leaf laughs the-tree
fi wajhi-š-šams
in face the-sun
wa sa-ya’ti- t-tayr
and will-come the-bird
sa-ya’ti- t-tayr
will-come the-bird
laabudda sa-ya’ti- t-tayr 265

must will-come the-bird
sa-ya’ti- t-tayr
will-come the-bird
sa-ya’ti- t-tayr
will-come the-bird
fi wajhi-š-šams
in face the-sun
wa sa-ya’ti- t-tayr
and will-come the-bird
sa-ya’ti- t-tayr
will-come the-bird
laabudda sa-ya’ti- t-tayr

must will-come the-bird
sa-ya’ti- t-tayr
will-come the-bird
sa-ya’ti- t-tayr
will-come the-bird
(26) This fallen Tree will rise again

with green branches in sunshine.
Her smiles will be her leaves
That will appear in the sunlight.
The Bird will come; it will most surely.
The Bird will come, the Bird will come.
It It
cancan
bebe readily
readily seen
seen thatthat
the the translation
translation in (26)
in (26) transforms
transforms an
an episode
episode of inflamed
of inflamed agitation
agitation and furyand
by fury by into
the poet the poet into
a state a state
of deep
serenity.
of deepGiven the psychological
serenity. turbulence theturbulence
Given the psychological poet is experiencing
the poet is
after the tragic after
experiencing defeatthe
of tragic
the Arabs
defeatin ofthethe1967 Six-day
Arabs in theWar,
1967she
Six-
day War, she bombards the reader with a series of actions, viz. sa-
taquumu ʻwill riseʼ, sa-tanmuu198
ʻwill growʼ, sa-taxdar ʻwill greenʼ,
sa-tuuriqu ʻwill leafʼ, and sa-yaʼtii ʻwill comeʼ, where there is no
room for serene states. However, the translation betrays this poetic
cohesiveness by disrupting it with states that involve minimal
action, if at all, viz. with green branches in sunshine, Her smiles
will be her leaves, and that will appear in the sunlight, which,
in effect, seriously damages poetic coherence. To appreciate
the importance of maintaining the poetic schema, the following
translation is offered as a mere suggestion:
266
sa-tanmuu 'will grow', taxdar 'will green', sa-tuuriqu 'will leaf', and sa-
ya’tii 'will come', where there is no room for serene states. However, the
translation betrays this poetic cohesiveness by disrupting it with states
that involve minimal action, if at all, viz. with green branches in
sunshine, Her smiles will be her leaves, and that will appear in the
sunlight, (27)
which,
The in effect,
Tree seriously
will rise again; damages poetic coherence. To
appreciate the importancewillofgrow
Her branches maintaining
and greenthe poetic
in the sun; schema, the
following translation
Her smilesis offered as in
will leaf a mere suggestion:
sunshine;
TheTree
(37) The Bird, therise
will Bird shall surely come;
again;
Her branches will grow
The Bird will come, theand Bird
greenwill
in the sun;
come.
Her smiles will leaf in sunshine;
The Bird, the Bird shall surely come;
4.2.4 Diction
The Bird will come, the Bird will come.
Diction refers to the translatorʼs ability to choose the

4.2.4 Diction
Diction refers to
appropriate the translator's
word from among abilityatonumber
choose the
of appropriate word
related lexemes
from among a number
in contexts where ofsuch
related lexemes
choice in contexts
affects the where
overallsuch choice
schematic
affects the overall schematic representation of discourse. The illustrative
representation of discourse. The illustrative example below is
example below is excerpted from E. Hemingway's (1952:5) novel The
excerpted from E. Hemingwayʼs (1952:5) novel The Old Man and
Old Man and the Sea, along with Muneer Balabki's translation, 1985:7-
the Sea, along with Muneer Balabkiʼs translation, 1985:7-8):
8):
(28) The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the
back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin
cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the tropic sea were
on his cheeks. The blotches ran well down the side of his face
and ....
�� (29)
��
.��
....��
/wa kaana-l-šayxu ma‘ruuqan šaa�iban ’intašarat fii

and was the-old man skinny gaunt spread in
199
mu’axarati ‘unqi-hi tajaa‘iidun ‘amiiqatun wa ‘alat xadday-hi-
back neck-his wrinkles deep and on cheeks-his
267 ‘an sarataani-l-jildi �ayri-

l-quruu�u- l-samraa’u-l-naaši’atu
the-sores the-black the-resulting from cancer the-skin not
l-muðiyyi ’allaðii huwa �amaratu ’in‘ikaasi-š-šamsi ‘alaa

the-harming which it result reflection the-sun on
saf�ati-l-miyaahi fi-l-manaatiqi-l-’istiwaa’iyyah wa kaanat

surface the-water in the-areas the-tropical and were
/wa kaana-l-šayxu ma‘ruuqan šaa�iban ’intašarat fii
and was the-old man skinny gaunt spread in
mu’axarati ‘unqi-hi tajaa‘iidun ‘amiiqatun wa ‘alat xadday-hi-

back neck-his wrinkles deep and on cheeks-his
l-quruu�u- l-samraa’u-l-naaši’atu ‘an sarataani-l-jildi �ayri-

the-sores the-black the-resulting from cancer the-skin not
l-muðiyyi ’allaðii huwa �amaratu ’in‘ikaasi-š-šamsi ‘alaa

the-harming which it result reflection the-sun on
saf�ati-l-miyaahi fi-l-manaatiqi-l-’istiwaa’iyyah wa kaanat

surface the-water in the-areas the-tropical and were
tilka- al-quruu�u tu�attii jaanibayyi wajhi-hi …./

those the-sores covering both sides face-his
In In
(28), the the
(28), author, Hemingway,
author, draws adraws
Hemingway, vivid and graceful
a vivid andportrait
graceful
ofportrait
his hero, the hero,
of his old man.
the The
old portrait
man. The tellsportrait
the story of the
tells a hopeful,
story of
experienced, self-made, simple old angler. Although it is a little gloomy, List of
a hopeful, experienced, self-made, simple old angler. Although
the image embodies many signs of grace, but definitely none of ugliness.
it is a little gloomy, the image embodies many signs of grace,
/b/example,
The blotches of the benevolent skin cancer on old people, for voiced bilabial stop
but definitely none of ugliness. The blotches of the/m/ benevolent
bilabial nasal
are comparable to grey hair. Being unaware of the gracefulness of the old
skin cancer on old people, for example, are comparable /f/ voiceless
to��grey labio-dental fric
man's fictional portrait, the translator in (29) renders blotches ��
/ð/ voiced interdental fricativ
hair. Being
(bu�uur) twiceunaware
as quruu�of��
the 'sores',
gracefulness of the olddeforming
thus considerably manʼs fictional
/ð/ voicedit. In interdental empha
portrait,
this theunsuccessful
way, the translator in (29)ofrenders
choice one word blotches
does serious /�/ voiceless
—u�� (buouur)
damage to twice
the interdental frica
as quruuħ ÕËd�
predominantly visualʻsoresʼ,
schema thus considerably
at hand deforming
by replacing the
/d/ voicedIn thisalveolar stop
schema ofit.normal
/t/ voiceless alveolar stop
aging,
way, which naturally manifests
choiceitself in blotches, with serious
that of a damage
the unsuccessful of one word does /d/sickness-
voicedtoalveolar emphatic
induced schema, whichvisual
the predominantly unnaturally
schemasurfaces in sores.
at hand In a filmed
by replacing version
/t/thevoiceless
schema alveolar emphat
of the novel, one could imagine the huge difference between /z/ voiced
an old face alveolar fricative
of normal aging, which naturally manifests itself in blotches, with
invaded by blotches and another invaded by sores. /s/ voiceless alveolar fricativ
that of a sickness-induced schema, which unnaturally/s/surfaces voiceless in alveolar emphat
Let us examine another example from the Arabic Newsweek, in
sores. In a filmed version of the novel, one could imagine /n/ alveolar
the huge nasal stop
which the choice of one word twists the discourse in a serious way:/r/ alveolar rhotic liquid
difference between an old face invaded by blotches and another
/l/ alveolar lateral liquid
invaded by sores. /š/ voiceless alveo-palatal fri
200
/j/ voiced alveo-palatal affric
268 /y/ palatal glide
/w/ labio-velar glide
/k/ voiceless velar stop
/�/ voiced velar fricative
/q/ voiceless uvular stop
Let us examine another example from the Arabic Newsweek,
in which the choice of one word twists the discourse in a serious
way:
�� (30)
��
(February 4, 2003) .��
/wa kamaa kaana najaa�u-l-yaabaani-l-’iqtisaadiyyu ba‘da-

and as was success the-Japan the-economic after
l-�arbi- l-‘aalamiyyati-�-�aaniyyati mi�aalan qawiyyan

the-war the-world the-second example strong
’iqtadat bi-hi duwalun ’uxraa fii šarqi ’aasyaa fa-’inna

followed in-it countries other in east Asia so-verily
najaa�an mu‘tadilan fi- l-‘iraaqi yumkinu ’an yašudda

success moderate in the-Iraq may that strengthen
min saa‘idi-l-musli�iina fi- l-mantiqah/

from arm the-reformers in the-region
The Arab reader is struck by the translator's inappropriate choice of

the bold-faced lexeme
The Arab in (30)
reader becausebyit the
is struck doestranslatorʼs
not schematically fit in
inappropriate
political
choice discourse. The Arabic lexeme
of the bold-faced passage isin supposed to referittodoes
(30) because liberalnot
politicians al-’islaa�iyyiina
schematically 'liberals'
fit in political rather than
discourse. Thesocial reformers
Arabic passageal- is
musli�iina 'reformers' in the Middle East. In this way, the politically-
supposed to refer to liberal politicians al-ʼislaaħiyyiina ʻliberalsʼ
oriented discourse in the original is rendered as a socially-oriented
rather than social reformers al-musliħiina ʻreformersʼ in the Middle
discourse in the translation, due to a serious mishap in diction.
East. In this way, the politically- oriented discourse in the original
is rendered as a socially-oriented discourse in the translation, due
4.2.5 Summary
to asection
This serioushasmishap
shown in
thatdiction.
while doing justice to textual features per se,
the translator may fail the discourse
269and, consequently, twist socio-
cultural realities in serious ways. Therefore, the translator's awareness of
the schematic structures encapsulated in discourse becomes
indispensable. Schematic mishaps relating to symbolism, explicitness,
coherence and diction manifest themselves clearly in discourse. To avoid
them, the translator should first establish a cognitive rapport with the SL
4.2.5 Summary
This section has shown that while doing justice to

textual features per se, the translator may fail the discourse
and, consequently, twist socio-cultural realities in serious ways.
Therefore, the translatorʼs awareness of the schematic structures
encapsulated in discourse becomes indispensable. Schematic
mishaps relating to symbolism, explicitness, coherence and
diction manifest themselves clearly in discourse. To avoid them,
the translator should first establish a cognitive rapport with the
SL text, so it would function as a signpost for the construction of
schematically comparable discourse in the TL.
4.3 SCHEMATIC MODEL OF LTERARY TRANSLATION

4.3.0 Literary Translation
Despite the recent giant steps made by translation studies in
broadening the scope of translation activity to cover a plethora of
text types or genres, literary translation was and still is a foundation
stone in the history of translation. In fact, the fresh emergence
of Translation Studies as a branch of Applied Linguistics counts
only as a robust rival, but by no means a replacement, for the
traditional view that translation practice is part and parcel of
Comparative Literature and Literary Criticism. Without taking
sides, we regard literary translation as a key genre in translation
270
and a well-established emblem of translation scholarship.
The special status of literary translation stems from the

fact that literature represents the optimal use of language, where
content and form become inextricably inseparable, unlike other
genres in which form may be neutralized at varying degrees. Thus,
literary texts presuppose a kind of aesthetically-oriented discourse
in which its formal elements (i.e. the linguistic code), in addition to
its thematic elements, are actually communicated by the author to
the reader (for more details, see Burkhanov, 2003:135-145). This
inherent feature of literary texts led Adams (1973:10) to conclude
“… all the choices open to (the translator) are in various ways
and for various reasons impossible. The choice is simply between
different ways of murdering the original”. The state of the art is
not as gloomy as is suggested by Adams. However, it remains true
that the formal density of literary texts, along with their ability to
communicate a richness of ideas, feelings and impressions, will
always be a rockhard hurdle in literary translation (see Gutt, 1996
for more on this).
The present section argues that the establishment of a

schematic rapport between the translator and the literary text, both
in terms of content and formal schemata, is the key to opening up
avenues that will lead to workable translations (for a more general
discussion, see Farghal 1999, 2000). In this respect, Pajares and
271
Romero (1997:291) write, “The literary text activates in the reader
a series of mechanisms which allow him to recreate the world
which is presented before his/her eyes. In this way, the work of
art arises from the convergence between text and reader”. For
theoretical as well as practical reasons, the evolving schematic
rapport between text and reader will be broken down into feeding
and interactive components which make up a schematic model of
literary translation, as it is diagrammatically illustrated in (4.3.1)
below. Then, the discussion will proceed to present authentic
literary data to support the constructs in the model.
272
4.3.1 The Model
4.3.1 The Model
Below isBelow
a diagrammatic representationrepresentation
is a diagrammatic of a schema-theoretic model of
of a schema-
literary translation:
theoretic model of literary translation:
Translation Activity
(Viewed as interpretive resemblance
rather than translation equivalence)
Text Comprehension in SL Text Ideation in TL

(Decoding Schematic Activity) (Encoding Schematic Realization)
1. Culture-free schemata
2. Culture-bound schemata
3. Culture-sensitive schemata
4. Language-bound schemata
Text Production
(TLT)
Cohesion Coherence
Optimally Partially Seriously Optimally Partially Seriously

Cohesive Cohesive Incohesive Coherent Coherent Incoherent
The model above shows that 273

literary translation, which is regarded
as a matter of interpretive resemblance rather than translation equivalence
(Gutt, 1996), consists of text comprehension in SL and text ideation in
TL, which both involve schematic activity. These processes optimally
The model above shows that literary translation, which is
regarded as a matter of interpretive resemblance rather than
translation equivalence (Gutt, 1996), consists of text comprehension
in SL and text ideation in TL, which both involve schematic activity.
These processes optimally interact with four species of schemata:
culture-free schemata, culture-bound schemata, culture-sensitive
schemata, and language-bound schemata. This interaction results in
the encoding of a Target Language Text (TLT). The textuality of the
TLT (i.e. the output of translation activity) can be judged in terms
of cohesion (which resides within the text) and coherence (which
dwells in the readerʼs mind). In this way, a translation can be
optimally cohesive and/or coherent, partially cohesive and/or
coherent, or seriously incohesive and/or incoherent. It should be
noted that text coherence might behave similarly in all types of
texts, though at a richer degree in literature, as a result of the multi-
layeredness of literary discourse, which usually gives rise to multiple
interpretations or what Gutt (1996) calls ʻweak implicaturesʼ as
opposed to ʻstrong implicaturesʼ, which constitute the hallmark of
texts produced in non-literary or ordinary language. However,
cohesion in literary texts, especially in poetry, often departs in
significant ways from cohesion in non-literary texts, with the
aesthetic component including language density, rhyme and meter
functioming as significant cohesion types in discourse (for more on
cohesion in general, see Halliday and Hasan, 1976).
274
4.3.2 Discussion
As can be seen from the model above, the main component

of activity in literary translation is represented by the interaction
between text comprehension and text ideation on the one hand and
the four species of potential schemata on the other. The following
pages will shed light on the nature of these schemata while we bear
in mind that these species of schemata may coincide, especially
in poetry, thus pushing to the forefront features such as rhyme,
meter, parallelism and wordplay that may otherwise be of little
significance or relevance in other genres.
4.3.2.0 Culture-free Schemata
Culture-free schemata are those cognitive structures whose

thematic elements can be worked out on the basis of universal
principles stemming from general human experience (for a more
elaborate discussion, see Farghal, 2004). In other words, the
message/import encapsulated in the culture-free schema will be
straightforwardly translatable and subsequently interpretable by
the members of any human culture, other things being equal. To
illustrate this point, two self-contained lines of poetry (31) and
(32) from two celebrity medieval Arab poets, Al-Mutanabbi and
Al-Rundi respectively, are translated into English couplets (33)
and (34) below (Translations of excerpts are mine unless otherwise
275
culture-free schema will be straightforwardly translatable and
subsequently interpretable by the members of any human culture, other
things being equal. To illustrate this point, two self-contained lines of
poetry (31) and (32) from two celebrity medieval Arab poets, Al-
Mutanabbi and Al-Rundi respectively, are translated into English
couplets (33) and (34) below (Translations of excerpts are mine unless
specified).
otherwise Such lines
specified). arelines
Such often
arecited
oftenbycited
educated Arabs as
by educated wisdom
Arabs as
exemplars:
wisdom exemplars:
�� (31)
/maa kullu maa yatamana-l-mar’u yudriku-hu

not all what wish the-person reach-it
tajri-r-riyaahu bi-maa laa taštahi- s-sufunu/

go the-wind with-what not desired the-ships
(32) You cannot obtain all that you crave

