Assignment On Wave Function And Born’s

Interpretation On Wave Function

Submitted To:

Dr. Muhammad Khalid

Department Of Chemistry

Submitted By:

Mehak Shabbir

BCH172003

BS-CHEMISTRY 6TH A

March 28, 2020

WAVE FUNCTION:
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 Fundamentals particles such as electrons may be described as particles or waves.
Electrons may be described using a wave function. The wave function’s symbol is the Greek
letter psi or ѱ or Ѱ. The wave function Ѱ is mathematical expression which carries crucial
information about the electron it is associated with. From the wave function we obtain electron’s
energy, angular momentum and orbital orientation in the shape of quantum numbers n, l and m.
The wave function can have positive or negative sign which is important in calculations. It is
also important when the wave functions of two or more atoms combine to form a molecule.
Wave functions when the waves are in phase will interfere constructively, leading to the
possibility of bonding. Wave functions will construct destructively when waves are out of phase.
In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger deduced the wave function for the simplest of all atoms, hydrogen.
Solving the Schrödinger equation enables scientists to determine wave functions for electrons in
atoms and molecules.

The Schrödinger equation is an equation of quantum mechanics: calculated wave

Ψ2 is the probability density. It tells us where the electron is most likely to be found in
the space around the nucleus.

For example, in the (fictitious) schematic diagram, showing Ψ2 against distance from
nucleus, we see that the electron is most likely to be found between about 5-7 units from the
nucleus. We also see that there is a vanishingly small likelihood that the electron will be at the
nucleus or more than about 11½ units away from the nucleus. There is a 100 percent probability
that the electron is somewhere, in other words a probability of 1.

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 Ѱ²

1 5 7 10
Distance from nucleus

Fig: 1

cleus
BORN’S INTERPRETATION OF WAVE FUNCTION:
Born proposed in 1926, the most commonly accepted interpretation of the wave function
that the square of the modulus is proportional to the probability density (probability per unit
volume) that the electron is in the volume (dτ )located at (ri).

P(r ⃗ , t)=Ψ ∗( r ⃗ ,t) Ψ (r ⃗ , t)

¿∨Ψ (r ⃗ , t)¿2

where r⃗ is a vector (x,y,z) specifying a point in three-dimensional space. The square is used,
rather than the modulus itself, just like the intensity of a light wave depends on the square of the
electric field.

Since the wave function represents the wave properties of matter, the probability
amplitude P( x ,t ) will also exhibit wave-like behavior. Probability density is the three-
dimensional analog of the diffraction pattern that appears on the two-dimensional screen in the
double-slit diffraction experiment for electrons. The idea that we can understand the world of
atoms and molecules only in terms of probabilities is disturbing to some, who are seeking more
satisfying descriptions through ongoing research.

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 Born had proposed his rule based on intuition that light quanta and matter must behave in
a similar manner and wave function might be analogous to electric field. In his Nobel lecture,
Born stated, “Again an idea of Einstein’s gave me the lead. He had tried to make the duality of
particles - light quanta or photons - and waves comprehensible by interpreting the square of the
optical wave amplitudes as probability density for the occurrence of photons. This concept could
at once be carried over to the ψ-function: 2 ought to represent the probability density for
electrons (or other particles).” Of course after this remarkable postulate of quantum theory was
experimentally confirmed, there have been numerous attempts at deriving it. Among these,
relative frequency or many-worlds theory and Bayesian probability theory are dominant in
literature. Arguments in many-worlds theory which claims to derive probability from non-
probabilistic axioms of quantum theory have been proved to be circular because of hidden
assumptions and preferred basis problem.

The Born’s interpretation therefore calls the wave function (Ѱ) of the probability
amplitude, the absolute square of the wave function (Ѱ²) is called the probability density, and the
probability density times a volume element in three-dimensional space (dτ ) is the probability
(P).

The probability that a single quantum particle moving in one spatial dimension will be
found in a region

x ∈[a , b]

If a measurement of its location is performed then it is represented as

P( x ∈[a , b ])=∫ ba∨ψ ( x)∨2 dx

In three dimensions, it is represented differently

P( x ∈[a , b ])=∫ V ∨ψ (τ ⃗ )∨2 dτ

This integration extends over a specified volume (V) with the symbol (dτ )designating the
appropriate volume element (including a Jacobian) of the coordinate system adopted.

 Cartesian
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 dτ =dxdydz

 Spherical:
dτ =r 2 sinϕdrdθdϕ
 Cylindrical:
dτ =rdrdϕdz

For rectilinear Cartesian space, equation can be expanded with dimension explicitly
which is indicated as

P( x ∈[a , b ])=∫ bxax ∫ byay ∫ bzaz∨ψ (x , y , z)∨2 dxdydz

where the limits of integration are selected to encompass the volume (V) of consideration.

The Born interpretation of relating the wave function to probability forces certain
demands on its mathematical behavior of wave functions and not any mathematical function can
be a valid wave function.

Required properties of wave functions:

 The wave function must be a single-valued function of all its coordinates, since the
probability density ought to be uniquely determined at each point in space.
 The wave function should be both finite as an infinite probability has no meaning.
 The wave function should be continuous everywhere, as expected for a physically-
meaningful probability density.

The conditions that the wave function be single-valued, finite and continuous--in short,
“well behaved” lead to restrictions on solutions of the Schrödinger equation such that only
certain values of the energy and other dynamical variables are allowed. This is called
quantization and is in the feature that gives quantum mechanics its name.

It is important to note that this interpretation implies the wave function does not mean the
particle is distributed over a large region as a sort of "charge cloud". The wave function is used
to describe the electron motion that behaves like waves and satisfies a wave equation. This is

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akin or comparable to how a grade distribution in a large class does not represent a smearing of
grades for a single student, but only makes sense when taking into account that the distribution is
the result of many measures.

If the wave function varies slowly over the interval, the probability of a particle is found
in the interval is approximately given as

P( x , x + x) ≈∨(x , t)¿ 2

Notice that squaring of the wave function ensures that the probability is positive. (This is
analogous to squaring the electric field strength—which may be positive or negative—to obtain a
positive value of intensity.) However, if the wave function does not vary slowly, we must
integrate as follows:

x+ x
P ( x , x+ x ) = ∫ ¿(x , t)¿ 2 dx
x

This probability is just the area under the function ¿( x , t) ¿2 between x and ( x + x) . The
probability of finding the particle “somewhere” (the normalization condition) is

∞
P ( ∞ ,+ ∞ )=∫ ¿ ( x , t ) ¿ 2 dx=1
∞

 For a particle in two dimensions, the integration is over an area and requires a double
integral.
 For a particle in three dimensions, the integration is over a volume and requires a triple
integral.

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