JPT 2020-10 PDF

O C TO B E R 2 02 0 • VO LU M E 72 , N U M B E R 1 0 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
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CONTENTS
Volume 72 • Number 10
12 GUEST EDITORIAL • DIGITALLY TRANSFORMING OIL FIELDS

WITH CONNECTED, INTELLIGENT HARDWARE
In addition to the well-recognized elements of digital transformation such
as real-time monitoring, remote intelligence, and extraction of insights from
data, there is a need to evolve the industry hardware through application of
enhanced edge computing.
22 BRINGING THE HEAT: ARAMCO FIELD TESTS HIGH-

TEMPERATURE CHEMISTRY TO SLASH TIGHT-GAS
COMPLETION COSTS
In an effort to augment slickwater fracturing and displace more than half
of the required horsepower for horizontal well completions, the world’s
largest upstream firm is conducting its first field experiments this year with
thermochemicals that are believed to help “bypass” the strong stress cage
around horizontal wells.
26 WHEN FRACTURING, HEED THE PLUGS

When a plug gets stuck in a well, consider the cause. Often stuck fracturing
tools are a warning sign of casing trouble. Companies that have investigated
plug problems have been surprised by the findings. A concrete block that was used
as a control during an experiment
30 GEOTHERMAL—DIGGING BENEATH THE SURFACE with thermochemical fluids, which
Geothermal energy development has been largely confined to the few are being developed to reduce the
geographic locations where the right conditions—heat, permeability, and amount of surface pressure required
the presence of substantial amounts of water—all occur naturally, very close to hydraulically fracture tight
to the surface. Now, socio-political and economic changes have converged reservoirs. Source: Saudi Aramco
with new capabilities in drilling and exploration to make deep, very hot EXPEC Advanced Research Center.
geothermal development look approachable.
35 PILOT LESSONS: CHESAPEAKE’S SHALE EOR PROGRAM

STALLS BUT STILL OFFERS BOLD VISION DEPARTMENTS
Though shelved by low oil prices, the plan to execute the largest enhanced
oil recovery program of its kind offers insights into what it may take for the
shale sector to escape pilot mode and scale up gas huff ’n’ puff operations. 6 Online Top Picks
8 President’s Column
38 NATURAL-GAS GATHERING AND BOOSTING STATIONS 10 Comments
ARE RIPE FOR MITIGATION OF EMISSIONS
Williams Companies announced a near-term goal of a 56% absolute reduction 14 Technology Applications
from 2005 levels in greenhouse-gas emissions by 2030, aiming for net-zero 16 E&P Notes
carbon emissions by 2050. Why is this significant, and where can emissions 45 Case Study
be mitigated in the midstream natural-gas gathering and boosting segment?
77 Legion of Honor
42 BP’S ENERGY OUTLOOK FORESEES BIG SHIFT 78 People
FOR OIL DEMAND 79 Professional Services
This year’s outlook contains scenarios that suggest peak demand has
already arrived because of a global pandemic and an accelerating energy 80 SPE Events
transition. The scenarios are not considered forecasts yet remain important 80 Advertisers’ Index
in guiding the supermajor’s long-term strategy.
An Official Publication of the Society of Petroleum Engineers. Printed in US. Copyright 2020, Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Content from SPE’s
Recent Journals
TECHNOLOGY FOCUS To view these papers go to OnePetro
and search by title or paper number,
or navigate to the journal.
48 OFFSHORE DRILLING AND COMPLETION

SPE JOURNAL
SPE-201252-PA — Modeling
Martin Rylance, SPE, Senior Adviser, BP
Wormhole Propagation During
49 Multilevel Completions in One Trip: Development and Deployment Closed-Fracture-Acidizing
Stimulation in Tight-Carbonate
51 Seal Qualification and Single-Trip Lockdown Sleeve Reduce Risk Formations
SPE-202469-PA — New Insights into
53 From Completion to Production Without Intervention in a Subsea Well
the Dissolution of Iron Sulfide Using
Chelating Agents
55 TIGHT RESERVOIRS
Leonard Kalfayan, SPE, Principal Adviser, Hess Corporation
56 Study Quantifies Stress Sensitivity of Fractured Tight Reservoirs

SPE DRILLING
& COMPLETION
SPE-197084-PA — Classifying
58 Report Outlines Knowledge Gained in Gas Hydrate Production Testing Cutting Volume at Shale Shakers in
Real-Time Via Video Streaming Using
60 Surfactant-Based Treatment Fluids Mitigate Fracture Hits in Parent Wells Deep-Learning Techniques
SPE-200485-PA — Assessment of
62 DATA ANALYTICS Production Interference Level Due
Luigi Saputelli, SPE, Senior Reservoir Engineering Adviser, ADNOC, to Fracture Hits Using Diagnostic
and Managing Partner, Frontender Corporation Charts
SPE-195912-PA — Pre-Loading
63 Machine-Learning Image Recognition Enhances Rock Classification Depleted Parent Wells to Avoid
Frac-Hits: Some Important Design
65 Machine-Learning Approach Determines Spatial Variation in Shale
Considerations
Decline Curves
67 Artificial Intelligence in Operation Monitoring Discovers Patterns Within

Drilling Reports
SPE PRODUCTION
& OPERATIONS
SPE-197227-PA — The First Out-of-
Sequence-Fracturing Field Test in
69 SAND MANAGEMENT
North America: Key Learnings from
Imran Abbasy, SPE, Vice President, Wells and Facilities, Heritage Oil
Operation, Petrophysical Analysis,
70 Transient Multiphase-Flow Simulation Enables Slugging Mitigation Solution Fracture Modeling, and Production
History Matching
73 Wireline Sand-Detection Tool Locates, Quantifies Downhole SPE-201241-PA — Study and Pilot
Sand Production Test of Multiple Thermal-Fluid
Stimulation in Offshore Nanpu
75 Analysis of Sand-Control-Installation Failures Provides Insights, Oilfield
Paths Forward
SPE RESERVOIR EVALUATION

& ENGINEERING
SPE-200540-PA — Impact of
Digitalization on the Way of
Working and Skills Development in
Hydrocarbon Production Forecasting
and Project Decision Analysis
The complete SPE technical papers featured in this issue are available SPE-201235-PA — Decameter-Scale
free to SPE members for 2 months at www.spe.org/jpt. Flow-Unit Classification in Brazilian
Presalt Carbonates
SPE-202486-PA — Application of
ADDRESS CHANGE: Contact Customer Service at 1.972.952.9393 to notify of address change
Interpretable Machine-Learning
or make changes online at www.spe.org. Subscriptions are USD 15 per year (members). JPT
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY (ISSN 0149-2136) is published monthly by the Society
Workflows To Identify Brittle,
of Petroleum Engineers, 222 Palisades Creek Drive, Richardson, TX 75080 USA. Periodicals Fracturable, and Producible Rock
postage paid at Richardson, TX, and additional offices. in Horizontal Wells Using Surface
POSTMASTER: Send address changes to JPT, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836 USA. Drilling Data
SPONSORED CONTENT
™

How Uniformity Drives Production
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SPE BOARD OF DIRECTORS
OFFICERS
2020 President
Shauna Noonan, Occidental Petroleum
2019 President
Moving Energy
Sami Alnuaim, Saudi Aramco
2021 President
Forward
Tom Blasingame, Texas A&M University
Secretary
Mark Rubin, Society of Petroleum Engineers
REGIONAL DIRECTORS TECHNICAL DIRECTORS

AFRICA COMPLETIONS
Omowumi Iledare, University of Cape Coast Terry Palisch, CARBO Ceramics
ASIA PACIFIC DRILLING

Nasir Darman, Petronas David Reid, NOV
EUROPE HSE AND SUSTAINABILITY

Jean-Marc Dumas, Aedes Energy Johana Dunlop, Sponsored by Schlumberger
LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION

Cesar Patino, Ecopetrol Birol Dindoruk, Shell
MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA PRODUCTION AND FACILITIES Individual Solutions
Qasem Al-Kayoumi, ADNOC Robert Pearson, Glynn Resources
Faisal Al-Nughaimish, Saudi Aramco
RESERVOIR
for Oilfield Pump Systems
NORTH AMERICA Erdal Ozkan, Colorado School of Mines
Steve Cheung, SteveIOR Consultants As an expert manufacturer
Zachary Evans, WSP
Barry Hanson, Sproule
DIRECTOR FOR ACADEMIA of downhole and surface
Ramona Graves, Colorado School of Mines (Ret.)
pumps, we produce oilfield
RUSSIA AND THE CASPIAN
Aizhana Jussupbekova, ExxonMobil
pump systems according
to the highest quality
SOUTH ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
Tapas Kumar Sengupta, ONGC (Ret.)
standards. The viscosity of
oil or its percentage of gas
or sand makes no difference
to the NETZSCH positive
displacement pumps.
JPT STAFF The Journal of Petroleum Technology® magazine is a

registered trademark of SPE.
SPE PUBLICATIONS: SPE is not responsible for any
Glenda Smith, Publisher statement made or opinions expressed in its publications.
Pam Boschee, JPT Managing Editor EDITORIAL POLICY: SPE encourages open and objective
discussion of technical and professional subjects per-
Brian Balboa, Associate Editor tinent to the interests of the Society in its publications.
Society publications shall contain no judgmental remarks
Chris Carpenter, Technology Editor or opinions as to the technical competence, personal
character, or motivations of any individual, company, or
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does not meet the standards for objectivity, pertinence,
Trent Jacobs, Digital Editor
and professional tone will be returned to the contribu-
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Stephen Rassenfoss, Emerging Technology Senior Editor
technical or professional interests of its readers. SPE
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Adam Wilson, Special Publications Editor
considers to be unacceptable.
NOTOS® multi screw pump, NEMO®
Jim Klingele, Director of Sales, North America COPYRIGHT AND USE: SPE grants permission to make progressing cavity pump and
up to five copies of any article in this journal for personal
Mary Jane Touchstone, Print Publishing Manager TORNADO® T2 rotary lobe pump
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ONLINE TOP PICKS
US Opens Alaska Wildlife Refuge to Oil and Gas Enterprise Pipeline Project Cancellation Indicates
Leasing a Lasting Slowdown Ahead
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00911-1912h ➪ http://go.spe.org/_00911-1917e
The US approved a leasing program making nearly 1.6 million
acres in Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge available for
oil and gas leasing and future exploration, development, and
transportation with a potential of 4.3 billion to 11.8 billion bbl of
technically recoverable oil reserves.
Saudi Aramco Announces Two New Fields,

One Is Unconventional
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00911-1913u
Saudi Aramco began startup of two exploratory fields, one oil
and one gas, in the northern region of the country. Saudi Energy
Minister Prince Abdulaziz bin Salman shared the news while
adding that future drilling plans for the two areas will be needed Enterprise Products Partners publicly acknowledged the deep
to better assess their reserves potential. slump in pipeline demand out of the Permian Basin by canceling
a project at a time when most producers have been quietly
ExxonMobil Marks 18th Subsea Discovery Offshore postponing US projects.
Guyana
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00911-1914v BP Takes on Billion-Dollar Stake in Equinor’s
This latest find means the offshore driller has averaged at US Offshore Wind Power Projects
least three new discoveries each year since it began drilling ➪ http://go.spe.org/_00911-1919c
offshore Guyana where it plans to recover up to 8 billion barrels Two of Europe’s largest oil and gas producers will lead four
of crude. offshore wind projects that together have the potential of
powering 2 million homes.
Baker Hughes Aims To Balance Shifting Portfolio
With Energy Transition Kosmos Sells Frontier Interests to Shell
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00911-1915v in $100-Million Deal
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00911-1920m
The acquisition and divesture deal includes large-interest
positions in nine offshore exploration blocks, several of which
Shell may become the operator of.
Shell and Baker Hughes Venture Going Big

on Methane-Hunting Drones
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00911-1921c
As the company aims to become carbon net zero by 2050, it is

undertaking a three-pronged approach focused on transforming
its core, investing for growth, and positioning for the future.
Range Resources Among First Shale Producers

To Aim for Net-Zero Emissions by 2025
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00911-1916j
Through a combination of reducing operational emissions
and offsetting projects, the shale-gas producer has set a new
benchmark for its sector. After 2 years of testing, Shell is going all in on using high-flying
technology to catch methane leaks to reduce its overall emissions
to less than 1%.
6 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

Gulf of Mexico Independent To Sell Off Assets carbon-dioxide-capturing facility using Carbon Engineering’s
in $1-Billion Bankruptcy Deal direct air capture technology.
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00911-1921i
In the region’s second bankruptcy of the month all the operator’s Risk-Based Review Looks at Removing the Burden
assets will be sold to a private equity energy group, pending From Voluntary HSE Programs
court approval. ➪ http://go.spe.org/_00909-0800h
While implemented with the best intentions, most HSE programs
Schlumberger, IBM, and Red Hat Join Forces bring an element of administrative burden. In 2017, Dyno Nobel
To Squeeze More From the Cloud examined how to remove or modify programs to be less of a
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00909-0822c burden without increasing risk. Just like in Jenga, the blocks must
The agreement will use IBM’s hybrid-cloud technology and Red be moved without destabilizing the structure.
Hat’s OpenShift platform to expand access to Schlumberger’s Delfi
exploration and production software suite. Roomba for Ships? Shipping Company To Use
Robotics for Hull Cleaning
Reservoir Fluid Geodynamics: A New Discipline ➪ http://go.spe.org/_00914-1546c
That Improves Reservoir Evaluation
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00910-1733j
The oil industry has not treated reservoir crude oil with the
same degree of rigor as it does reservoir rock formations. Oliver
C. Mullins, a Schlumberger Fellow, member of the US National
Academy of Engineering, and an adjunct professor of petroleum
engineering at Texas A&M University, explains reservoir fluid
geodynamics, a new technical discipline that accounts for
hydrocarbon compositional redistribution and phase change
in reservoirs in geologic time.
A Petroleum Engineer’s Role in Reducing Carbon

Emissions To provide condition monitoring and combat fouling, the robot
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00910-1735w clings and moves along the hull walls. It is controlled via a 4G
What will competitiveness look like in our industry 10 or 20 years connection to clean and inspect the walls in line with individual
from now? What novel pathways might we envision to restore vessel schedules developed through a proprietary algorithm.
the natural environment, while creating shareholder value and
enhance our license to operate? How can you serve as a potent Oilfield Services and Equipment Sector’s Job Losses
catalyst for positive change? Surpass 100,000
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00914-1547v
Akselos Deploys Digital Twin of Shell’s Bonga FPSO Although OFS employment is at its lowest point since March 2017,
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00909-0839i job losses slowed in August as companies start to recover.
US LNG Construction Needed To Fuel Energy

Transition
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00914-1548r
The engineering simulation firm announced the successful

deployment of a complete structural digital twin for Shell’s
Bonga floating production, storage, and offloading vessel 120 km
southwest of the Niger Delta in Nigeria.
Oxy Forms New Company To Pull Carbon Dioxide

From the Air Tellurian CEO Meg Gentle outlined how the US LNG market should
➪ http://go.spe.org/_00909-0806x address expected tight market conditions through 2025 while
Oxy Low Carbon Ventures and Rusheen Capital Management have managing a transition to a carbon-neutral environment. JPT
formed a development company to finance the world’s largest
JPT • OCTOBER 2020 7

SURVIVE | REVIVE | THRIVE
Chapter 1: In the Storm

Tom Blasingame, 2021 SPE President
Most of you reading this are thinking, I ask that you keep our colleagues who are struggling in
okay, he’s SPE President, he must know mind. Reach out and let them know you are thinking about
something I don’t know, see something them and ask them (sincerely) if they need any help. If they
I don’t see, etc. The truth is we are all in say they do, then do whatever you can. If entry-level col-
the same storm of pandemic+economic leagues (i.e., students) are in your sphere, don’t tell them
crisis=chaos. how tough it was during your career or give them platitudes.
Our salvation is that humans have Be honest and direct and guide them toward activities and
evolved and survived not despite adver- tasks that keep them sharp and focused. If asked difficult
sity but because of it. Humans do not like uncertainty—real questions such as “Should I leave the industry?”, be kind
or perceived. Uncertainty causes anxiety, and anxiety clouds but candid. My reply is “If you really want to be a petroleum
one’s thinking. My advice is to focus on what you know, what engineer, you will have that opportunity, but you must be
you believe in, and what you can do. These actions are tangible prepared for competition.”
and necessary.
The recent industry news is truly unnerving. Nearly 50 com- What Can We Do?
panies in North America have filed for bankruptcy during the I recently attended a virtual conference where one of the lead-
second and third quarters of 2020, while others are making ership speakers made a comment that I paraphrase here: “As
deep cuts in their workforce. Globally, multinational oil and an industry, we became arrogant—not so much in our abili-
gas operators and oilfield services providers are reducing staff ties, but in our stubborn perception that the future will look
by 10–20% (15% appears to be an average). The result is job very similar to the past. We now know it doesn’t.” I noted this
losses totaling more than 100,000. As the pandemic drags because that is the most succinct definition of a lesson learned
on and demand remains contracted, these numbers are only in this storm of pandemic+economic crisis.
expected to rise. We must rebuild our industry and our attitudes from the
This hit to our industry is personal for me (and likely for ground up. Yes, we will continue to find, develop, and produce
most of you). Many of my former students, friends, and fam- oil and natural gas (and if granted a moment of pride, I would
ily are affected by the economic calamity that we are currently comment we are highly skilled at this task). Still, we need to
experiencing, some more severely than others. Please keep in look beyond what we do and think more about why we do it.
mind that many of us are faring reasonably well, but to some- If we focus on the “why,” then we can adapt to the future; if we
one who has lost their job, it is more than their livelihood—it focus on the “what,” I believe we are tied to the past.
could also be that they have lost their sense of purpose. My near-term goal is to urge people of our industry to focus.
The numbers don’t lie. The demand side of the equa- This storm is upon us, much like a hurricane. We can prepare
tion has contracted by roughly 10%, and the expectation for it, we can even predict its path to some degree, but the
for recovery is that demand will continue to increase by reality is that we cannot affect that path—it needs to run its
about 1% per month. That means demand will return to course. The smart move, at least when it comes to hurricanes,
late-2019/early-2020 levels around mid-2021. This assumes, is to get out of the way. Being from south Louisiana, I can tell
of course, that the pandemic does not worsen. you that sometimes we do, and sometimes we don’t.
Financially, as an industry we are in survival mode. There I have family who were severely affected by Hurricane
are segments that are strengthening, and ironically, several Laura in late August. They can and will rebuild, just like every
of my former students and industry colleagues in leader- other time.
ship positions for companies undergoing bankruptcy are However, we can’t run away from this pandemic+economic
remarkably optimistic about the future. I think it comes storm—where should we go? Some of you might say New
down to the uncertainty/anxiety syndrome I discussed above Zealand (which coincidentally is where my family resides), but
(i.e., as a business, once there is clarity the confidence exists given what we know, we may be in the eye of this storm and
to do what must be done). the next punch may be worse than the first.

General George Patton, storied World War II US Army and your cause). People are at their worst when they are
officer, is credited with many inspirational quotes (some of unprepared and when they feel slighted by the world for some
which he probably never actually said). One of my favorites perceived injustice. This pandemic+economic crisis is the
is “Never tell people how to do things. Tell them what to do, greatest challenge many, if not all of us, will face in our work
and they will surprise you with their ingenuity.” So, let me try careers and our personal lives. It is unfair, it is undeserved,
to be inspirational: Focus on your work, focus on your family, and it is just plain unwanted. In modern society (politics
and take some time to focus on you. aside), one generally can get what they need, but one must
We need work to motivate and stimulate us, we need earn (read: sacrifice for) what one wants.
family for support and solidarity, and we need time to be I believe that we will prevail through this crisis and we will
ourselves, which can be difficult when you are isolated. continue to evolve/adapt in the ways we provide society with
Use your time and tools and take (at least) 1 day off a arguably the most critical element of a modern standard of
week. Be creative and have meetings with people about living—secure, affordable, and sustainable energy.
ideas, concepts, technical needs, and perhaps learn some- Despite how effective (or ineffective) I am at delivering a
thing new such as a tool (software) or methodology/work- message of resilience, I genuinely believe in that message. We
flow. Watch a webinar. Some of these may seem obvious, are an essential industry that provides for so many needs in
but I am asking you to actually do them, not just think society that it is nearly impossible to imagine a life without oil.
about them. Lastly, I encourage you to direct your energy As we say at Texas A&M University, I am a “loud and proud”
toward SPE. believer in petroleum engineering as a profession, as a disci-
pline, and as a way of life.
Where Do I See Myself? SPE members carry this great organization through their
As a teacher, many say that I talk too much and say too volunteerism, participation, and continued financial support.
little, and I often can be accused of speaking while thinking. However, there is no free ride, and I will remind you that we
Guilty as charged. But as a teacher, I am also an armchair psy- all must contribute for this organization to succeed. In short:
chologist and I see people at their best and their worst. People I will put you to work.
are at their best when they are well-prepared mentally, physi- As always, I sincerely welcome your feedback. Feel free to
cally, and in a way, spiritually (you must believe in yourself contact me at president@spe.org. JPT
Good tools
shouldn’t be too
complicated.
The most powerful tool is not always the best. That’s why we
set out to develop software that is easy to use and provides
simple documentation, MAASP calculation and risk assessment
based on technical standards. In the future, you will no longer
manage the integrity of your wells using a complex tool, but
rather focus your efforts on the essential.
www.bohris.cloud
Wellbore Software Solutions

COMMENTS EDITORIAL BOARD
Barbara Pribyl—Chairperson, Santos
Bernt Aadnøy, University of Stavanger
Tayfun Babadagli, University of Alberta
Changes Coming to JPT William Bailey, Schlumberger

Mark Burgoyne, Santos
Pam Boschee, JPT Managing Editor Maria Capello, Kuwait Oil Company
Frank Chang, Saudi Aramco
Simon Chipperfield, Santos
Alex Crabtree, Consultant
SPE has always weathered the ups and downs of serving a
Gunnar DeBruijn, Schlumberger
cyclical industry by adapting as necessary to continue provid-
ing our members with high-quality content in JPT and across Galen Dino, Dino Engineering
our wide variety of offerings such as events, webinars, training Mark Egan, Retired
courses, and other member programs. Alexandre Emerick,
This year’s simultaneous pandemic and oil and gas market Petrobras
downturn has led to challenges requiring difficult decisions Niall Fleming, Equinor
throughout our industry. As SPE President Tom Blasingame Stephen Goodyear, Shell
wrote in his column this month, “The truth is we are all in the same storm of Subodh Gupta, Cenovus
pandemic+economic crisis=chaos.” Omer M. Gurpinar, Schlumberger
SPE has made the difficult decision to stop printing and mailing JPT magazine as Birger Velle Hanssen, OneSubsea
a cost-savings measure as of the November 2020 issue. For now, this change will be
Greg Horton, Retired
effective only through March 2021 but may extend as we consider future economic
Morten Iversen,
conditions and member response. The degree of uncertainty surrounding the oil and Karachaganak Petroleum Operating
gas supply/demand outlook and the global course of COVID-19 will be determining
Leonard Kalfayan, Hess Corporation
factors in this decision making.
Thomas Knode, Kirby Corporation
In addition to the October print issue, we’ll also provide a new digital edition, avail-
Sunil Kokal, Saudi Aramco
able to SPE members who normally receive the print JPT. It offers the convenience of
a mobile app or a web browser experience. Douglas Lehr, Baker Hughes
Members often note that JPT is their most-valued member benefit, and we under- Silviu Livescu, Baker Hughes
stand that a portion of membership will still prefer print. However, the cost savings Shouxiang (Mark) Ma, Saudi Aramco
are necessary to continue providing JPT and our other member programs. Also, mem- John Macpherson, Baker Hughes
bers who previously received their JPT issues at their office and are now working from R.V. Marathe, Consultant
home may not have been receiving it. Some international members are also not receiv- Stéphane Menand, DrillScan
ing their issues due to countries’ restrictions on shipping and mailing. The digital
Graham Mensa-Wilmot, Chevron
edition brings access to JPT to you at any time or place.
Jordan Mimoun, ExxonMobil
The JPT digital edition offers more features than a standard flipbook, including
◗ Article popouts allow you to read an entire article without turning pages Rohit Mittal, Boston Consulting Group
◗ Clickable links are included in articles to other related resources Badrul H. Mohamed Jan, University of Malaya
◗ The search feature works within the current issue or the archive Keshav Narayanan, BHP Billiton
◗ Coming soon: Article translations will be available using Google Translate Ehsaan Nasir, Baker Hughes
All members will still have access to the JPT website and to the PDF of the issue Ardian Nengkoda, Saudi Aramco
available on the homepage, providing a variety of options to suit your lifestyle and Yagna Oruganti, Baker Hughes
reading preferences. Zillur Rahim, Saudi Aramco
SPE is a key resource for technical knowledge, offering publications, events, training
Martin Rylance, BP
courses, and online resources that enable the global oil and gas E&P industry to meet
Robello Samuel, Halliburton
the world’s energy needs in a safe and environmentally responsible manner. It is also a
community where members come together to learn and network with each other and Otto L. Santos, Louisiana State University
to give back to their profession. Luigi A. Saputelli, Frontender Corporation

We will continue to produce outstanding content across all our programs and Pallav Sarma, Tachyus
channels that is focused first on the needs of our members and then on the needs of Greg Stephenson, Occidental Petroleum
our industry. JPT Rosa Swartwout, Baker Hughes
Mike Weatherl, Well Integrity
Scott Wilson, Ryder Scott Company
Jonathan Wylde, Clariant Oil Services
Robert Ziegler, Weatherford