For winds often blow a ship to its grave
�� (33)

/li-kulli šay’in ’iðaa maa tamma nuqsaanu
for-all thing if when perfected decrease
fa-laa yu�arra bi-tiibi- l-‘ayši ’insaanu/

so-not boast with-good the-livelihood human
(34) Decline begins once perfection obtains

Pride yourself not on luxury gains
It is assumed that a literate native English speaker with

average intelligence can readily understand the messages
206
communicated in the English translations above. This ability is
an immediate consequence of falling back on universal principles
to apprehend culture-free schemata that are part and parcel
of general human experience. Moreover, the target reader is
expected to appreciate the aesthetic dimension of the translation
as represented by rhyme, meter and parallelism, which account
276
It is assumed that a literate native English speaker with average
intelligence can readily understand the messages communicated in the
English translations above. This ability is an immediate consequence of
falling back on universal principles to apprehend culture-free schemata
that are part and parcel of general human experience. Moreover, the
for optimal density of the texts. Based on our model, therefore,
target reader is expected to appreciate the aesthetic dimension of the
the two translations may be considered as optimally cohesive
translation as represented by rhyme, meter and parallelism, which
and coherent in English. On the one hand, the coherence of
account for optimal density of the texts. Based on our model, therefore,
the translations is derived from general human experience (i.e.
the two translations may be considered as optimally cohesive and
culture-free
coherent schemata).
in English. On hand,
On the one the other hand, the
the coherence special
of the cohesion
translations is
of the texts
derived (i.e. poetic
from general humancohesiveness) is culture-free
experience (i.e. based on language-bound
schemata). On
formal
the schemata,
other hand, which
the special are derived
cohesion from
of the texts (i.e. the available
poetic poetic
cohesiveness)
isresources in English. These
based on language-bound resources
formal schemata,function
which areasderived
viablefrom
cohesive
the
available
featurespoetic resources
that may in English.
be invoked These resources
as workable functiontoasformally
counterparts viable
cohesive
differentfeatures
Arabic that may
poetic be invoked as workable counterparts to
features.
formally different Arabic poetic features.
To observe a deficit in poetic cohesiveness, below are prose
To observe a deficit in poetic cohesiveness, below are prose
English renditions of the texts above, respectively:
English renditions of the texts above, respectively:
(35) Not everything that one desires can be achieved
Winds often blow against the want of ships
(36) Decline of a thing begins once perfection arrives

Never pride yourself on luxury livelihood
The two
The translations
two above
translations maintain
above density
maintain and parallelism,
density but
and parallelism,
they destroy
but they the syllable
destroy structure
the syllable and rhyme
structure of the of
and rhyme lastthe
word
last in the in
word
hemistich, which are major resources of poetic cohesiveness. It should be
the hemistich, which are major resources of poetic cohesiveness.
noted that these prose or quasi-poetic renditions, while being more
It should be noted that these prose or quasi-poetic renditions,
faithful to the SL texts, succeed, just like the poetic renditions earlier, in
while being more faithful to the SL texts, succeed, just like the
relaying the culture-free schemata in the Arabic texts. The deficit,
poetic renditions earlier, in relaying the culture-free schemata
in the Arabic texts. The deficit, therefore, owes to the failure to
capture some formal features of
207poetic cohesiveness.
277
therefore, owes to the failure to capture some formal features of poetic
cohesiveness.
To further illustrate the accessibilty of culture-free schemata
To further illustrate the accessibilty of culture-free schemata in the
in the TL, let us look at the following excerpt from a Shakespearean
TL, let us look at the following excerpt from a Shakespearean sonnet (37)
sonnet (37) and its Arabic translation in (38) below:
and its Arabic translation in (38) below:
(37) Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore
So do our minutes hasten to their end;
Each changing place with that which goes before,
In sequent toil all forwards do contend.
�� (38)

��
��
.��
/ka-maa al-’amwaaju tattajihu na�wa-š-šaati’i- l-mahiib

like-what the-waves make toward the-shore the-awesome
tatasaaara‘u-l-daqaa’iqu fii ‘umri-naa na�wa- l-ma�iib

hasten the-minutes in age-our towards the-sunset
tatabaadalu-l-’adwara fii nasaqin wa tawaalin ‘ajiib

changing the-roles in pattern and consecution amazing
jaahidatan na�wa hadafi-haa fii tanaafusin ‘asiib/

toiling towards target-their in contention hard
As is clear, Shakespeare works with a culture-free schema

As is clear, Shakespeare works with a culture-free schema
involving a simile that compares the manner in which the waves make for
involving a simile that compares the manner in which the waves
the shore to the way one's life progresses to its end. The Arabic verse
make forinthe
translation (38)shore to the
captures way simile
the same oneʼs with
life progresses to its end.
only small changes to
The Arabic
improvise verse
rhyme andtranslation in (38) captures
meter. For example, theshore
the pebbled same(aš-šaat
similei’iu
with
only small
ðuu-l-�asaa / changes
the shoretowhich
improvise rhymeisand
has pebbles) meter.as For
rendered example,
aš-šaati’i-l-
the pebbled
mahiib shore (aš-šaatiʼiu
'the awesome ðuu-l-ħasaa
shore' in order / theasshore
to create rhyme well which
as avoidhas
paraphrase.
pebbles) isOne should note
rendered as aš-šaatiʼi-l-mahiib ʻthepebbled
that the English adjective awesomeis meant
shoreʼ
only to highlight an aesthetic feature of shores; hence the feasibility of
278
208
in order to create rhyme as well as avoid paraphrase. One should
note that the English adjective pebbled is meant only to highlight
an aesthetic feature of shores; hence the feasibility of replacing
it with a TL adjective that performs the same function though it
replacing it with a TL adjective that performs the same fun
has a different meaning. By contrast, has athedifferent
translator can only
meaning. By fiddle
contrast, the translator c
formallyit but
replacing withnot semantically
a TL adjective thatwith the key
formally
performs noun
thebut end in the
not function
same semanticallysecond
it the key noun end in t
with
though
line,a because
has it is an integral
different meaning. part
By contrast, of the
because
the it ispoetic
translator schema.
an integral
can Inthethis
part of
only fiddle poetic schema. In this w
way, the
formally butArabic version replaces
not semantically thenoun
with theversion
key literal
endphrase
replaces to their
inthetheliteral phrase
second end
line,to their end (li-nihaaya
(li-nihaayati-haa)
because it is an integralwith metaphorical
thethemetaphorical
part of poetic Inphrase
schema.phrase na�wa-l-ma�iib
the Arabiciib 'towards the sunset'
naħwa-l-ma
this way,
version replaces
ʻtowards the literalwhich
the sunsetʼ, phrase is cohesive
to both
their end (it provides rhyme)
(li-nihaayati-haa)
cohesive with
(it provides and
the coherent (it reflects
rhyme)
metaphorical
and coherent phrase na�wa-l-ma�iib
(it reflects within
'towards
the same the
idea) culture-free
thewithin
sunset',the
whichschema.
is bothTo see the need for s
culture-free
cohesive necessary, changestheinsame
the idea)
TL text, you can comp
schema.(itToprovides
see therhyme) and such
need for coherent (it but
small, reflects
necessary, changes
cohesiveness
within the culture-free schema. To see the need and smoothness
for such of (38) above with the d
small, but
in the TL text, you can compare the poetic cohesiveness and
necessary, changes in the TL text,cohesiveness and structure
you can compare the ofpoetic
the version in (39) below:
smoothness of (38) above with the deficient poetic cohesiveness
cohesiveness and smoothness of (38) above with the deficient poetic ��
and structure of the version in (39) below: ��
cohesiveness and structure of the version in (39) below: ��
�� (39) ��
��
/kama-l-’amwaaju
�� tattajihu na�wa- l-šaati’i ði- l
like the-waves
�� head towards the-shore with
tatasaara‘u-l-daqaa’iqu
/kama-l-’amwaaju tattajihu na�wa- l-šaat i’i ði- l-�asaa fii ‘umri-naa na�wa nihaa
like the-waves head hasten withthe-minutes
towards the-shore the-pebblesin age-our towards end-t
kullun nihaayati-haa
tatasaara‘u-l-daqaa’iqu fii ‘umri-naa na�wa tatabaadalu-l-makaana ma‘a-llatii tasbiqu-h
hasten each exchage
the-minutes in age-our towards end-their the-place with which precede
jaahidatan
kullun tatabaadalu-l-makaana ma‘a-llatii na�wa- l-’amaami fii tanaafusin �aqiiqi
tasbiqu-ha
each exchage toiling towards the-front in competition true
the-place with which precedes-it
jaahidatan na�wa- l-’amaami fii One

tanaafusin
should �aqiiqii/
note that both (38) and (39) capture the sa
toiling 279
towards the-front in competition true
schema, but they considerably differ in their degree of p
One should note that both (38) and (39)
beingcapture
highly the same
poetic, culture-free
while (39) being only humbly poetic.
schema, but they considerably differ in their degree of poeticness: (38)
being highly poetic, while (39) being only humbly poetic.

/kama-l-’amwaaju tattajihu na�wa- l-šaati’i ði- l-�asaa
like the-waves head towards the-shore with the-pebbles
tatasaara‘u-l-daqaa’iqu fii ‘umri-naa na�wa nihaayati-haa

hasten the-minutes in age-our towards end-their
kullun tatabaadalu-l-makaana ma‘a-llatii tasbiqu-ha

each exchage the-place with which precedes-it
jaahidatan na�wa- l-’amaami fii tanaafusin �aqiiqii/

toiling towards the-front in competition true
Onenote
One should should note (38)
that both that and
both(39)
(38) and (39)
capture capture
the same the same
culture-free
culture-free
schema, schema,
but they but they
considerably considerably
differ differ
in their degree in their degree
of poeticness: (38)
of poeticness: (38) being highly poetic, while (39) being only
being highly poetic, while (39) being only humbly poetic.
humbly poetic.
4.3.2.1 Culture-bound Schemata
Culture-bound schemata represent cognitive structures that

4.3.2.1 Culture-bound Schemata
are available in one culture but
209 partially or completely missing
Culture-bound schemata represent cognitive structures that are available
in another. This schematic mismatch often calls for translation
in one culture but partially or completely missing in another. This
strategies including definition, substitution and lexical creation
schematic mismatch often calls for translation strategies including
(for more on this, see Ivir 1991). For example, the SL may
definition, substitution and lexical creation (for more on this, see Ivir
contain
1991). Foraexample,
schema the
thatSLruns
maycounter
contain atoschema
certainthat
beliefs in the to
runs counter TL.
Confronted
certain beliefs with
in thethis
TL.situation, thewith
Confronted translator usuallythe
this situation, abandons
translatorthe
SL objectionable
usually abandons the schema in favorschema
SL objectionable of an amiable
in favor ofone in the TL
an amiable oneby
inhaving
the TLrecourse to recourse
by having a cultural
to substitute (Larson, 1982).
a cultural substitute (Larson,Below
1982). is
Below is an extract
an extract from Shakespeare’s
from Shakespeareʼs KingKing HenryVI
Henry VI (p.76),
(p.76), along
alongwith
with
its
itsexcerpted
excerptedArabic translation,
Arabic cited in
translation, Azizin(1999:43):
cited Aziz (1999:43):
(40) Pucelle: Lo, whilst I waited on my tender lambs,

And to sun’s parching heat displayed my cheeks,
God’s mother deigned to appear to me.
�� :�� (41)

��
.��
/boosil: ‘indamaa kuntu ’ar‘aa280 �anam-ii

Pucelle when was(I) shepherding sheep-my
wa �arru-š-šamsi yalfa�u xadd-ii

and heat the-sun burn cheek-my
tanaazalat- il-‘aðraa’u wa ðaharat l-ii/

(40) Pucelle: Lo, whilst I waited on my tender lambs,
And to sun’s parching heat displayed my cheeks,
God’s mother deigned to appear to me.
�� :�� (41)

��
.��
/boosil: ‘indamaa kuntu ’ar‘aa �anam-ii

Pucelle when was(I) shepherding sheep-my
wa �arru-š-šamsi yalfa�u xadd-ii

and heat the-sun burn cheek-my
tanaazalat- il-‘aðraa’u wa ðaharat l-ii/

condescended the-Virgin and appeared to-me
AsAs
cancan be seen,
be seen, theschema
the SL SL schema that represents
that represents a thought-
a thought-world in
world‘God
which in which
has a ʻGod hasisareplaced
mother’ motherʼwith
is replaced with a TL thought-
a TL thought-world where
“God’s
world mother”
where “Godʼs al-‘aðraa’u
becomesmother” (the Virgin)
becomes in a culture
al-ʻaðraaʼu (thethat does in
Virgin)
not accept the
a culture that(blasphemous) schema
does not accept theof(blasphemous)
‘God having a mother’,
schemawhich is
of ʻGod
ahaving
worldly aattribute
motherʼ,thatwhich
fits human
is a beings, not Allah.that
worldlybutattribute Notably, this
fits human
beings, but not Allah. Notably, this culture-bound schema involves
a partial rather than a complete210
referential gap (Dagut 1981), since
the schema of Virgin Mary is shared by the two cultures. The
translator
culture-bound hasschema
culture-bound
schema done well
involves by aemploying
involves
a partial partial
rather than athe
rather congruent
complete
than a completeschema
referential of
referential
gap (Dagut
gap Virginʼ
ʻthe (Dagut
1981), 1981),
since the
since
instead schema
of the
theschema
of Virgin
alien of Virgin
Mary of
schema isMary
shared
is shared
ʻGodʼsbymotherʼ.
the two
by the two
cultures.
cultures.
The translator
The translator
has done
haswell
donebywell
employing
by employing
the congruent
the congruent
Sometimes, the translator fails to relay a culture-bound
schemaschema
of ‘the of
Virgin’
‘the Virgin’
insteadinstead
of the alien
of theschema
alien schema
of ‘God’s
of ‘God’s
mother’.
mother’.
schema, being obsessed by faithfulness to the SL text. Below is
Sometimes,
Sometimes,
the translator
the translator
fails to fails
relaytoa relay
culture-bound
a culture-bound
schema,schema,
being being
an English translation of some Quranic verses by Arberry, vol. 2
obsessed
obsessed
by faithfulness
by faithfulness
to the SL
to the
text.SL
Below
text. Below
is an English
is an English
translation
translation
of of
some (1980:37):
Quranic
some Quranic
verses by
verses
Arberry,
by Arberry,
vol. 2 (1980:37):
vol. 2 (1980:37):
(42) Prosperous
(42) Prosperous
are the are
believers,
the believers,
who in who
theirinprayers
their prayers
are humble,
are humble,
and from
andidle
from
talkidle
turn
talk
away,
turn and
away,
at almsgiving
and at almsgiving
are active,
are active,
and and
guard their
guardprivate
their private
parts save
parts
from
savetheir
fromwives
their and
wives
what
andtheir
what their
right hands
right own. , 1-6) , 1-6)
hands(Al-mu’minuun�
own. (Al-mu’minuun�
The reader
The can
reader
readily
can readily
observeobserve
how transparent
how transparent
and smooth
and smooth
the culture-
the culture-
281
free schemata
free schemata
(i.e. believers
(i.e. believers
being humble
being humble
in theirinprayers,
their prayers,
avoidingavoiding
idle idle
talk, being
talk,active
being at
active
almsgiving,
at almsgiving,
and guarding
and guarding
their private
their private
parts) are.
parts)
Byare. By
contrast,
contrast,
he will he
notice
will how
notice
opaque
how opaque
and awkward
and awkward
the literally
the literally
translated
translated
culture-bound
culture-bound
schemaschema
(i.e. ‘what
(i.e.their
‘whatright
theirhands
right own’
handsfor
own’
‘slave
for ‘slave
women’)
women’)
is. The is.
option
The option
for literal
for translation
literal translation
in relaying
in relaying
culture-bound
culture-bound
The reader can readily observe how transparent and
smooth the culture-free schemata (i.e. believers being humble in
their prayers, avoiding idle talk, being active at almsgiving, and
guarding their private parts) are. By contrast, he will notice how
opaque and awkward the literally translated culture-bound schema
(i.e. ʻwhat their right hands ownʼ for ʻslave womenʼ) is. The option
for literal translation in relaying culture-bound schemata often
causes irreversible damage to the coherence of the TL text (for
an elaborate discussion of TL reader responses in this regard, see
Farghal and Al-Masri, 2000).
List
List
Now we turn to fiction to see how the translatorʼsofinability
Arabic
of Arabic
Phonetic
Phonetic
Symb
Sy
to handle a culture-bound schema can damage the coherence of
/b/ /b/
voiced
voiced bilabial
bilabial stop stop
the TL text. In his translation/m/
of/m/
Abdul-Rahman
bilabial
bilabial nasalnasalMunifʼs mudini-
l-malħi: taqaasiimu-l-layli /f/ /f/
voiceless
voiceless
wa-n-nhaar, labio-dental
1992labio-dental
(Citiesfricative
fricative
of Salt:
/ð/ /ð/
voiced
voiced interdental
interdental fricative
fricative
Variations on Night and Day,/ð/ 1993),
voiced
/ð/ Peter
voiced Thereoux
interdental
interdental translates
emphatic
emphatic thefricative
fricative
Arabic proverb t�U) b�u�« 5�K�/�/il/�/
voiceless
eenvoiceless interdental
ʼil-walad interdental
li-xaalih fricative
fricative
as ʻTwo
/d/ /d/
thirds of a boy are his uncleʼsʼ. voiced
Thevoiced alveolar
fictitious alveolar stop
encounterstop involves
/t/ voiceless
/t/ voiceless alveolar
alveolar stop stop
the citation of this proverb by/d/
one
/d/ of
voiced thealveolar
voiced characters
alveolar to
emphaticclaimstop
emphatic more
stop
influence for maternal kinship voiceless
/t/ voiceless
/t/ than paternalalveolar
alveolar
kinship emphatic
emphatic
on stop
children. stop
/z/ /z/
voiced
voiced alveolar
alveolar fricative
fricative
Unfortunately, the English translation obliterates this culture-
/s/ /s/
voiceless
voiceless alveolar
alveolar fricative
fricative
bound schema by neutralizing /s/the distinction
voiceless
/s/ voiceless between
alveolar
alveolar the Arabic
emphatic
emphatic fricative
fricative
lexemes ʻam ʻpaternal uncleʼ /n/
and/n/
alveolar
alveolar
xaal nasal
ʻmaternal nasalstop stopin a context
uncleʼ
/r/ /r/
alveolar
alveolar rhotic
rhoticliquid
liquid
where the discrepancy constitutes the
/l/ alveolar relevant
/l/ alveolar lateral message.
lateralliquid
liquid
/š/ /š/
voiceless
fricative
282
/j/ voiced
/j/ voiced alveo-palatal
alveo-palatal affricate
affricate
/y/ /y/
palatal
palatalglideglide
/w//w/labio-velar
labio-velar glideglide
/k/ /k/
voiceless
voiceless velarvelarstop stop
/�/ /�/
voiced
voiced velarvelarfricative
fricative
/x/ /x/
voiceless
voiceless velarvelarfricative
fricative
bound schema by neutralizing the distinction between the Arabic lexemes
‘am ‘paternal uncle’ and xaal ‘maternal uncle’ in a context where the
discrepancy constitutes the relevant message.
The TL reader will definitely fall prey to the incongruence
The TL reader will definitely fall prey to the incongruence brought
brought about by a rendition that does not cohere with the
about by a rendition that does not cohere with the surrounding co-text and
surrounding co-text and context. Following are some target reader
context. Following are some target reader responses (American native
responses (American native speakersʼ responses) to the English
speakers’ responses) to the English translation above in its context
translation above in its context (reported in Farghal, 2004):
(reported in Farghal, 2004):
(43) - Family is everything.
- Apples don’t fall far from the tree.
- A boy learns from his family around him.
- People trust their uncles.
- People follow their masters, etc.
In In
the the
bestbest
of worlds, the above
of worlds, theEnglish
above native speakers’
English nativeresponses
speakersʼ
befog the intended message by the Arabic proverb and consequently, on a
responses befog the intended message by the Arabic proverb and
closer examination, render the TLT seriously incoherent. This
consequently, on a closer examination, render the TLT seriously
incoherence is an immediate consequence of replacing the culturally
incoherent. This incoherence is an immediate consequence of
determined, specific role of maternal kinship with a universally
replacing the culturally determined, specific role of maternal
determined, general role of family relatedness in the context of the
kinship with a universally determined, general role of family
formation of children’s future behavior. To capture the intended
relatedness
meassage in the
in such context
cases, whereofcultural
the formation of childrenʼs
approximation alone does future
not
behavior.
work, To capture
the translator has tothe intendedit with
supplement meassage in such
descriptive cases,
material where
in order
tocultural approximation
bring out alone viz.
the relevant schema, does'Anot
boywork,
is his the translator
maternal uncle'shas
by to
supplement
two it with
thirds' or 'Like descriptive
maternal material
uncle like in order
boy', which to bring
remodels out the
the English
proverb 'Like
relevant father like
schema, viz.son'. Onlyisinhis
ʻA boy thismaternal
way will uncleʼs
meaningful
by schematic
two thirdsʼ
correspondence be accomplished.
or ʻLike maternal uncle like boyʼ, which remodels the English
Finally,
proverb ʻLikea father
culture-bound schema
like sonʼ. Onlyderiving
in this from a metaphorical
way will meaningful
expression is sometimes made relevant to a culture-free schema by
schematic correspondence be accomplished.
reinterpreting the former literally by a writer. Witness how Mu'nis Razzaz
Finally,
in his novel a fi-l-ba�ri-l-mayyit
’a�yaa’u culture-bound (1982),
schema deriving
which from
is translated into a
283
212
metaphorical expression is sometimes made relevant to a culture-
free schema by reinterpreting the former literally by a writer.
Witness how Muʼnis Razzaz in his novel ʼahyaaʼu fi-l-ħahri-l-
mayyit (1982), which is translated into English as ʻAlive in the
Dead Seaʼ by Eliane Abdel-Malek (1997), brings up ʻthe teaching
English as 'Alive in the Dead Sea' by Eliane Abdel-Malek (1997), brings
of arithmeticʼ based on a literal interpretation of an otherwise
up 'the teaching of arithmetic' based on a literal interpretation of an
metaphorical Jordanian proverb:
otherwise metaphorical Jordanian proverb:
∫ÎUMO�:�Î U��
��UN�LN�
�� X�d�
�� U�Ë
�� ¨vH� X�L�
�� (4©44®
4)
ÆWzUL�L�
.��n�_«
��nB�
�� ≠ -
©pÆ(p. 55®
55) Æ»U�(«
.�� wMLKF�
�� X�U�
�� U�Ë
�
/hamasat kafaa wa maa ‘arafftu li-hamsi-haa sababan

whispered Kafa and not know (I) for-whispering-her reason
bayyinan
clear
- nisfu-l-’alfi xamsumaa’ah
half the-thousand five hundred
wa maa kaanat tu‘ullimu-ni-l-�isaab/

and not was (she) teaching-me the-arithetic
(45) Kaffa [sic] whispered, but I did not understand why she did
that:
- Half a thousand is five hundred!
I know she did not want to teach me arithmetic.
(Abdel-Malek, p. 107)
As can be seen in (45), the translator has resorted to literal

As can be seen in (45), the translator has resorted to literal
translation (which fails to communicate the message); however, she
translation (which fails to communicate the message); however,
provides an endnote (which explains the Arabic proverb). Because of
their cumbersome and interrupting284
nature in non-academic reading
material, endnotes should be employed only when exhausting all other
possibilities, which is not the case here. To explain, the translator has
done well by recognizing the need to render the culture-bound schema
literally but, unfortunately, has fallen short of bringing out the import of
she provides an endnote (which explains the Arabic proverb).
Because of their cumbersome and interrupting nature in non-
academic reading material, endnotes should be employed only
when exhausting all other possibilities, which is not the case here.
To explain, the translator has done well by recognizing the need
to render the culture-bound schema literally but, unfortunately,
has fallen short of bringing out the import of the schema within
the text. Therefore, we have a context where the culture-bound
schema calls for a combination of formal and functional and/or
ideational equivalence (see Farghal, 1994), being immediately
and/or ideational equivalence (see Farghal, 1994), being immediately
followed by a remark that relates to its sentence rather than its
followed by a remark that relates to its sentence rather than its utterance
utterance meaning (Rutherford and Heasley 1983; Thomas 1995).
meaning (Rutherford and Heasley 1983; Thomas 1995). Following is a
Following is a suggested translation:
suggested translation:
(46) Kafa whispered, but I did not understand why she did
that:
- 'Half a thousand is five hundred'! Things are not as
complicated as you think.
4.3.2.2 Culture-sensitive Schemata

Culture-sensitive schemata, I believe, differ from their culture-bound
counterparts by the fact that
Culture-sensitive they reflect
schemata, susceptibilty
I believe, differrather
fromthan
their
uniqueness to thecounterparts
culture-bound SL culture. This distinction
by the is they
fact that significant
reflectinsusceptibilty
translation
activity because
rather than culture-sensitive
uniqueness to the SLschemata, unlike
culture. This culture-bound
distinction ones,
is significant
call for, and often necessitate, literal translation as a standard translation
in translation activity because culture-sensitive schemata, unlike
procedure. Literal translation is needed in order to capture the message or
culture-bound ones, call for, and often necessitate, literal translation
import while preserving SL creative figures of speech that involve local
references. Such local references 285 usually enter into fresh semantic
relations that are initiated by the writer and are met by the approval and
appreciation of the SL audience. Consequently, the translator will do well
by transferring these creative paradigms and/or syntagms into the TL, an
act that will most likely contribute to the enrichment of the TL’s
aesthetics and semantics. Below is a couplet from the Iraqi poet Badr
that:
- 'Half a thousand is five hundred'! Things are not as
complicated as you think.

Culture-sensitive schemata, I believe, differ from their culture-bound
counterparts by the fact that they reflect susceptibilty rather than
as a standard translation procedure. Literal translation is needed in
uniqueness to the SL culture. This distinction is significant in translation
order to capture the message or import while preserving SL creative
activity because culture-sensitive schemata, unlike culture-bound ones,
figures
call of speech
for, and that involve
often necessitate, local
literal references.
translation as aSuch localtranslation
standard references
usually enter
procedure. into
Literal fresh semantic
translation is neededrelations
in order tothat are the
capture initiated byorthe
message
writerwhile
import and preserving
are met bySL the approval
creative figuresand appreciation
of speech of the
that involve localSL
audience. Such
references. Consequently, the translator
local references usually will
enterdointo
wellfresh
by transferring
semantic
relations that are paradigms
these creative initiated by the writer
and/or and are met
syntagms intobythe
theTL,
approval
an actand
that
appreciation of the SL
will most likely audience.toConsequently,
contribute the translator
the enrichment willaesthetics
of the TLʼs do well
by transferring
and semantics.these creative
Below is aparadigms and/orthe
couplet from syntagms into Badr
Iraqi poet the TL, an
Shakir
act that will most likely contribute to the enrichment of the TL’s
Al-Sayyab (47), along with a suggested English translation (48),
aesthetics and semantics. Below is a couplet from the Iraqi poet Badr
used as an illustrative example:
Shakir Al-Sayyab (47), along with a suggested English translation (48),
used as an illustrative example:
�� (47)
��
/‘aynaa-ki �abataa naxiilin saa‘ata-s-sa�ar
eyes-your orchards(two) palm hour the-daybreak
’aw šurfataani raa�a yan’aa ‘an-huma- l-qamar/

or balconies(two) began slipping from-them the-moon
(48) Your eyes are two palm orchards

214
as the day breaks,
Or two balconies wherefrom
the moon sneaks.
The
The couplet
couplet involves
involves a culture-sensitive
a culture-sensitive schema,
schema, i.e., i.e., the
the metaphor
comparing
metaphorthe addressee’sthe
comparing eyes to orchardseyes
addresseeʼs of palm trees at daybreak,
to orchards of palmand
trees
aatculture-free
daybreak,schema
and a in which the addressee’s
culture-free schema ineyes are the
which likened to two
addresseeʼs
balconies experiencing the moon slipping away from them. Both
schemata are recoverable successfully286
from the English literal translation,
but arguably at different degrees of processability. That is, the cognitive
load of the culture-free schema will be smoothly processed because it is
unmarked, being part of general human experience, whereas the culture-
sensitive schema features a marked component (i.e. palm orchards) that
will call for a higher degree of processing on the part of the TL reader.
(48) Your eyes are two palm orchards
as the day breaks,
eyes are Or
likened to two wherefrom
two balconies balconies experiencing the moon slipping
away fromthe them.
moon sneaks.
Both schemata are recoverable successfully from
the English literal
The couplet translation,
involves but arguably
a culture-sensitive at i.e.,
schema, different degrees
the metaphor
comparing the addressee’s
of processability. Thateyes
is, to
theorchards of palm
cognitive trees
load of atthe
daybreak, and
culture-free
a culture-free schema in which the addressee’s eyes are likened to two
schema will be smoothly processed because it is unmarked, being
balconies experiencing the moon slipping away from them. Both
part of general human experience, whereas the culture-sensitive
schemata are recoverable successfully from the English literal translation,
schema features a marked component (i.e. palm orchards) that
but arguably at different degrees of processability. That is, the cognitive
willofcall
load the for a higherschema
culture-free degreewill
ofbeprocessing on the part
smoothly processed of the
because it isTL
reader. The
unmarked, marked
being part of component represents
general human experience,a whereas
local reference that
the culture-
is not part
sensitive of features
schema generala human experience;
marked component (i.e.rather, it belongs
palm orchards) that to
will call for
certain a higherthe
cultures, degree
Arabofculture
processing on the part
in general andofthe
theIraqi
TL reader.
culture
The marked component
in particular representsHowever,
in our example. a local reference that is being
other things not partequal,
of
general human experience; rather, it belongs to certain cultures, the Arab
the fact that this local reference enters into sense relations with
culture in general and the Iraqi culture in particular in our example.
universally familiar items renders it interpretable in translation,
However, other things being equal, the fact that this local reference enters
regardless of how fresh such relations are.
into sense relations with universally familiar items renders it interpretable
in translation,
Let usregardless of how fresh
now consider such relations
another exampleare.
excerpted this time
fromLet us now
fiction, consider
namely fromanother example translation
Le Gassickʼs excerpted this time from
ʻMidaq Alleyʼ
fiction, namely from Le Gassick’s translation ‘Midaq Alley’ (1975) of
(1975) of Najeeb Mahfouzʼs novel ziqaaqu al-midaqqi (1912):
Najeeb Mahfouz’s novel ziqaaqu al-midaqqi (1912):
(49) “Oh yes, I could find many (potential husbands) but the fact is
that you are a rotten matchmaker who merely wants to hide her
failure.What’s wrong with me? Just as I said, you are a failure
and you only go to prove the saying: ‘It’s always the
carpenter’s door that’s falling apart’.” (p. 23)
In this encounter, the daughter is blaming her foster mother, who is