The JPT Family of Digital Publications
Changes Coming to JPT

If you’ve been receiving the print edition of JPT magazine,
SPE Members like you will now have access to a new digital
edition starting this month. Providing more access any time
or place, it offers the convenience of a mobile app or a web
browser experience. But more than just a standard flip-book,
JPT and its family of digital publications will soon feature:
• Article pop-outs for you to read an entire article without turning pages
• Links in articles to other related resources
• Search feature that works within the current issue or the archive
• Coming soon: Article translations using Google Translate
Members will still have access to the JPT website and to the PDF
of the issue, providing a variety of options to suit your lifestyle
and reading preferences.
GUEST EDITORIAL
Digitally Transforming Oil Fields

With Connected, Intelligent Hardware
Demos Pafitis, Schlumberger
In recent years, the oil and gas indus- that result in new functional features, edge computing that can host models and
try has placed significant emphasis on cost efficiency, enhanced reliability and algorithms, creating capabilities beyond
digital transformation. For most early greater operational performance. But remote intelligence. These machines
adopters, this journey began with real- there are now myriad opportunities to can now take advantage of both edge
time monitoring and remote operation enhance hardware in ways that maximize and cloud digital capabilities to learn
of equipment. This has been followed the value of data capture. Thus, the emer- and gain intelligence, thus continuously
by the increasing application of mod- gence of connected, intelligent hardware improving operational performance and
ern data science techniques in order to is key to realizing the vision of the digi- service delivery.
extract actionable insight from the grow- talized oil field. By populating oil fields with con-
ing volumes of data. The emergence of nected and intelligent hardware, opera-
highly scalable data storage and compute Connected, Intelligent tors gain access to optimized, secure, and
power has provided a step change in the Hardware Explained sustainable operations. Connected and
ability to derive actionable insights from Much conventional hardware has little to intelligent hardware enables advanced
data and perform simulations at a scale no digital enablement or means of moni- planning, real-time performance optimi-
previously inaccessible. What we derive toring its own function or state. In a first zation, and higher levels of automation
from this combination allows us to deliv- step, it is largely trivial to make it con- and health management. It is a criti-
er new levels of performance and effi- nected to cloud-based data stores, thus cal part of a broader architecture that is
ciency. But, in addition to these now well enabling the use of modern data analy- adapted to problems where latency, com-
recognized elements of the digital trans- sis techniques such as artificial intelli- munications fallibility, and system reli-
formation, there is a need to evolve our gence (AI) and machine learning (ML). ability are important considerations that
industry hardware through the applica- Each piece of hardware in this scenario make a central command-and-control
tion of enhanced edge computing and the will benefit from remote intelligence to approach inappropriate.
application of intelligence at the edge. enrich its capabilities.
There will, of course, continue to be Intelligent hardware takes the “con- Developing Intelligence
engineering innovation in our hardware, nected” concept in another direction Intelligence in this context is mostly
resulting from creative new designs and refers to equipment with embedded based on models that describe equip-
ment status and operational behavior.
These models, depending on their inten-
Demos Pafitis is the chief technology officer at Schlumberger, a tion, may be hosted in the cloud or at the
position he assumed in February 2020. He is responsible for edge, and can be considered to consti-
Schlumberger New Technology Development, Digital tute a virtual representation of the equip-
Technology Development and Manufacturing. Prior to his cur- ment, often referred to as an avatar.
rent appointment, Pafitis served as senior vice president of These models are frequently described
Schlumberger 4.0 Platforms. He joined Schlumberger in 1991 as being driven by data, which means
and worked in the research and engineering organization in they adapt as more data are acquired and
Cambridge, UK, and Houston. In 2000, he assumed responsibil- nuances in behavior emerge that better
ity for marketing and technology introduction of Schlumberger rotary steerable describe the true nature of the equip-
systems and directional drilling services. He later held research management posi-
ment. Models may require a combina-
tions in Boston, Massachusetts, and Cambridge. In 2007, Pafitis was appointed vice
tion of operational data, life cycle data,
president engineering for Schlumberger Oilfield Services. In 2012, he assumed the
position of GeoMarket manager for Malaysia, Brunei, and Philippines. In 2014, he such as manufacturing and maintenance,
served as global vice president engineering, manufacturing, and sustaining. He and contextualization data, such as loca-
holds a bachelor’s degree in materials science and engineering from the University tion and environment, to provide the
of London and a doctorate in materials science and engineering from the University best representation. They are also best
of Cambridge. He is a Chartered Engineer in the UK. generated by the application of expertise

and understanding from data science, and equipment efficiency that digital based greenhouse gas applications can
applied technical domains, and the phys- hardware will deliver. improve upon asset integrity for oil and
ical sciences. In the drilling domain, Schlumberger gas processing facilities, which is core to
The industry is still in the early s tages
developed an at-bit steerable system curbing fugitive methane emissions. Fur-
of developing and deploying avatars. (ABSS) for drilling horizontal wells in a thermore, by providing data access via
Currently, when an avatar is used, it single run. The ABSS utilizes digital tech- cloud environments, remote control, and
is quite often one core function of the nology by combining trajectory-control automation, we can significantly reduce
hardware that is virtualized, and m odels algorithms with machine learning and trips to the field, thus directly decreas-
lack predictive and prescriptive capabili- data analytics to improve planning and ing our carbon footprint and improving
ties that capture complex interactions execution that adapts itself to the nature overall safety.
of functions. As the richness, quality, of each specific run.
and quantity of data increase, combined In the reservoir characterization Digital Is the Present
with domain and science expertise, more domain, we have introduced a connected Our industry’s digital transformation is
advanced models will emerge. and intelligent wireline formation test- well under way and the challenges of the
ing platform—the industry’s first inte- current commercial environment are an
Barriers to Adoption gration of downhole hardware and cloud added impetus for accelerating change.
For the industry to fully embrace con- native software—that delivers a step Amongst the many other aspects of this
nected and intelligent hardware, it must change in reservoir evaluation. Intelli- transformation, connected, intelligent
rethink how hardware is developed and gent planning enables “look ahead” dur- hardware is a critical element driving our
how data openness is perceived. ing operations, while real-time opera- innovation and strategy. By industrializ-
From an engineering perspective, tions control utilizes edge technologies ing and scaling it, the future of the indus-
hardware designers typically seek and automation for continuous quality try will soon look very different. It will be
mechanical or electronic solutions to control and high-precision fluid sam- proactive, agile, efficient, safer, sustain-
develop new hardware or improve exist- pling and analysis. Contextual insights able, and more customized to customer
ing design. Moving forward, digital fea- provide detailed 2D and 3D visualiza- needs than ever before. JPT
tures must be central to hardware design, tions on interactive dashboards to assist
not just attachments or added features. in making informed decisions.
Such a change will deliver enhanced For oil and gas processing facilities,
product performance and minimize acid-gas membranes are widely used for
costs. To achieve this, engineering teams removing CO2 from natural gas. C hanges Now Available:
must engage digital stakeholders in the in operational practices or conditions
early stages of product development. of natural gas feed streams can result Shop The
on Amazon.
SPE
The availability of data largely influ- in damage to these complex systems, International App
ences the industry’s digital journey and which leads to undesirable product gas Support SPE.
directly affects engineering innova- specifications. To address this chal-
tion. The industry’s steps toward open- lenge, we are utilizing a data-enriched
sourcing a data ecosystem or environ- performance service that digitally
ment are crucially important to this enables d ynamic forecasting of future
journey. They will provide the right envi- performance of acid-gas membrane sys-
ronment and standards for organizing tems. The service uses a secure, cloud-
data—the first step toward collecting, connected, ruggedized edge computing
integrating, managing, and enriching device to collect and extract meaningful
data, thus accelerating digital progress. In insights from data streams. This reduces
2019, Schlumberger formally announced the time and interactions between detec-
its commitment to open-sourcing its data tion, diagnosis, and the resolution of
ecosystem and contributing to the Open unplanned shutdowns.
Group Open Subsurface Data Universe
(OSDU) Forum. Our contributions, com- Environmental Stewardship
bined with others within the industry, are As the global community calls upon the oil Start shopping at
providing unique capabilities and experi- and gas industry to deliver safer, environ- go.spe.org/SPEAmazonSmile
ence that are revolutionizing exploration mentally sustainable operations, digital
and production (E&P) workflows. enablement provides a significant oppor-
tunity for the industry to drive long-term
Practical Application change. For example, an integrated, data-
The entire E&P value chain stands to ben- driven strategy that combines intelligent
efit from the performance enhancements hardware, edge computing, and cloud-

TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS
Chris Carpenter, JPT Technology Editor
Reservoir-Analysis Solution from 8- to 36-in. diameter and either Liquid Casing Protector
Stratagraph introduced RockProp ad- 2½- or 2⅝-in. cast steel male hex con- A variety of mechanical casing protec-
vanced reservoir analysis software in nections, the augers are configured for tors are used to prevent or mitigate cas-
partnership with its Cuttings Alliance digger derricks or production-type dig- ing wear during drilling. However, the
consortium. The software delivers analy- gers. Auger teeth and pilot bits can be application of mechanical casing protec-
sis for cuttings, logs, and drilling data. configured to suit any environment from tors not only increases the additional rig-
The aim of the companies forming the 1030 blocks for solid surface conditions up time, but its easy-wear property is also
consortium was to combine mud logging, to bullet teeth for gravel or dirt. associated with mechanical failures and
cuttings analysis, and well interpretation ◗ For more information, visit lost-in-hole risks. Vertechs has developed
into one product to reduce costs and www.augertech.net. a liquid casing protector to prevent cas-
improve well productivity. The software ing wear. With the use of nanotechnol-
combines log and drilling data with phys- Rotary Steerable Service ogy, nanobonding molecules can be mag-
ical properties measured from cuttings Baker Hughes introduced the Lucida netically bonded to metal surfaces. While
to output reservoir parameters. Mineral advanced rotary steerable service, which drilling, a weak electromagnetic field is
models, total porosity, effective poros- integrates hardware, software, automa- created between the drillpipe and cas-
ity, and bound vs. mobile fluid estimates tion, and remote connectivity to help ing because of friction, helping the nano-
are obtained. This provides an assess- oil and gas operators drill faster and bonding molecules in the active mud to
ment along vertical or horizontal well- deliver precise, higher-quality wells. form a wear-resistance barrier around
bores independent of log models that The service is designed to maximize the metal surfaces, reducing mechani-
can be used to refine 2D and 3D reser- directional-drilling performance and cal wear and heat while withstanding
voir models, improve geosteering, opti- well productivity. The service’s integrat- high pressure and temperature. The liq-
mize completion designs, and character- ed bottomhole assembly (BHA) includes uid casing protector is capable of reduc-
ize well potential better. a customized drill bit and proprietary ing friction and heat generated, result-
◗ For more information, visit high-strength connections to maximize ing in total wear reduction up to 80%.
www.stratagraph.com. penetration rates (Fig. 2). The BHA also ◗ For more information, visit
includes near-bit sensors to gather more www.vertechs.com.
Pin-On Augers downhole data and multichip module
Auger Technologies introduced the Alas- electronics, which have been tested exten- Pressure-Relief System
kaug line of pin-on augers, which are sively at temperature cycles approaching CORTEC introduced the CX-RV2.6 Pneu-
essentially two augers in one that can be 400°F to provide reliability in demand- matic Pressure Relief System. The sys-
fitted with two different styles of head to ing drilling environments. The service’s tem, API 6A PSL 3 monogrammable
suit the project at hand (Fig. 1). Initially 16-sector gamma ray sensors are situated and comprised of Safety Integrity Level
developed for operations in the Alas- close to the bit and provide real-time for- 3-rated components, provides rapid
kan tundra, these heat-treated cast steel mation data that enable quick decisions pressure relief within high-pressure sys-
heads provide maximum performance to navigate the reservoir more precisely. tems, including mud pumps, managed-
and service life, with the convenience ◗ For more information, visit pressure-drilling manifolds, and frac-
of interchangeable heads. With flighting www.bakerhughes.com. relief systems. The system is designed
Fig. 2—The Lucida rotary steerable service from Baker

Fig. 1—Auger Technologies’ Alaskaug pin-on augers were Hughes is designed to maximize directional-drilling
developed for operations in harsh environments. performance and well productivity.

Fig. 4—Silverwell’s DIAL production-optimization system is estimated to
Fig. 3—CORTEC’s CX-RV2.6 deliver oil gains of up to 30%.
Pneumatic Pressure Relief System
offers control and repeatability
over hundreds or even thousands
interventions and reduce requirement position functionality on critical valves.
of pressure-tripping events. for well tests for each year of operation, The failure mode can change depending
as well as eliminate deferred production on customer requirements. This fail-to-
as a replacement for purely mechani- and environmental and safety risks. position can be fail-closed, open, stay
cal devices that are significantly less ◗ For more information, visit put, or go-to-% position, depending on
reliable and requires only 80-psi mini- www.silverwellenergy.com. what action is needed to ensure the pro-
mum air supply to function. The design cess fails to a safe operating state. This
offers precise control and repeatabil- Shutdown Battery means the process finishes in a safe oper-
ity over hundreds or even thousands of Rotork introduced a shutdown battery ating state, preventing any safety issues
pressure-tripping events (Fig. 3). The option to its IQ range of actuators, allow- and avoiding monetary consequences
system design has been proved through ing control over operations during a caused by loss of control.
extensive validation over thousands of power outage or emergency shutdown. ◗ For more information, visit
pressure cycles, with consistent tripping A lithium-ion battery supplies the back- www.rotork.com.
results within 1% or less of the pressure up power from within the actuator enclo-
set point. Users can set auto and manu- sure. The integral battery pack provides a Portable Vibration Analyzer
al reset modes for function of the relief compact, explosionproof shutdown solu- Brüel & Kjær Vibro introduced the VIBRO-
valve when needed, protecting personnel tion. In the event of main power loss, the PORT 8000 (VP-8000) Portable Vibra-
and preserving operational safety on site. battery can continue to function auto- tion Analyzer for rotating and recipro-
◗ For more information, visit matically to a site-configurable end-of- cating equipment. The analyzer features
www.uscortec.com. travel safe position, providing fail-to- the same universal measurement mod-
ules and design as the earlier VC-8000
Artificial Lift System analyzer, but is optimized for portable
Silverwell’s Malaysian agent was awarded dynamic data collection and diagnos-
a contract by Petronas for deployment of tics (Fig. 5). A wide range of applica-
the Digital Intelligent Artificial Lift (DIAL) tions exists for the analyzer for both plant
gas-lift production-optimization system operators and service providers. It veri-
in mature fields offshore Malaysia. The fies the condition of machines after a
first installation of DIAL in dual-string turnaround and those repaired before
wells allows enhanced lift from both service startup. It is also used for steady-
strings separately. The system is esti- state and transient condition monitoring
mated to deliver oil gains of up to 30%, for observation and trending of machines
with 20% savings in lift-gas consump- following an event (e.g., operational pro-
tion, and continuous production optimi- cess changes or machine-fault detec-
zation while eliminating in-well intervention). The analyzer can also be used as a
tions. Each unit in the system, specifically mobile platform for monitoring several
configured for dual-string installation, machines within the plant that are not
Fig. 5—The VIBROPORT 8000
includes three independently actuated instrumented or that only have protec-
Portable Vibration Analyzer from
orifice valves and on-board pressure Brüel & Kjær Vibro is optimized for tion systems. JPT
and temperature transducers (Fig. 4). portable dynamic data collection ◗ For more information, visit
The system can save multiple wireline and diagnostics. www.bkvibro.com.

E&P NOTES
Equinor Drilling New Wells in Norwegian

North Sea
Equinor will drill three new wells at a The Jupiter area is in the BMS24
cost of $219.3 million at the Martin Petrobras Concludes concession, where Petrobras is the
Linge field in the Norwegian North Sea Drillstem Test in Santos operator with an 80% interest; Petrogal
to ensure safe production after an analy Basin Brazil holds 20% interest.
sis found four previous wells drilled Petrobras completed a drillstem test
there did not have necessary barriers. (DST) in the Júpiter Discovery Assess
The wells were drilled before the com ment Plan, located in the Santos Basin Total Resigns Operator Role
pany took over as operator of the field presalt carbonate reservoir. The well for Five Blocks in Brazil
from Total in 2018. Apollonia (3BRSA1246RJS) located Total resigned its operator role for
The company will keep the four wells approximately 295 km from Rio de five exploration blocks located in the
plugged and under continuous moni Janeiro in a water depth of 2183 m pro Foz do Amazonas Basin, 120 km off
toring until it has reduced the pres duced fluid samples with a high gas/oil shore Brazil, referenced as FZAM57,
sure in the formation by producing from ratio (GOR) and high CO2 content. FZAM86, FZAM88, FZAM125, and
other wells. The fluid samples will be used to vali FZAM127.
Two remaining wells from the devel date the company’s HISEP highpressure The company informed the National
opment and operation plan will also be separation technology, which includes Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and
drilled for the field’s originally planned separation and reinjection in the reser Biofuels of the decision which opens a
production. The field is designed for voir rocks of the CO2 contained in the 6month period for a new operator to be
a mixture of oil and gas and needs gas produced oil. The HISEP technology is appointed. During that period, Total will
wells that produce at a certain rate for in the early stages of development but continue monitoring all regulatory pro
startup and production. has the potential to enable the Jupiter cesses on behalf of its partners Petro
Equinor is the majority shareholder production development pilot project bras and BP.
and operator of Martin Linge (70%); and other projects with high GOR and
Petoro holds 30% interest. CO2 fluids, Petrobras said.
ReconAfrica To Advance
Kavango Basin Work
A recent round of funding which raised
$18 million positioned ReconAfrica to
proceed with drilling and seismic pro
grams for the Kavango basin in Namibia,
said CEO Scot Evans.
The company will initiate and com
plete a threewell drilling program with
the initial goal of establishing an active
Permian aged petroleum system.
Well designs are complete, and the
drilling service program was tendered
in full. All bids have been received
and are under evaluation with con
tract awards to have been awarded last
month. The spud of the first well (62)
is scheduled for early December. The
company is also making upgrades such
as installing a 250ton topdrive, a third
Equinor will drill three new wells at the Martin Linge field to ensure safe mud pump, and key upgrades to safety
production. Source: Equinor. related systems.

ELEVATING
INNOVATION
NexTier is working with US land operators to
address the industry’s toughest challenges.
NexTier delivers dependable, fit-for-purpose completion services across

the most demanding basins in the US. We’re working with our partners to
provide insightful solutions for tomorrow’s challenges. And we’re using our
Innovation Centers to drive next-generation technologies.
Make NexTier your next call.
NexTierOFS.com
Innovate. Integrate. Accelerate.

Source: ReconAfrica.
The funding will also allow the accel- plays, near stepout opportunities, and Karavan O&G Participações e Con-
eration of the 2D seismic acquisition, stranded fields. sultoria will hold 51% of the SPE and
processing, and interpretation pro- equity provider Seacrest Capital Group
gram. The initial 2D program will cover will hold the remaining 49%.
400 km with a targeted start in late Petrobras Sells Stakes
Q4 2020. in Espírito Santo
Petrobras will sell its stakes in 27 Barron Petroleum Makes
onshore exploration and production Permian Basin Discovery
CGG Expands North Sea concessions located in Espírito Santo, Barron Petroleum drilled a new discov-
Multiclient Survey called the Cricaré Cluster, to Karavan ery well in Val Verde County, Texas,
CGG began a multiclient 3D survey in SPE Cricaré SA, a specific-purpose entity finding an estimated 417 Bcf (74.2 mil-
the Northern North Sea to provide a (SPE), for $155 million. The deal is part lion bbl) in oil and gas reserves. The
second azimuth over its existing North- of Petrobras’ plan for portfolio optimi- discovery is located approximately
ern Viking Graben (NVG) multiclient 3D zation and capital allocation improve- six miles southwest of the Massie
survey and extend into open acreage on ment, shifting its resources to deep and (Strawn) field, which has produced
offer in the UK 32nd License Round. ultradeep waters. more than 157 Bcf. The Sahota Carson
The survey will acquire approximately Petrobras said that the average 20BU #1 was drilled to a total depth of
2,000 km2 of additional data in an east- production at the Cricaré cluster 12,650 ft. Approximately 70 ft of gas-
west direction, which will be processed was approximately 1,700 BOPD and bearing Strawn porosity was encoun-
with existing north-south data to pro- 14,000 m3 of natural gas per day from tered. Following stimulation, the well
duce a dual-azimuth volume. The added January to June this year. tested at rates up to 5 million ft3 of
azimuth will improve the imaging of The cluster comprises the fields gas per day.
multidirectional fault patterns preva- Biguá, Cacimbas, Campo Grande, Cór- The company identified 67 high-
lent in the region. Improved resolution rego Cedro Norte, Córrego Cedro Norte graded Strawn formation locations
will help resolve complex and marginal Sul, Córrego Dourado, Córrego das and is refining future location place-
reservoir stratigraphy. Pedras, Fazenda Cedro, Fazenda Cedro ment based on results of the first well.
The new survey is the first in a planned Norte, Fazenda Queimadas, Fazenda Testing and potential development in
multiyear project, leveraging strategic São Jorge, Guriri, Inhambu, Jacutinga, the Canyon formation is being con-
partner Shearwater GeoServices. It also Lagoa Bonita, Lagoa Suruaca, Mariricu, sidered at an approximate depth
builds on CGG’s 44,000 m2 of existing Mariricu Norte, Rio Itaúnas, Rio Preto, of 9,000 ft and Ellenburger at about
coverage in the Northern North Sea to Rio Preto Oeste, Rio Preto Sul, Rio São 16,000-ft depth.
further the de-risking of the existing Mateus, São Mateus, São Mateus Leste, Barron Petroleum holds a 100%
fields and unlock the potential of new Seriema, and Tabuiaiá. working interest in the prospect and

pay and 86 m (282 ft) of net volatile
oil/gas condensate pay. The Santonian
interval contains 129 m (423 ft) of net
pay. Fluid samples from the Campan-
ian validated the presence of oil with
30–43 °API.
The drillship also began operations
at the Keskesi East-1 exploration well,
which will test upper Cretaceous tar-
gets in the Campanian and Santonian,
approximately 14 km (9 miles) south-
east of Sapakara West-1.
Apache holds a 50% working inter-
est in Block 58 and is the operator
through completion of the Keskesi
well. Total holds the remaining 50%
working interest.
Vietnam Approves Pharos

Barron Petroleum reported finding an estimated 417 Bcf in oil and gas reserves
in the Permian Basin. Source: Barron Petroleum.
Development Plan
Pharos Energy, an independent E&P
company, received approval from the
holds development rights to more than Rotary sidewall cores were retrieved, Prime Minister of Vietnam for its Te
13,000 acres over the prospect. but representative fluid samples from Giac Trang (TGT) full-field development
the reservoir were not collected due to plan (FFDP), enabling the company to
conditions caused by cementing opera- begin drilling six new producer wells in
Apache and Total Find tions, which were required to mitigate Q4 2021.
Hydrocarbons Off Suriname increased pressure below the base of The FFDP was the last stage of the
In an update to an evaluation of the the Santonian formation. Hydrocarbon required process following recent
Kwaskwasi-1 discovery well offshore shows were also observed in the Santo- approval of an initial 2-year license
Suriname, Apache and Total said the nian reservoirs, and the results of the extension to 7 December 2026 approved
Noble Sam Croft drillship gathered res- formation evaluation indicate the pres- in August.
ervoir and other technical data in the ence of oil. The infill-drilling program is tar-
upper cretaceous-aged Santonian inter- The shallower Campanian inter- geted to increase gross production at
vals since its 29 July discovery. val contains 63 m (207 ft) of net oil TGT from the present 15,000 BOE/D to
around 20,000 BOE/D in 2022.
The approval also allows for long-lead
items to be ordered to enable the start of
drilling for those wells.
CNOOC Begins Production

in Central Bohai Bay
CNOOC Limited’s Nanbao 35-2 oil field
S1 area offshore China in the central
Bohai bay began production. The oil
field, fully owned by CNOOC Limited,
has an average water depth of 17 m.
The company will utilizing existing
facilities of Nanbao 35-2, which include
one unmanned wellhead platform.
Three development wells are planned,
and the project is expected to reach
its peak production of approximately
The Noble Sam Croft drillship. Source: Noble Corp. 1,800 B/D of crude in 2021. JPT

Bringing the Heat
Aramco Field Tests High-Temperature Chemistry
To Slash Tight-Gas Completion Costs
Trent Jacobs, JPT Digital Editor
On the left, a core plug from the Eagle Ford Shale after being hydraulically
fractured with slickwater. On the right, another sample from the same
formation that has been split in half using a new thermochemical formula that
may displace large numbers of pressure-pumping units. Source: URTeC 2439.
B y turning up the temperatures

downhole, you need less of every-
thing up on the surface.
upstream company has two big ambi-
tions. First, it is introducing a new
hydraulic fracturing fluid that shaves
Center. “The thermochemical will cre-
ate a pressure pulse downhole to break
down the rock—then we can propagate
This is what is hoped to be proven millions of dollars off the cost of hor- the fracture with hydraulic fluids.”
soon with an experimental chemical izontal wells by more than halving Al-Nakhli recently shared new
technology that is seeing some of its first the amount of equipment and water details about the technology at the
field tests in Saudi Arabia’s emerging typically needed to stimulate the wells. virtual 2020 Unconventional Resources
tight-gas formations this year. Second, it aims to reduce the number Technology Conference (URTeC) while
The innovation centers around reac- of unproductive fracture stages and the presenting a technical paper
tive chemicals known as thermochemi- required number of stages by improving (URTeC 2439) that he authored with
cals that researchers at Saudi Aramco stage productivity. colleagues and university collabo-
and King Fahd University of Petroleum “It’s like a hybridization of pulse rators. The paper outlines labora-
& Minerals (KFUPM) in Dhahran spent fracturing and hydraulic fracturing,” tory tests in which samples of shale
most of the past decade developing. explained Ayman Al-Nakhli, a chem- rock from the US and elsewhere were
When it comes to unconventional ist and petroleum scientist at Saudi fractured using traditional slickwater
applications, the world’s largest Aramco’s EXPEC Advanced Research fluids alongside the thermochemical