a matchmaker, for helping others find
287husbands but failing to help her
215
In this encounter, the daughter is blaming her foster mother,
who is a matchmaker, for helping others find husbands but failing
to help her own daughter in this regard. To emphasize her point,
she cites a culture-sensitive proverb, that is, ʻItʼs always the
carpenterʼs door thatʼs falling apartʼ (corresponding to the Arabic
proverb baabu-l-najjaari mxallaʻ). Looking at the translation
above, the TL reader, exerting extra cognitive processing, can
bring coherence to the text by relating the culture-sensitive schema
encapsulated in the proverb to the larger culture-sensitive schema
in the surrounding discourse, i.e., the notion of matchmaking and
kinship in an oriental culture, the Egyptian culture in this case. The
readerʼs ability to establish a link between these culture-sensitive
schemata (the micro- and the macro- ones) and the culture-free
marriage schema is key to processing the text successfully.
4.3.2.3 Language-bound Schemata
Language-bound schemata represent formal linguistic

features that coincide, per chance, with content schemata, thus
interlocking form and content in aesthetic, subtle ways. Typical
examples of language-bound schemata include wordplay and
rhyme, which are features that rarely correspond between remote
languages such as English and Arabic. Below is an excerpt from
Hamlet, along with its Arabic translation by J. I. Jabra, which
is extracted from a strained dialogue between Polonious and
288
coincide, per chance, with content schemata, thus interlocking form and
content in aesthetic, subtle ways. Typical examples of language-bound
schemata include wordplay and rhyme, which are features that rarely
correspond between remote languages such as English and Arabic. Below
is an excerpt from Hamlet, along with its Arabic translation by J. I. Jabra,
which is extracted from a strained dialogue between Polonious and
Hamlet:
Hamlet:
(50) Polonious: (Aside) Though this be madness, yet there is
method in’t. (To Hamlet) Will you walk out
of the air, my lord?
Hamlet: Into my grave?
Polonious: Indeed, that’s out of the air….
�� (��) .�� :(��) �� (51)

��
�� : ��
... �� :��
/buluunyus (jaaniban) : ’inna haaðaa junuunun laakinna-hu

Polonious aside verily this madness but-it
216 hal la-ka fii ’an taxruja
junnuun bi-’usluub. (li-haamlit)
madness with-style to-Hamlet Q for-you in that exit(you)
min- al-hawaa’i yaa mawlaaya ?

from the-air o master
hamlet : ’ilaa qabr-ii ?

Hamlet to grave-my
buluunyus : �aqqan ðaalika xaarijun ‘an- il-hwaa’/

Polonious really that outside from the-air
As can be seen, the translator’s option to capture the wordplay

As can be seen, the translatorʼs option to capture the
literally results in a breakdown in the TLT coherence. Thus, the Arabic
wordplay literally results in a breakdown in the TLT coherence.
rendition cannot make sense because the SL formal resources (i.e. the two
Thus, the Arabic rendition cannot make sense because the SL
instances of the lexeme ‘air’), which are wittingly and meaningfully
formal resources
employed (i.e. thecannot
by Shakespeare, two instances of the
be literally lexeme
relayed ʻairʼ), with
in Arabic which
are wittingly
comparable and meaningfully
contextual imports. To employed
do so, the by Shakespeare,
translator should cannot
have
be literally
fallen back onrelayed
Arabic in Arabic
formal with comparable
resources contextual
to create similar imports.
aesthetics and
subtlety. Below is a suggested rendition along these lines:
289
�� (��) .�� :(��) �� (52)
��
�� :��
...�� :��

As can be seen, the translator’s option to capture the wordplay
literally results in a breakdown in the TLT coherence. Thus, the Arabic
rendition cannot make sense because the SL formal resources (i.e. the two
instances of the lexeme ‘air’), which are wittingly and meaningfully
employed by Shakespeare, cannot be literally relayed in Arabic with
Tocomparable
do so, the contextual
translator imports.
should have
To dofallen back
so, the on Arabic
translator formal
should have
fallen back
resources to oncreate
Arabicsimilar
formal aesthetics
resources toand
create similar aesthetics
subtlety. Below isanda
subtlety. Below
suggested is a suggested
rendition rendition
along these lines:along these lines:
�� (��) .�� :(��) �� (52)
��
�� :��
...�� :��

Polonious aside verily this madness but-it
junnuun bi-’usluub. (li-haamlit) hal la-ka ’an tafsa�a-

madness with-style to-Hamlet Q for-you that give(you)
l-tariiqa l-ii yaa mawlaaya ?

the-way for-me o master
hamlet : wa ’ansallu ’ilaa qabr-ii ?

Hamlet and go into to grave-my
217
buluunyus : tillka fus�atun �aqqan/
Polonious that break really
The suggested translation both maintains the coherence of the

dialogue
Theand improvises
suggested meaningful
translation wordplay
both in Arabic.
maintains The Arabic
the coherence of
wordplay involves the verbal collocation yafsa�u-t-tariiqa (to give way)
the dialogue and improvises meaningful wordplay in Arabic. The
and the colloquial sense of the noun derived from the verb fus�atun (a
Arabic wordplay involves the verbal collocation yafsaħu-t-tariiqa
break). This wordplay coherently approximates but does not replicate the
(to give way) and the colloquial sense of the noun derived from the
language-bound schema in the SL.
verb fusħatun (a break). This wordplay coherently approximates
Another illustrative example of language-bound schemata will be
butdrawn
doesfrom
not replicate the language-bound
classical Arabic verse, namely oneschema in the SL. poem
of Al-Mutanabbi’s
openers:
290 �� (53)
��
/la-ki yaa manaazilu fii al-quluubi manaazilu

for-you oh homes in the-hearts ranks
’aqfarrti ’anti wa hunna min-ki ’awaahilu/

deserted you and they from-you occupied
The suggested translation both maintains the coherence of the
dialogue and improvises meaningful wordplay in Arabic. The Arabic
wordplay involves the verbal collocation yafsa�u-t-tariiqa (to give way)
and the colloquial sense of the noun derived from the verb fus�atun (a
break). This wordplay coherently approximates but does not replicate the
language-bound schema in the SL.
Another illustrative example of language-bound schemata
Another illustrative example of language-bound schemata will be
will be drawn from classical Arabic verse, namely one of Al-
drawn from classical Arabic verse, namely one of Al-Mutanabbi’s poem
Mutanabbiʼs
openers: poem openers:
�� (53)
��
/la-ki yaa manaazilu fii al-quluubi manaazilu

for-you oh homes in the-hearts ranks
’aqfarrti ’anti wa hunna min-ki ’awaahilu/

deserted you and they from-you occupied
‘Lit. You, (forsaken) homes, occupy (high) ranks in our hearts.

You have become deserted but still dwell in our hearts.’
Besides rhyme, meter and parallelism, the Arabic verse above

Besides rhyme, meter and parallelism, the Arabic verse
employs polysemy as a resource of poeticness, that is, the Arabic lexeme
above employs polysemy as a resource of poeticness, that is, the
manaazilu in the first hemistich means ‘homes’ in the first occurrence but
Arabic lexeme manaazilu in the first hemistich means ʻhomesʼ
‘ranks’ in the second occurrence. This polysemy-based schema is doomed
ininthe first occurrence but ʻranksʼ in the second occurrence. This
translation, for English does not possess a corresponding polysemous
polysemy-based schema
lexeme. The loss of is doomed
this formal in translation,
schema, however, is of littlefor English
consequence
does not possess
because a corresponding
the utilization polysemous
of other English lexeme.
resources createsThe loss of
comparable
this formal schema, however, is of little consequence because the
utilization of other English resources creates comparable aesthetics
218
and/or poeticness, which is capable of making up for the loss, as
aesthetics and/or poeticness,
can be illustrated which is capable
in the suggested of making
English coupletupbelow:
for the loss,
as can be illustrated in the suggested English couplet below:
(54) You, abandoned home, lie high in our deeps
And our house rises higher as, forsaken, it sleeps.
4.3.3 Summary
This section counts as an attempt to 291
formalize a schema-theoretic model
of literary translation. The model is based on an interactive process
between encoding schematic realization in TL, which is supposed to
mirror decoding schematic activity in SL, and four types of schemata
consisting of culture-free, culture-bound, culture-sensitive and language-
bound schemata. This dynamic interaction culminates in the production
4.3.3 Summary
This section counts as an attempt to formalize a schema-

theoretic model of literary translation. The model is based on an
interactive process between encoding schematic realization in TL,
which is supposed to mirror decoding schematic activity in SL, and
four types of schemata consisting of culture-free, culture-bound,
culture-sensitive and language-bound schemata. This dynamic
interaction culminates in the production of a TL text, the output
of translation activity. The TL text is subsequently received by a
readership and will, in effect, be gauged in terms of cohesion and
coherence in its new socio-cultural environment. The success or
failure of the translation ultimately depends on how much cohesive
and coherent the TL text will be in its new habitat.
Within literary genres, poetic discourse is shown to

optimize the importance of language-bound schemata wherein
formal features such as rhyme and meter may override other
types of schemata that emphasize content feaures in order to
furnish poetic cohesiveness, which grants poetry its legitimacy in
the first place. Existing translation practice, however, shows a tug
of war between verse and prose translation of poetry. Whereas
the aesthetic features representing poetic cohesiveness are given
priority in the former, fidelity and coherence are given prominence
in the latter, apart from some formal features. The model in this
292
study shows how taxing the former option can be in the heat of
improvising comparable aesthetic features in the TL. Practically,
this calls for the translation of poetry by poet translators, which is
only infrequently achievable. Though a compromise, translating
poetry into prose receives its legitimate recognition from the
existence of formidable problems.
Apart from poetic cohesiveness, literary translation

involves a plethora of features that range between culture-free and
culture-bound schemata. While a literal translation of culture-free
schemata is feasible on the basis of universal principles, culture-
and language-bound schemata call for a more functionally-oriented
approach in translation. Half-way between the two categories,
culture-sensitive schemata seem to allow ample room for the
translatorʼs creativity which will, ultimately, help establish fresh
norms in the TL.
4.4 Practices
Practice 1:
Read the untitled text below carefully, and then give an Arabic
translation of it. Does the translation make sense to you, i.e. does
it represent any schema/cognitive structure you possess? If not,
try to find a title for the text, and then retranslate it to see if it
makes sense once provided with an appropriate title. If you find
293
the task too challenging, look it up by Google Search where a title
may be suggested.
The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different
groups depending on their makeup. Of course, one pile may be sufficient
depending on how much there is. If you have to go somewhere else due to
lack of facilities that is the next step. It is important not to overdo it. It is better
to do too few things at once than too many. (Bransford and Johnson, 1972, p.
722)
Practice 2:
The following ambiguous text (Bransford & Johnson 1972) can

be interpreted as a ʻlawyer packing up after courtʼ or a ʻwoman
packing up for her Honeymoonʼ. Based on your understanding of
the boldfaced ambiguous words, work out two translations that
reflect the two schemata.
Susan sat and thought for a while. She liked to mull over decisions. She
didnʼt know which of the two suits to pick. She had to choose and they both
had an appeal. She got up and started gathering her things. She thought about
the additional charges made today as she picked up some new articles. She
feared her final statement. She would have to be careful not to overdo it. The
huge case was going to be hard enough to close already. Because she was the
last in the room, she checked to make sure nothing was left. She found some
briefs on a chair that were forgotten by her partner. She stuffed them into the
pocket of her bag, and with a final satisfied glance walked out the door.
294
Practice 3:
In the following excerpt from Mahmoud Darwishʼs poem —UD�

UMO�√ ʻAthensʼs Airportʼ, the intellectual works with a schema that
is completely different from the employeeʼs schema, despite
the phonological similarity. Unfortunately, this mismatch in
the schemata of the two parties escaped the translator of this
poem Abdullah Al-Udhari (1984). Can you capture the intended
schema?
øp�U�Ë w�U� ∫nI�*« ‰UI� øw�U� n�Ë√ s�√ ∫n�u*« ‰U�
An employee said: “Where can I invest my money?”
An intellectual said: “Your money and mine?”
Practice 4:
Study the Quranic verse along with its two translations below,
and then decide whether the Quran translators here work with the
same schema Muslims work with regarding al-tawaaf as one of
pilgrimage rituals. What do you suggest to remedy this schematic
breakdown (The relevant segments are boldfaced/ for more details,
see Farghal and Blushi 2011)?
·uD� Ê√ tOK� ÕUM� ö� dL��« Ë√ XO��« Z� sL� tK�« dzUF� s� …Ëd*«Ë UHB�« Ê≈
©…dI��« ¨158® rOK� d�U� tK�« ÊS� Î «dO� ŸuD� s�Ë ULN�
[Hence,] behold, As-Safa and Al-Marwah are among the symbols set up
295
by God; and thus, no wrong does he who, having come to the Temple on
pilgrimage or on a pious visit, strides to and fro between these two: for,
if one does more good than he is bound to do - behold, God is responsive to
gratitude, all-knowing. (158) (Asad, p. 42)
Safa and Marwa are some of Godʼs waymarks. Anyone who goes on Pilgrimage
to the House or visits [it] will not be blamed if he runs along between them.
With anyone who volunteers some good, God is Appreciative, Aware. (158)
(Irving, p. 13)
Practice 5:
Examine the following exchange between Khadija and her mother

from Mahfouzʼs s�dBI�« 5� ʻPalace Walkʼ (Hutchins and Kenny
1989), and then decide whether the translators have maintained
the schema of the original in the boldfaced segment. If not, what
do you suggest to solve the problem?
Æb�√ WO�d�� 5�KB� ô WMO� U� X�√
∫¡Ëb� w� Â_« XL�L��
©29 ’ ¨s�dBI�« 5�® Æp�H� w�M� ô√ vK� WO�d��« d�√ p� „d�Q� ¨tK�« p��U�
“Mother, youʼre not fit to raise anyone.” Her mother muttered calmly, “God
forgive you. Iʼll leave the child rearing to you, so long as you donʼt forget
your own manners.” (Palace walk, p. 26)
Practice 6:
Following is Shakespeareʼs celebrity sonnet ʻShall I compare thee

…ʼ along with two Arabic verse translations: the first by Al-Azzam,
296
et al. (2010, p. 43) and the second is my own translation. Study the
two translations carefully, and answer the questions below.
Shall I compare thee to a summerʼs day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May
And summerʼs lease hath all too short a date:
Sometimes too hot the eye of heaven shines
And often is his gold complexion dimmed;
And every fair from fair sometimes declines,
By chance or natureʼs changing course untrimmed;
But thy eternal summer shall not fade,
Nor lose the possession of that fair thou owʼst.
Nor shall death brag thou wanderʼst in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou growʼst:
So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and breath this gives life to thee.
öO�� ‰öN�«Ë U�d�K� U� öO�9 UN*U� √d& «– s�

öO�� ‰UM� s� w� U�—ËdA� U�d�� ”uLA�« pM� XM� ULN�
ö�u� ‰uBH�« 5� U�ƒUI�Ë UN�UL� œ«“ „uA�« w� …œ—Ë U�
öO�— qE� rNO� U�œu�Ë Ë q�«— ozö)« s� ‰UL'« «c�
öOL& Áœ«“ Âu� q� w� V�UB� œu�uK� pM�� sJ�
öO�� “U�(« ÷—« w� Â«œ U� WI�b� lOL'« 5� w� 5I��
öO�� ÊU�e�« d� vK� öO� …bOB� lOL'« „d�c� 5I��
***
297
öOK� Á«u� «b� ‰UL'« X�√ °w��uAF� U� nOB�« s�� ÊU��
ö�u� ÊuJ� Ê√ v�Q� nOB�«Ë Áœ—ËË lO�d�U� VFK� `�d�U�
ôu�– »U��« UN�uD�Ë Î UMO� UN�ON�Ë U�—u� w�Q� fLA�«Ë
ôu�√ …«bG�« vA�� ô d�b�«Ë Î U��U� q�c� r� ‚—u� ÷Ëd�«Ë
öO� ÎöO� s�(« lA� Î «b�√ Èd��« s� VOG� s� p�L� sJ�
öOK�≈ UN�u� ÍdF� Â«œ U� Î «e�U� l�d� r� u�� u*U�
öO√Ë …dJ� „dD� r�A�Ô …uK� …UO� ÍdF� w� 5I��
Question 1: Do the first two verses in the translations reflect

the Shakespearean schema in the first two lines in the sonnet?
Explain.
Question 2: According to the first translation, flowers stay for a

long time in the year, viz. ö�u� ‰uBH�« 5� U�ƒUI�Ë. Does this reflect
the meaning intended by Shakespeare? If not, does the second
translation capture the intended schema?
Question 3: Can you assign a coherent schema to the fourth line

in the first translation. i.e. does it make sense to you?
Question 4: Do you agree with replacing the Shakespearean

schema referring to the eternity of his verse with the local schema
referring to the ʻeternityʼ of palm trees in Hijaz? Is it congruent
with the sonnetʼs atmosphere?
298
Question 5: Can the translator violate the rules of Arabic grammar
when translating verse into verse, in order to improvise rhyme?
Find out the three grammatical mistakes in the first translation.
299
iO�«
300
CHAPTER FIVE
ARABIC EUPHEMISM: THE
QUESTION OF POLITENESS
IN TRANSLATION
301
iO�«
302
5. CHAPTER FIVE
ARABIC EUPHEMISM: THE QUESTION

OF POLITENESS IN TRANSLATION
5.0 Definition and Scope of Euphemism
Euphemism is a linguistic politeness strategy whereby

an offensive or hurtful word/phrase is replaced with one that
represents a less direct expression or carries a positive attitude.
Lexically, euphemism is one way of creating cognitive synonyms
in language, that is, the original expression and its euphemistic
counterpart come to share conceptual or descriptive meaning but
differ in their attitudinal dimension. The two terms zabbal ‰U�“
ʻgarbage manʼ and ʻaamilu naðaafah W�UE� q�U� ʻa cleanliness
worker,ʼ for example, denote the same occupation in Arabic but
the second one reflects a positive social attitude toward this kind
of job, which is lacking in the first term. The second alternative is
said to euphemize the first. Similarly, the military phrase ʼiʻaadatu
ʼintišaar —UA��« …œU�≈ ʻredeploymentʼ is more acceptable to listeners/
viewers than ʼinsiħaab »U��« ʻwithdrawalʼ because it is less direct
than the latter, despite the fact that both terms denote the same
303
concept in military affairs.
The term ʻeuphemismʼ comes from Greek euphēmism(os),

which means the use of words of good omen. The Random
House College Dictionary (1980:455) defines euphemism as “the
substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought
to be offensive, harsh, or blunt.” More recently, Allan and Burridge
(1991:14) offer this definition: “Euphemisms are alternatives to
dispreferred expression, and are used in order to avoid possible
loss of face.” Clearly, both definitions refer to the employment
of euphemism by language users to achieve the expression of
politeness and demureness in human communication. A speakerʼs
use of the common Arabic euphemism al-marħuum Âu�d*« ʻthe
person given mercy, i.e., who died,ʼ for example, instead of the
neutral al-mayyit XO*« ʻthe deceasedʼ is usually informed by the
addresseeʼs relation to the deceased. The speaker/writer will opt
for the euphemism in an attempt to prevent loss of face if he
believes that the addressee cares for the referent. In some cases,
however, the speakerʼs use of a euphemism may be motivated by
general social mores rather than the addresseeʼs face wants. For
example, the speaker may opt to utilize the euphemism ðawuu-
l-ʼiħtiyaajaati-l-xaasah WU)« U�UO��ô« ËË– ʻthose with special
needsʼ instead of the direct al-muʻaaqiin 5�UF*« ʻthe handicappedʼ
to express solidarity with the referent rather than maintain his/
304
her face wants. Thus, euphemism may express both negative
politeness (i.e. attending to the producerʼs own face wants in order
to avoid his loss of face), as illustrated in the former case, and
positive politeness (i.e. seeing to the receiverʼs face wants for the
purpose of expressing solidarity with him), as exemplified by the
latter case (For more information on politeness, see Brown and
Levinson 1987).
5.1 Euphemism in Arabic Linguistics
The linguistics of euphemism in Arabic is extremely

sparse. There are only a few brief mentions of at-talattuf nDK��«
or at-taltiif (al-Askari [verified 1989]; Matlub 1996; Al-Jatlawi
1998). Historically, al-Askariʼs term at-talattuf, which fits the
term ʻeuphemismʼ very well, hardly relates to this phenomenon
as we understand it in contemporary linguistics. He defines it as
tM�% v�� 5�N�« vMFLK�Ë tM�N� v�� s�(« vMFLK� nDK��« [at-talattufi li-l-
macna-l-ħasani ħataa tuhajjinuhu wa-l-il-maʻna-l-hajiini ħataa
tuħassinuhu] (p. 482) ʻto manage the pleasant meaning kindly
to make it objectionable and manage the objectionable meaning
kindly to make it pleasantʼ. His examples show clearly that what
he means is the employment of a non-preferred expression in a
context where it acquires pleasant connotations, or vice versa.
This differs from what we know as euphemism, a resource that
necessarily involves the utilization of an alternative expression to
305
employment of a non-preferred expression in a context where it acquires
replaceconnotations,
pleasant the originalornon-preferred
vice versa. Thisone in an
differs attempt
from “toknow
what we manage
as
euphemism, a resource
meaning kindly” that necessarily involves the utilization of an
via euphemizing.
alternative expression to replace the original non-preferred one in an
The lack of a clear treatment of euphemism in medieval
attempt “to manage meaning kindly” via euphemizing.
rhetoric comes as a great surprise, especially for those who are
The lack of a clear treatment of euphemism in medieval rhetoric
aware of the striking breadth and depth of this discipline in medieval
comes as a great surprise, especially for those who are aware of the
Arabic linguistics.
striking breadth and However,
depth of this
this absence cannot
discipline be attributed
in medieval to a
Arabic
shortage of
linguistics. euphemisms
However, in Classical
this absence cannotArabic. The Holy
be attributed Quran alone
to a shortage of
constitutesina Classical
euphemisms rich source for The
Arabic. euphemistic
Holy Quranexpressions intended
alone constitutes a rich to
avoid for
source blunt or taboo expressions
euphemistic expressionsintended
in areastosuch
avoidasblunt
sex and bodily
or taboo
expressions in areas
effluvia, among such Consider
others. as sex andthe
bodily effluvia,below:
two verses among others.
Consider the two verses below:
.�� (1)
(Al-nisaa’, Verse 43)
/’iðaa jaa’a ’a�adukum min- al-�aa’it�i ’aw
if came one (of you) from the-defecation or
laamastum- an-nisaa’a .../

touch (you) the-women
'If one of you has come back from defecation or you

have touched women …'
.�� (2)
(Al-’a�zaab, Verse 37)
/fa-lammaa qadaa min-haa wataran zawwajnaa-ka-haa/

so-when got from-her need marry(we)-you-her
'After he had got his need from her, we married you to her.'
In the verses above, ‘sexual intercourse’ is euphemistically referred

to as ‘touching’ in the first verse and ‘getting his need from her’ in the
306
227
In the verses above, ʻsexual intercourseʼ is euphemistically
referred to as ʻtouchingʼ in the first verse and ʻgetting his need from
herʼ in the second verse. Similarly, the first verse euphemizes a
bodily function by the employment of the technical term al-yaaʼiti
ʻdefecationʼ, in order to hide the socially tabooed attitude toward
it.
More recently, Farghal (1995) interprets the process of

euphemizing in Arabic in terms of conversational implicature
(Grice 1975). In particular, he emphasizes the interaction between
the politeness principle (Leech 1983) and Griceʼs maxims of
conversation in euphemistic expressions. Euphemisms are viewed
as a pragmatic mechanism that reflects the organic interlock
between the politeness principle and conversational maxims. By
way of illustration, the Arabic euphemism wadaʻa ħaddan li-
ħayaatih t�UO( Î «b� l{Ë ʻHe put an end to his lifeʼ as a replacement
forʼintaħara d��« ʻHe committed suicideʼ both flouts the maxim
of quality (by being metaphorical) and the maxim of manner
(specifically, the sub-maxim ʻBe briefʼ). The producerʼs prurpose
is to conversationally implicate that the denotatumʼs life had been
full of suffering; hence, from his point of view, it was good that he
killed himself. This conversational implicature is missing in the
neutral (but inherently negative) counterpart ʼintaħara. Similarly,
the vernacular euphemism ʼaʻtaak ʻumruh ÁdL� „UD�√ ʻHe gave
307
you his ageʼ instead of the neutral maata U� ʻHe diedʼ flouts the
maxim of quality (Donʼt say what you believe to be false) and, as
a result, conversationally implicates the speakerʼs wish that the
addressee live long.
5.2 A Translational Perspective
There is a consensus among translation practitioners as

well as translation theorists that translation is essentially an act
of communication that departs from the frontiers of a SL and
enters into the frontiers of a TL. This journey from SL to TL is
supposed to invlove transferring meaning in its different linguistic
and social manifestations. In reality, however, there is uaually a
tug-of-war between form and content in the process of translation
because meaning may be grammaticalized and/or idiomatized
differently across languages. On the one hand, some theorists
emphasize formal equivalence, for example, Catford (1965:20)
defines translation as “the replacement of textual material in one
language by equivalent textual material in another language”.
Some of them, on the other hand, highlight functional equivalence
by emphasizing the reproduction of the SL message by the closest
natural equivalent in the TL or by substituting messages in one
language for messages in another language (Jakobson, 1959; De
Ward and Nida, 1986). However, translation equivalence, whether
it be formal or functional, is a correlate of contextual factors and
308
is essentially informed by the principle of relevance (Gutt 1996;
Farghal 2004).
Being functional in language, euphemism should be relayed

in translation because the failure to do so will result in a deficit in
the degree of politeness in the TL text, compared with that of the
SL text. In the following pages, we will see whether it is possible
to render different types of Arabic euphemism into English.
The discussion will center on figurative expressions, antonyms,
circumlocutions, remodelings, ellipsis, understatements,
overstatements, borrowings, and euphemizers as important
euphemizing strategies.
5.2.0 Figurative Expressions
Figurative expressions are the most common device for

euphemizing meaning in Arabic in areas such as death, bodily
functions, marriage and sex, and so forth. These areas of human
experience are, in fact, a common target for euphemism in natural
language in general. Therefore, it is expected that euphemistic
expressions between languages will be availabe in translation in
varying degrees of correspodence.
First, let us consider the standard Arabic euphemism that

views death in terms of a transference to another life and/or
joining the supreme Agent, viz. —«œ ¨…d�ü« —«b�« ® v�UF� tK�« WL�— v�≈ qI��«
309
t�— —«u� ¨vK�_« oO�d�« ¨¡UI��«® [ʼintaqala ʼilaa raħmati-llaah (ad-daari-
l-ʼaaxirah, daari-l-baqaaʼ, ar-raiiqi-l-ʼaʻlaa, jiwaarii rabbih)]
ʻLit. He transferred to the mercy of God (the afterlife, the home
of eternity, the supreme comrade, the neighborhood of his Lord).ʼ
The common divider in these death euphemisms is their inherent
fatalistic viewpoint, which may be regarded as a hallmark of Arab
culture in general (Farghal 1993a). As can be seen, the literal
English translations may not work as equivalents for the Arabic
euphemistic death terms above, which effectively find their
way into the general unmarked Arabic register and succeed in
conversationally implicating that ʻthe deceased will go to Heavenʼ.
Although the general unmarked English register does not tolerate
this fatalistic Arabic viewpoint, it euphemizes death by likening
it to a journey in the expression ʻHe passed awayʼ, which can
functionally correspond to the Arabic death terms above. More
restrictively (i.e. in the religious register only such as sermons
and obituaries), English euphemizes death in expressions like ʻHe
went to his last homeʼ, ʻHe passed over to the great beyondʼ, ʻHe
answered the last callʼ, ʻHe awoke to immortal lifeʼ, ʻHe met his
Makerʼ, etc. Therefore, the translator may employ these marked
English death euphemisms as functional equivalents to fatalistic
Arabic death terms when translating religious texts only.
In the area of bodily functions and related facilities, both

310
Arabic and English possess several euphemistic expressions that
may perform similar functions. Witness the Quranic euphemisms
and their English counterparts in (1) and (2) above, viz. al-yaaʼit and
laamastum can be euphemistically translated into ʻdefecationʼ and
ʻtouchingʼ in (1) respectively, and wataran can be euphemistically
rendered as ʻneedʼ in (2). Also, observe the availability of the
Arabic euphemistic expressions dawratu miyaah ʻwater cycleʼ,
ħammaam ʻbathroomʼ, baytu-l-ʼadab ʻhome of politenessʼ, baytu-
(2). Also, observe the availability of the Arabic euphemistic expressions
l-raaħah ʻhome of restʼ, twaaleet ʻtoiletʼ, etc. for mirħaad, and
dawratu miyaah 'water cycle', �ammaam 'bathroom', baytu-l-’adab 'home
the availability of the English euphemistic expressions ʻtoiletʼ,
of politeness', baytu-l-raa�ah 'home of rest', twaaleet 'toilet', etc. for
ʻlavatoryʼ,
mir�aad , and ʻbathroomʼ, ʻrestroomʼ,
the availability ʻpowder
of the English roomʼ, expressions
euphemistic etc. for the
originally
'toilet', euphemistic
'lavatory', 'bathroom',expression ʻwater closet
'restroom', 'powder (WC)ʼ.
room', etc. The
for the
translator,euphemistic
originally therefore,expression
will find 'water
no difficulty in rendering
closet (WC)'. Arabic
The translator,
euphemisms
therefore, in this
will find case. in rendering Arabic euphemisms in this
no difficulty
case.
However, there are some cases in which Arabic euphemism
However, there are some cases in which Arabic euphemism in this
in this area may pose serious problems to the most professional
area may pose serious problems to the most professional translator.
translator. Witness how Arberry (1980: 135) renders the boldfaced
Witness how Arberry (1980: 135) renders the boldfaced figurative
figurative expression in the Quranic verse (3) in (4) below:
expression in the Quranic verse (3) in (4) below:
ÆÆÆ
... W��—
�� d�d�� «u�U��U*��
�� ÊËœuF�� r� rNzU��
�� s� ÊËd�UE�
�� (3) (3)
�� s�c�«Ë
(Al-mujaadilah: 3)
/wa- llaðiina yuðaahiruuna min nisaa’i-him �umma
and who give backs to from women-their then
ya‘uuduuna li-maa qaaluu fa-ta�riiru raqabah/

retract(they) for-what said(they) so-set free slave
(4) And those who say, regarding their wives, ‘Be as my