Chemically-Pressure Pulse Test
approach—or what Al-Nakhli calls the 300 18,000
“Exo-Frac.”
16,000
While validation awaits, the years-
250
long research and development proj- 14,000
Reaction
ect is a reminder that as Saudi Aramco Triggered
seeks to develop the Kingdom’s tight-gas 200 12,000
Temperature (°F)
Initial Pressure: 0 psi
Pressure (psi)
resources it is not relying solely on the Maximum Pressure: 16,651 psi
North American experience or its suite 10,000
of established technologies. 150
8,000
The tests highlighted during the con-
ference showed that when pumped into 6,000
100
core and other rock samples at the initi- Temperature
ation of small-scale hydraulic fracturing Pressure
4,000
treatments, the chemical agents under- 50
go an exothermic reaction that creates a 2,000
pressure pulse strong enough to induce
0 0
a fracture in the rock. Meanwhile, as 21:36 22:04 22:33 23:02 23:31 0:00 0:28
the chemicals reach temperatures that Time (hrs)
may exceed 270°F, nitrogen gas is rap-
The result of a thermochemical reaction, the intensity of a pressure pulse
idly generated inside the fracture which is shown here during a test conducted in a high-temperature/high-pressure
increases its in-situ pressure. reactor. Source: URTeC 2439 presentation.
As it is drawn up for a real-world
application, pumping the thermochem- Aside from displacing pressure- “synthetic sweetspots.” These are essen-
icals downhole would take roughly pumping equipment, the researchers tially areas of weaker rock caused by a
5 minutes. Once the reaction is acti- are optimistic about another poten- critical byproduct of the pressure pulse:
vated, the pressure pulse lasts only milli- tial deliverable which they refer to as microfractures. Al-Nakhli is hopeful
seconds. The high-temperature reaction
continues for no more than 10 min-
utes before all the heat is absorbed
into the surrounding formation.
However brief this action may be,
the researchers believe that the pres-
sure pulse and subsequent expansion of
gas can be engineered to leave behind a
lasting impression in the form of a much
weaker rock fabric.
The next thing to do is to follow up
with a slickwater treatment, typical in
everything except for its abbreviated
duration. With more chemical energy
leveraged downhole, Al-Nakhli said far
less hydraulic energy is needed to be
generated mechanically.
He added that one difference with this
pressure-pulse technique and existing
methods is that it requires no propel-
lants or sources of ignition—the ther-
mochemicals are aqueous. Saudi Aramco
has devoted much of its research efforts
to developing the additives and activa-
tors that allow it to control reaction
times and pressures. The company has
several formulas with a capability to pro-
duce pressure pulses that range from A cutaway of a cement block used during testing shows the presence of
3,800 psi on the low end to 20,000 psi microfractures around the borehole due to the thermochemical treatment.
on the extreme. Source: URTeC 2439.

that the ability to induce microfractures found in southern Ohio) and a nongeo- dropped by 68% and 12%, respectively.
will enable the method to be used to graphically associated Calcareous rock These results corresponded with the
fracture any competent and deep res- (i.e., a calcium carbonate). control—a tight-cement block—which
ervoir, and especially those that are Using a coreflooding system to sim- saw its required hydraulic pressure fall
the toughest to stimulate due to high ulate a scaled-up job, plug samples by 49%. The variance in these reduc-
breakdown pressures. from each formation were soaked for tions implies that mineralogy strongly
What Saudi Aramco’s chemistry exper- 2 weeks and then stimulated using both influences the method’s efficacy, some-
iment also needs to prove is whether the thermochemical and slickwater thing that the researchers said they are
those microfractures can be created in fracturing methods. further investigating.
such abundance around each fracture The biggest difference by far was The researchers arrived at the con-
stage that they increase near-wellbore seen in the Eagle Ford rock which had a clusion that the microfractures created
permeability and thus overall productiv- breakdown pressure of 2,000 psi when as a result of the pressure pulse allow
ity. A knock-on effect of more stage-level treated with slickwater. When given a for greater injectivity and wider induced
production is that it would give an oper- dose of thermochemicals that figure fractures. In their paper, Al‑Nakhli and
ator greater incentive to lower its invest- dropped 55% to just 900 psi. his cohorts said in contrast, “Slick-
ment in each well by designing it with However, as the researchers point water fracturing seems to be creat-
fewer stages. out, the energy from the pressure pulse ing high- permeable channels rather
remains an influencing factor. That than fractures.”
Fracturing With a Quarter means the applied hydraulic pressure to This is partly based on the observa-
of the Pressure the Eagle Ford sample ended up being tion that in every thermochemical stim-
From a geomechanical point of view, only 700 psi—a 75% reduction. ulation the rock samples had split in
the primary effect of the Exo-Frac is a Translating this into operational half by the end of the test—an effect
reduction in the reservoir’s breakdown terms, Al-Nakhli said the differ- never seen in any of the corresponding
pressure, i.e., the force required to ence means that a slickwater stimula- samples treated with slickwater.
induce fractures. tion requiring 20,000 psi on the sur-
In the highlighted test cases this face could be replaced with the proposed Escaping the Stress Cage
was demonstrated using three differ- thermochemical-slickwater mix (at a The researchers tie the drastic reduc-
ent types of rocks, including samples 1:10 ratio) that needs only 5,000 psi of tions in breakdown and required hydrau-
from the Eagle Ford Shale in Texas, rec- pumping power. lic pressures to a weakening of the well’s
ognized as a prolific producer of both In the same round of tests, the stress cage, also known as hoop stress.
tight oil and tight gas. The other rocks required hydraulic pressure to frac- This is going to be critical for Saudi
used were Scioto sandstone (a formation ture the Calcareous and Scioto samples Aramco and KFUPM to demonstrate in
On the left, a scanning electron microscope image of a Scioto sandstone sample before being treated with
thermochemicals. On the right, that same rock after being treated with thermochemicals. It was found that the sample’s
Young’s modulus dropped by over 12%, while porosity increased by 5% and permeability by 10%. Source: SPE 196540.

SPE Looks
Other Applications of Thermochemicals Forward to Serving
Thermochemicals are not new to the oil and gas industry or the sole domain
of Saudi researchers. Companies have used them for flow assurance and even You in 2021
to remove sludge from tank bottoms. In 2017, researchers at the University
of T yumen in Russia also claimed to have developed a thermochemical for
hydraulic fracturing with Rosneft.
While Saudi Aramco is not alone in its interest in using thermochemicals for
reservoir enhancement, it is unrivaled in its production of technical papers on
the topic. In more than two dozen of these papers, its researchers and partners
outline several applications for thermochemicals, the formulas of which can be
tailored to certain reservoir criteria. According to Al-Nakhli, most of them have
seen various degrees of field testing.
◗ Sandstone permeability enhancement. A version of the technology has
successfully been trialed in several conventional wells, showing better
results than conventional acid treatments.
◗ Pulse fracturing in carbonates. Early field results have shown a fivefold
increase in well injectivity vs. matrix acidizing.
◗ Tar remediation. Independent of reservoir depth, thermochemicals are
being considered as a potential solution for reservoirs deeper than
4,000 ft where steamflooding technology cannot be used. One trial was
Renew your
successful in improving reservoir communication between injectors and membership today!
producers.
◗ Condensate-banking removal. Laboratory results showed a 70%
improvement in condensate removal. Field-scale testing is underway.
Membership in
◗ In-situ foam generation. Field-tested for acid diversion with successful
results in horizontal and vertical wells. SPE is a continuous well
of career-enhancing
opportunities for
the field because the process of creating Because less force is needed to suc-
manmade fractures requires downhole cessfully break down the reservoir, E&P professionals.
hydraulic pressures to overwhelm the total pumping time for an Exo-Frac
elastic strength of the stress cage. That, would likely be less than an hour. All Whether you want to expand
ultimately, is what defines the size of a told, the water intensity of a ther- your knowledge, grow
pressure-pumping fleet and the volumes mochemically fractured well should your network, or develop your
of fluid it will consume on each well. be a small fraction of that for a slick- leadership skills, it pays
It is possible to lower the hoop- water treatment. JPT
to stay engaged with SPE.
stress threshold, the researchers claim,
because the downhole reaction pushes References
against the rock hard enough to create SPE 196540 Reducing Breakdown
a multiplex of microfractures—cracks Pressure of Tight Reservoirs Renew today at
in the proverbial dam. The tiny fissures Via in-Situ Pulses: Impact of go.spe.org/renewal.*
add up to a high leakoff rate when the Mineralogy by Ayman Al-Nakhli,
primary fracturing fluids are pumped Saudi Aramco; Zeeshan Tariq, Or renew on the
downhole, which Al-Nakhli said effec- Mohammed Mahmoud, and SPE International App.
tively “bypasses” the hoop stresses Adulaziz Abdulraheem, King
around the wellbore. Fahad University of Petroleum
Downsizing a fracturing fleet by three- and Minerals.
quarters its typical horsepower would URTeC 2439 A State-of-the-Art
be by itself a cost revolution, but it Technology To Reduce Fracturing
would also go a long way to meet Saudi Pressure in Tight-Gas Formations
Aramco’s goal of scaling up its uncon- Using Thermochemical Pulse by
ventional program while using the small- Ayman Al-Nakhli, Saudi Aramco;
est volumes of its precious freshwater Zeeshan Tariq, Mohammed
resources as possible. (This has also led Mahmoud, and Adulaziz
to separate research work on fracturing Abdulraheem, King Fahad University
with seawater.) of Petroleum and Minerals. *If you are a Life Member or have already
renewed your membership for 2021, thank you
for your continued membership in SPE.
JPT • OCTOBER 2020

When Fracturing, Gashes observed
in casing where
plugs were set for
Heed the Plugs fracturing. The small

holes in the image on
the left were eroded
perforations. Source:
Stephen Rassenfoss, JPT Emerging Technology Senior Editor DarkVision Technologies.
P lugs used in fracturing do more

than just plug.
In addition to isolating stages during
A major message in a panel discussion
during the recent virtual 2020 Uncon-
ventional Resources Technology Con-
Then the colors of the previous
stage started changing as cooler water
leaked in and green streaks began
fracturing, they often provide the first ference (URTeC) was that investigating bleeding into the blue of the previ-
warning when casing has been deformed— casing can yield surprising results. ous stage; then “it all went blank.” The
an all-purpose description for pipe Davis told the online audience he fiber had been severed, Davis said,
that has been bent, squeezed, or gashed. hoped the presentations would “scare adding that seeing it in real time “was
A vague label for the damage is use- you into getting more data.” quite shocking.”
ful because most often those dealing Davis shared an observation made The fiber optic was still working on
with the problem will never know while watching fracturing in progress the yet-to-be-fractured upper stages,
more about the damage than the inner on a screen displaying temperature and but “as we moved up the hole, we kept
diameter of the casing has been nar- acoustic data collected by fiber-optic parting the fiber.”
rowed—ovalized is the popular term for cables attached outside the casing for For the team involved it was a big loss
it—and that they need to find a smaller- distributed temperature sensing and in terms of the cost of the fiber instal-
diameter tool to get past the obstacle. distributed acoustic sensing. lation and the data they had planned
Eric Davis, the global completions As the stage progressed, cooler to collect. But for Davis the value of
chief for ConocoPhillips, offered a rare injected water (shown in green) mixed what was learned after the fiber was
public presentation about what can with the warm reservoir fluid (in blue) cut “is far more valuable than the lost
be learned by digging deeper into the (Fig. 1). Temperature data from the fiber-optic installation.”
reasons why a plug, frac gun, or bot- fiber-optic cable showed the previous Collecting the information required
tomhole assembly (BHA) cannot pass stage as all blue, indicating the plug sending diagnostic tools downhole to
through a casing diameter. was sealing. inspect the damage.

Gashes were found in the casing. They
appeared to have been cut by the fast-
flowing water-sand mix that may have
begun as a small leak, grew in volume,
and severed the metal tube holding
the fiber-optic cables on the outside of
the casing.
“You can see it looks like the packing
element is where the erosion occurred
on a lot of cases,” Davis said. A previous stage isolated by a plug Streaks of green show plug is leaking
They also learned that the metal in
the casing is softer than the plugs. Davis Fig. 1—Fiber-optic cables around casing can detect cooler water (green)
said, “We were preferentially eroding mixing with warm water (blue) in a stage during fracturing. Source:
casing over the plug.” ConocoPhillips.
They found “total casing breaches”
created by the high-pressure stream of observed sharp bends—in one instance, bedding planes shift and apply force
fluid and sand on 25% of the plug loca- a 1-in. shift in the center of the wellbore that can bend, twist, and sever casing.
tions examined on multiple wells. in one 18-in. section. In comparison, US plays are simpler
“No wonder we have trouble with get- to understand than tectonically chal-
A Muffled Warning ting plugs, perf guns, and long, stiff lenged basins.
The events most often associated with BHAs into the hole,” Davis said. Nonetheless, a panel discussion on
casing damage are not the sort of things Plugs were also found at deeper casing deformation held after the SPE
that demand an investigation. Plugs pro- depths than they were supposed to be, Hydraulic Fracturing Technology Con-
vide a type of warning system by identi- sometimes within the boundaries of a ference and Exhibition (HFTC) in Feb-
fying spots where the circular tubing has previously fractured stage. ruary drew hundreds of completion
been narrowed to an oval or where a too- Davis said, “I can tell you and show experts, about two-thirds of whom said
tight turn does not allow a long tool to you with certainty we have wellbore they work in US shale plays. That per-
pass through. shifts, we have bends, we have ovality, centage and others are based on a sur-
“The only way you will know you have we have shear, we have deformation, vey conducted during the session using
an issue is you cannot get coiled tubing we have plug-induced erosion, we have a mobile phone app.
in, cannot get a perf gun in, you cannot breaches, we have casing and equip- When asked if they suspected cas-
get a plug in. Something you were doing ment damage, and no doubt we have ing deformation on a few of their wells,
you can no longer do,” Davis said. had” less-effective stimulation due to nearly two-thirds said yes. They were
These events suggest something is ineffective isolation. He concluded the split into two groups: 34% indicated
wrong but not much else. The Conoco- seemingly exhaustive list by saying, seeing it in 5–10% of their wells and
Phillips presentation was a rare exam- “We probably know less than we think 31% in up to 5% of their wells.
ple of what can be learned from detailed we know.” The leading source of those suspi-
measurements and imaging. cions (47% of responses) was a “frac
ConocoPhillips is collecting that data International Focus plug failed to reach set depth,” followed
in the Montney formation in Canada, ConocoPhillips has many more wells by 21% responding that coiled tubing
where the frequency and severity of cas- in US shale plays but it has focused its failed to complete a mill-out run.
ing issues makes this information more research effort in Canada because that is The survey may only represent the
valuable than in US shale plays where it “where we see it is happening a lot of the views of those who were motivated to
has not been a significant issue. time,” Davis said. spend an afternoon listening to a panel
“You can lose zones, stages, sections, “Most US unconventional plays are in discussion on the topic, but the strong
or even entire wellbores … we have lost favorable, normal-stress regimes. Out- turnout and participation in the HFTC
all of them,” Davis said. side the US there are more challeng- session and at other conferences sug-
Davis said ConocoPhillips is making ing conditions,” said Gustavo Cuervo, gest a significant number of people have
a significant investment in understand- a panelist who is a geomechanics team experienced casing trouble in US plays.
ing the problem to find ways to reduce leader for Chevron with experience Operators who have imaged the inside
the risks during fracturing and to “pre- in Argentina. of the wellbores, often for other rea-
serve the ability of the company to stim- The difference is in the geology. sons, have been surprised to find cas-
ulate and go back into these wells in In places such as the Vaca Muerta in ing damage.
the future.” Argentina, the “earth loads” can cause “We’ve seen lots of the damage in
Using measurements made with cali- weakly connected features in the rock wells across both Canada and the US.
pers and ultrasonic imaging, they have fabric. As a result, natural fractures or It’s been really surprising to see the

frequency with which they occur and horizontal well, and you have got a half-
Plans A, B, C, D . . . how it typically flies under the radar dozen twists and turns and bends where
US operators face an economic of most operators unless they get a Mother Nature is nasty to you,” the odds
barrier to understanding casing set of eyes downhole that can scan an that the fracture design will place multi-
deformation. Given the current entire wellbore” said Stephen Robinson, ple plugs on those 6 ft among 10,000 is
dismal state of the US shale chief executive officer of DarkVision, really low, Davis said.
sector, an occasional stuck plug a company that uses ultrasound to On the other hand, the chance that
is not going to be a corporate conduct downhole imaging in murky plugs will be squeezed through one or
spending priority. environments. more of those pinch points is high.
Still, stuck plugs happen and
“The common problem that we “We think there is more dam-
shut down work until the team
see is severe casing damage and wall age actually occurring when shoving
in the field can find a way to get
past that obstacle.
loss, including full breaches of casing, plugs through bends,” Davis said, add-
The usual solution sounds around where plugs have been set. In ing, “Statistically 99.9% of the casing
simple: run a plug small enough to most cases, it appears to be from ero- in those holes is in fairly good shape,
fit through that tight spot. sion around where the sealing elements but there are some twists and turns
But there are questions touch the casing,” he said. and bends.
beginning with, how small does it The damage has often been discov- “Logically while pushing, pumping,
need to be? ered incidentally on jobs where the or running a plug through them we are
There are smaller-diameter tools company was hired to image perfora- doing some sort of irreparable damage
built to seal relatively large spaces, tions after fracturing was completed to the plug,” he said.
but questions about the cost
to identify and measure the fractures Even if the casing at that spot is per-
and the reliability of plugs with
which took in the most fluid and sand. fectly circular, a plug may fail to seal
greater expansion ratios need to
be answered.
“When we first started inspecting because it became damaged when key
And even if there’s a plug these types of wells in 2019, we thought parts were broken or torn off during its
that works and can be delivered the first few were anomalous events, placement downhole. “It is more impor-
promptly, will the perf guns and and so did our customers. Now that tant to be studying survivability [of the
coiled-tubing milling tools be able we’ve inspected over 60,000 perfora- plug] than necessarily setting [it] in an
to fit through? tions in North America, we’re seeing irregular hole,” Davis said.
If there are questions about those problems are more prevalent than One tool ConocoPhillips would like
whether it will be possible to run anyone understood,” he said. to have in the Montney is a higher-
the coiled tubing needed to mill performance plug. It would be extremely
out the plug, the best solution
Looking at Leaks durable, slim enough to fit through tight
may a dissolvable plug. Those
SPE papers reporting that plugs leaked spots, and still be able to reliably seal
are built to fade away after
completion, if the temperature
during fracturing go back at least to relatively large areas which may be
and chemical conditions in the 2013, around the time the industry irregularly shaped.
well meet the tool’s design began to use fiber optics to observe tem- For that wish to come true, opera-
specifications. perature and acoustic changes along tors in high-risk plays will need to find a
Paying a completions crew the wellbore during fracturing. The company willing to take on the difficult
to wait for that problem to be water-temperature tracking data could technical challenge of developing tools
solved can get expensive. The best not identify the cause of the leaks, but for a small segment of the market.
business decision has sometimes they indicated the plugs may have been Another need is an early-warning
been to send them off to another the problem. system for plug problems using the
job, with no guarantee they
Reports of casing deformation sug- pressure and pumping data gathered
will ever get back to complete
gest an alternative explanation: round during fracturing.
this well.
Based on that experience,
plugs are being used to seal oval-shaped ConocoPhillips has identified some
panelists who have worked in the holes or are being used in bends—leav- specific pressure signatures in the data
extreme plays say it is critical to ing room for leaks. that may help them monitor things like
speed the process with a detailed “When we started instrumenting plug performance, Davis said. They are
plan for dealing with obstructions. these wells, we saw we do have ovality looking for early warnings to enable the
“On the last two pads, more and bends [in casing],” Davis said. avoidance of plug-related events. But
than 95% of scope on the ConocoPhillips also noticed that the plug behavior varies.
plan was achieved. That was length of casing that was deformed rep- “I wish I could say you see a precur-
a significantly better outcome resented a tiny part of the 5,000- to sor. Sometimes there is a quick pressure
because we had plans B, C, and D
10,000-ft length of a lateral. drop. It hasn’t always been the same,”
ready to go,” Davis said.
“If you just think of it from a statis- he said. With fiber optic they have seen
tical standpoint: If you are in a 2-mile evidence of steady erosion in some

cases, and they have also seen plugs that a length of a few feet. The weight of a Rapid increases and decreases in the
begin to leak, then stop, and then you long string of hanging casing can push pressure and temperature can trigger
lose it all and “you are clearly” treating pipe through a tight bend, but along the forces that bend the casing. “The pipe
multiple perforations.” way it may also deform the tubular or is under stress and fracturing stresses
store stress in it that may be activated right at the doglegs and cyclic-pressure-
Building Doglegs during fracturing. weakened areas may create pipe defor-
There are fewer natural threats to casing These tight turns are likely to be mation during fracturing,” King said
in US shale plays, but there are plenty of missed without a detailed well survey (URTeC 2902463).
other ways to bend it out of shape. because the standard measurements- That is not likely to cause heavier
Earth loads are at the top of a seven- while-drilling reports measure changes casing to fail, but if the force of the
point list of casing damage mechanisms over every 100 ft. The average of a sharp formation compresses the diameter by
offered by George King, a HFTC panelist bend extending 3 ft in a run of 97 ft of more than 5%—a fraction of an inch in
who is a completions engineering advi- straight pipe doesn’t appear so tight in most shale laterals—it may cause trou-
sor with Viking Engineering, Six addi- the measurements. ble during completions, he said. JPT
tional points are related to drilling and Materials used in the well matter,
completions from the design and the including the sort of steel used in the For Further Reading
materials used to crooked well paths pipe, the couplings, and the quality of URTeC 2902463 Impact of Cyclic
and tight dogleg turns. the cement around the casing. These Pressure Loading on Well Integrity
King said Viking has wells with factors and the stress analysis used to in Multi-Stage Hydraulic Fracturing
doglegs in which the path downhole design the well are put to the test dur- by D. Barreda, M.P. Shahri, R. Wagner,
quickly changed by 25° to 35° within ing fracturing. and G. King, Apache Corp.
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Geothermal
Digging Beneath the Surface
Judy Feder, Technology Editor
Steam rising from boreholes at Nesjavellir Geothermal

Power Plant, Iceland, with Aurora Borealis in the
background. Source: Getty Images.
G eothermal energy is potentially

the largest source of energy in the
world today—with volumes vastly more
untapped? Numerous answers have
been put forward. Some say that until
recently it has been a straightforward
generation of power by geothermal on
an industrial scale.
Geothermal’s slow progress recalls the
than the global total of oil and natural business calculation. With hydrocarbons oil and gas industry of the early 1900s
gas combined. Geothermal is renewable incumbent and prices comfortably high, when only a fraction of the resource
and will most likely last for billions of what would be the business rationale could be tapped with the then-existing
years. Its carbon footprint is minimal. It for diverting resources—human, tech- technologies, and only in areas where
is stable. We can predict the power out- nological, and otherwise—to an energy “black gold” and other obvious signs
put of a geothermal power plant with resource that hasn’t proved its value? of oil and gas existed at the surface and
remarkable accuracy. Geothermal power Ignorance and misunderstanding could be developed. Geothermal energy
plants can produce electricity consis- also play a role. “For a vast majority of development over the past century has
tently, running 24 hours a day, 7 days a the population, if you ask about wind evolved in much the same way. Geysers,
week, regardless of weather conditions. and solar, most understand what the steam vents, hot spots, and other obvi-
Actual power output is very close to total resources are and what their value prop- ous surface signs of geothermal energy
installed capacity. osition is,” said Vikram Rao, executive have been developed, but the resourc-
Yet, current global geothermal energy director of the Research Triangle Ener- es that are not visible have been largely
use lags far behind other energy sourc- gy Consortium and former vice presi- ignored because of heavy upfront costs.
es, comprising only 1% of overall energy dent and chief technology officer of Hal- “Conventional, hydrothermal (steam)
production. A study by the US Geological liburton. “If you ask about geothermal geothermal energy today comes from
Survey concluded that at least 70% of on the other hand, most people think of places where, by chance, the right condi-
global geothermal resources have yet to Iceland, Yellowstone, and heat pumps.” tions—heat, permeability, and the pres-
be discovered. And they exist through- There is confusion among the gener- ence of substantial amounts of water—all
out the world. al public, even among smart practitio- occur naturally very close to the surface.
ners in the energy transition space, as to And looking at Earth’s total landmass,
Failure To Launch what geothermal energy is. Geothermal the number of places where those unique
So why has the vast potential of geo- ground-source heat pumps used to heat conditions occur is incredibly small,”
thermal energy remained substantially individual homes are not the same as the Rao said. In the past, that imposed

severe geographical limitations on the g eothermal heating system that used the led to high costs and ultimate failure
resource and quashed interest. heat of natural fractured rocks was built to scale. Tracking and investing were
As a result, geothermal has been largely in Paris. But it wasn’t until 1970 that the pulled back, and Fenton Hill reported-
absent from the public energy debate, concept of enhanced—or engineered— ly still contains the only truly confined,
energy policy discussions, and strategic geothermal systems (EGS) for HDR orig- flow-tested HDR geothermal energy
plans of major energy companies. inated at the Los Alamos National Labo- reservoirs anywhere in the world.
“But if you drill deep enough, you ratory. The Fenton Hill project, the first John Redfern, president and CEO of
reach boiling, even supercritical temper- system for extracting HDR geothermal Eavor Technologies, a startup focused
atures. Temperatures sufficient to pro- energy from an artificially formed res- on closed-loop geothermal systems
duce geothermal energy efficiently can ervoir, was created in 1977. development, said, “Geothermal looked
be found in most places on Earth. If Fluid injected from the surface under like a renewable answer. Looking at the
we harden existing directional drilling high pressure opened pre-existing joints skill set, it should be the automatic place
technologies to operate at higher tem- in the basement rock, creating a man- for the oil and gas industry to go in the
peratures, we could drill for geothermal made reservoir close to a cubic mile in transition. Several times, we made it to
energy anywhere in the world,” he said. size. Boreholes drilled from the surface the altar; then we were jilted. F inally,
Unlike hydrothermal, hot but essen- and surface injection pumps and associ- the two industries parted ways. The
tially dry, impervious crystalline base- ated plumbing were used to recover the reason: scalability.”
ment rock—also known as HDR (hot, dry earth’s heat from hot, dry regions via Rao agreed. “Geothermal was small,
rock)—is found almost everywhere deep closed-loop circulation of pressurized nichy, and expensive. It was certain-
beneath the earth’s surface. Good pros- fluid. The fluid injected into the reser- ly not an opportunity that would
pects for development are located over voir absorbed thermal energy from the have interested any oil major because
deep granite covered by 1.9–3.1 miles of high-temperature rock surfaces, then it was just too geographically lim-
insulating sediments that slow heat loss. served as the conveyor for transporting ited,” he said. “We’ve seen that over
The idea of mining deep HDR for the heat to the surface for practical use. the years; operators tried to invest in
heat rather than fluids was described at Early EGS projects were fit-for- projects, only to painfully divest and
the turn of the 20th century. In 1963, a purpose and not repeatable, which walk away.”
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Winds of Change
Enabling the Geothermal Decade Then things began to change. One
It is likely that advanced oilfield technologies will enable geothermal change was in the way we meet demand
scalability over the next decade. According to Ghazal Izadi, global discipline for power.
lead–unconventionals and geothermal reservoir technical services at Baker For many years, power grids were
Hughes, reservoir knowledge is key. designed for a 24/7 baseload level of
“We must understand the subsurface characteristics, rock mechanical demand to be satisfied by coal, gas, and
properties, geochemistry, and natural fracture systems,” she said. “We nuclear, with peaks requiring different
reduce risk by gathering the right set of data, modeling it, and using it to power generation technologies. Wind
characterize and develop the reservoir.” and solar have upended that paradigm,
Izadi has listed what she believes are the most-promising enabling with the goal now being to fill as much
oil and gas technologies for scalable enhanced geothermal system (EGS) demand as possible with the cheapest
development. source of power.
◗ Successful EGS development starts with subsurface characterization. The consensus is that instead of a
The recent emphasis in logging and formation evaluation has focused 24/7 baseload source or sources that
on real-time steering, reservoir navigation, and fracture mapping at are dispatchable but difficult to turn on
high temperatures (>220°C). A digitally optimized data-acquisition and off, the need is for flexible on/off
strategy and physics-based modeling can be used to perform a digital sources. Solar power and batteries com-
experiment from a computer to avoid trial and error in the field, allowing plement one another in this area. Many
reservoirs to be developed and produced much more efficiently and think that geothermal energy could be
economically. an excellent complement to wind. If
◗ Drilling optimization in geothermal applications requires integrating the wind disappears for 2 to 3 weeks, there
drilling system, drilling fluids, and drill bits that incorporate advanced will never be enough batteries on the
materials science. Cost-effective directional drilling systems, rotary system to make up for the lull, par-
steerable services, electromagnetic telemetry, and measurement-while- ticularly in the Northern Hemisphere,
drilling services that perform reliably at elevated temperatures are according to Michael Liebreich, pres-
critical. ident and CEO of Liebreich Associ-
◗ Thermal cycling and geochemistry in geothermal wells play a critical
ates and chair of the advisory board
role in EGS development. Well stimulation is used to create a multizone
for Eavor. Geothermal power can fill
EGS reservoir. Emerging technologies such as nanotechnology can
the gap.
be applied to minimize the effects of corrosion in well completions.
Dramatic changes have also occurred
Very-high-pressure-high-temperature packers for sealing with further
in oil and gas technologies and opera-
enhancements for higher temperatures and foam cement look
tions in the past decade. Hydraulic frac-
promising for well integrity and as an insulator against fluid losses
turing and other technologies enabled
during stimulation.
the shale boom. At the same time, the
◗ High-temperature-tolerant stimulation fluid that can decrease the
offshore industry made great strides in
volume of cooldown could replace brine water as a circulation fluid.
Proppant fracturing and high-temperature diverters can be adapted
high-pressure/high-temperature tech-
to improve the stimulated fracture network, keeping fractures open.
nology development.
Controlled-release flow-assurance chemicals are being used for scale
“Now we find ourselves in a situa-
problems, both nearbore and far-field. tion in which entirely new capabilities
◗ Real-time continuous reservoir monitoring and control systems are in drilling and exploration make deep,
essential to increase reliability and improve EGS performance. Short- very hot geothermal development look
and long-term reservoir monitoring such as downhole pressure and approachable,” said Rao. “We are talk-
temperature gauges, fiber-optic technology for wellbore integrity, ing about building on a new technology
and electromagnetic for monitoring fluid movement should assist base to exploit the heat in reservoirs
optimization of reservoir performance and help mitigate risks. rather than the fluid. What this means
“We believe that as an energy technology company, we need to look at is that geothermal is no longer a niche
the entire geothermal development process holistically. A holistic approach play. It’s scalable, potentially in a highly
will drive more effective integration and more efficiency,” Izadi said. material way.
“Our customers are beginning to think about geothermal differently. “Scalability gets the attention of the
Many independent geothermal operators are localized. They want discrete industry,” Rao continued. “It’s required
solutions that will work for their location. What they don’t necessarily realize for industry to pursue the opportunity
is something the oil and gas industry has learned and leveraged—that profitably. If we are now considering
knowledge shared from oilfield service providers’ successes and mistakes a possible future of being able to drill
in different geothermal fields can accelerate their field’s success.” for geothermal energy in most places,
instead of just where the resource is

close to the surface and easy to access,
that changes the calculus. This is a Production Well Energy Conversion Plant
com pletely different world than 10
years ago.”
Events of the past several months
Injection Well
have accelerated this transforma-
tional thinking. The clock is ticking
on aggressive carbon-neutrality com- Engineered
mitments made by many interna Fracture System
tional oil companies. Climate concern
has seized global public conscious-
ness. Hydrocarbon-divestment move-
ments are gaining traction. As renew-
ables have become commoditized and Hot Rock Fig. 1—EGS geothermal
benefited from decades of government well concept. Source:
subsidy, favorable regulatory condi- Renewable and Sustainable
tions, and public support, their cost has Energy Reviews, 2016.
steadily decreased.
The effect of the lagging recovery of Crossover Opportunities renewable sources are driving renewed
demand for oil and gas as a result of The 2020 oil-price collapse and asso- interest in developing geothermal
COVID-19 has had a significant impact ciated industry job losses, along with resources. And belief is growing that
on the industry’s workforce, which heightened environmental-social-transfer of technology and expertise
may help to further facilitate the trans- governance (ESG) compliance and the between oil and gas and geothermal
fer of the industry’s services, tech- need for a new form of green, flex- could be a game changer.
nologies, and expertise to geother- ible power to stabilize grids and oper- Rao contends that oil and gas produc-
mal development. ate alongside expanding intermittent ers and service companies, while well on
Excellent work should be recognized everywhere.

Visit go.spe.org/Awards_JPT for more information.
International Award deadline is 1 March. Regional Award deadline is 15 March.
panies. The event was hosted by the
Geothermal Entrepreneurship Organi-
zation (GEO) at The University of Texas
at Austin and the International Geo-
thermal Association (IGA), along with
industry and organizational partners.
Approximately 6,600 people attended
the virtual event, according to Jamie C.
Beard, executive director of GEO.
Owning the Future?

“Some service providers have worked
in both the geothermal and oil and
gas sectors for a long time; operators,
not so much,” Rao said. “In the near
term, oil service companies should start
engaging in geothermal projects to a
greater degree.
“Looking farther down the road, say
in the 5- to 10-year range, my guess
is that a critical mass of operators are
going to throw their hats into this arena,
and the oil and gas service companies
who have positioned themselves as lead-
ers in high-temperature and -pressure
drilling are going to own this future,”
Fig. 2—Eavor-Loop he said.
closed-loop, or “radiator,” The business model will remain as
concept. Source: Eavor Technologies. now, he continued; operators will
explore for and produce geothermal
their way to becoming power producers, Zahacy, senior engineering consultant energy, and technology and service pro-
are doing so in areas where they are not in the E&P Division of C-FER Technol- viders will drill and complete the wells.
fully leveraging their strengths, people, ogies, an Edmonton-based upstream “The opportunity is in the here and now
and technologies. He thinks stronger research and development company. for energy service companies to get out
focus on geothermal could accelerate Zahacy was co-chair and moderator in front. I recognize that these are tough
scalability of geothermal development of the Geothermal Resources Council economic times for investment. Even so,
and its benefits for energy transition. (GRC)-SPE Virtual High-Temperature it is worthwhile to note that while the
For example, he points out that the two Well Cementing and Integrity Work- parallel does not strictly hold, all the
most promising, commercially scal- shop in September, the theme of which key enablers of shale oil and gas were
able geothermal development con- was exploring geothermal and oil and invented in the oil-price doldrums of the
cepts—EGS, and closed-loop systems, gas synergies. 1980s,” Rao said. JPT
also known as supercritical, advanced “Now is becoming an ideal time to
geothermal systems (AGS), or “radia- pull the two sectors together,” he said. For Further Reading
tor” systems—require core competen- Zahacy, Rao, Redfern, and others pre- SPE 195523 Can Unconventional Completion
cies much closer to those of the oil and dict that the number of conferences and Systems Revolutionize EGS? A Critical
gas sector than do solar and wind power. workshops devoted wholly or partially Technology Review by F. Guinot and
“I think that makes the pivot to geo- to geothermal/upstream oil and gas P. Meier, Geo Energie Suisse AG.
thermal not only realistic, but also obvi- crossover opportunities will prolifer- https://doi.org/10.2118/195523-MS
ous, even inevitable,” Rao said. “Anoth- ate over the next several years as both DNV GL. 2019. Energy Transition Outlook.
er point is that it really is not a pivot industries realize the benefits. https://eto.dnvgl.com/2019#:~:text=The%
in the sense that I expect geothermal One recent example is Pivot2020, a 20Energy%20Transition%20Outlook%
to be a material addition to an oil and week-long virtual event of 11 moderated 20is,the%20most%20likely%20path%20
gas portfolio.” roundtables whose panelists included ahead.
“There are a lot of opportunities for leaders from the oil and gas and geo- International Energy Agency. June 2020.
crossover of people and technologies thermal industries, academia, govern- Geothermal Tracking Report.
between the two sectors,” said Todd ments, national labs, and startup com- https://www.iea.org/reports/geothermal

Source: Getty Images.
Pilot Lessons
Chesapeake’s Shale EOR Program Stalls
But Still Offers Bold Vision
Trent Jacobs, JPT Digital Editor
B efore global oil prices turned south

earlier this year in swift and his
toric fashion, Oklahoma City-based
prices will rise to levels that justify EOR
operations—the company’s plan for a
pilot and subsequent full-scale develop
held in late August. The adopted work
flow calls for a relatively large pilot fol
lowed by the conversion of hundreds of
Chesapeake Energy was gearing up to ment in the Eagle Ford is noteworthy in wells within 2 to 3 years.
build a new gas-compression station in that it would have represented the most Since 2016, Chesapeake has joined
the Eagle Ford Shale of Texas. ambitious attempt made yet to revive many others in the shale sector in pay
The multimillion-dollar facility was production from a tight-oil play. ing close attention to a few small patches
to be the workhorse of the company’s “Why would we want to do that? We of ranch land in south Texas where EOG
first attempt at cyclic-gas injection, an wanted to do it because we can recov Resources announced that it had proven
enhanced oil recovery (EOR) method er more oil without additional drilling,” cyclic-gas injection was not only tech
more commonly called huff ’n’ puff said Dave Mohrbacher, a reservoir engi nically feasible, but a profitable way to
(HnP). Instead, the heavy equipment sits neering advisor at Chesapeake and the increase recovery rates in tight-oil wells.
idle and the blueprints of the EOR pro company’s project manager of what was The Houston-based EOG demon
gram remain on the shelf as the oper at one point a 40-person technical team. strated that, under the right conditions,
ator restructures a debt load of more Mohrbacher presented a technical injecting gas back into shale reservoirs
than $7 billion under a court-supervised paper (SPE 200415) about the team’s can cause the tiny droplets of oil still
bankruptcy process. efforts to lay the groundwork for a large- trapped inside to swell up. This mobil
But despite the uncertainty of Chesa scale HnP program during the virtual izes the residual oil by making it less vis
peake’s future—or about when US crude SPE Improved Oil Recovery Conference cous and sticky.

a rather large program that included be-
tween seven and on the order of 30 wells.”
The final pilot criteria settled on a
number between seven to nine HnP
wells, plus two outside producing
wells to act as confinement barriers.
Mohrbacher said that this scheme

is still large enough to be considered
a “phase one development” by shale-
sector EOR standards.
Potential CHK IOR Project This tracks with the thinking of some
Industry IOR Project of those in the tight-knit technical com-
Oil
munity of shale EOR experts who in a
Volatile Oil JPT report published last year stressed
Condensate/Wet Gas that small pilots involving two or four
Dry Gas wells deliver lower returns than individ-
CHK Leasehold ual HnP projects which involve closer to
This map of the Eagle Ford shows the initial interest areas for Chesapeake 10 wells. The smaller projects are said
Energy’s enhanced oil recovery (EOR) projects, also called improved to mask the full potential of widespread
oil recovery (IOR). The operator ultimately chose to focus solely on HnP operations.
its assets in the black-oil window in La Salle and McMullen counties. A year after the initiation of the pilot,
Source: Chesapeake Energy.
Chesapeake’s plan calls for at least 100
more wells to be converted to part-time
EOG’s success story gave hope to shale the world. EOG has been able to convert gas injectors. With another 2 years under
producers across North America that the around 50 wells per year while the hand- its belt, the operator expects to gain the
recovery rates of 5–10% of the original ful of other HnP well operators in the know-how to convert 300 wells on an
oil in place could be elevated to 7–17% region have struggled to transition out of annual basis.
by periodically soaking tight-oil reser- small pilots involving two to four wells. According to public data, Chesapeake
voirs with miscible natural gas. Chesapeake took notice of this inertia operates around 900 wells in the two-
and devised a way to escape it. county area (La Salle and McMullen)
Go Big, Go Fast “The thing that makes Chesapeake’s of the Eagle Ford where its EOR oper-
Mohrbacher told industry colleagues program unique is that we leveraged off ations were slated to begin sometime
that Chesapeake made the investment work completed by others,” M ohrbacher this year. Had things gone to plan, that
in its EOR program after confirming for said. “We’ve looked at existing pilots’ means Chesapeake would be on a course
itself through analysis and laboratory public data in great detail and we decided to convert just under half of its produc-
work that the reported gains of 10–40% to start our demonstration project with ing wells to HnP operations within only
in ultimate oil recovery via HnP were a few years.
valid. Chesapeake was also motivated, he
said, to achieve scale at a “more aggres- Pilot Testing Objectives Learning From Others
sive” pace than its predecessors because Chesapeake Energy said that defining Though there remain some m ysteries
clear objectives enables the operator
of its large position of maturing wells. about shale EOR between operators,
“to begin with the end in mind.”
The conference paper points out that Chesapeake’s 4-year journey to the preci-
Several of those goals are listed:
shale EOR projects run counter to the ◗ Quantify gas injectivity
pice of an HnP pilot underscores just how
shale sector’s short-cycle model while ◗ Improve operational much there is to learn from public data.
noting that the planning and procure- understanding of HnP In Texas, HnP projects are eligible for
ment for an HnP project may take as long ◗ Demonstrate that secondary oil tax exemptions, which also require their
as 2 years. It also highlights that each production and reserves result operators to submit a few bits of extra
pilot well demands at least $1 million from use of the HnP process data such as gas-injection rates. This
to $5 million in capital commitments, ◗ Determine optimal gas injection not only helps researchers identify HnP
mostly due to the cost of the high-power rates and pressures wells, but it also gives them big clues on
gas-compression systems which come ◗ Evaluate gas containment how to mimic the process since injection
◗ Determine optimal soak time
with lead times of 9–12 months. rates can be married with public produc-
◗ Demonstrate economic
Thus, less than 300 of the Eagle Ford’s tion data.
feasibility
more than 16,000 oil wells are estimated ◗ Evaluate hydraulic relationships
Amanda Baldwin is one of the res-
to have been converted to the HnP pro- between wells ervoir engineers that has been work-
cess—still the most of any shale play in ing on Chesapeake’s HnP project since

its inception. She is also a lead author Pilot Well Field Design Facility Bottlenecks
of the conference paper that describes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Of course, commodity prices have
the workflow Chesapeake created with thrown Chesapeake’s entire timeline
the reservoir consulting firm NITEC and into doubt, but speaking practically,
researchers at the University of Kansas Mohrbacher said there are other poten-
to accelerate the operator’s HnP devel- tial ways that operators about to begin
opment process. such a pilot could be blindsided.
Expanding on previous comments, During the question and answer
Baldwin said the publicly sourced period of the presentation, he was asked
data from existing HnP projects pro- about this topic and said the biggest
vided her team with “guiding posts for risk to launching the first HnP cycle
our assessments.” involves running the facilities side of the
Before Chesapeake could settle on a equation poorly.
pilot design or even select its candi- “These are huge gas-handling proj-
dates, that team first had to sift through ects” that require millions of cubic feet
all the existing HnP projects in the area of gas per well each day,” Mohrbacher
for potential analogues. Their focus said, adding, “I would say the efficiency
was narrowed to just the larger ones with which we manage that gas would
Containment Well
since its own pilot was to involve at least affect the economics the most.”
seven wells. Monitor Well HnP Well The good news is this is one risk fac-
Extensive background work was then A pilot huff ’n’ puff design for up
tor operators can control themselves.
required to study the fluid properties, to 11 wells shows how the operator To this end, Mohrbacher also said that
well performance, and geologic pro- plans to establish two injection sides the facilities and field staff pegged for
files from those industry examples. The on the pad with a pressure barrier in the HnP project were involved from the
analysis also included a review of any the middle. A monitor well will help beginning of the pilot-design process.
isolate the injection side from the
facility information available from regu- production side, and then the process
Offering a few more words of advice,
latory filings. can flip with each injection and Mohrbacher said operators can avoid
As the list of suitable analogues was production cycle. Source: SPE 200415. other unexpected cost overruns by
winnowed, the technical staff further paying attention to details such as
analyzed the orientation, lateral lengths, whether steel pipes being ordered to
and spacing of the wells. Initial gas/ it found the outputs of its economic transport the gas from the compres-
oil ratios from public production data model favorable. sors to the wellhead are rated for high
were also used to make sure the team’s The authors noted in their paper that pressures. “We actually experienced
understanding of fluid properties, an all- average production from HnP projects in this,” he said, noting that if the mis-
important factor in candidate selection, the Eagle Ford ranged between 1,000 B/D take is not found soon enough “you
were accurate. to 5,000 B/D per project in the first few may end up having to go back and redo
Eventually Chesapeake compiled months of cyclic injections. In one exam- your design.”
enough of the public data to build type ple from another operator, they showed Mohrbacher was queried on other
curves of its industry peers’ projects the results of an eight-well HnP operation potential facility issues that operators
which allowed it to estimate ranges of that was producing about 100 B/D before should be aware of but said that there’s
their production increases—accounting injections began. Most of these wells not much more to offer for now. “I wish
for both accelerated primary production were 6 years old—very mature for shale we’d gotten one of those big compres-
and incremental recovery. wells—and saw their collective produc- sors working before the price of oil
In the end, Chesapeake boiled it all tion rise to between 400 and 1,000 B/D declined,” he said, adding, “We’ll learn
down into an economic model that it after the first few cycles. a lot more about bottlenecks when we
can use to confidently decide how much But Baldwin reminded that no mat- actually inject gas.” JPT
gas is needed to be injected in order to ter how promising past results may be,
achieve positive returns from its leases. in the unconventional sector there r eally For Further Reading
As that is figured out, the back-office are no perfect analogues to your own SPE 200415 A Methodological
processes must work simultane ously patch of rock. “With every area, oil and Workflow for Assessment and Design
with the engineering team to ensure gas recoveries are different and so you of a Huff-N-Puff Hydrocarbon
transportation contracts to source and need to asses what your recoveries are in Gas Injection Pilot Test as an EOR
inject the gas are aligned with the proj- your area, for your wells, for your spac- Technique for Eagle Ford Shale Oil
ect economics. ing, for your completion,” she said, high- Reservoirs by A. Baldwin, L. Lasecki,
The stated goals of Chesapeake’s lighting why pilot tests remain a critical D. Mohrbacher, Chesapeake Energy,
proposed HnP program suggest that stepping stone for operators. et al.

Natural Gas Gathering
and Boosting Stations Are Ripe for
Mitigation of Emissions
Pam Boschee, JPT Managing Editor
Williams Companies announced a near-term goal of a 56% absolute reduction from 2005
levels in greenhouse-gas emissions by 2030, aiming for net-zero carbon emissions by 2050.
Why is this significant, and where can emissions be mitigated in the midstream natural gas
gathering and boosting segment?
A s an operator of 30,000 miles of

natural gas pipeline systems, in-
cluding gathering and boosting (G&B)
and Sinks 1990–2018, (https://www.
epa.gov/sites/production/files/2020-04/
documents/us-ghg-inventory-2020-
methane emissions and 27% of car-
bon dioxide emissions from natural
gas systems.
facilities, Williams is taking steps to fur- main-text.pdf) identified the sources of Within the production data, G&B
ther mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) asso- GHG emissions from G&B systems as sources took the top position for the
ciated with its operations (see sidebar). the G&B stations and gathering pipelines. most emissions in several categories.
The US Environmental Protection G&B stations receive natural gas from
Agency (EPA) compiled data for GHG production sites and transfer it via gath- Methane. Primarily because of increas-
quantities as metric tons of CO2 equiva- ering pipelines to transmission pipelines es in emissions from pneumatic con-
lent (CO2e) based on self-reported data or processing facilities. Boosting pro- trollers (caused by an increase in the
from the facilities as of 4 August 2019. cesses include compression, dehydra- number of controllers, particularly in
Among the results are 13 of Williams’ tion, and transport of gas to a processing the number of intermittent-bleed con-
onshore gathering and boosting facili- facility or pipeline. trollers) and increases in emissions
ties (Table 1). The EPA identified five major seg- from compressor exhaust slip in G&B,
While this is a snapshot of one segments of the natural gas system: explo- methane emissions from produc-
ment of a company’s operations, it illus- ration, production (including G&B), pro- tion increased by 41% from 1990 to
trates the importance of mitigation cessing, transmission and storage, and 2018. The largest sources are compres-
throughout the natural gas value chain. distribution. It categorized “production” sor exhaust slip, compressor venting
Leak detection and equipment as beginning at the withdrawing of raw and leaks, and pneumatic controllers.
upgrades play a significant role in the gas at the wellsite. Emissions arise from From 2017 to 2018, methane emissions
mitigation of methane and carbon diox- the wells themselves and from wellsite decreased 2% because of decreases in
ide emissions. Various equipment com- equipment and activities such as pneu- the number of high-bleed and inter-
ponents involved in G&B systems such as matic controllers, tanks and separators, mittent-bleed controllers. Methane
compressors, tanks, dehydrators, acid- and liquids unloading. The EPA included emissions were highest in 2008–2013
gas-removal units, separators, and yard G&B emission sources within the pro- (Table 2).
piping are recognized emitters. duction sector.
An EPA report issued in April, Inven- In 2018, emissions from production Carbon. Flaring emissions account
tory of US Greenhouse Gas Emissions (including G&B) accounted for 58% of for most of the carbon emissions from

Williams Onshore Gathering and Boosting Facilities GHG in CO2e
FACILITY NAME GHG QUANTITY (METRIC TONS CO2e)
Williams G&B Facility – Denver Basin 540 (Tulsa, OK) 33,890
Williams G&B Facility – Anadarko Basin 360 247,517
Williams G&B Facility – Appalachian Basin (Eastern Overthrust Area) 160A 2,068,820
Williams G&B Facility – Appalachian Basin 160 40,616
Williams G&B Facility – Arkla Basin 230 49,804
Williams G&B Facility – Central Western Overthrust 507 154,842
Williams G&B Facility – Green River Basin 535 305,559
Williams G&B Facility – Gulf Coast Basin 220 447,979
Williams G&B Facility – Permian Basin 430 43,806
Williams G&B Facility – Piceance Basin 595 417,705
Williams G&B Facility – Powder River Basin 515 123,816
Williams G&B Facility – San Juan Basin 580 1,656,723
Williams G&B Facility – Strawn Basin 415 324,754
Total Williams 5,915,831
Total US Onshore Oil and Gas Gathering & Boosting 81,000,000
Data extracted from EPA's FLIGHT Tool (http://ghgdata.epa.gov/ghgp).