311
mother’s back’, and then retract what they have said,
they shall set free a slave.
Given to a group of 20 American native speakers to provide their

interpretation of the boldfaced segment in the English translation (which
is meant to reflect the meaning of the Arabic euphemistic expression
... �� (3)
(Al-mujaadilah: 3)
/wa- llaðiina yuðaahiruuna min nisaa’i-him �umma
and who give backs to from women-their then
ya‘uuduuna li-maa qaaluu fa-ta�riiru raqabah/

retract(they) for-what said(they) so-set free slave
(4) And those who say, regarding their wives, ‘Be as my

mother’s back’, and then retract what they have said,
they shall set free a slave.
Given
Given to atogroup
a group of American
of 20 20 American
nativenative speakers
speakers to provide
to provide their
their interpretation
interpretation of thesegment
of the boldfaced boldfaced segmenttranslation
in the English in the (which
English
istranslation
meant to reflect
(whichtheismeaning of reflect
meant to the Arabic euphemisticofexpression
the meaning the Arabic
yuð aahiruuna) more
euphemistic than 80%yuðaahiruuna)
expression of the responses did
morenot than
make sense
80% atofall.the
Arberry’s interpretative literal translation simply could not convey the
responses did not make sense at all. Arberryʼs interpretative literal
message that the Arabic euphemism involved a husband's verbal
translation simply could not convey the message that the Arabic
declaration of sexual desertion to his wife. The only way to render the
euphemism involved a husbandʼs verbal declaration of sexual
Arabic euphemism in a comprehensible manner is to relay the content
desertion to his wife. The only way to render the Arabic euphemism
in a comprehensible manner is231
to relay the content independently
of the form because the Arabic euphemistic expression is alien to
target readers.
5.2.1 Antonyms
The use of antonyms in Arabic euphemisms is an interesting

phenomenon. Examples include muʻaafaa ʻhealthyʼ for i�d�
mariid ʻsickʼ, dOB� basiir ʻsightedʼ for vL�√ ʼaʻmaa ʻblindʼ,
ÊËbzU� ʻaaʼiduun ʻreturneesʼ for Êu��ô laajiʼuun ʻrefugeesʼ, —u��
majbuur ʻwith a healing limbʼ for —u�J� maksuur ʻwith a broken
limb.ʼ These positive expressions reflect the desired rather than
the existing state of affairs and are reminiscent of another deeply-
rooted tradition in Arab culture. Ugly personal names such as g��
312
jaħš ʻDonkeyʼ and VOK� kulayb ʻDoggieʼ were given upon birth to
keep envy away, viz. g�� XM� VM�“ zaynabu bintu jaħš ʻZaynab,
daughter of Donkeyʼ was one of Prophet Mohammadʼs wives.
Such proper names are still used in some parts of the Arab world.
In Egypt, for example, family names such as Ê«uO(« al-ħayawaan
ʻanimalʼ and —UL(« al-ħimaar ʻdonkeyʼ still designate big families.
Apparently, the use of antonyms in euphemizing has taken an
opposite direction from using negative terms, which are meant to
drive envy or evil away.
In terms of translation, the euphemistic use of Arabic

antonyms cannot be maintained in English translation. Words
designating physical conditions/diabilities, for example, are not
euphemized in English; hence, ʻhealthyʼ and ʻsightedʼ may not
be employed respectively to mean ʻsickʼ and ʻblindʼ, the way it
is in Arabic, other things being equal. Apparently, English does
not utilize antonyms in euphemizing although auto-antonyms
are quite common in it, e.g. ʻto dustʼ can mean ʻto remove fine
particles fromʼ or ʻto sprinkle fine particles ontoʼ and ʻto rentʼ
can mean ʻto rent property from someoneʼ or ʻto rent property
to someoneʼ. Therefore, euphemistic Arabic auto-antonyms are
doomed in English translation. The options available to translators
range between overlooking the euphemisitc use, for example, by
rendering the euphemsitic muʻaafaa into the non-euphemistic
313
ʻsick/illʼ and, alternatively, reducing the supposedly negative
effect on the receiver by resorting to paraphrase, for example,
rendering the above Arabic euphemism as ʻnot feeling very wellʼ,
which may correspond to the vernacular euphemistic expression
t�u� ÊU�F� taʻbaan šwayya [tired bit] ʻa bit tiredʼ.
5.2.2 Circumlocutions, Remodelings, and Ellipsis
Circumlocutions, another type of euphemism, paraphrase

taboos or socially objectionable vocabulary. Examples of
cicumlocutions include k(« tH�U�� r� lam yuħaalifahu-l-ħað ʻLuck
did not ally with himʼ instead of qA� fašila ʻHe failedʼ, w�M� ¡«b��«
ʼiʻtidaaʼ jinsii ʻsexual assaultʼ for »UB��« ʼiytisaab ʻrapeʼ, WO�Ë“ W�UO�
xiyaanah zawjiyyah ʻmarriage betrayalʼ for ‫ ﺯﻧﺎ‬zinaa ʻadulteryʼ,
and w�d� dO� qH� tifl yayr šarʻii ʻillegitimate childʼ for jOI� laqiit
ʻbastardʼ. These Arabic euphemisms, as can be seen, spell out
the meaning of their negative counterparts in a more acceptable
way. In terms of translation, the above Arabic circumlocutions
translate readily into ʻHe was not luckyʼ, ʻsexual assaultʼ, ʻan
affair outside marriageʼ and ʻillegitimate childʼ, respectively.
Thus, euphemistic Arabic circumlocutions do not usually involve
problems in English translation. This may be attributed to the fact
that breaking down lexical meaning by way of circumlocution is
a universal phenomenon in natural language, covering all aspects
of vocabulary, including the euphemistic use.
314
For their part, remodelings essentially belong to vernacular
Arabic and involve the twisting of the phonological structure of
existing taboo expressions for a euphemistic purpose. Popular
examples in the Levant may include euphemistic imprecatives
such as p��œØpJ�œ sFK� yilʻan diikak/diixak ʻDamn your rooster/?ʼ
for the blasphemous pM�œ sFK� yilʻan diinak ʻDamn your religionʼ
and pA�d� sFK� yilʻan ħariišak ʻDamn your …?ʼ instead of sFK�
p�d�Øp1d� yilʻan ħariimak/ħaramak ʻDamn your kinswomenʼ.
As can be noted, such euphemistic imprecatives employ vague
and/or nonce words for remodeling their taboo counterparts, in
order to lessen the impact of negative effects. In English, the
translator may employ the general, dummy imprecative ʻDamn
itʼ as a counterpart for such expressions or, alternatively, ʻSugar!ʼ
as a euphemistic remodelling of the familiar four-letter English
imprecative. However, if the original imprecative is found, the
translator may render it literally, such as ʻDamn your religionʼ and
ʻDamn your kinswomenʼ.
In some cases, remodelings utilize open-ended words such

as the popular euphemistic Egyptian imprecative t�_« s�« U� yabni-l-
eeh ʻson of whatʼ and the Levantine counterpart s�c�« s�« U� yabni-l-
laðiina ʻson of thoseʼ. These euphemistic imprecatives are used
instead of their potentially obscene counterparts, e.g. VKJ�« s�« U�
yabni-l-kalb ʻson of a dogʼ, Ê«uO(« s�« U� yabni-l-ħaywaan ʻson of an
315
animalʼ. In terms of translation, the euphemistic English
imprecative ʻSon of a gunʼ, which remodels the obscene imprecative
ʻSon of a bitchʼ, can be effectively used as a functional equivalent
in such cases. It should be noted, however, that the obscene
imprecatives and their euphemistic conterparts in Arabic are
gender-marked, viz. VKJ�« XM� U� yabinti-l-kalb ʻDaughter of a dogʼ
and t�_« XM� U� yabinti-l-eeh ʻDaughter of whatʼ, whereas the
corresponding English imprecative is gender unmarkrd, i.e. ʻSon
of a bitchʼ can be addressed to both males and females; hence
ʻDaughter of a bitchʼ is not acceptable in English. The same thing
applies to the euphemistic version, that is, it is gender-marked in
Arabic but its English counterpart is gender-unmarked.
A related euphemizing Arabic process is ellipsis. Here the speaker

falls short of uttering the complete taboo expression. Examples
of expressions such as ÆÆÆ ‰≈ u�√ ʼaxu-l …ʼBrother of …ʼ, ‰« s�« U�
ÆÆÆ yabn-il … ʻSon of …ʼ and ÆÆ ‰≈ XM�. bint-il …ʼDaughter of …ʼ
function as elliptical imprecatives. Ellipsis can also be observed
in English as a means of euphemizing when the speaker falls short
of the lexeme ʻbitchʼ by saying ʻSon of …ʼ. In some cases and for
the pupose of euphemizing, the imprecative formula is completed
with a general and/or irrelevant word instead of an obscene one.
Examples include the flippant Egyptian euphemistic imprecative
yabn-il-eeh ʻSon of what!ʼ and the Levantine flippant imprecatives
316
'Son of …' and ... �� bint-il …'Daughter of …' function as elliptical
imprecatives. Ellipsis can also be observed in English as a means of
euphemizing when the speaker falls short of the lexeme 'bitch' by saying
'Son of …'. In some cases and for the pupose of euphemizing, the
imprecative formula is completed with a general and/or irrelevant word
instead of an obscene one. Examples include the flippant Egyptian
pKG� sFK� yilʻan šuylak ʻDamn your workʼ and U�Ë— sFK� yilʻan rooma
euphemistic imprecative yabn-il-eeh 'Son of what!' and the Levantine
ʻDamnimprecatives
flippant Romeʼ, among others.
�� yil‘anSimilarly, English
šu�lak 'Damn may utilize
your work' and ��the
tag yil‘an
�� ʻyou know
rooma whatʼ
'Damn to avoidamong
Rome', obscene expressions,
others. for example,
Similarly, English may
ʻSon the
utilize of, tag
you'you
know whatʼ
know what'instead
to avoidof ʻSon expressions,
obscene of a bitchʼ. for example,
'Son of, you
To know what'
further insteadhow
observe of 'Son of aeuphemistic
such bitch'. strategies can be
To further observe how such euphemistic strategies can be
employed in Arabic, let us consider the following excerpt (both
employed in Arabic, let us consider the following excerpt (both the
the Arabic text and the English translation) from Najeeb Mahfuzʼs
Arabic text and the English translation) from Najeeb Mahfuz's Awlaad
Awlaad Haratinaa (1959), which Stewart translated into English
Haratinaa (1959), which Stewart translated into English as Children of
as Children of Geblawi (1981):
Geblawi (1981):
�� :�� (5)
�� :�� .��
.��
/qaalat �annuuratu maa ’antum ’illaa �aššaašuuna laa xayra
said Hanoura not you but hash addicts no good
fii-kum wa law marra ’amaama-kum al’aana xunfus la-

in-you and if pass in front of-you now Khunfus would
sajad-tum bayna yaday-h �umma wa-hwa yaltafitu ’ilaa

kneel-you between hands-his then and-he look to
rifaa‘ah laa tu’aaxið-naa yaa bunay fa-laysa ‘ala-l-�aššaaši

rifa’a not blame-me o son so-not on the-addict
�araj/
embarrassment
(6) Hanoura said:
“You are nothing but worthless hashish addicts. If Khonfus
came now, you’d fall at his feet”. Then to Rifa’a: “Don’t blame
us, my boy. A hashish smoker
235 has no inhibitions”.
In the above excerpt, Hanoura employed the boldfaced

euphemistic expression in an attempt317
to tone down the harsh criticism he
mounted at hashshish addicts when he turned to address Rifa’a. Stewart,
inadvertently, rendered the euphemistic phraseology literally, thus
overtranslating it. It would have been more appropriate to relay it by a
euphemizing English expression such as “Excuse us, son! A hashish
In the above excerpt, Hanoura employed the boldfaced
euphemistic expression in an attempt to tone down the harsh
criticism he mounted at hashshish addicts when he turned to
address Rifaʼa. Stewart, inadvertently, rendered the euphemistic
phraseology literally, thus overtranslating it. It would have been
more appropriate to relay it by a euphemizing English expression
such as “Excuse us, son! A hashish smoker has no inhibitions” or
“Weʼre sorry, son! A hashish smoker has no inhibitions”.
5.2.3 Understatements and Overstatements
Euphemistic expressions may manifest themselves in

understatements. The Arabic word W�J� naksah ʻsetbackʼ constitutes
a classic example that came into frequent official use after the
Arab-Israeli 1967 Six-day War as a euphemism for W1e� haiimah
ʻdefeatʼ. This euphemism was not just a word. It provided the Arab
world with a psychological frame of reference through which the
late President Nasser of Egypt, the late King Hussein of Jordan,
and the then President Al-Atasi of Syria were to emerge as heroes
from that humiliating war. In terms of translation, ʻa spade should
be called a spadeʼ in this case; therefore, naksah (in reference to
that war) is translated into ʻdefeatʼ in natural English discourse
and only a pretentious Arab-created English text would refer to
it as ʻsetbackʼ. Similarly, the familiar Arabic euphemism WOKL�
W�œUNA��« ʻamaliyyah ʼistišhaadiyyah ʻmartydom operationʼ instead
318
of W�—U��« WOKL� ʻamaliyyah ʼintiħaariyyah is non-euphemistically
translated into W�—U��« WOKL�ØÍ—U��« Âu�� ʻsuicide attack/operationʼ
or, sometimes, dysphemistically into w�U�—≈ Âu�� hujuum ʼirhaabii
ʻterrorist attackʼ (for more details about dysphemism, see Farghal
1995b). Other examples include Î U�b�� wHB� yusaffii jasadiyyan
ʻLit. to purify physicallyʼ instead of ‰U�G� yaytaalu ʻto assassinateʼ,
which can be euphemistically translated into ʻto liquidateʼ, and
al-ʼislaamiyyuun-l-mutatarrifuun, which is often euphemistically
translated into ÊuO�ö�ù« Ë√ ÊuO�u_« ÊuO�ö�ù«ØÊuO�ö�ù« ÊuD�UM�«
al-naašituun-l-ʼislaamiyyuun/ al-ʼislaamiyyuun-l-ʼusuuliyyuun,
or al-ʼislaamiyyuun ʻMuslim activists/Muslim fundamentalistsʼ
or ʻIslamistsʼ, instead of the non-euphemistic ÊuO�ö�ù« Êu�dD�*«
List
List ofof
Arabic
Arabic
Phone
Pho
ʻMuslim extremists/ fanaticsʼ.
/b//b/ voiced
voiced bilabial
bilabial stop
stop
Conversely, some euphemisms /m//m/ may
bilabial benasal
bilabial realized as
nasal
/f//f/
overstatements or hyperboles. An interesting voiceless
voiceless
examplelabio-dental
labio-dental
is „—UF*« ‫ﺃﻡ‬fricative
fricative
/ð//ð/ voiced
voiced interdental
interdental fricative
fricative
ʼummu-l-maʻaarik as used by the ex-Iraqi /ð//ð/ regime
voiced
voiced instead
interdental
interdental of the
emphatic
emphatic fricative
fricative
neutral WO�U��« ZOK)« »d� ħarbu-l-xaliiji-/�/-/�/aaniyah
voiceless
voiceless interdental
interdental
ʻSecond Gulffricative
fricative
/d//d/
War of 1991ʼ, which was readily translated voiced
voiced
intoalveolar
alveolar
ʻMother stop
stop
of all
/t//t/voiceless
voiceless alveolar
alveolar stop
stop
battlesʼ. However, the Arabic euphemism /d//d/ voicedandalveolar
voiced its seemingly
alveolar emphatic
emphatic stop
stop
/t//t/
English counterpart functioned differently. voiceless
voiceless
Whereas alveolar
alveolar
the Arabicemphatic
emphatic stopstop
/z//z/voiced
voiced alveolar
alveolar fricative
fricative
expression originally showed pride in and solidarity with Iraq in
/s//s/voiceless
voiceless alveolar
alveolar fricative
fricative
its confrontation with the United States/s/and
/s/ her allies,
voiceless
voiceless the English
alveolar
alveolar emphatic
emphatic fricative
fricative
expression was employed humorously /n//n/ alveolar
alveolar
and nasal
nasal stop
dysphemistically. stop
/r//r/alveolar
alveolar rhotic
rhotic liquid
liquid
319 /l//l/alveolar
alveolar lateral
lateral liquid
liquid
/š//š/voiceless
fricative
/j//j/voiced
voiced alveo-palatal
alveo-palatal affricate
affricate
/y//y/ palatal
palatal glide
glide
/w//w/ labio-velar
labio-velar glide
glide
/k//k/ voiceless
voiceless velar
velar stop
stop
/�//�/voiced
voiced velar
velar fricative
fricative
Therefore, the apparently euphemistic English translation
constitutes an antithesis of euphemizing. All the same, the Arabic
expression came to develop the humorous and dysphemistc use
after the humiliating defeat of Iraq in that war. Interestingly enough,
the English translation was intralingually remodeled in ʻMother of
all bombsʼ in reference to an American mammoth bomb that had
been used in Afghanistan and Iraq by the Americans. However,
the remodeling came to lose its humorous and dysphemistic
interpretation in favor of a euphemistic use intended to avoid the
mention of the massive destruction that the bomb may cause when
replacing itused.
with aThe
TL adjective that performs
new English the same
expression wasfunction
readilythough it
translated into Â√
has a different meaning. By contrast, the translator can only fiddle
q�UMI�« ʼummu-l-qanaabil in Arabic, though with a rather negative
formally but not semantically with the key noun end in the second line,
than positive attitude.
because it is an integral part of the poetic schema. In this way, the Arabic
Another
version replaces the recent
literal phrase example
to their is the euphemistic
end (li-nihaayati-haa) with theexpression
metaphorical phrase
„—uO�Ë ÊuDM�«Ë …Ëe� azwat
na�wa-l-ma�iib waašintun
'towards wa which
the sunset', niyuurk ʻCampaign of
is both
cohesive (it provides rhyme)
Washington and Yorkʼ
and New coherent
for(itd�L��
reflects
s� the
dA�same
ÍœU(«idea)
Âu�� hujuum-
within the culture-free schema. To see the need for suchth small, but
il-ħaadii ʻašar min sibtambar ʻSeptember 11 attackʼ in the words
necessary, changes in the TL text, you can compare the poetic
of Bin Laden and his followers. Given the massive volume of the
cohesiveness and smoothness of (38) above with the
replacing deficient
it with poetic that performs the same functio
a TL adjective
tragedy, the Arabic expression never found its way into English
cohesiveness and structure of the version in has
(39) abelow:
different meaning. By contrast, the translator can o
discourse, the way ʻMother of all battlesʼ did. This example delves
�� (39)
formally but not semantically with the key noun end in the s
��
deep into Arab-Muslim historybecause ��
in search ��
it isofana phraseology
integral part ofthat
the would
poetic schema. In this way,
��
revive religious sentiment
��and��include
��
version fresh
��
replaces positive
the attitudes.
literal phrase In end (li-nihaayati-ha
to their
terms of normative
/kama-l-’amwaaju tattajihu Islamic practice, the l-�as
metaphorical
na�wa- l-šaat i’i ði- use of
phrase
aa the term yazwah
na�wa-l-ma�iib 'towards the sunset', wh
like the-waves head towards the-shore with
cohesive (it the-pebbles
provides rhyme) and coherent (it reflects the
320
within the
tatasaara‘u-l-daqaa’iqu fii ‘umri-naa na�wa culture-free schema. To see the need for such
nihaayati-haa
hasten the-minutes in age-our necessary,
towards end-their
changes in the TL text, you can compare
cohesiveness and smoothness of (38) above with the defic
cohesiveness and structure of the version in (39) below:
jaahidatan na�wa- l-’amaami fii tanaafusin �aqiiqii/ ��
is associated only with the campaigns led by Prophet Mohammad.
The infringement of this tacit agreement among Muslims stems
from Bin Ladenʼs awareness of the positive associations of the
said term; hence, he purposely used it to euphemize an otherwise
objectionable act of terror.
5.2.4 Borrowings
Euphemisms in Arabic may also arise as a result of

borrowing foreign words. One of the most common euphemisms
of this type is the use of the loan-word Â«b� madaam ʻmadamʼ
for the standard W�Ë“ zawjah or the vernacular Ád� marah ʻwifeʼ
in many urban areas of the Arab world because it carries a more
positive attitude. Other examples include XO�«u� twaaleet ʻtoiletʼ for
÷U�d� mirħaad ʻtoiletʼ, dO�«u� kwaafeer ʻcoifeurʼ instead of ‚ö�
ħalaaq ʻbarberʼ and X�—U�d�u� suubarmaakit ʻsupermarketʼ for
ÊU�œ dukkaan ʻshopʼ. Sociolinguistically, the use of such foreign
loans instead of their native counterparts is usually taken to be
indicative of the speakerʼs high level of education and social class.
In terms of translation, euphemizing by borrowing represents zero
translation whereby the foreign loan preserves its form (though
phonologically naturalized), as well as its meaning (which may
sometimes undergo semantic modification).
321
5.2.5 Euphemizers
Arabic is rich in formulaic expressions that are intended to

soften the impact of mentioning a taboo or a socially non-preferred
expression involving reference to topics such as death, betrayal,
failure, and objectionable animals/items. Consequently, I will call
such expressions ʻeuphemizersʼ. Examples include ôË tK�« `L� ô
—b� laa samaħa-llaahu wa laa qaddar ʻLit. May not God permit
nor predestine thisʼ, p�UI� kH�� tK�« ʼallaah yiħfað maqaamak ʻLit.
May God preserve your statusʼ, pM� bOF� baʻiid ʻannak ʻLit. May
this be far from youʼ, etc. These popular Arabic euphemizers are
reminiscent of some archaic English euphemizers such as ʻPerish
the thoughtʼ, which are rarely encountered in modern English
discourse. It should be noted that Arabic vernaculars as remote
from each other as Jordanian Arabic and Moroccan Arabic utilize
varying versions of such euphemizers. For example, Moroccan
Arabic and Jordanian Arabic respectively employ the euphemizer
„U�U� ħaašaak and „UAO� ħiišaak ʻMay this not apply to youʼ right
replacing it with
aftera the
TL mention
adjectiveofthat performs
what the same
is deemed to be function though it
socially objectionable,
has a different meaning. references
for example, By contrast, the translator
to shoes, animals can
such only fiddle and
as donkeys
formally but pigs,
not semantically
and negativewith
attributes nounasend
the keysuch in theand
reckless second line,Other
stupid.
because it is an integral part
euphemizers of the
from poetic schema.
Jordanian In this way,
Arabic include thebala
tO�U� ö� Arabic
gaafyih
version replaces the literal
ʻwithout phrase
double to theiri.e.,
meaning, endtake
(li-nihaayati-haa)
what I said atwith
facethevalueʼ
metaphorical and Ád�“na�wa-l-ma�iib
phrase ö??� bala zu rah 'towards the sunset',
ʻwhen asking someonewhich is both
about his tribal
cohesive (it provides rhyme) and coherent322
(it reflects the same idea)
within the culture-free schema. To see the need for such small, but
cohesiveness and smoothness of (38) above with the deficient poetic
cohesiveness and structure of the version in (39) below:
affiliationʼ (for more details, see Farghal, 2002).
In terms of translation, these Arabic euphemizers can be

problematic because present-day English largely lacks the existence
of formulaic expressions in this aspect of human interaction.
However, English manages to soften the mention of socially non-
preferred or objectionable phrases by general expressions such as
English manages
ʻIʼm sorry to and
to sayʼ soften the mention
ʻexcuse of socially
my languageʼ. non-preferred
Therefore, whenorthe
objectionable phrasesobtains
taboo expression by general expressions
in both such Arabic
languages, as 'I'm sorry to say'
euphemizers
and 'excuse my language'. Therefore, when the taboo expression obtains
are translatable into English. By contrast, if the taboo Arabic
in both languages, Arabic euphemizers are translatable into English. By
expression is not taboo in English, such euphemizers are doomed
contrast, if the taboo Arabic expression is not taboo in English, such
in translation. The examples in (8) - (11) below illustrate this
euphemizers are doomed in translation. The examples in (8) - (11) below
point:
illustrate this point:
.�� - �� (7)
/mu�ammadun mu�taalun ba‘iid ‘ann-ak/
Mohammed cheat far from-you
'Lit. Mohammed is a cheat, may this be far from you.'
(8) Mohammed is a swindler, I'm sorry to say.
�� - �� (9)

/’ayna-l-�ammaamu ’ajalla-ka ’allah/
where the-bathroom elevate-you God
'Lit. Where's the bathroom, may God elevate you?'
(10) Where's the bathroom?
As can be seen, the boldfaced Arabic euphemizer in (7) can be

As can be seen, the boldfaced Arabic euphemizer in (7)
rendered as the boldfaced English general expression in (8) because the
can be rendered as the boldfaced English general expression in
socially tabooed expressions in (7) and (8), i.e. mu�taalun and swindler ,
coincide between the two languages. By contrast, the boldfaced Arabic
323
euphemizer in (9) is doomed in English translation because what is
socially tabooed in Arabic, i.e. �ammam 'bathroom' is not socially
tabooed in English, hence the use of the omission strategy in (10).
To shed more light on this subtle aspect of Arabic discourse, let us
examine an authentic translation example from Mahfouz's Awlaad
(8) because the socially tabooed expressions in (7) and (8), i.e.
muħtaalun and swindler, coincide between the two languages.
By contrast, the boldfaced Arabic euphemizer in (9) is doomed in
English translation because what is socially tabooed in Arabic, i.e.
ħammam ʻbathroomʼ is not socially tabooed in English, hence the
use of the omission strategy in (10).
To shed more light on this subtle aspect of Arabic discourse,

let us examine an authentic translation example from Mahfouzʼs
Awlaad Haratinaa (1959), along with its English translation from
Stewartʼs Children of Geblawi (1981):
�� :�� (11)

.�� :��
/wa sa’ala-hu qadrii al-naaðir hal min jadiidin
and asked-him Qadri the-Principal Q from new
‘an zawji-ka?
about wife-your
fa-’ajaaba ‘arafatu wa hwa yattaxiðu majlisa-hu ’ilaa

then-answered Arafa and he taking seat-his to
jaanib-hi ‘aniidatun ka-l-ba�li rabbu-naa yi�fað

side-his stubborn(she) as-the-mule God-ours preserve
maqaam-ak/
status-your
(12) Kadri (the Chief) asked Arafa: "Any news of your wife"?
Arafa answered as he sat down beside him: "Stubborn as a
mule!"
As can be observed, the translator,

324 P. Stewart, unjustifiably opted
for omitting the Arabic euphemizer �� in (11). Had Stewart
given it a deeper thought, he would have captured the Arabic euphemizer
by rendering it into general euphemistic English expressions such as 'I'm
afraid to say' or 'excuse my language'. In this way, omission, which may
be adopted when there is no correspondence in social taboos between the
As can be observed, the translator, P. Stewart, unjustifiably
opted for omitting the Arabic euphemizer p�UI� kH�� UM�— in (11).
Had Stewart given it a deeper thought, he would have captured
the Arabic euphemizer by rendering it into general euphemistic
English expressions such as ʻIʼm afraid to sayʼ or ʻexcuse my
languageʼ. In this way, omission, which may be adopted when
there is no correspondence in social taboos between the two
languages, is inadvertently applied in (12) above.
Moreover, Arabic is rich in another category of euphemizers
that are meant to pay homage to the religious referents mentioned
in discourse such Allah, Prophet Mohammed, any of the prophets
recognized in Islam, any of the Prophetʼs companions, etc.
Therefore, it would be inappropriate for a Muslim to mention Allah
without qualifying his name with the euphemizer q�Ë e� ʻazza wa
jal ʻdear and sublime, i.e. ʻthe greatestʼ or v�UF�Ë t�U�� subħaanah
wa taʻaala ʻHow great He isʼ. Other euphemizers include vK
rK�Ë tOK� tK�« salaa ʼallahu ʻalayyhi wa salam ʻMay Allah pray
for him, i.e. May peace be upon himʼ specifically for Prophet
Mohammed, Âö��« tOK� ʻalayyhi-s-salaam ʻPeace be upon himʼ
for any other prophet, and tM� tK�« w{— radiya ʼallahu ʻanhu ʻMay
Allah bless himʼ for any of Prophet Mohammedʼs companions.
In this way, these euphemizers seek to glorify religious figures
whenever they occur in discourse. In terms of translation, Arabic
religious material translated into English abounds in Arabic-based
325
euphemizers such as May peace be upon Him, May Allah/God
bless him, Almighty Allah/God, Allah/God the Greatest, etc.
5.3 Conclusion
This chapter shows that Arabic euphemism is a rich lexical

resource that utilizes a variety of euphemizing strategies, which
aim to avoid offence and improvise politeness in communication.
The translator, whose task is to produce a TL text that bears a
close semantic and semiotic resemblance to the SL text, should
consider euphemism when translating from Arabic into English.
The failure to do so will affect the level of politeness between the
two languages.
In terms of strategy, Arabic and English, in the main, seem
to operate similar euphemizing methods including metaphorical
expressions, remodeling, ellipsis, circumlocutions, and under-
and over-statements. However, the translator should guard
against a register differential when considering euphemistic
correspondences. In particular, he should be aware of the fact that
the Arab culture, in contrast with the Anglo-American culture, is
overwhelmingly fatalistic. This fact, for example, may create a
situation where an Arabic euphemistic expression, which belongs
to the general, unmarked register, will be inappropriately rendered
by a corresponding English euphemistic expression, which
belongs to the religious, marked register. This kind of apparent
326
correspondence, in particular, abounds in the area of death terms
between the two languages.
In some cases, the Arabic euphemistic nuance is doomed

in English translation. Arabic euphemistic antonyms are a clear
case for which no lexical correspondence can be found in English.
Another familiar example involves Arabic euphemizers, which
hardly find corresponding formulaic expressions in English.
However, the translator may compensate such euphemizers by
employing general English softening expressions if there is a
correspondence in the socially tabooed item between the two
languages. In the absence of such taboo correspondence, the
Arabic euphemizer is subject to omission in English translation.
Finally, in a few cases, the psychology of the audience in

the two languages may create a mismatch at the attitudinal rather
than the phraseological level. The overall mood of the SL and TL
audience derives mainly from social or subjective reality rather
than objective reality. Thus, what embraces a euphemistic use in
the SL may happen to embrace a dysphemistic use in the TL.
5.4 Practices
Practice 1:
Examine the placard held by one of the demonstrators below, then
identify the euphemisms employed in the text. How would you
render the euphemisms into Arabic?
327
(Internet material/source unknown)
Practice 2:
Translate the following text into Arabic, focusing on the euphemistic

expressions in it (from Iraq war euphemisms/cited in Faiq and Clark
, 2010, p. 197)
For the aim of humanitarian intervention, we pacified the area. By using the
air option, air support and one-way mission, we softened up the resistance and
328
finally the enemyʼs defense was neutralized, although we also made collateral
damage when we engaged in hostilities and in combat.
Practice 3:
Examine Pickthallʼs (1930/1980) translation And if ye are unclean,

purify yourselves of the euphemistic expressions in the Quranic
verse «ËdND�� Î U�M� r�M� Ê≈Ë, and then answer the questions below:
a) Do ʻuncleanʼ/Î U�M� and ʻpurifyʼ/«ËdND� convey the same

message between the two languages?
b) Do Arabic native speakers interpret the Arabic euphemisms
in the Quranic verse materially or spiritually, or both?
c) Would English native speakers who have no background
knowledge about Islam interpret the English euphemistic
renditions materially or spiritually, or both?
d) How successful is Picktallʼs translation?
Practice 4:
Examine the boldfaced English expression in the following extract

from Shakespearʼs King Henry VI, Part 1 (1952), as well as in the
Arabic translation by M. Fathi, 1959 (extracted from Aziz 1999,
p. 72), and then answer the questions below.
Talbot. Shall all thy motherʼs hopes lie in one grave.
John. Ay, rather than Iʼll shame my motherʼs womb.
329
øb�«Ë d�� w� UNK� p�√ ‰U�¬ wN�M� Ë√ Æ u��U�
ÆUN�FL�Ë UN�d� f�œ√ Ê√ s� qC�√ p�c� q�√ ÆÊu�
a) Did the translator succeed in rendering the English

expression?
b) Does the Arabic rendition maintain the same level of
explicitness?
c) What pragmatic principle motivates this kind of rendition in
Arabic?
Practice 5:
Translate the following excerpts from Najeeb Mahfouzʼs (1959)
awlaad haaritna into English, paying special attention to the
boldfaced euphemistic expressions:
Æ…—U(« s� vH��U� W�OD� «u�e� ¡U�b√ W�U�d� ∫wK� ‰U� ©√