The data was reported to EPA by facilities as of 4 August 2019.
All emissions data is presented in units of metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent using global warming potentials from
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Fourth Assessment Report.
Table 1—Williams onshore gathering and boosting facilities GHG in CO2e.
Gathering Stations National CH 4 Emissions (metric tons CH4)

Source 1990 2005 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Compressors 126,757 161,098 243,532 255,491 253,209 271,238 278,874
Tanks 135,802 172,593 260,910 273,723 271,278 205,261 180,945
Station Blowdowns 20,560 26,130 39,501 41,441 41,071 63,823 62,020
Dehydrator Vents –
Large Units 29,975 38,096 57,590 60,419 59,879 51,668 48,401
Small Units 306 389 588 617 612 708 575
High-Bleed Pneumatic
Devices 16,698 21,222 32,081 33,656 33,356 32,654 23,666
Intermittent Bleed
Pneumatic Devices 79,110 100,543 151,991 159,455 158,031 173,628 156,662
Low-Bleed Pneumatic
Devices 2,835 3,603 5,446 5,714 5,663 6,344 5,722
Flare Stacks 5,300 6,736 10,183 10,683 10,588 9,394 13,935
AGRU 47 60 90 94 94 91 88
Pneumatic Pumps 15,844 20,137 30,441 31,936 31,651 23,391 24,878
Gas Engines 169,766 215,760 326,164 342,182 339,126 363,534 373,753
Dehydrator Leaks 851 1,081 1,634 1,715 1,699 1,852 1,882
Yard Piping 37,206 47,286 71,482 74,992 74,323 76,709 85,115
Separators 559 710 1,073 1,126 1,116 1,152 1,278
Desiccant Dehydrators 8 11 16 17 17 38 4
Total Emissions 641,624 815,454 1,232,724 1,293,262 1,281,711 1,281,484 1,257,799
Previous Estimate 1,051,775 1,217,024 2,063,775 2,163,417 2,143,324 2,218,773 NA
NA (Not Applicable)
Table 2—Gathering stations national CH4 emissions (metric tons of CH4).

Gathering Stations National CO 2 Emissions (metric tons CO2)
Source 1990 2005 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Compressors 15,277 19,416 29,351 30,793 30,517 32,690 33,611
Tanks 420,699 534,676 808,271 847,965 840,391 633,931 1,294,821
Station Blowdowns 1,587 2,017 3,049 3,199 3,170 4,923 9,572
Large Units 369,890 470,102 710,654 745,554 738,894 763,329 796,516
Small Units 332 422 638 669 663 1,266 4,860
High-Bleed Pneumatic
Devices 1,143 1,452 2,195 2,303 2,282 2,120 1,714
Intermittent Bleed
Pneumatic Devices 5,240 6,659 10,067 10,561 10,467 13,172 13,066
Low-Bleed Pneumatic
Devices 213 271 409 429 425 399 410
Flare Stacks 1,354,751 1,721,783 2,602,824 2,730,646 2,706,255 2,300,171 4,205,760
AGRU 246,880 313,765 474,319 497,612 493,167 527,835 643,969
Pneumatic Pumps 963 1,224 1,850 1,941 1,924 1,683 1,679
Dehydrator Leaks 103 130 197 207 205 223 227
Yard Piping 4,484 5,699 8,615 9,038 8,958 9,245 10,258
Separators 67 86 129 136 135 139 154
Desiccant Dehydrators + + + + + + +
Total Emissions 2,421,629 3,077,701 4,652,569 4,881,053 4,837,454 4,291,126 7,016,615
Previous Estimate 93,791 143,218 221,279 233,320 232,491 239,459 NA
NA (Not Applicable)
+ Less than 0.5 metric tons
Table 3—Gathering stations national CO2 emissions (metric tons CO2).
roduction, with the highest emissions

p ing, and increased 47% from 2017 to 2018 and from 2017 to 2018 is primar-
coming from flare stacks at gathering 2018, primarily because of increases ily because of the increase in emissions
stations, miscellaneous onshore pro- in emissions from flare stacks in G&B from flare stacks in G&B.
duction flaring, and tank flaring. and flaring at tanks. Carbon diox- Read OGF’s “Who’s Minding the
ide emissions were highest in 2018 Methane? Federal Emissions Rules
Carbon dioxide. Emissions from pro- (Table 3). in Flux, States and Industry Take the
duction increased approxi mately Reins” (https://pubs.spe.org/en/ogf/
by a factor of three from 1990 to Nitrous oxide. Emissions increased ogf-article-detail/?art=3242) to com-
2018, because of increases in emis- 35% from 1990 to 2018 and increased pare the results with those reported in
sions at flare stacks in G&B and mis- 36% from 2017 to 2018. The increase the EPA’s 2016 Greenhouse Gas Report-
cellaneous onshore production flar- in nitrous oxide emissions from 1990 to ing Program.
Williams Companies Aims for Net-Zero Carbon Emissions by 2050

Williams Companies announced a nearby scaling renewables to reach its pipeline blowdown GHG emissions were
term goal of a 56% absolute reduc- 2030 target. reduced by 83.5% by using pressure-
tion from 2005 levels in greenhouse In June 2019, Williams joined Our reduction via recompression to lower
gas emissions (GHG) by 2030, aiming Nation’s Energy Future Coalition (One gas-line pressure before pipeline main-
for net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. Future), a natural-gas-industry-led orga- tenance work.
The company owns and operates more nization dedicated to voluntarily achiev-
than 30,000 miles of pipelines and han- ing reductions in methane emissions Landfill and Dairy Farm Biogas
dles approximately 30% of the natu- across the natural-gas value chain. Williams currently delivers renewable
ral gas in the US. It said then that, since 2012, it had natural gas (RNG) in partnership with
Based in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the reduced methane emissions from its energy companies in Idaho, Ohio, Wash-
company plans to reduce meth- gas processing plants and transmission ington, and Texas to transport meth-
ane emissions through leak detec- compression stations by more than 53%, ane emissions captured from landfills
tion and repair, evaluating equipment even though throughput at the facili- or dairy farms. Its Northwest Pipeline is
upgrades on a site-specific basis, and ties had increased by 21%. In 2018, its interconnected with four RNG facilities,

of which two were brought on line in the Yakima County and Augean built new ties. Initial sites have been identified in
past 7 months. pipeline infrastructure to collect bio- Alabama, Colorado, Georgia, Louisiana,
Landfill-produced methane, a byprod- gas from DeRuyter’s anaerobic digester New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Penn-
uct of the waste-decomposition process, fueled by cow manure. The raw biogas is sylvania, and Virginia that are expected
is a renewable fuel because methane cleaned, upgraded, and compressed into to be placed into service beginning in
is captured as biogas instead of being pipeline-quality RNG, which is translate 2021.
released directly into the atmosphere. ported through the new pipeline system In total, Williams’ facilities draw more
Williams analyzes the biogas to ensure and injected into the nearby Williams than 400 MW of electricity. The com-
it is pipeline quality and that it can be Northwest Pipeline for sale as vehicle pany anticipates that agreements with
safely commingled with conventionally fuel. Williams estimated the project will local utilities will allow excess solar
produced gas. offset approximately 50,000 metric tons power not used by its facilities to be sold
Last April, Brightmark Energy, a San of GHG emissions per year, the equiva- back into the grid.
Francisco-based waste and energy devel- lent of taking nearly 11,000 cars off the The company also plans to prepare
opment company, launched a biogas road each year. for future breakthrough technologies
project in Yakima County, Washington, in carbon capture, synthetic gas, and
to convert 150,000 gallons per day of Solar Installations To Power hydrogen as a fuel source to achieve net-
dairy waste from up to 7,000 cows into Company Facilities zero emissions by 2050. JPT
160,000 MMBtu of RNG—the equiva- Williams recently announced a
lent of 1.4 million gallons of gasoline— $400-million solar initiative across The company’s 2019 sustainability
and other products each year. Collab- nine states to power some of its gather- report, released on 3 August 2020,
is available here (https://www.
orating as Augean Renewable Natural ing and processing sites. The installa- williams.com/wp-content/uploads/
Gas, Brightmark, Promus Energy, and tions will be located on company-owned sites/6/2020/07/Williams_2019Sustain
DeRuyter Dairies developed the project. land that is adjacent to existing facili- abilityReport_pages.pdf)
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BP’s Energy Outlook

Foresees Big Shift for Oil Demand
Trent Jacobs, Digital Editor
L ast year, BP theorized that peak oil

demand could occur by 2030. In
a major shift, the international major
winds of the energy landscape cou-
pled with the economic toll of the
COVID-19 pandemic will mean that
accelerate the current growth trajectory
of renewable installations. The biggest
difference between the two is that the
says that peak demand may have global crude demand never again sur- net-zero scenario expects energy con-
already happened. passes 2019’s average of around sumers themselves will move the needle
This is according to BP’s newly pub- 100 million B/D. Along these lines, the even more by changing their behaviors
lished Energy Outlook 2020 which models suggest that 2019 could also and energy-consumption preferences.
outlines different scenarios that the mark the peak of carbon emissions from By 2050, these factors could lead
company has developed to imagine how energy use. global demand to be as low as 55 mil-
the global energy transition will unfold. To varying degrees both the rapid and lion B/D to 30 million B/D.
In two of these scenarios, a “rapid” net-zero scenarios assume that tighter BP’s “business-as-usual” case holds
transition case and a more aggres- government policies around emissions as its underlying assumption that
sive “net-zero” case, the changing and increases in carbon pricing will government policy, technology uptake/

Shares of primary energy in Rapid
100%
Renewables
Natural gas
80% Other
non-fossil fuels
Oil
Coal
60%
40%
20%
0%
1900 1915 1930 1945 1960 1975 1990 2005 2020 2035 2050
Under the “rapid” energy transition scenario, the world is on pace to see what BP describes as a “fundamental shift” in
the global energy mix. Source: BP Energy Outlook 2020.
development, and consumer preferenc energy is set to soar. The outlook high there has never been a sustained decline
es will continue to evolve toward renew lights that fossil fuels accounted for in the consumption of any traded fuel,”
ables at generally the same pace as we 85% of primary energy demand in 2018 said Spencer Dale, the chief econo
have seen in recent years. but that by 2050 they may represent mist at BP.
Regardless, all three scenarios see the only 65 to 20% of the share. As fossil fuels face diminishing
consumption of coal, oil, and natural gas “This would be entirely unprece demand, renewable sources of energy
dropping while the role of renewable dented. In the modern history of energy, could all increase their share of the
Impact of Covid-19 in Rapid

% change as a result of Covid-19 Alternative case: Greater impact from Covid-19
0%
–2%
–4% –3 Mb/d
–2 Mb/d
–5 Mb/d
–6%
–8% GDP
Primary energy
–10% Oil demand
–5 Mb/d
–12%
2025 2050 2025 2050
COVID-19 is assumed in BP’s forward-looking scenarios to have a long-lasting impact on global economic activity and
energy demand. Source: BP Energy Outlook 2020.

15 years. A chief driver will be the retire-
ment or conversion of coal plants in
BP’s Energy Scenarios Explained Asia to run on cleaner-burning gas.
The Rapid Transition Scenario (Rapid) posts a series of policy measures, BP also foresees the potential for gas
led by a significant increase in carbon prices and supported by more- to become considered “a near-zero-
targeted sector-specific measures, which cause carbon emissions from carbon energy.” This will involve a sub-
energy use to fall by around 70% by 2050. This fall in emissions is in
stantial effort to power carbon capture
line with scenarios which are consistent with limiting the rise in global
use and storage (CCUS) projects with
temperatures by 2100 to well below 2°C above preindustrial levels.
gas. The rapid scenario expects that
The Net-Zero Scenario (Net Zero) assumes that the policy measures by 2050 at least 40% of the world’s
embodied in Rapid are both added to and reinforced by significant shifts in gas consumption would come from
societal behavior and preferences, which further accelerate the reduction CCUS facilities. In the more aggres-
in carbon emissions. Global carbon emissions from energy use fall by over sive scenario that figure rises to
95% by 2050, broadly in line with a range of scenarios which are consistent around 75%.
with limiting temperature rises to 1.5°C, may drop as low as 30 million B/D A major driver behind these hypo-
by 2050. thetical shifts will be the increasing pace
of electrification, especially in the trans-
The Business-As-Usual Scenario (BAU) assumes that government policies, portation sector. Dale also pointed out
technologies, and social preferences continue to evolve in a manner and that as the components of the world’s
speed seen over the recent past. A continuation of that progress, albeit
energy system diversify, consumers of
relatively slow, means carbon emissions peak in the mid-2020s. Despite
energy are expected to drive increased
this peaking, little headway is made in terms of reducing carbon emissions
competition for market share.
from energy use, with emissions in 2050 less than 10% below 2018 levels.
In the rapid and net-zero cases, this
Access the entire report at https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/
will result in average annual invest-
energy-economics/energy-outlook.html.
ments in wind and solar buildouts ris-
ing to between $500 and $750 billion.
“That is several times greater than
energy mix from 2018’s figure of 5% account for the market uncertainty that recent investment levels in wind and
to between 20 and 60% by the end lies ahead. solar, and also considerably higher than
of the outlook’s 30-year time frame. the levels of investment in upstream
Wind and solar are expected to repre- The Long Tail of COVID-19 oil and gas in these two scenarios,”
sent the lion’s share of this growth. If BP’s outlook implies that above all said Dale.
that happens, Dale added that renew- others, oil is the energy source that If countries around the world adopt
ables would “penetrate the energy has been most-impacted by the ongoing stronger carbon-pricing strategies, e.g.,
system more quickly than any fuel in pandemic that has claimed more than swap and trade, carbon taxes, then the
modern history.” 900,000 lives worldwide since January. carbon intensity of field operations
BP’s outlook comes a month after the The virus’s lasting effect on global eco- becomes an important factor in the eco-
company announced during an earn- nomic output may reduce oil demand by nomic viability of such projects. BP’s
ings call with investors that it was 3 million B/D in 2025 and 2 million B/D rapid case shows that as much as 2 mil-
attempting to shed its reputation as by 2050. lion B/D could be at risk under such
an international oil company and con- “The majority of this impact stems a scenario.
struct a new one as an integrated ener- from the weaker economic environ- However, BP also points out that the
gy company that will spend $5 billion ment, but there is also an assumed ability of operating companies to lower
annually on low-carbon technologies impact from the various behavioral the carbon profile of existing and future
while also setting a target to reduce changes triggered by the pandemic, as projects is difficult to predict. The out-
its overall oil and gas production by people travel less, switch away from look notes, for instance, that it should
40% by 2030. public transport into alternative modes be possible to reduce emissions from
Dale, who has led the efforts to pro- of travel, and work from home more onshore production sites through elec-
duce the Energy Outlook for several frequently,” explained Dale. trification. Natural gas operators could
years, noted while presenting the com- In contrast to crude’s potential also lower their carbon-intensity pro-
pany’s findings that they are not pre- future, natural gas has a consider- files in the future by using more pipe-
dictions and that all the scenarios out- ably more optimistic outlook in terms lines instead of transporting the prod-
lined are “wrong.” Nonetheless, the of demand. In BP’s rapid scenario for uct as liquefied natural gas, or LNG,
document offers BP and the industry at energy transition, gas continues to see which is a far more energy-intensive
large a range of possibilities that try to consumption grow for at least the next method of transportation. JPT

Multi-Basin Real-Time Perforation Assessment
Using Tube Wave Measurements
Panagiotis Dalamarinis and Hoagie Merry, Seismos
T his article addresses a means to

improve hydraulic fracturing opera-
tions by measuring the perforation effec-
nonintrusive method for identifying
poor wellbore to reservoir connectiv-
ity. Currently, step-rate tests are com-
of the perforations, the quality of their
connection with the near-field region,
and the quality of the near-field region
tiveness on a stage-by-stage basis before monly used (Massaras et al. 2007) to itself (e.g., a region already naturally
the hydraulic fracturing process begins. give the operator an estimate of open fractured) [Dunham et al. 2017].
Observations lead to the conclusion that perforations taking fluid, as well as fric- The measured conductivity of the
pre-frac measurements provide mean- tional losses within the wellbore and most recently perforated stage is com-
ingful insight about well-to-reservoir near-field region. However, these tests pared to an established conductivity
opening, allowing operators to identify are costly, time-consuming, and rarely threshold and pumping parameters of
the difficult-to-treat stages before the accurately confirm the number of poor previously measured and treated stages.
treatment begins. Based on the results perforations (Cramer et al. 2019). Fiber- A warning signal is generated when
of a case study from a North American optic technologies can improve these the conductivity is below the selected
unconventional basin, the limitations uncertainties but are costly and suscep- threshold and/or the reflection’s polarity
and conditions for employing pre-frac tible to damage during installation and/ indicates a closed boundary condition.
measurements are discussed. or operation. The threshold may be adjusted as the
treatment progresses and more infor-
Background How the Method Works mation becomes available on both pre-
Often, perforation operations fail to ini- Low-frequency hydraulic tube waves, frac conductivity values and the effects
tiate a well-established hydraulic com- or Stoneley waves (Stoneley 1924), are of treatments. Stage-by-stage pretreat-
munication between the wellbore and induced at the surface by equipment ment analysis can alert an operator
the reservoir rock. When hydraulic frac- connected to the wellhead. Tube waves of potential difficulties. Having this
turing operations begin, a lack of well- travel rapidly through the fluid within advance knowledge provides the oper-
bore to reservoir connectivity may cause the wellbore and reflect by any changes ator opportunities to make informed,
unexpected difficulties such as unusu- within the hydraulically connected parts operational decisions, e.g., modifying
ally high pumping pressures, difficulty of the wellbore. In this case, the reflec- the treatment design, or in the extreme
injecting the design volumes of fluid and tion off the bottom of the well influ- case, additional perforations—either to
proppant, and/or the inability to achieve ences the tube-wave properties—dis- replace holes that are not adequately
design pumping rate or screenouts. persion and attenuation of the normal taking fluid or to increase intake to
The hydraulic fracturing industry is modes (Hsu, Kostek, and Johnson 1997), the design parameters.
increasingly looking for an efficient, depending on the condition and number
Niobrara Case Study With
Step-Down Test Comparison
Panagiotis Dalamarinis is a completions manager at Seismos. A client in the Niobrara requested the
He has 12 years of combined research and operational experi- characterization of the fracture system
ence in oil and gas. Areas of expertise include well design and using acoustic (tube waves) measure-
optimization, drilling fluids design and optimization, and hydrau- ments after each stage was pumped.
lic fracturing design for conventional and unconventional reser- This is the standard procedure for per-
voirs. He can be reached at p.dalamarinis@seismos.com. foration diagnostics and was success-
fully performed. Operations had already
Hoagie Merry is a senior completions engineer at Seismos. He planned to include step-rate tests on
joined the company at the beginning of 2019. He has experience multiple stages. Seven stages had a step-
in unconventional completion design and diagnostics from coal rate test deployed before the main body
seam gas and tight sand assets in Australia to at least five uncon- of the frac. Stages 2 and 3 employed
ventional basins in North America. With a background in flow-through bridge plugs, and opera-
mechanical engineering, Merry holds an MS in petroleum engi- tions would not allow the use of pre-frac
neering from the University of Houston. He can be reached at measurements after the step-rate tests
hoagie.merry@seismos.com. (with the ball seated on the respective

Perf vs. Tortuosity
120 4000
Pressure (psi)
3000
Near-Field Cl
80
2000
40
1000
0 0
22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Stage
Total Pressure Drop (psi) Post Frac NF Cl Pre Frac NF Cl Tortuosity Friction (psi) Perf Friction (psi)
Fig. 1—Step-rate analysis showing total, perforation, and tortuosity friction pressure loss compared to measured
conductivity.
plug). However, ball-in-place bridge pre-frac NFCI measurement was con- numbers of open perforations (using
plugs were used from Stage 6 onward, siderably high (circa 60). The pre-frac step-rate analysis) but showed high
so pre-frac measurements were possible NFCI was measured before the ball was pre-frac NFCI and resulted in the treat-
and provided an opportunity to com- dropped to seal the bridge plug, but the ment of these stages achieving high
pare the results with step-rate tests. post-frac NFCI measurement of the pre- rates (designed rate was 85 bbl/min).
Fig. 1 shows the analysis of the step- vious stage was one-third that of the Stages 7, 12, 14, and 18 registered as high
rate tests for those stages for which this pre-frac NFCI measurement of Stage 3, risk (measuring closed system and/or
technique was used. The dark blue bars suggesting that a considerable portion lower than 7 NFCI). Significant pumping
represent the total friction with the yel- of the measurement was that of the near- problems were experienced with these
low dots representing the perforation field region of Stage 3. This suggests that stages, most notably stages 12 and 18
friction and the blue dots representing the stage should not be difficult to pump, screening out. Stages 11, 15, and 16 indi-
the tortuosity. The dotted red line rep- and in fact, the plot of pressure, rate, cated moderate risk and experienced
resents the pre-frac Near-Field Clus- and concentration of that stage should some difficulty pumping.
ter Index (NFCI) while the dotted gray not demonstrate challenging events
represents post-frac NFCI. Two obser- compared to other stages. Note the rel- Conclusions
vations are a relation between low pre- atively flat rate close to the designed A simple pre-frac assessment using
frac NFCI and high perf friction (psi) 85 bbl/min, effective breaks in the for- acoustic measurements can be readily
and between high post-frac NFCI and mation, and steadily increasing prop- performed in the time window between
high tortuosity. pant addition. the perforation operation and the begin-
To compare the value of step-rate Looking at the summary of all stages ning of the main fracture treatment.
tests to the pre-frac measurements of in the well (Fig. 2), significant chal- These measurements and analysis do
the perforation condition, Stage 3 mea- lenges occurred during pumping for not impact operations and can provide
surements of friction were evaluated. the stages with very low pre-frac NFCI a significant indication of the quality
Note the apparent high-pressure loss and a ball-in-place bridge plug (Stage 6 of the connection between the wellbore
due to perforation friction (20 out of 40 onward), as indicated by the aver- and the formation through the perfo-
holes are estimated to be open), yet the age rate. Stages 2 and 3 indicated low rations. This allows the operator(s) to
make informed decisions to the design
plan that will result in an improved
Avg Rate/ Perfs open/ Avg Rate/ Perfs open/ fracturing operation.
designed designed Pre Frac designed designed Pre Frac
Stage 85 (bpm) 39 NFCl Stage 85 (bpm) 39 NFCl The relationship between the pre-frac
1 73.5 n/a n/a 10 79.4 n/a 19.6 perforation evaluation and the treat-
2 83.3 23 15.99 11 72.5 17 11.8 ment of that stage has been observed
3 85 20 62.82 12 69.7 n/a 1.89 in three unconventional plays to date:
4 81.5 n/a 59.79 13 71.4 n/a 10.4
5 78.8 n/a 78.18 14 69.9 n/a 8.85
the Niobrara, the Eagle Ford, and the
6 72.1 n/a 19.16 15 66.3 22 11.91 Haynesville. While the rock type alone
7 71.5 23 4.61 16 77.1 22 11.81 can affect the perforation quality and
8 73.9 n/a 44.63 17 78.1 n/a 24.21 rate of success, a basin/field agnostic
9 78.7 n/a 24.9 18 6.5 20 2.14
series of results indicates that good con-
Fig. 2—Stages showing the calculated number of perforations, average tact with the formation when a high
pumping rate (bbl/min) that could be achieved, and respective pre-frac NFCI. pre-frac near-field conductivity index is

measured consistently results in a suc- References Massaras, L.V., Dragomir, A., and
cessful stage completion (lacking opera- Cramer, D., Friehauf, K., Roberts, G., Chiriac, D. 2007. Enhanced Fracture
tional failures). Conversely, when a low and Whittaker, J. 2019. Integrating Entry Friction Analysis of the
pre-frac NFCI is measured, regardless DAS, Treatment Pressure Analysis Rate Step-Down Test. https://doi.
of the basin or plan and unless costly and Video-Based Perforation org/10.2118/106058-MS.
and time-consuming mitigative action Imaging to Evaluate Limited Entry Stoneley, R. 1924. Elastic Waves at
is taken, there are frequent difficulties Treatment Effectiveness. https://doi. the Interface of Separation of Two
in pumping the stage per the design, org/10.2118/194334-MS. Solids. Proceedings of the Royal
including early screenout followed by Dunham, E.M., Harris, J.M., Zhang, Society of London., A. 106(738), pp.
intervention to clean out. J., Quan, Y., and Mace, K. 2017. 416—428. https://doi.org/10.1098/
The cost associated with operational Hydraulic Fracture Conductivity rspa.1924.0079.
difficulties, especially a screenout that Inferred From Tube Wave
yields a blocked well requiring coiled Reflections. SEG Technical Program This article contains highlights of paper
tubing or other means of clean out, Expanded Abstracts. https://doi. SPE 201686-MS, “Multi-Basin Case Study of
can be offset by the addition of pre- org/10.1190/segam2017-17664595.1. Real-Time Perforation Quality Assessment
for Screen Out Mitigation and Treatment
frac measurements and analysis dur- Hsu, Chaur-Jian, Kostek, S, and Design Optimization Using Tube Wave
ing the operation. Applying a pre-frac Johnson, D.J. 1997. Tube Waves Measurements,” to be presented during
assessment requires no intervention, and Mandrel Modes: Experiment the 2020 Virtual SPE Annual Technical
no additional time, no additional risk, and Theory. The Journal of the Conference and Exhibition on 13 October.
Additional case studies based on results
and minimal cost compared to alternate Acoustical Society of America 102, from the Eagle Ford and Haynesville shales
diagnostics such as step-rate tests and 3277. Acoustical Society of America. are described in this paper. Visit https://
fiber optics. JPT https://doi.org//10.1121/1.420390 www.atce.org for more information.
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TECHNOLOGY FOCUS
Offshore Drilling and Completion

Martin Rylance, SPE, Senior Adviser, BP
As the saying goes, “Time is the longest It’s never straightforward In deepwater, subsea, and extended-
distance between two places.” There is no reach wells, and any high-cost environ-
truer phrase when it comes to the oil field to be truly innovative. ment, a measurable reduction of rig time
and our offshore drilling and comple- You need the culture, the in whatever form will be matched by a
tions operations. While saving seconds
company, and the employees substantial economic benefit. Specifically
adds up to minutes and minutes eventu- targeting ingrained thinking, the selected
ally add up to hours, we need truly inno- to be aligned. papers demonstrate the game-changing
vative thinking to make major changes in results that can be achieved even when
the way we execute such operations. targeting long-established norms. They
It’s never straightforward to be truly and the industry today needs innovation demonstrate everything that our indus-
innovative. You need the culture, the com- badly if it is going to continue to operate try should be proud of and what we strive
pany, and the employees to be aligned. in some of these traditionally high-cost for. I hope you enjoy reading them as
That is often easier said than done. When environments. The papers I selected here much as I did and see the potential appli-
true innovation is achieved, however, the represent great examples of such impact- cations in your own business. JPT
resulting solution/approach often is self- ful innovation, insight, and opportunity
evident and marked by swift adoption by and are aimed at extensive rig-time and
the industry across the globe. Addition- trips out of the well, particularly the com- Recommended additional reading
ally, you need the drive to achieve this, pletion process. at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
SPE 196261 Unique Screen and Sleeve
Martin Rylance, SPE, is senior adviser and engineering manager for Design Allows Selective High-Rate
Water Injection in Deepwater Horizontal
the Frac & Stim Group with BP. He has worked with BP and its
Openhole Completion by Kenneth Johnson,
partners and joint ventures for more than 29 years. Rylance holds a Halliburton, et al.
BS degree in pure mathematics. He has been involved in all aspects
of pumping operations, well control, well interventions, and pres- SPE 197770 Linerless Casing Design:
A Success Story of Synergy, Strong
sure service. Rylance has specialized in unconventional resources
Planning, and Flawless Execution Proving
and fracturing in tectonic and high-pressure/high-temperature for the First Time That a Significant
environments. During his career, he has been responsible for the Reduction in Well Construction Time Is
implementation of numerous intervention campaigns, pilots, and exploration programs. Possible in Nasr Field by Elena Cantarelli,
Having lived in 10 countries and pumped in more than 20, Rylance has created and man- Schlumberger, et al.
aged teams that have delivered thousands of fracturing and stimulation treatments SPE 198144 Innovative Milling
around the world. He has numerous papers and publications to his name. Rylance was Technology Enhances Plugging and
an SPE Distinguished Lecturer in 2008–09 and in 2013–14 and is a member of the JPT Abandonment Performance To Save 11 Rig
Editorial Committee. He can be reached at martin.rylance@se1.bp.com. Days by Tomasz Stanko, Schlumberger, et al.

Multilevel Completions in One Trip:
Development and Deployment
T ypically, the completion of certain

deepwater wells will necessitate
the separate deployment of sandface,
limiting factor to the amount of set-
down weight is the design limits of the
stand-alone screens. These depend on
Technology Selection
Before elements of a completion can
be combined, the role of each element
intermediate, and upper completions. design but are typically on the order of needs to be understood. In the case of
What if this could be achieved in a single 30,000 lbf; thus, this was used as the a deepwater stand-alone-screen com-
trip? In the simplest terms, completing upper limit. The assumptions made in- pletion, the entire system must achieve
in a single trip reduces the overall clude the following: the following:
completion time by half and more. The ◗ Friction factors: 0.25 for casing and ◗ Deploy the entire completion
complete paper describes the hurdles that 0.3 for open hole in one trip
have prevented single-trip installation ◗ Block weight: 175,000 lbm ◗ Manage all well-control situations
of upper and lower completions in the ◗ Mud density: 10.2 lbm/gal during deployment
complex world of subsea and deepwater ◗ Yield of pipe: 90% ◗ Land the completion hardware
applications and examines the processes, ◗ Tripping in and out speed: 60 ft/min on depth
technologies, and risk-mitigation ◗ Completion interval: 10,253–10,685 ft ◗ Displace the openhole-to-breaker
steps that took a concept from pilot ◗ Maximum allowable screen running fluid
to successful deployment. setdown weight: 30,000 lbf ◗ Close and test the toe isolation
◗ Fluid levels to surface remotely
Introduction First, the existing two-trip system ◗ Set and test the production packer
Almost universally in offshore opera- was considered. The study considered ◗ Operate screen sleeves remotely
tions, operators have elected to deploy the expected string weight and the ac- and confirm communication with
completions in multiple trips. Simple tual weight seen on the driller’s con- the reservoir
completions on land are often deployed sole during deployment as well as the ◗ Operate and test the reservoir
in a single-trip fashion, and the deploy- minimum weight to buckle the deploy- barrier valve remotely
ment of cemented single-trip gas-lift sys- ment string helically. The string can be ◗ Displace the annulus-to-packer fluid
tems on platform locations in the Gulf of installed to depth successfully, and, if ◗ Operate and test the safety valve
Thailand is commonplace. Subsea single- necessary, 30,000 lbf can be set down ◗ Pressure-test all barriers
trip systems have been deployed in the in order to overcome any obstruc- The primary goal in the deployment is
Campos Basin; however, these tend to be tions without buckling the deployment for the completion to reach total depth
relatively simple and in wells not requir- string. The completion can be run to (TD). The primary technological driver
ing sand-control solutions. They typical- depth successfully without exceeding is maintaining the pumpdown capa-
ly consist of a safety valve, gas-lift man- the 30,000-lbf limit. bility of the string. In this respect, the
drels, polished bore receptacle (PBR), The same well was then considered first aspect of the technology selection
production packer, and re-entry guide. using the single-trip completion. The that was considered was the method of
At the time of writing, no one has run completion can be run to depth success- achieving screen-sleeve integrity. Ball-
standalone screens as a single-trip sys- fully without exceeding the 30,000-lbf sealing injection-control-device (ICD)
tem in deepwater applications. limit. While less setdown weight is avail- and chemical-sealing ICD technologies
able in the single-trip completion case, were considered. Once these technolo-
Torque and Drag (T&D) Modeling the limiting factor is the limit on the gies were discounted, however, the tech-
A T&D study was conducted based on screen joints (30,000 lbf), which is the nologies listed as follows were consid-
a representative deepwater well. The same in both types of completion. ered in a ranking matrix determining
how their use in a single-trip comple-
tion would affect each one of the previ-
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights
ously described functions. The simplistic
of paper OTC 30747, “Tripping the Light Fantastic: When Three Become One,” by ranking method considered the goals of
Euan Murdoch, SPE, Paul Day, and Steven Walduck, Weatherford, prepared for the complete system based on the given
the 2020 Offshore Technology Conference, originally scheduled to be held in Houston, technology platform.
4–7 May. The paper has not been peer reviewed. Copyright 2020 Offshore Technology ◗ Control line
Conference. Reproduced by permission. ◗ Electronic timer
The complete paper is available for purchase at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.

◗ Electronic hydraulic pressure 6. The upper ball valve can be itself had to learn how to best handle com-
[without radio frequency cycled closed to test the upper pletions in general. For the next two wells,
identification (RFID)] components; the safety valve can the total completion deployment time
◗ RFID also be tested (optional) dropped below 4 days. This represents
Ultimately, the RFID option was rec- 7. Run in hole to TD a total savings of 60%, or, in financial
ommended for a single-trip completion, 8. Land tubing hanger terms, $3.8 million per well when com-
offering the benefits of being hydrauli- 9. Circulate RFID tags with breaker pared with the existing two-trip system.
cally insensitive; having a function-on- fluid to isolate toe
demand ability; and possessing multi- 10. Pressure-test liner Future Direction
level contingencies, operational flexibility, 11. Pressure up to set the lower packer The single-trip system creates new pos-
and an extensive run history. 12. Apply pressure cycle to sibilities both in technical and financial
open RFID ICDs terms. Operators identify better reser-
Proposed Single-Trip System 13. Close and test RFID ball valve voir surveillance routinely as a priority,
Fig. 1 illustrates the schematic that was 14. Apply pressure cycle to open the but this is rarely possible. The technical
constructed and reviewed against the production sliding sleeve solution that currently offers the most in-
input specifications for a single-trip sys- 15. Circulate packer fluid to clean up formation in a real-time situation is dis-
tem. The proposed completion program the annulus tributed acoustic sensing and distributed
is shown below: 16. Test safety valve (optional) temperature sensing. Early in the devel-
1. Assemble reservoir section 17. Set and test the production packer opment of the technology, fiber systems
assemblies in the rotary table 18. Suspend the well suffered from hydrogen blackening; how-
2. Pump (or drop) RFID tags to close 19. Using a remotely operated vehicle, ever, this appears to have been overcome,
the lower RFID ball valve apply a pressure cycle to open the and life-of-well fiber can now be consid-
3. Pressure-test liner to full upper ball valve ered for use in sandface applications.
test pressure A recent job performed with RFID tools
4. Apply pressure cycle to open the Results in the North Sea demonstrated that RFID
lower RFID ball valve The RFID components were taken from components could be housed to allow
5. Assemble the rest of the the proposed system and deployed in a the feedthrough of fiber within the given
components test well in Aberdeen. The goal of this geometry. Nine tools were deployed in
system-integration test (SIT) was to iron the well. The first was programmed to
out any issues related to deploying the close on an RFID tag; the rest were pro-
new system in a low-cost environment grammed to open on various delays fol-
at a pace that allowed any issues to be lowing a pressure cycle. All tools per-
Safety Valve
diagnosed, learned from, and trialled to formed successfully, and, in each case,
find an optimal solution. The final off- the opening of the tool was observed in
shore well program could be built on real time on both a downhole gauge and
these learnings. the downhole fiber.
Following the successful SIT, the com- However, sandface applications have
Gauge
ponents were deployed offshore west Af- one major obstacle—how to connect the
rica as part of a single-trip completion. fiber between the upper and lower com-
Annular Release PBR A typical two-trip system takes 9.96 days pletions reliably. By adopting a single-
to deploy. In one representative case de- trip philosophy, the need for a wet con-
scribed in the literature, the first well nection can be eliminated. This would
Production Packer took 6.1 days to deploy the single-trip result in a more-reliable sandface fiber
completion. This represented a 40% sav- solution. The greater volume of real-time
ings in rig time. It is worth noting that data that can be gathered by the operator
Landing Nipple this was a new rig deploying its first com- could be used to optimize the reservoir
pletion. Thus, apart from optimizing the model and make production decisions
RFID Production single-trip completion system, the rig more quickly. JPT
Sliding Sleeve
Isolation Packer
Landing Nipple
RFID Multicycle Ball Valve (Upper) RFID Reservoir Isolation Valve

RFID Ball Reamer
Fig. 1—Schematic Sealing Contraction Joint
Valve (Lower) Shoe
constructed and Wire-Wrap Screen With RFID ICD
reviewed against
input specifications
for a single-trip system.

Seal Qualification and
Single-Trip Lockdown Sleeve Reduce Risk
T raditionally, a wellhead system

requires a drilling lockdown sleeve
(LDS) during drilling operations to
required. When this LDS is used, the need
to run a lead impression tool (LIT) before
running the lockdown sleeve is eliminat-
ensure that the seal assembly is rigid ed. Thus, an extra tool on the rig floor is
and prevents dynamic movement. eliminated, as well as a trip into the well.
By eliminating the LDS, however, the By eliminating the LIT run, between 5
operator will save multiple trips into and 10 hours could be saved, depend-
the well. Because of a seal-assembly ing on water depth. Similar to the way
design outlined in the complete paper, in which LDS saves operators both oper-
development of a single-trip LDS was ating expense and capital expenditure,
possible for wellhead systems requiring the dynamic casing hanger seal assembly
extremely high lockdown requirements, does as well. The dynamic casing hanger
allowing the user to save trips required seal assembly has a higher lockdown
by legacy designs. capacity than the industry-standard
seal assembly, which allows this seal
New Subsea Challenges to be run downhole without installa-
In high-pressure/high-temperature sub- tion of an LDS. Because of this design, Fig. 1—Single-trip LDS.
sea wells, annular pressure buildup, running the casing hanger seal assem-
caused by thermal expansion of fluid, en- bly could save between three and five hurdle is the industry’s perception of how
dangers well integrity. This phenomenon trips into the well, reducing overall risk. dynamic metal seals degrade after each
is caused by the increase of pressure dur- cycle. The design criterion for creating
ing the production phase, temperature Casing Hanger Seal Assembly: Design a casing hanger seal assembly with a
differential during the drilling phase, Challenges. The industry has struggled proven dynamic metal-to-metal seal with
and fluid parameters. This type of annuli with developing a casing hanger seal 200 cycles performed was met by rede-
pressure buildup causes uplift as high as assembly lockdown mechanism that can signing the sealing mechanism on the
3,200,000 lbf. The number of times the withstand more than 1,000,000 lbf. assembly. Once the dynamic seal por-
system needs to be shut down could be Thus, it has become accepted that, if tion of the casing hanger seal assembly
as many as eight per year for a 25-year a lockdown requirement exceeds was proved, the lockdown mechanism
well life; the life of the field during the 1,000,000 lbf, an LDS will be installed was designed.
production phase, therefore, could see to achieve this higher lockdown rating. To achieve 2,000,000-lbf lockdown
as many as 200 total cycles. This goal, however, is complicated by capacity, a total redesign of the upper
the limited space manufacturers must body of the seal assembly and locking
Saving Rig Time by modify within the load path. Therefore, grooves was performed. The upper body
Implementing New Technologies the lockdown rating may not be limited was designed around the goals of mov-
The technologies presented in the com- by the lock ring itself but by something ing the load path and strengthening
plete paper are the single-trip LDS and else within the design, such as threads the system.
the dynamic casing hanger seal assem- or body stresses.
bly. The single-trip LDS is used if an Because a production well might see as Single-Trip LDS: Design Challenges.
extremely high lockdown capacity is many as 200 cycles over its life, another The single-trip LDS is installed with
weight set to energize the lock ring and
right-hand torque set to eliminate any
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of
gaps within the locking mechanism, thus
paper OTC 29943, “Seal Qualification and Single-Trip Lockdown Sleeve Reduce Risk
avoiding the relative upward movement
Through Innovative and Advanced Technology,” by Scott Patrick Ellisor, Rodrigo between the casing hanger and high-
Albani Queiroz, and Carlos Eduardo Martins Gaban, Dril-Quip, et al., prepared pressure housing (Fig. 1). The LDS de-
for the 2019 Offshore Technology Conference Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, 29–31 October. The sign is intended to be installed in one
paper has not been peer reviewed. Copyright 2019 Offshore Technology Conference. trip, in addition to other design require-
Reproduced by permission. ments such as being set in open water,

passing through the drilling riser and under both maximum load and pressure
blowout preventer, maintaining exist- and at both ends of the operable temper-
ing capacities, landing out on top of the ature range. As the lockdown feature of
casing hanger, and opening the lock ring the seal was tested, pressure was main-
without the need for an LIT. These is- tained below the seal assembly. This veri-
sues must be overcome during the de- fied that the lockdown rating of the seal
sign phase to ensure the reduction of is completely decoupled from the applied
nonproductive time during the installa- pressure below the seal.
tion phase. Testing has also proved that metal-to-
metal seals can be developed and effec-
Casing Hanger and Seal-Assembly De- tively perform to their full pressure and
velopment. Testing completed in 2017 temperature ratings while being allowed
combined successfully the validation of to move within the geometric range of
a nominally sized 18.75-in. casing h anger motion allotted by dimensional tolerance
seal element with the validation of the and clearance features within the well-
structural components included in the head system. The results from this test-
design of the seal. The completion of ing disprove former notions that these
this single test has shown that the cas- types of metal-to-metal seals must be
ing hanger seal assembly is fully quali- held completely static in order to main-
fied to the claimed pressure and temper- tain the isolation of annular pressure.
SPE eMentoring ature ratings as well as the casing hanger
lockdown rating in excess of API stan- Single-Trip LDS Development. Testing
dards. The ratings for which this seal was performed successfully on the nom-
No boundaries, meets the validation standards include inally sized single-trip first- position
the following: and second-position casing hanger
no borders. ◗ 20,000 psi from above LDS with the validation of the struc-
eMentoring makes ◗ 15,000 psi from below tural components. The completion of
◗ 35 to 350°F this test has shown that the single-trip
a world of difference. ◗ 2,000,000-lbf lockdown at all LDS was fully qualified to the claimed
pressures load ratings in excess of the standards
eMentoring gives SPE members
◗ 200 extended life cycles set forth in API 17D, 2nd Edition. The
a way to contribute to the E&P The fixturing for this test allowed the ratings for which this single-trip LDS
industry by sharing industry casing hanger and seal assembly to react meet the validation standards include
insights and practical career within the same geometric degrees of an ambient temperature of 60–90°F and
freedom required for operation within 2,000,000-lbf lockdown.
advice with young professionals,
an actual field installation. No addition- The fixturing and parts for this test al-
or by helping university students al structural members were put in place lowed for the casing hanger and LDS to
with academic and career to fix the seal into the annulus between react within the same boundary condi-
direction. Young professionals the test fixture housing and the test fix- tions required for operation in an actual
ture casing hanger. External load was field installation. No additional struc
also have the unique opportunity
applied to the test article casing hanger tural members were put in place to fix the
to serve as mentors to students. while the maximum rated pressure was casing hanger at the high-pressure hous-
applied below the seal element. This sim- ing. External load was applied to the test-
Join the program that is ulated all scenarios in which the maxi- article casing hanger while the maximum
making a difference in the mum pressures, temperatures, and loads rated load was applied from below. This
lives of SPE members. might be applied. This method of testing simulated all scenarios in which the max-
combined the two critical aspects of seal imum loads may be applied. This method
go.spe.org/ementor_JPT qualification, which typically are tested of testing combined the two critical as-
independently, and qualified them simul- pects of the LDS qualification, which are
taneously across the entire temperature typically tested independently, and quali-
envelope for which the seal assembly is fied them simultaneously across the am-
rated. By combining both critical quali- bient temperature envelope for which
fication tests and by using the complete the LDS is rated. As the lockdown feature
seal assembly within the test, every min- of the LDS was tested, load was main-
ute detail of the seal design was incor- tained below the LDS assembly. The lock-
porated into proving the seal’s ratings. down capacity of this LDS design will
Structural stability within the seal as- provide the full 2,000,000 lbf of lock-
sembly was verified while the seal was down up to the rated well loads. JPT
JPT • OCTOBER 2020

From Completion to Production
Without Intervention in a Subsea Well
A s part of an improvement
program focused on increasing
standardization and efficiency
Haltenbanken in the Norwegian Sea
began 16 July 2019.
Trestakk is tied back to the Åsgard A
requirements while still minimizing as-
sociated risk. Because the IMR vessel
used to install the VXT is not rigged
on subsea well operations on the floating production vessel. The Petro- for wireline operations, the goal was
Norwegian continental shelf, the leum Safety Authority Norway and the to achieve a wireline-intervention-free
operator aimed to standardize future Norwegian Petroleum Directorate ap- subsea completion. New or improved
subsea wells using vertical trees proved the application for extending technology was sought for temporary
(VXT) instead of horizontal trees. the lifetime of the installation to 2031 well suspension, from removal of the
This would enable batch completion as a result of the additional recover- BOP to installation and testing of the
of several wells with a rig, followed by able volumes from Trestakk, for which VXT. A glass plug with fluid bypass in-
XT installation with an installation, field production is expected to last stalled as part of the completion string
maintenance, and repair (IMR) vessel, for 12 years. was proposed.
eliminating the need for a rig or The goal for Trestakk was to achieve Glass-plug technology enables three
lightweight intervention (LWI) vessel. first recoverable oil at surface as soon positions—open, closed, and then open
The complete paper describes the as possible. The method selected was again. The glass plug is first installed with
development and implementation of deployment of the completion string the bypass ports in open position, allow-
a glass-plug solution that closed the and VXT from a rig. The proposed so- ing for standard completion activities to
technical gaps that had previously lution was a barrier valve to be inte- be conducted. For example, lighter fluid
inhibited fully intervention-free grated as part of the completion string. can be pumped into the tubing before
operation for completion installation. As an operational improvement, the setting a packer, allowing for bullheading
Trestakk team decided to design the in a well-control situation. The bypass is
Background and Field wells with the intention of excluding shifted to the closed position after a pre-
Information wireline. Common methods for suspen- defined number of tubing pressure cy-
Trestakk is an oil and gas field in the sion and initiation of subsea wells dur- cles have acted on the glass-plug system.
Norwegian Sea in Block 6406/3. The ing blowout-preventer (BOP) removal Once the bypass is closed, a well barrier
field lies in 300 m of water approxi- and VXT installation include installing is established. The glass-plug barrier is
mately 27 km southeast of Åsgard A. shallow-set bridge plugs in the tubing shattered only after the tubing above the
Trestakk was discovered in 1986 and or a tubing hanger plug. The plug is then glass has been subjected to a predefined
the plan for development and opera- removed using a riserless LWI vessel number of pressure cycles while apply-
tion was approved in 2017. Equinor op- or rig. This method is often associated ing a specific overbalance. After the bar-
erates the field with 59.1% ownership with high cost and enhanced opera- rier element has shattered the valve, it
interest, with Vår Energi owning the tional risk. activates its final open state, resulting
remaining 40.9%. A technology group was assem- in full-bore inner diameter through the
The field development covers a sub- bled to overcome the obstacles inhib- valve. To initiate production, the glass
sea template with four well slots and iting a fully intervention-free opera- plug can be opened either from a rig or
one satellite well. A total of five wells tion for completion installation. A joint from the Åsgard A platform. The solution
will be drilled—three for production operator/service company technology was developed and qualified according
and two for gas injection. Produc- team collaborated to develop a glass- to ISO 14310 V0Q1 / ISO 28781 V1Q1 and
tion from the Trestakk subsea field on plug solution that met all necessary was installed in less than a year.
Technical Challenges
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Judy Feder, contains highlights of
and Design
paper OTC 30697, “From Completion to Production Without Intervention in a
The technical challenge was to develop
VXT Subsea Completed Well,” by Susanne Loen Ommundsen, Interwell, and a valve with a throughbore initial open
Berit Sara Schiefloe and Olle Balstad, Equinor, et al., prepared for the 2020 Offshore state, an intermediate closed state, and
Technology Conference, originally scheduled to be held in Houston, 4–7 May. The a final open state that could be inte-
paper has not been peer reviewed. Copyright 2020 Offshore Technology Conference. grated as part of the completion string
Reproduced by permission. above the production packer. To achieve

schedule. This optimization was
achieved even while using the rig to de-
ploy and install the VXT. Therefore, in
larger fields, when the wells are pre-
drilled and completed in advance of
being hooked up to production facil-
ities, the most-cost-efficient method
would be to batch-complete the wells
and install the VXTs at a later stage
with an IMR vessel.
Fig. 1—Intermediate or second state of the IRBV.
Conclusions
By incorporating the valve into the com-
pletion string and ensuring that well
design and operation are planned ac-
cordingly, wireline intervention can be
avoided entirely. The optimized comple-
tion design was one of the cost-reducing
contributors to Trestakk field develop-
ment. By implementing the new tech-
nology, the operator could carry out the
VXT subsea completion from a rig with-
Fig. 2—The final or third state of the IRBV. out wireline intervention and without
needing to wait for an LWI or IMR to
start production.
a robust design, a new technology was The IRBV valve housing is supplied The tool can be used in various appli-
developed based on a field-proven inter- with crossovers and tubing pup joints cations, including as a shallow and deep
remote shatter valve (IRSV). The IRSV is at both ends, forming an independent barrier for both conventional and sub-
a glass plug qualified to ISO 14310 V0Q1 tubing joint for running between reg- sea completion. It can act as a shallow
and ISO 28781 V1Q1. It is installed in ular tubing joints. All internal tubing barrier when removing the BOP until
closed position as part of the comple- body threads are metal-to-metal seal the XMT is installed and tested. It can
tion string or below an intervention premium connections. The valve is in- also function as a deep barrier, allow-
packer. The tool acts either as barrier, stalled with the bypass ports in open po- ing for communication down the tubing
packer setting device, or a combina- sition, allowing the completion activi- until it is closed (i.e., to avoid running
tion of both. The IRSV is opened by sub- ties to be performed. the upper completion closed-ended or
jecting it to a predetermined number of The bypass can be closed, and the bar- allowing for communication when run-
tubing pressure cycles. The required cy- rier inside the valve housing is remov- ning standalone screens).
cling pressures are determined based on able. Both functions are activated by By using the glass plug, the drilling
well-specific parameters such as pres- cycling the pressure inside the tubing. rig can batch-complete subsea wells and
sure below, pressure above, and avail- When the barrier has been removed, at a later stage batch-install the VXT
able wellhead pressure when opening the IRBV housing remains as an integral with an IMR vessel. The plug can also
the plug. part of the tubing string. be installed as part of a conventional
The solution developed for Trestakk completion string when a shallow bar-
is an inter-remote barrier valve (IRBV), Case Study, Trestakk A-4H rier is required, eliminating the need
a shallow glass valve deployed as part The successfully developed and qual- for intervention.
of the completion string in the open ified IRBV was installed on the first The IRBV was successfully devel-
position, allowing for the comple- Trestakk well, A-4H. The purpose of the oped within 12 months in close col-
tion activities to be conducted and IRBV in this application was to act as a laboration with the Trestakk team and
the possibility of bullheading in the shallow secondary barrier when remov- the operator’s technical headquarters.
event of a well-control situation. Be- ing the BOP and installing and testing Since then it has been successfully in-
fore BOP removal, the IRBV is activat- the VXT with a rig. stalled and operated on three wells on
ed to the closed position, leaving an The glass shattered at bleed down Trestakk, and a new size has been de-
ISO 14310 V0 barrier in the well (Fig. 1). at 1,015-psi overbalance, as expected. veloped. The estimated time saved by
When the VXT has been installed and When implementing the shallow glass using a shallow glass plug with a bypass
tested, the barrier is removed by tub- plug with bypass in line with a deeper is 5 to 6 days, resulting in a total cost
ing pressure cycles, shattering the glass secondary barrier, the first oil on sur- savings per well of approximately $1 to
valve (Fig. 2). face was achieved at an optimized $2 million. JPT