∫W�DI� WMOL�U� X�UI�
ÆÂö��« rJOK� qI� w�uO� r��b% «–≈ ¨w�uO� ô W�OD� ≠
∫ŸU�b�U� ‰U� r� ÆÆÆ ©wIODK��« s� …bO� b� VK� w� dJH� u�Ë® qH� …uA� w� q�� p�C� ©»
ÆpM� »dI�« VKD� q�� ¨rKF� U� ≠
Practice 6:
Translate into English the translatorsʼ opening paragraph in the
Introduction to the translation of Mohammed Kamal Hasanʼs book
Í—UC(« Âö�ù« ZNM� w� WOIO�D� Z�UM� (Published in b�«Ë— (2008) by
The Ministry of Awqaf, Kuwait/translated by AbdulAziz Barghuth
330
and Yunis Sawalhi), paying special attention to the euphemistic
language employed.
o�d� vK� 5*UFK� …«bN*« WL�d�« bL�� U�bO� vK� rNK�« vKË ¨5*UF�« »— tK� bL(«
¨bF�Ë ÆÆÆ s�b�« Âu� v�≈ ÊU��S� rNF�� s�Ë t��Ë t�¬ vK�Ë ¨WOD�u�«
331
iO�«
332
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUDING REMARKS
333
iO�«
334
6. CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This book has indulged itself in an extended exercise in

translation activity between Arabic and English. The main objective
has been to provide students and specialists alike with insights
relating to translation practice and theorization pertaining to a
plethora of authentic and concocted examples. While it confines
itself to translational data drawn from one language pair (Arabic
and English), the issues raised can form key points of departure
for discussion and argumentation in translation activity which
involves other language pairs and in translation activity which
concerns human languages in general. The underlying assumption
in this endeavor is to demonstrate through the employment of
elaborate translational data that theoretical concepts can be made
relevant only by rooting them in actual translation practice. In this
way, theory and practice become compatible rather than arbitrary
bedfellows.
The treatment of translational material is this book

embodies the oft-cited axiom that translation is a combination of
a skill, an art and a science. It is a skill because the practical aspect
of translation activity is an example par excellence of learning
335
by doing. It is not enough to be able to talk about the translating
process, nor is it enough to possess good language competence in
a language pair. The demonstration of translation competence goes
well beyond both possibilities. On one scale, the academic ability
to theorize about translation activity does not guarantee success
in actual translating the way a prospective driver may fail to drive
successfully on the road despite the fact that he possesses all the
technical knowledge about the mechanics of a car. In this case,
ʻthe proof of the driving is more on the road than in the theoretical
knowledge about the carʼ. On the other scale, competence in the
language pair only provides the requisite raw linguistic material but
does not guarantee transfer competence (which is constrained by a
source text and a developing target text) between two languages.
Secondly, translation is an art because there are individual

differences between translators as to the quality of the completed
work. What may surpass the original in terms of creativity in the
hands of one translator may turn up as a proper commonplace
translation in the hands of another translator. To give a familiar
example, a poet translator, other things being equal, may produce
a translation that matches, or even surpasses, the aesthetics of the
original poem. By contrast, a non-poet translator may produce a
fine verse, or even a prose, translation that would not be expected
to rival with the translation in the former case in terms of artistic/
336
poetic features. This example does not imply that the artistic
aspect of translation activity is confined to literary translation as it
is relevant to all areas of translation including scientific translation
(where lexical creation in the TL needs a lot of art) and media
translation (where, for example, the formal features of the TL text
may play a key part in persuasion). In fact, the translatorʼs ability
to improvise a little art in his translation is one of the variables,
regardless of the type of material being rendered.
Thirdly, translation is a science because what is intuitively

opted for during the work of a finished translator can find its way
into the consciousness of student and practitioner translators alike
through academic training. In this way, the task of translation
theory/theories is/are to optimize and perfect translation
competence rather than create it. All translation theories in the
field cannot and will not produce a competent translator if the
subject is lacking in skill and art. The awareness of translation
guidelines and strategies, therefore, would render the translator a
better one regardless of his level of competence. For example, the
knowledge of different types of translation equivalence increases
the translatorʼs options at any juncture during the translating
process and renders the translator more capable of choosing an
appropriate rendition in light of his priorities, or more technically,
along the lines of his purposes, skopi.
337
Viewed thus, translation activity is a multi-faceted and
concerted process that involves skill, art and science. It is hoped
that the extended translation exercise furnished in the present book
has driven this orientation home. The arguments, suggestions and
solutions provided throughout are intended to provoke translation
thinking rather than claim definitive answers.
338
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS ORDERED ACCORDING
TO PRECEDENCE OF APPEARANCE IN THE BOOK
Interlingual Communication: The use of spoken or written

language in communication between two languages.
Affective (Phatic) Communication: The function of language

where the emphasis is on enhancing and strengthening social
relations between producer and receiver during communication.
Referential Communication: The function of language where

the emphasis is on passing information from producer to receiver
during communication.
Open Principle (OP): The utilization of the productive (generative)

nature of human language in making (grammaticalizing) meaning
in communication by falling back on a finite set of grammatical
rules in any given language.
Idiom Principle (IP): The utilization of set multiword units

which highlight the parroted (rather than generative) component
of human language (e.g. the employment of idiomatic expressions
and proverbs in communication).
Intralingual Communication: The use of spoken or written
339
language in communication within the same language (e.g.
explaining, paraphrasing, circumlocuting, etc.)
Translation Equivalence: The production of a translation in the

target language (TL) which is equivalent to the original in the
source language (SL) in terms of form and content.
Translation Resemblance: The production of a translation in the

TL which is equivalent to the original in terms of function more
than form and meaning.
Skopos: A theory of translation that emphasizes the purpose of a

translation as spelled out by commissioner and/or translator which
should inform the kind of decision making as to the nature of the
translation produced.
Formal (Literal) Equivalence: A type of translation equivalence

where an expression in the TL corresponds formally (literally)
to an expression in the SL, maintaining main features of form
and, sometimes, it may perform the same function in a happy
coincidence between formal and functional equivalence.
Functional Equivalence: A type of translation equivalence where

the function of an expression in the TL corresponds to the function
of an expression in the SL despite the fact that the formal features
diverge to a large extent in terms of phraseology and/or image
employed.
340
Ideational Equivalence: A type of translation equivalence which
renders the meaning of an expression independently of formal and
functional equivalence by merely relaying the message apart from
employing literal translation or corresponding set expressions.
Macro-context in Translation: It is the sum of factors (mainly

including text, author, audience and translator) which determine
the type of equivalence to be opted for in translation activity.
Micro-context in Translation: It constitutes the translation

segmentʼs surrounding environment including the linguistic
context (co-text) and the physical and/or psychological context.
Theory of Translating: The set of principles which practicing

translators acquire intuitively through the practice of their career.
Theory of Translation: The set of principles which (student)

translators learn consciously by engaging in formal translator
training.
Covert Translation: A translated text which the reader cannot tell

that it is a translation because it sounds like an original in terms of
readability and naturalness.
Overt Translation: A translated text which the reader can readily

tell that it is a translation because it does not sound like an original
in terms of readability and naturalness.
Translation Lexical Void: A gap in the semantic blanket of the
341
TL that corresponds to a lexical item in the SL, thus calling for
paraphrase and/or explication in translation.
Translation Referential Void: A gap in the TL that corresponds

to a culture-bound concept in the SL, thus calling for paraphrase,
transliteration, cultural approximation, lexical creation, etc.
Translation Mistake: An erroneous rendition of a translation

segment which is caused mainly by lack of language competence
on the part of the translator.
Translation Error: An erroneous rendition of a translation

segment that is caused mainly by a mishap in analyzing and/or
understanding the SL text.
Loan-words: The vocabulary in a language which arises from the

act of borrowing both the form (which subsequently undergoes
phonological naturalization) and concept (which may undergo
semantic extension or semantic narrowing) of a word.
Loan-translations: The vocabulary in a language which arises

from the act of borrowing the concept of a word independently
of its form and subsequently fall back on lexical roots/stems of
borrowing language to come up with new forms.
Pre-translating Stage: This stage consists in the reading of a text

for the purpose of translating it, which should result in effective
comprehension and useful interlinear translational notes.
342
Translating Stage: This stage consists in the actual production of
a TL text based on an SL text which subsequently constitutes an
act of successful communication.
Re-translating Stage: This stage consists in re-examining the

TL text (as an entity in its own right) for final touches in usage
and phraseology, in an attempt to improve the readability and
naturalness of the translation.
Translation Criticism: The act of subjecting an existing translation

to critical analysis and assessment.
Overt Translation Error: A translation error which is readily

discerned by the target reader because it runs counter to his
linguistic expectations or intuitions.
Covert Translation Error: A translation error which escapes

the target readerʼs observation because it sounds natural and
meaningful in its context; it can be discerned only when the
translation is compared with the original.
Intrinsic Managing: The translatorʼs act of naturalizing the TL

text in terms of phonology, lexis, syntax, pragmatics, texture and
culture in order to produce a natural and acceptable translation.
Extrinsic Managing: The translatorʼs premeditated act of

intervening ideologically in the TL text in order to gear it toward
his (or the commissionerʼs) own goals.
343
Schemata: These are cognitive structures (mainly formal and
content structures) that represent the individualʼs experiential
scenarios which constitute the foundation stone of his world
knowledge and are interpreted and expressed via language in
communication.
Schematic Competence: The language userʼs ability to

comprehend and produce various discourses by falling back on
his schemata.
Schematic Markedness: The fact that some schemata are

more familiar than others (i.e. unmarked or less marked), which
may affect the comprehension of ambiguous discourses and
subsequently their translations.
Lexical Markedness: The fact that words usually have multiple

senses which differ in the degree of markedness (e.g. a primary
sense is less marked than a secondary one).
Culture-free Schemata: These are schemata which are assumed

to be familiar to all human cultures, thus mainly calling for literal
(semantic) translation.
Culture-bound Schemata: These are schemata which are familiar

in one culture but not in another, thus calling for different translation
strategies, including transliteration, definition, approximation,
lexical creation, etc.
344
Culture-sensitive Schemata: These are schemata which belong
to a certain culture but can be comprehended and appreciated
when they are literally translated by members of other cultures
despite the fact that they do not exist in their cultures.
Language-bound Schemata: These are schemata which are

triggered by language-specific use (e.g. word play and rhyme),
thus mainly calling for functional rather than formal counterparts
in translation.
Euphemism: The act of replacing offensive words/expressions

with favorable ones in communication in observance of the norms
of politeness in a certain culture.
345
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Abstract
This book offers an extended exercise in translation activity

between Arabic and English. The main objective is to engage
both students and specialists in insights pertaining to translation
practice and theorization by examining a wealth of authentic and
concocted examples. In addition to a Foreword, an Introduction
and a Bibliography, the book consists of six Chapters. Chapter One
introduces the main concepts relating to the translatorʼs work such
as equivalence and context. Chapter Two addresses itself to the
concept of intrinsic managing, which aims at naturalizing the Target
Language (TL) text at the phonological, morphological, syntactic,
semantic, pragmatic and textual levels. Chapter Three deals with
the concept of extrinsic managing, which involves the translatorʼs
interference with the content of the Source Language (SL) text by
making ideological moves at the lexical, syntactic and discoursal and/
or cultural levels. Chapter Four presents a schema-theoretic account
of translation activity, showing that a dynamic comprehension of
the schemata in the SL text should be a prerequisite for offering a
coherent translation. Chapter Five touches on the notion of politeness
by examining the translatability of Arabic euphemisms into English.
The last chapter, Chapter Six, offers some concluding remarks. Each
chapter is supplemented with a number of practices which aim to
elaborate and consolidate studentsʼ understanding of the concepts
discussed.
371
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374
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2012 Advanced Issues in Arabic/English Translation

Book · January 2012

Translation of Adverbial/Determiner Negation View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Prof. Mohammed Farghal

Prof. Farghal, Mohammed

Advanced Issues in Arabic-English Translation Studies

ISBN: 978 - 99906 - 1 - 173 - 1 :‫ﺭﺩﻣﻚ‬

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All Rights Reserved to

The Publication of the Academic Publication Council

Journal of Law 1977. Arab Journal of Administrative Sciences 1991.

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/b/ voiced bilabial stop List of Arabic Phonetic Symbols

This book has many merits. To begin with, it is written

Farghal develops these ideas in an applied direction in

Chapter 3 deals with issues arising in the application of

Chapter 4 argues for a schema-oriented approach to the

The last substantive chapter, Chapter 5, deals with the

The same holds true for translation. It is not necessary

However, a study of the various theoretical concepts either

Debates have been raging since Cicero and Horace on types

More recently, Venuti (1995), drawing on Schleiermacherʼs

Global Strategy vs. Local Strategy

In addition to taking into account the purpose of the

Jääskeläinen (1993: 116) differentiates between ʻglobalʼ

Strategies in general, whether global or local, are “heuristic

Producing a coherent text, reﬂecting the content of the ST

One of many tasks entrusted to translators is reading.

Whenever we translate a text, we ﬁnd ourselves pulled by two

Incomprehension of the source text could result from

The great man down, you mark, his favourite ﬂies

Catford (1965: 94) states that the source of ambiguities in

The readerʼs failure to integrate the textʼs import into his/

In conclusion, understanding segments of the text at hand

Arabic is a member of the Semitic family of languages

Translators, prior to transferring the analysed materials,

Apart from these obligatory cases in which translators

Such an adjustment is of crucial inﬂuence on the process

By way of illustration, let us take two examples quoted

Here, for the sake of naturalness, a syntactic adjustment is made.

But as soon as we turned onto the street which let light

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W�öF�« Ác� ¨5K�UF�«Ë 5H�u*« s� U�*« qLF� ŸËdH�« Ác� s� Ÿd� q� w�

Translation (p. 70):

[His is a multi-national company with branches in more than

Revision and Editing

“Any form of post-translation process is intrinsically an

Explicitness vs. Implicitness

Rendering implicit information relationship into explicit,

Equally, the syntactic structure and punctuation system of

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