TECHNOLOGY FOCUS
Tight Reservoirs
Leonard Kalfayan, SPE, Principal Adviser, Hess Corporation
The low-oil-price environment contin- Major operators are paper IPTC 20260, presents the results
ues to challenge and pressure our indus- of a geomechanics study on rock sensitiv-
try to reduce costs and optimize produc- increasingly stepping out, ity to increasing compressive stress, such
tion. While cost reductions and efficiency supporting development of as would be experienced with high draw-
improvements are always the primary
alternative, unconventional downs and accelerated depletion. The
focus during downturns such as we are paper describes and quantifies the stress-
now experiencing, history tells us that energy sources…as the dependence of compaction and permea-
many technology and application break- industry looks to the future. bility for anisotropic rock matrix, natural
throughs have been developed in such fractures, and hydraulic fractures.
periods. This is also a time for conduct- The second, paper SPE 197097, dis-
ing or supporting technical studies that parent-well proppant cleanouts as well as cusses the enhancement of frac-hit
can provide insight on how operators to maximize production from both par- mitigation treatments with surfactant
can optimize production—especially ent and child wells. With reduced new chemistry, showing that surfactant
from unconventional-resource develop- well activity, it is also increasingly impor- additive to the child-well treatments
ments. In the meantime, major operators tant to dampen the sharp early-time pro- can migrate to parent wells, activating
are increasingly stepping out, support- duction rate declines as much as pos- oil-recovery mechanisms.
ing development of alternative, uncon- sible, having longer-term recovery as Finally, for something different but
ventional energy sources, such as natural the objective rather than just high initial within the world of unconventional
gas production from gas hydrates, as the production. Unlike with conventional oil resources, the third paper featured this
industry looks to the future. wells, for example, unconventional wells month, paper SPE 29516, is a report on
With reduced new unconventional well have not seen the same degree of atten- several offshore gas hydrate production
activity, practices such as frac-hit mitigation placed on the effects of high draw- tests in offshore sand reservoirs, which
tion—pressurization of parent wells dur- downs on productivity decline. have become more-viable natural gas
ing child-well fracture stimulation—have Two paper synopses featured this resource targets given the advancement
become increasingly important to reduce month are along those lines. The first, in hydrate production technologies. The
report focuses on key production tests
conducted in northern Canada, Alaska,
Leonard J. Kalfayan, SPE, is a principal adviser and technical Japan, and the South China Sea. JPT
authority for production engineering and stimulation with Hess
Corporation in Houston. He has 39 years of experience in the oil,
gas, and geothermal industries. Kalfayan’s background is in pro-
duction enhancement, new technology development and imple- Recommended additional reading
mentation, global technical support, and business development. at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
Before joining Hess in 2009, he worked for the Union Oil Company
SPE 195910 Codevelopment of Multiple
of California and BJ Services and as an industry consultant. Targets in Permian Unconventional
Kalfayan was a 2005 SPE Distinguished Lecturer and a 2013 SPE Distinguished Reservoirs by Richard Cao, Shell, et al.
Member. He has served on several SPE program and technical committees. Kalfayan is
SPE 199689 Developing Upscaling
author of more than 30 SPE and other journal publications and holds 13 US patents. He
Approach for Swarming Hydraulic
is also author of the book Production Enhancement With Acid Stimulation, now in its Fractures Observed at Hydraulic Fracturing
second edition; co-author of the book The Energy Imperative; and co-editor of the SPE Test Site Through Multiscale Simulations
monograph Acid Stimulation. He is a member of the JPT Editorial Committee and can by Wei Fu, Lawrence Livermore National
be reached at lkalfayan@hess.com. Laboratory, et al.

Study Quantifies Stress Sensitivity
of Fractured Tight Reservoirs
W ells in unconventional
reservoirs can experience
sharp rate declines in the early
conductivities) of induced fractures, nat-
ural fractures (or laminations), and the
matrix. The increase in effective stress
EUR as much as 38% over a period
of 30 years of production.
◗ Montney formation: The operator
stage of production, especially when can lead to proppant embedment and applied downhole chokes vs.
experiencing aggressive drawdown. crushing, formation spalling, fines mi- surface chokes to manage
One key factor affecting rate decline gration, rock compaction, and closing drawdown, reduce liquid loading,
is rock sensitivity to increasing of natural fractures. Many of these pro- mitigate surface hydrate formation,
compressive stress. The complete cesses are irreversible and lead not only eliminate sand flowback, and
paper describes and quantifies the to rapid production decline but also reduce costs. The restricted
stress-dependence of compaction to reduction of estimated ultimate re- drawdown led to higher production
and permeability for anisotropic covery (EUR). performance and potentially
rock matrices, natural fractures, In 2011, analysis of a shale consortia increased EUR by 36% after 1 year
and hydraulic fractures, based database found that wells with restricted of production.
on comprehensive rock tests of a rate (limited drawdown) have 2 to 3 bcf ◗ Utica/Point Pleasant: A managed
fractured tight reservoir. higher EUR than wells with open rate drawdown strategy was applied
(unlimited drawdown). The analysis with a daily pressure drop of 15 to
Stress Sensitivity and also observed that the decline of stress- 25 psi to sustain the production at
Drawdown dependent permeability in propped frac- a flat rate for approximately 1 year
Laboratory data show that rock perme- tures (millidarcy) is not as severe as the with an increase of 30% in EUR.
ability can be reduced by 10 to 99% with reduction in unpropped fractures (mi- ◗ Eagle Ford: Rate transient analysis
increasing confining stress. Controlling crodarcy) and matrix (nanodarcy). with high-frequency data was
factors include rock characteristics such Many unconventional fields are nega- used to develop optimal choke
as authigenic cementation, pore struc- tively affected by rock stress sensitivity management and maximize well
ture, clay content, natural fractures, in terms of production and EUR. Fit-for- deliverability. The average 30- and
and pore volume compressibility. Addi- purpose strategies have been developed 90-day cumulative productions of
tional factors include pore throat size to manage drawdown and minimize more than 450 wells increased 100
and shape. Low-permeability rocks are rock and fracture damage. The complete and 87%, respectively.
more sensitive to stress changes than are paper provides several examples, includ- ◗ Vaca Muerta: Operators found
high-permeability rocks. ing the following: that an aggressive drawdown
A direct link exists between stress- ◗ Midland Basin: A 1- to 5-psi/ could lead to a 20% reduction in
dependent permeability reduction and hour drawdown rate reduced the EUR. A pressure drop of 0.25 to
production decline, especially in uncon- loading stress on the proppant 2 psi/hr for the initial 8 months
ventional reservoirs in which production pack significantly. Managed sustained high production without
declines rapidly during the first year. As pressure drawdown also reduced fracture degradation. The timing of
production starts and bottomhole pres- water production, maintained the choke change was critical, with no
sure is lowered, the effective stress on reservoir pressure above saturation substantial reduction in production
the rock near the wellbore, defined as pressure for a longer period, and after reaching pseudosteady
the difference between total stresses and mitigated sand production. pressure decline.
pore pressure, increases. Higher load- ◗ Haynesville: Restricted drawdown The complete paper describes a se-
ing stress reduces the permeabilities (or was found to improve projected ries of stress-sensitivity laboratory tests
on low-porosity, low-permeability rocks
with abundant natural laminations. The
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Judy Feder, contains highlights of paper
effect of drawdown was simulated with
IPTC 20260, “Stress Sensitivity of Fractured Tight Reservoirs,” by Gang Han, SPE, increases of effective confining and load-
Aramco, and Kirk Bartko, SPE, Consultant, prepared for the 2020 International ing stresses. The tests include rock com-
Petroleum Technology Conference, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 13–15 January. The paper paction, anisotropic permeabilities of
has not been peer reviewed. Copyright 2020 International Petroleum Technology laminated rock, permeabilities of both
Conference. Reproduced by permission. tensile fractures and shear and acoustic
For a limited time, the complete paper is free to SPE members at www.spe.org/jpt.

anisotropy. All fractures and laminations
studied were not propped, because abun-
dant literature exists that quantifies the
conductivity of propped fractures. In ad-
th
ng
Shear Stress
dition, recent core and field experiments
s tre
indicate that proppants can only reach r
ea
Sh ϕ1
Co
tens of feet.
mp
act
Compaction in Unconventional
ion
ϕ2
Rocks
cap
Pore volume compressibility is a key
Cohesion
property in history matching unconven-
tional reservoir performance. Because of
the low modulus of kerogen, clay, and UCS1 UCS2
carbonate minerals, high total-organic- Cap Strength2 Cap Strength1
content shales or tight carbonate reser- Normal Stress
voirs are more susceptible to compaction Fig. 1—Mohr-Coulomb diagrams with compaction caps of a traditional rock
with drawdown and depletion. Further- (in black) and a tight unconventional rock (in red).
more, low porosity and small pores in
unconventional rocks exacerbate per- but also affect permeability anisotropy. Conclusions
meability degradation. In overpressured Space between laminations tends to close The complete paper presents a series of
reservoirs, grain/grain contacts are not with increasing confining stress. Second, stress-sensitivity tests on a low-porosity,
well developed. When pore pressure is because of low porosity, any small volu- low-permeability unconventional rock
reduced, the rock matrix needs to carry metric change in compaction has a sig- with abundant laminations. The tests
higher overburden stresses. Lack of nificant effect on pore throats and, there- have quantified the stress dependence of
strong grains and interlocking grain con- fore, permeabilities. compaction and permeability for aniso-
tacts leads to low pore collapse pressure tropic rock matrices, natural fractures,
in many unconventional rocks. Stress Sensitivity of Tensile and hydraulic fractures.
The complete paper discusses several (Hydraulic) and Shear (Natural) The study found that unconventional
compaction tests in detail. To identify Fractures rocks, especially those in overpressured
rocks with higher potential to fail by For unconventional rock with nanodarcy formations, have a high risk of compac-
compaction, various mechanical prop- matrix permeability, induced and natural tion failure and pore collapse, regardless
erties were investigated, and the friction fractures are the key to production and of their high UCS values. Contributing fac-
angle was identified as a key indicator. EUR. These fractures can be divided into tors include high friction angle; low com-
In Fig. 1, rock shear strength and com- two groups based on failure mechanisms, paction strength; low modulus of kero-
paction strength are defined by Mohr- tensile and shear. Hydraulic fractures are gen, clay or carbonate minerals; and weak
Coulomb criteria and compaction caps, tensile, and microseismic monitoring can grains and unstable grain contacts. Three
respectively. A typical high porosity rock only record shear events because of the sets of test data have been used to identify
exhibits a low friction angle ϕ1, low uni- low energy released by tensile fractures. rock compaction failures. Of these data
axial compressive strength (UCS1), and As a result, significant discrepancies sets, stress-dependent permeability is the
high cap strength. In comparison, a low- often exist between simulated reservoir most sensitive to pore space changes.
porosity unconventional rock has a volume (SRV) estimated from microseis- ◗ For rock matrices, abundant
higher friction angle (ϕ2), and therefore mic events and SRV estimated from hy- laminations correlate with
higher UCS2, but low compaction tol- draulic fracture geometries. severe permeability anisotropy.
erance (cap strength2). Combining fac- Tensile and shear fractures share two Increasing confining stress
tors such as low compaction strength; distinctive decline stages: a fast decline results in reducing anisotropy
low modulus of kerogen, clay, or carbon- with closing fractures, and a steady de- to negligible values. Horizontal
ate; weak grains; and weak grain/grain cline with collapsing pores and a com- permeability declines rapidly with
contacts in overpressured formations re- pacting matrix. Both also share a crit- small increases in confining stress.
sult in unconventional rocks possessing a ical confining stress of approximately ◗ Tensile fractures have higher
high risk of compaction failure. 2,300 psi that separates the two stag- initial permeability, but their
es. Rapid rate decline in unconventional permeability reduction is much
Stress Sensitivity of Laminated wells can result from the closure of un- faster than that of shear fractures.
Tight Rock propped natural and hydraulic fractures. ◗ Both tensile and shear fractures
Tight rocks are very sensitive to stress The goal of drawdown management is decline similarly with increasing
changes for two reasons. First, abundant to delay the bottomhole flowing pres- confining stress. The initial stage
laminations not only dominate rock me- sure from reaching the critical pore col- involves fast decline as fractures
chanical behaviors and permeabilities, lapse pressure. close. JPT

Report Outlines Knowledge Gained
in Gas Hydrate Production Testing
G as hydrates are an
important potential source
of unconventional natural gas.
A 12-m-thick sand-rich hydrate-
bearing reservoir was tested at a down-
hole flowing pressure of approximately
One of the notable scientific accom-
plishments of the trial was the identifi-
cation of a specific mixture of nitrogen
Significant progress has been made 7.3 MPa. The fact that gas hydrates can (N2) and CO2 gas that prevented the for-
with regard to understanding be produced by depressurization tech- mation of secondary CO2 hydrate in the
geologic and engineering limitations niques was demonstrated. The win- reservoir, which, in turn, allowed for
of the ultimate energy potential of ter 2006 operations included a 6-day the injection of CO2 into the reservoir
gas hydrate; however, more work depressurization flow, which was able being tested. The Iġnik Sikumi test dem-
is required. The complete paper to establish a sustained and stable gas onstrated successfully that CO2 could
reviews the results of gas hydrate flow rate averaging approximately be injected into a water-bearing reser-
engineering and production testing 3000 m3/d. The total volume of gas and voir under conditions that would usually
studies associated with northern water produced over the duration of form secondary CO2 hydrates, CH4 was
Canada and Alaska. The results of the test was approximately 13 000 and then produced from the reservoir, and
the marine gas hydrate producing 100 m3, respectively. N2/CO2 exchange technology was shown
testing efforts in Japan’s Nankai to be technically feasible.
Trough and in the South China Sea Alaska North Slope (US)
are also summarized. The occurrence of gas hydrate on the Nankai Trough (Japan)
Alaska North Slope is associated closely In 2000, the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals
Mallik (Canada) with well-characterized petroleum sys- National Corporation led an effort to
The Mallik gas hydrate research site tems. The Mount Elbert gas hydrate test drill a gas hydrate prospect to confirm
in northern Canada has been the focus well, in 2007, showed a mobile water the occurrence of gas hydrate in the
of three important gas hydrate field phase within hydrate-bearing reservoirs Nankai Trough. Drilling, downhole log-
tests (in 1998, 2002, and 2007–08). even at very high gas hydrate satura- ging, and coring at the test site docu-
The Mallik 2L-38 gas hydrate research tions. The recognition of the presence of mented the presence of several thick
well (part of the 1998 testing project) a mobile water phase within gas hydrate hydrate-bearing coarse-grained reser-
was drilled to evaluate the geologic reservoirs was an important develop- voir sections.
controls on the occurrence of gas hy- ment in that it provided the means, or In 2001, the Ministry of Economy,
drate and to acquire specialized core pathway, to draw the pressure down Trade and Industry launched a new proj-
and well data needed to characterize on hydrate-bearing reservoirs. The PBU ect with a similar goal of assessing the
reservoir properties. L-Pad area was identified as the optimal energy resource potential of gas hy-
During the 2002 project, gas hy- site for the subsequent Iġnik Sikumi gas drates offshore Japan. However, this
drate was produced for the first time hydrate production test. project was intended to go much further,
by both depressurizing and heating the The 2011 Iġnik Sikumi field test in- with the goal of developing the technol-
reservoir. Depressurization alone ap- volved the drilling of a single near- ogy required to produce gas hydrates
peared to be the most-feasible method vertical test well and conducting wire- commercially. The multiwell drilling
for producing gas hydrates. However, line logging of targeted hydrate-bearing project was conducted in early 2004.
because of the limited nature and du- reservoirs. In 2012, the Iġnik Sikumi A total of 16 sites (32 wells) was estab-
ration of the 2002 tests, it was deter- field testing program included a carbon lished in water depths ranging from
mined that a longer duration test would dioxide (CO2)/methane (CH4) hydrate approximately 700 to 2000 m. The oc-
be required, leading to the 2007–08 production test and an extended dura- currence of pore-filling gas hydrate
research program. tion depressurization flowback test. in turbidite sand reservoirs was con-
firmed from the analysis of downhole
logs and cores.
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights The MH21 program in 2013 com-
of paper OTC 29516, “Gas Hydrate Production Testing: Knowledge Gained,” by pleted the first test of gas production
Timothy Scott Collett, SPE, US Geological Survey, prepared for the 2019 Offshore from marine gas hydrates after a test
Technology Conference, Houston, 6–9 May. The paper has not been peer reviewed. site, named the AT1 site, was estab-
Copyright 2019 Offshore Technology Conference. Reproduced by permission. lished. At the site, a production test

well, two monitoring wells, and a core Challenges important gas hydrate research
well were established. An extensive Gas hydrate energy resource studies requirements, along with the
logging-while-drilling (LWD) and being conducted in Korea, India, development of new gas hydrate
wireline-logging program was conduct- Canada, China, Japan, and the United prospecting procedures
ed in the AT1-MC well to characterize States have made significant contribu-
gas hydrate reservoir properties and to tions to our understanding of gas hy- Gas Hydrate Production Technology
select the stratigraphic section to be drates. Scientific and industrial drill- ◗ Advance the development of new
tested later. ing has confirmed that gas hydrates are gas hydrate production models that
The gas hydrate production flow test an abundant potential resource. How- incorporate advanced macro- and
was conducted at the AT1 site in the ever, fully understanding the role that pore-scale mechanical models
spring of 2013. The AT1 production test gas hydrates may play as a future energy ◗ Conduct laboratory, modeling, and
started on 12 March and was completed resource will require more work. field-scale analysis of stimulation
on 19 March, earlier than planned be- The emergence of other unconven techniques that may enhance gas
cause of sand-production problems and tional gas resources and more- hydrate production
deteriorating w eather conditions. The traditional sources of energy represents ◗ Review and apply to gas hydrate
cumulative volume of gas and water pro- a significant challenge to the goal of production existing and new
duced during the 6-day test at AT1 was commercial production of gas hydrates. completion technologies, including
estimated at approximately 120 000 In most settings, the potential volume of horizontal completions and
and 1300 m3, respectively. Subsequent gas associated with a given gas hydrate multilateral drilling
test results are detailed in the com- accumulation is unknown and the tech- ◗ Characterize potential drilling,
plete paper. nology to produce gas hydrates is un- completion, and production
proven. Gas hydrates generally occur in concerns associated with
South China Sea (China) deep marine and Arctic environments, producing gas hydrates
The Guangzhou Center for Gas Hydrate where high operational cost represents a ◗ Assess the effect of gas hydrate
Research was established in 2004 to significant challenge to the commercial production on the physical and
conduct energy-focused laboratory and production of gas hydrates. mechanical properties of gas
field studies offshore China. In June Limited economic modeling has hydrate reservoir systems JPT
2007, the Guangzhou Marine Geological shown that the commercial production
Survey (GMGS) successfully completed of gas hydrates may be possible; how-
a deepwater gas hydrate drilling and ever, many unknowns still exist. The ef-
coring program (GMGS1) in the South fect on gas hydrate commercialization
China Sea. In 2015 and 2016, two addi- of specific national interests and local
tional geoscience expeditions (GMGS3 motivations needs to be considered, in- The SPE Bookstore
and GMGS4) were con ducted in the cluding taxation and climate-change
Shenhu gas hydrate region. Both drilling policies, development of industry and
expeditions featured LWD implementa- government partnerships, the design of
tion, with 19 sites drilled in the area dur- purpose-built gas hydrate drilling and
ing GMGS3 and 11 during GMGS4. production systems, local industrial use
During GMGS3, pore-filling, strata- of produced gas, and access to other
bound gas hydrates were discovered energy resources.
above the bottom simulating reflector Major technical challenges and po-
at Site W17. The occurrence of relatively tential opportunities that will need to be
higher gas hydrate saturations at Site dealt with on the path to the commer-
W17 is controlled by contribution of cial production of gas hydrates include
thermogenic gas sources, gas migration the following: Use This Time
into the gas hydrate stability zone from
below, and the physical properties of the Gas Hydrate Resource Characterization
to Learn
sediments hosting the gas hydrates. ◗ Refine current gas hydrate resource Something New
In 2017, the China Geological Sur- assessments, with a focus on
vey conducted an industrial pilot gas moving from mostly in-place gas Preview and
hydrate production test in the Shenhu volume assessments to technically purchase books today at
area. The water depth at the test site was recoverable assessment and go.spe.org/books.
1266 m, and the hydrate-bearing reser- eventually to reserve estimates
voir section was at a depth of 203–277 m ◗ Develop and integrate gas hydrate
below the seabed. The production test system modeling, laboratory
lasted for a total for 60 days, recovering studies, and field surveys
309 046 m3 of gas, at a mean daily pro- ◗ Develop, test, and deploy new field-
duction rate of 5151 m3/d. characterization tools to address

Surfactant-Based Treatment Fluids
Mitigate Fracture Hits in Parent Wells
P reloading parent wells with

surfactant-based treatment fluids
for fracture-hit mitigation has been
has been applied recently in environ-
ments where intense infill drilling and
tighter well spacings are prerequisites
Scale
applied extensively in liquids-rich shale for improved production and economic

plays. However, why specific chemical return. Preloads can provide a signif-
packages help improve parent-well icant temporary increase in fracture
production remains unclear. The network pressure if performed proper-
complete paper presents a strategy ly and are most effective with a surfac-
for selecting a surfactant/solvent tant and solvent package. However, why
package for parent wells. Oil recovery specific chemical packages help improve
and associated water saturation in the parent-well production remains un-
the microfluidic-based device, with or clear, although the notion of capillary
without surfactant, are quantified and force resistance reduction for further
reveal that the oil recovery is enhanced treatment-fluid leakoff into fractures and
with surfactant. Water saturation in rock-wettability alteration by surfactant
the parent well could be reduced, has been proposed in the literature. Re- Core
thereby mitigating water blocks from cent residual surfactant analysis in pro- Base
primary fracturing-fluid invasion duced water from both parent and child
from child wells. wells indicates that hydraulic communi-
cation exists after fracture hits; addition-
Introduction ally, field trials in the Wolfcamp suggest
During child-well completions in devel- that the same surfactant package in pri-
opment of liquids-rich shale plays, frac- mary fracture fluids in child wells can
turing fluids and proppants are likely to migrate gradually to parent wells, poten-
infiltrate the parent-well fracture net- tially activating various secondary oil-
work and wellbore through hydraulically recovery mechanisms.
connected flow paths. Parent wells, This study provides an evidence-based
after producing for a period, serve as strategy for selecting a surfactant sol-
a pressure sink that attracts new frac- vent package by a commercial micro-
ture propagation and extension initiat- fluidic device (MD) and spontaneous
ed from a child-well fracture. As a re- imbibition (SpI), thus eliminating unnec-
Fig. 1—Typical SpI testing with the
sult, parent wells could lose production essary testing that does not involve for- Amott cell.
because of a potentially plugged frac- mation rocks. Surfactant optimization
ture network filled with new sand from permits further leakoff into secondary
child wells. The production of child fractures, potentially increasing fracture Results and Discussion
wells also could suffer because of un- network pressure. Surfactant migra- The following procedure was used to
wanted fracture extension and loss of tion from child wells presents a unique perform the invasion-flowback cycles
reservoir pressure. enhanced-oil-recovery mechanism for on the MD:
The technique of reloading parent parent wells. Field trials in different 1. The crude oil was first injected
wells with surfactant-based treat- liquids-rich shale plays, including the to fill the MD. Because the MD’s
ment fluids for fracture-hit mitigation Wolfcamp, appear to support this finding. surface was neutrally wet, caution
was taken to ensure that no air was
trapped inside the porous matrix.
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of 2. A 2% potassium chloride (KCl)
paper SPE 197097, “Fracture-Hit Mitigation Through Surfactant-Based Treatment brine or surfactant solution was
Fluids in Parent Wells,” by Liang Xu, James Ogle, and Todd Collier, SPE, Halliburton, then injected into the MD at a
prepared for the 2019 SPE Liquids-Rich Basins Conference—North America, Odessa, constant pressure of 2.8 psi from
Texas, 11–12 September. The paper has not been peer reviewed. the inlet of the channel for 170 PV

(pore volume) when the irreducible oil saturation fluids into core plugs gradually. Oil is produced from all sides
was obtained. This step was used to simulate the first of the core plug and is collected on the top of the vessel, where
invasion of the fracturing fluid. a graduated cylinder measures the oil volume. The produced
3. The crude oil was reinjected from the outlet of the oil volume is plotted over 5 days, and each surfactant’s per-
channel at the same water head as the invasion of the formance is quantified. More importantly, computed tomog-
fracturing fluids. This step was used to simulate the raphy (CT) imaging techniques are used to scan core plugs
first flowback. during testing to gain insight into water penetration into core
4. The 2% KCl brine or surfactant solution was reinjected centers. The differences between average initial and final CT
into the MD fracture and matrix at a constant pressure numbers are calculated to estimate penetration magnitude.
of 1.4 psi from the inlet of the channel for 170 PV. When both oil-recovery and water-penetration magnitudes
This step was used to mimic the second invasion of without and with 1 gal/Mgal surfactant in 4% KCl at reservoir
the fracturing fluid (i.e., representing the invasion of temperature were compared, water alone yielded 8.0% oil re-
fracturing fluids from a new infill well into the old well). covery vs. 10.3% with surfactant. Smaller d ifferences in oil
5. The crude oil was reinjected from the outlet of the recovery were attributed to carbonate-rich rock and conse-
channel at the same water head as the second invasion quent surfactant adsorption, reducing the number of surfac-
of the fracturing fluids to mimic the production of the tant molecules available to mobilize the oil. However, surfac-
old well after the second invasion. The results of the tant appeared to penetrate the cores much farther than water,
water saturation was used to assess the damage by the with a 6 vs. 2 penetration magnitude within a specified time
fracturing fluid from the new infill well. period, demonstrating its high potential to contact additional
Test results revealed that, without surfactant in fracture flu- surface area and possibly more secondary fractures.
ids in child wells, water saturations in the MD after the second
flowback were higher than those after the first invasion/flow- Conclusions
back cycle, suggesting that the second invasionflowback cycle Adding surfactant to treatment fluids to enhance fluid pen-
could indeed damage the matrix and reduce the relative perme- etration into secondary fractures when pressurizing parent
ability to oil. On the other hand, surfactant improved the dis- wells is crucial. To select a surfactant properly, both MD and
placement efficiencies in the matrix. Surfactant used in the sec- SpI testing are run to gain insights into fluid interaction and
ond invasion/flowback cycle reduced the damage incurred by penetration magnitude. Such laboratory methods allow addi-
the first invasion/flowback cycle from 25 to 13%. The benefit of tional understanding of field operational practices and pro-
surfactant has been observed from field results from the Wolf- duction results. JPT
camp shale, where the estimated ultimate recoveries (EURs)
of wells diminished by s urfactant-stimulated offset wells were
higher than those diminished by nonsurfactant-stimulated off-
set wells. After a fracture hit from a child well fractured with
surfactant, the parent well’s production has been observed to
increase rather than diminish, resulting in a higher EUR.
SpI testing considers a completion strategy of rock soaked
with fracture fluids. During fracturing, a wait time of hours or
days may occur before each single fracturing stage is complet-
ed. After fracturing, a typical well shut-in time of several days
is not uncommon. This additional soak time allows fracture
fluids to imbibe spontaneously into the rock and move d eeper
into the reservoir. Similarly, when a parent well is pressurized
with surfactant containing fracture fluids, it is crucial to know
how much farther fracture f luids have spread into the existing
fracture network, increasing the likelihood of raising pressure
at the farthest fracture tips, which are more likely to encounter
incoming fracture pressure waves or direct fracture hits from
nearby child wells. SpI is a means of probing these phenome-
na by comparing oil recoveries, particularly fluid-penetration
magnitudes, with and without surfactant in fracture fluids.
SpI uses presaturated or preserved sidewall core plugs and
typically is performed in Amott cells at reservoir tempera-
ture (Fig. 1). Oil-saturated core plugs are placed vertically or *
horizontally inside a vessel prefilled with fracturing fluids
containing surfactant. The right surfactant lowers the cap-
illary pressure (determined through interfacial surface ten-
sion) moderately, alters the rock wettability from oil-wet to
water-wet as measured by contact angle, and drives fracturing

TECHNOLOGY FOCUS
Data Analytics
Luigi Saputelli, SPE, Senior Reservoir Engineering Adviser, ADNOC, and Managing Partner,
Frontender Corporation
Imagine the time when we are no models that support not only agile inno- The objective of paper SPE 196110 is to
longer concerned about the digital- vation but also robust deployment of enable the prediction of the spatial vari-
transformation issues we face today, such scaled-up solutions. This will require ation in new target wells’ decline type
as data availability, security, and many a multiparty framework for planning curves for gas production on the basis of
others. This would be the time when resources to support and sustain such existing data of production, completion,
companies make the best out of digi- applications from idea to reality. Such a and geological parameters through an
tal infrastructure. In this era, employ- framework shall assure that the portfo- automated machine-learning approach.
ees would not struggle to collect, gather, lio of ideas is translated into a coherent Paper OTC 29815 proposes a machine-
and transform the data. Instead, auto- applications road map, with clear deliv- learning/artificial-intelligence approach
mated algorithms would enable them ery milestones. Change management is using sequence-mining algorithms for
to quickly leverage information hidden required to embed these new tools in daily predicting the next drilling operation
in data sources. We may, however, face business processes, amalgamating with and classifying it on the basis of textual
other kinds of issues such as ensuring other solutions along with providing user descriptions, allowing automatic pattern
that computers and humans collabo- support and managing the evolution of discovery within drilling reports.
rate in the most-efficient way, provid- information-technology infrastructure. In the additional-reading suggestions,
ing business managers the best decision- As evidence of such progression, paper SPE 196011 investigates various
making framework. This era might be this month papers are showcased that deep-learning approaches to predict the
here sooner than expected. address common-use cases in petroleum long-term well performance on the basis
The upstream industry is not short of engineering and geosciences. of a moderate duration of early-life well
innovative ideas where machine-learning Paper SPE 196657 shows automating monitoring data.
algorithms have enabled new concepts 3D image processing that can signifi- The variable grid method presented
since a wide variety of digital tools for cantly improve the quality and speed of in paper SPE 196094 provides a robust
fast prototyping and implementation classifying the morphology of heteroge- method for quantifying and represent-
have become available. However, com- neous carbonate rock. The implications ing uncertainty in spatial data analyses,
panies need to establish digital operating for fluid-flow modeling are tremendous. simultaneously offering information
about the analysis and the associated
risks, knowledge of which is critical for
Luigi Saputelli, SPE, is a senior reservoir-engineering adviser with decision-making in upstream.
ADNOC. During the past 25 years, he has held various positions as Online library OnePetro.org already
reservoir engineer, drilling engineer, and production engineer. offers a massive collection of new-use
Saputelli previously worked for 3 years with Hess Corporation, for 5 cases for machine-learning and artificial-
years with Halliburton, and for 11 years with Petróleos de Venezuela.
intelligence algorithms applied to typi-
He has worked in multiple global assignments in countries such as
Venezuela, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, the UK, Thailand, Malaysia,
cal petroleum engineering and geoscience
Indonesia, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the UAE, and the US. problems. Our next challenge is to make
Saputelli is an industry-recognized researcher, invited lecturer, and SPE liaison and com- them part of the day-to-day business pro-
mittee member. He is a founding member of the SPE Petroleum Data-Driven Analytics cesses, transforming the way we work. JPT
technical section and recipient of the 2015 SPE International Production and Operations
Award. Saputelli has authored or coauthored more than 70 technical publications in the
areas of digital oil fields, reservoir management, reservoir engineering, real-time optimi-
zation, and production operations. He holds a BS degree in electronic engineering from
Recommended additional reading
Universidad Simon Bolívar, an MS degree in petroleum engineering from Imperial at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
College London, and a PhD degree in chemical engineering from the University of SPE 196011 Deep Learning for Well Data
Houston. Saputelli serves on the JPT Editorial Committee, the SPE Production and History Analysis by Yuanjun Li, Stanford
Operations Advisory Committee, and the Reservoir Description and Dynamics Digital Oil University, et al.
Field subcommittee. He has served as a reviewer for SPE Journal and SPE Reservoir SPE 196094 Bringing Uncertainty to the
Evaluation & Engineering and as an associate editor for SPE Economics & Management. Forefront of Informed Decision Making in
Saputelli also serves as managing partner at Frontender, a petroleum engineering ser- Oil and Gas Exploration and Development
vices firm based in Houston. He can be reached at lsaputelli@frontender.com. by Paul Wanjau, Varigrid Explorations, et al.

Machine-Learning Image Recognition
Enhances Rock Classification
A utomated image-processing
algorithms can improve the
quality and speed in classifying the
image processing enables extraction of
meaningful data, then image analysis is
the ability to interpret this data through
morphology of heterogeneous carbonate numerical analysis.
rock. Several commercial products
have produced petrophysical properties Resolution Effects
from 2D images and, to a lesser extent, 3D µCT Images. Not every image comes
from 3D images. Images are mainly with the needed resolution for optimal
microcomputed tomography (µCT), image analysis. The authors acquired 3D
optical images of thin sections, or µCT images for dry (meaning the pore
magnetic resonance images (MRI). contains air only) carbonate rock. One
However, most successful work is from of the 2D slices is displayed in Fig. 1. The µCT Ð 40µm
homogeneous and clastic rocks. In figure demonstrates that micropores in
the complete paper, the authors have carbonate rock appear in more than one
demonstrated a machine-learning- gray value, although they should appear
assisted image-recognition (MLIR) as black. The cause of this is low resolu- Also pore, but
seen otherwise
approach to determine the porosity and tion, when the pore size is smaller than Pore because of
lithology of heterogeneous carbonate the pixel resolution used to acquired the resolution
rock by analyzing 3D images from µCT image. The pore must be black in color Fig. 1—The resolution effect is evident
and MRI. (as air fills pores), and the pixel must in three different zooming scales.
hold a value of 0. To measure porosity
Introduction accurately, images must be corrected to a rates, meaning different slice thick-
The authors’ literature review has re- 0 value for pores. The challenge is how to nesses along the z-axis, along with the
vealed the pressing need to perform 3D achieve this correction without mistak- core-sample cylindrical shape. This pro-
image processing instead of 2D. Achiev- enly converting true nonvoid to void. In cess is detailed in the complete paper.
ing this goal requires an interdisciplin- the figure, the top image shows a 38-mm-
ary approach. This study deployed new diameter sample acquired with 40-µm Resolution Enhancement
analysis and verification approaches, in- resolution (each pixel is 40×40 µm). The To solve for the resolution effects, an ex-
cluding 3D micromodels (3DMM) with image inside the red circle is the zone of periment was performed involving build-
various micropore sizes and uses 3DMM interest for identifying pores (black) and ing 3DMM. Several types of micromodels
as an image-processing calibration ref- solids (light). To solve the resolution ef- were created to enable quantifying the
erence. Additionally, a new image- fect, a convolutional Gaussian kernel was blurriness of the image and correcting for
resolution enhancement for quality seg- created for improving the resolution of it. To increase resolution and reduce blur-
mentation is developed. Porosity was 3D images. riness, an image-correction model had to
determined mainly using two methods. be built and, at the same time, efficiency
The first is a standalone image process- 3D MRI Images. For the same carbon- had to be ensured. Therefore, a convolu-
ing, in which image-information extrac- ate rock, 3D MRI images were acquired. tional Gaussian image-processing filter
tion was successful. The second is MLIR. Pores of this rock sample were flooded was the first choice. After several trials,
The difference between image process- with crude oil. 3D MRI images were ac- a novel optimized convoluted Gaussian
ing and image analysis is important. If quired with three different sampling image-processing algorithm was devel-
oped. The authors call the new algorithm
an image-resolution-optimized Gaussian
algorithm (IROGA).
of paper SPE 196657, “Machine Learning for 3D Image Recognition To Determine
Porosity and Lithology of Heterogeneous Carbonate Rock,” by Omar Al-Farisi, SPE, Methodology of MLIR
Hongtao Zhang, and Aikifa Raza, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, The study followed the following steps.
prepared for the 2019 SPE Reservoir Characterization and Simulation Conference The machine-learning step is detailed in
and Exhibition, Abu Dhabi, 17–19 September. The paper has not been peer reviewed. the next section.

1. Machine learning because of its superior capability in 6. 3D stacked MRI images acquired
2. Image processing. This is defined as performing classification. of a fluid-saturated carbonate rock
tasks a human expert performs on the 3. The computer uses the random-forest core plug
image (2D, 3D, 4D, or 5D) that produce algorithm to learn from the data set 7. IROGA applied to the core-plug MRI
a new set of information or a new ver- and build the prediction model with all image to measure porosity and locate
sion of an image that provides more in- its governing equations. fluid distribution
sight to a human expert. 4. The computer inputs the new data set, 8. IROGA porosity results validated with
3. Combination of machine learning the 3D µCT image, and uses the learned the reference helium porosity
and image processing. The combina- prediction model with its governing
tion scenario was termed MLIR, de- equations to predict output classes. 3D µCT Carbonate Rock
fined as the ability of a machine to per- Machine-Learning Image-
form tasks such as training sets and Running 3DMM Experiments Recognition Porosity
image interpretation on new images in for Constructing IROGA Because the success of MLIR in achieving
a faster, more-accurate manner than a The authors developed a 3DMM tech- high accuracy when measuring 3DMM
human expert can. nique with various micropore sizes to porosity has been demonstrated, the
use as measurement control. The process work was extended to 3D µCT. Using
Porosity Determination of experimental design and imaging for the MLDGRF algorithm to measure 3D
Porosity for the rock core plug was mea- the bundle of capillary tubes used in the µCT porosity, the authors compared
sured using helium gas, considered to be study is detailed in the complete paper. MLDGRF results with three porosity
the ultimate reference of porosity value. To perform the task of running the measurements. The accuracy of MLDGRF
The same core plug was also imaged with 3DMM experiments, experimental reached 94.37%. The approximately
µCT and MRI. screening using three different meth- 1.7-porosity-unit difference in value be-
ods was designed and conducted (two tween MLDGRF and the reference helium
Porosity From Experimental Measure- machine-learning methods and one porosity is attributed to the difference of
ments. Core-plug porosity was measured novel image-processing algorithm). Gaussian function. Further tuning of the
with three methods. The first method These methods, detailed in the complete function parameters is recommended to
used the weight difference of rock under paper, included the following: increase accuracy.
dry and wet conditions. The second used ◗ Machine-learning Gaussian random
nuclear magnetic resonance on the same forest Conclusions
rock saturated with fluid (crude oil). The ◗ Novel IROGA image-processing ◗ Image recognition using the
third method used helium gas on the algorithm MLDGRF algorithm is superior
same sample after cleaning and drying. ◗ Machine-learning difference compared with machine-learning
Gaussian random forest (MLDGRF) image recognition using the
Porosity From Machine Learning. For Gaussian random-forest algorithm.
this portion of the study, the authors per- IROGA Prediction and Experimental validation is
formed 3D µCT image recognition using Validation for Carbonate Rock recommended to quantify the
a random-forest machine-learning algo- Prediction and validation of IROGA on algorithm accuracy.
rithm. The primary machine-learning- a carbonate core plug using MRI im- ◗ The MLDGRF algorithm works
performed tasks adhered to the follow- ages was performed. For validation of well for different types of images
ing process: IROGA prediction, the reference helium (e.g., µCT and MRI). If the domain
1. A human expert, a petrophysicist in the porosity was used; the resulting accuracy expert labels the desired features
case of this study, provided a data set, was 91.8%. correctly and chooses the best
identifying two types of minerals (lime- The experiment, modeling, and use of algorithm, machine-learning
stone and pyrite), two physical statuses IROGA is explained in the following steps: image recognition can save years
(pore and solid), and four image inten- 1. 3DMM built with 600-µm-inner- of tedious work.
sities. The data set contains: diameter tubes ◗ Improving the resolution of 3D MRI
◗ An independent-parameter data 2. 3DMM flooded with crude oil needs adequate image-processing
column, featuring image-identified collected from a lower Cretaceous algorithms. Enhancement can
properties with four shadings: offshore formation lead to over- or undercorrecting.
black, dark gray intensity, light gray 3. 3D stacked MRI images acquired The authors developed an image-
intensity, and white for 3DMM enhancement algorithm for two-
◗ A dependent data column 4. Iterative image-resolution- class segmentation.
containing the desired classes of enhancement algorithm depending ◗ The work on porosity determination
limestone, pyrite, and pore; solids on a convoluted Gaussian matrix using machine learning has helped
here include limestone and pyrite was structured achieve a better understanding
2. The human expert chooses a machine- 5. IROGA model validated with of rock heterogeneity and has
learning algorithm; in this study, the geometrical reference calculation provided insight into analyzing and
random-forest algorithm was selected of the 3DMM digitally classifying rock. JPT

Machine-Learning Approach Determines
Spatial Variation in Shale Decline Curves
T he two most common techniques

for forecasting production
performance for a new shale well are
To obtain a production forecast for a new
well, the authors use the decline curve
from a cluster to which it is believed that
similar. A support-vector-machine (SVM)
approach was used to create maps of
clusters and quantify uncertainty. Ad-
decline- (type) curve analysis and the new well will belong, usually sam- ditionally, a functional-classification
machine learning. The complete paper pling from a cluster map. and regression-trees (CART) approach
describes an automated machine- The second approach to forecasting was used to indicate the most important
learning approach to determine shale production performance is ma- or sensitive factors that should be used
the spatial variation in decline type chine learning that focuses on statistical for clustering.
curves for shale gas production, correlations. A statistical model is cre- The results of the K-means clustering
based on existing data of production, ated that connects decline curves with were compared with those of the CART
completion, and geological parameters. the same well parameters used in decline technique, which does not create clusters
The methodology allows the user to curve analysis. Typically, the result is a explicitly but produces well performance
decide whether the focus should be trained machine-learning model. For a forecast directly. Also, because CART
purely on forecast quality or on a new well, it provides production perfor- provides the sensitivity of variables re-
combination of forecast and clustering mance, with or without an uncertainty garding production, variable ranking can
quality. The resulting model will range. Additionally, maps can be created be used to decide which variables to use
enable the prediction and uncertainty of forecasted production profiles or total in the clustering.
quantification of production profiles for recovered fluid. The results show that the unsuper-
new target wells or areas in the basin. The objective of the project described vised K-means method performs as well
in the complete paper was to provide a as the supervised CART method. The
Methods of Forecasting methodology that creates clusters of de- methodology is flexible and allows for
Production Performance cline curves and estimates decline curves quick changes in the variables used in
Decline-curve analysis is the most- for a particular location or set of vari- clustering, and the transfer to another
popular technique for forecasting pro- ables. The intent was to limit the manual dataset or basin is straightforward.
duction performance in shale formations aspect of clustering and create a robust
because of the need for fast decisions. work flow. Methodology
The technique involves borrowing de- The project was based on publicly K-Means Clustering. K-means is a
cline curves from the closest wells or available monthly production data from widely used machine-learning technique.
from wells with similar geological, com- most of the producing wells of the Duver- It separates observations into clusters
pletion, or fluid properties. nay formation. The K-means technique in which each data point belongs to the
The idea of decline-curve analysis is was used to cluster 273 wells using geo- cluster with the closest mean, which rep-
based on the fact that a similar produc- logical parameters such as thickness and resents the core of the cluster. For this
tion profile is expected from the closest porosity, completion parameters such project, the same completion and geo-
wells or from wells with similar proper- as horizontal section length and prop- logical parameters were used in both the
ties. However, the process is often man- pant volume, spatial location, fluid win- CART and K-means approaches. The dif-
ual and very subjective. As a result of the dow, and production curves. A machine- ference lies in the way the production
approach, each existing well is assigned learning classification based on the profiles were handled.
to a particular cluster of decline curves, clustering results was used to draw dis- SVM. K-means clustering assigns each
each cluster having a certain typical de- tinct geographic regions within which well to a cluster. Assigning a cluster for a
cline curve. Clusters can be spatial or rep- the combinations of geological, comple- new well requires creating a map of clus-
resented in completion variable space. tion, and production factors were fairly ters. The SVM approach uses algorithms
that try to find hyperplanes that will sep-
arate the training data set in a particular
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Judy Feder, contains highlights of paper way. Specifically, the hyperplane should
SPE 196110, “Machine Learning of Spatially Varying Decline Curves for the Duvernay be constructed such that the distance to
Formation,” by Aleksandr Bakay, Jef Caers, and Tapan Mukerji, SPE, Stanford each of the training points is maximized.
University, et al., prepared for the 2019 SPE Annual Technical Conference and This is called a hard margin. In compli-
Exhibition, Calgary, 30 September–2 October. The paper has not been peer reviewed. cated data sets where variables overlap

latitude For predictions, the wells were sepa-
depth
fluidpermeter rated into a training wells set (90%) and
proppermeter a test wells set (10%). The CART model
stages was trained based on the training well
porepressure_grad
set, and the quality of the prediction was
length
propperstage checked by using the test well set. The
porc wells were clustered according to the
density chosen parameters.
sw
longitude
On the basis of the clusters, a map was
acid created using SVM. Each point of the
thickness grid is assigned the most-probable clus-
fluidperstage
ter. Then, for a new well, one can simply
DTC
Direction sample the cluster from a well location
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 and obtain a production profile from the
Relative Importance Value cluster distribution.
Fig. 1—Sensitivity analysis from CART for gas production.
SVM also made it possible to check
the quality of the mapping. In terms of
and the dataset is not separable linearly, methods can be used not only for fore- RMSE, CART fares better than the clus-
a soft margin is used. Soft margins allow casting, but also for determination of tering technique. Increasing the number
introduction of errors in fitting the hy- variable importance. of clusters improves the quality of the
perplanes and thus make separation be- Model-Quality Measures. Four pa- forecast, as expected. Adding production
tween clusters more generalized and less rameters—root mean square error data to the clustering parameters im-
prone to noise and outliers. Using a soft (RMSE), mean absolute deviation vari- proves the quality of the prediction dra-
margin enables introducing maximum ance, misclassification, and silhouette matically; in that scenario, the clustering
posterior probability to obtain the most- index—were introduced to compare the technique is more accurate than CART.
likely cluster for a particular location as quality of the model’s predictions. In general, using all the parameters in-
well as the probability of that cluster to cluding production and a high number
be forecast at that location. This is how Variables of clusters will provide a highly accurate
the production uncertainty is estimated The team chose 273 horizontal produc- forecast, superseding that of CART. The
for a particular location. After finding the ers with 20 months of production history complete paper contains a detailed and
hyperplanes, a fitted model is applied for for the project to have a representation illustrated discussion of the test results.
every spatial point, thus obtaining a map of the most economically important time By using only the six best variables,
of clusters. period. Months with average monthly the quality of the forecast is improved,
Regression Trees. The machine- flowrates of less than 20,000 scf/D were allowing for synergy between CART
learning approach used in the complete disregarded. The paper presents the re- and K-means, because sensitivity analy-
paper for shale gas production is CART sults for gas production as a response sis can be conducted with CART first
and involves two steps: first, the regres- variable. The authors emphasize that re- before using important variables in
sion model is trained; next, it is used to porting of liquid/gas separation is am- K-means predictions.
generate production profiles based on biguous in the Duvernay formation, and
the chosen parameters of a new well. additional uncertainty must be accepted. Conclusions
The input for machine learning consist The complete paper presents informa- The approach presented in the com-
of the completion and geology parame- tion on the modeling parameters for the pete paper provides a work flow to cre-
ters. The output is the predicted produc- producing wells in text and tabular form. ate clusters of spatially varying shale
tion profile. decline curves. The results show that
Tree-based methodology comprises Results and Discussion decline-curve clustering can outperform
a large class of machine-learning A sensitivity analysis using CART was CART if important variables and produc-
methods, with the main concept based used to obtain a chart of variable impor- tion data are selected for the model. At
on dividing the space of predictor vari- tance (Fig. 1). Because the basin has a the same time, synergy between CART
ables into subspaces corresponding to dip in the southwest direction, the sen- and decline-curve clustering is evi-
the greatest influence on the response sitivity analysis showed that latitude and dent as sensitivity is carried out with
variable. The process of subspace sepa- depth are very important. The comple- the help of CART. Implementing a high-
ration is sequential; thus, the final choice tion parameters, such as the number of er number of clusters leads to a more-
of the separation variable sequence can stages, horizontal well section length, robust production forecast. Using a small
be represented as a tree with branches. the amount of proppant, and the fluid number of clusters facilitates easier,
Variables that result in the optimal per meter are important as well. This more-intuitive interpretation.
split of variable space can be consid- information was used to choose the The ideas presented in the paper can
ered as having more influence on the re- most-sensitive parameters to fine-tune be used for different data sets in the same
sponse variable. Therefore, tree-based K-means clustering. basin or for other shale plays. JPT

Artificial Intelligence in Operation Monitoring
Discovers Patterns Within Drilling Reports
I n well-drilling activities, successful

execution of a sequence of operations
defined in a well project is critical. To
Markov models and maximum-entropy
Markov models.
Recurrent Models. Despite achiev-
◗
◗
◗
Compact prediction tree+ (CPT+)
Dependency graph (DG)
All-k order Markov (AKOM)
provide proper monitoring, operations ing good results in several scenarios and ◗ LZ78
executed during drilling procedures learning word embeddings as a byprod- ◗ Prediction by partial matching (PPM)
are reported in daily drilling reports uct of its training, the fastText classi- ◗ Transitional directed acyclic graph
(DDRs). The complete paper provides fier does not properly consider word- (TDAG)
an approach using machine-learning ordering information that can be useful These algorithms are detailed in the
and sequence-mining algorithms for several classification tasks. Such a complete paper. The sequential pattern
for predicting and classifying the shortcoming can be addressed by a recur- mining framework (SPMF) was used for
next operation based on textual rent neural network (RNN), which con- algorithm implementation. SPMF is an
descriptions. The general goal is to siders the fact that a fragment of text is open-source data-mining library special-
exploit the rich source of information formed by an ordered sequence of words. ized in frequent pattern mining.
represented by the DDRs to derive The authors consider the gated recurrent
methodologies and tools capable of unit variant, which is easier to train than Results and Discussion
performing automatic data-analysis traditional RNNs and achieves results Data Sets. The data sets used for the ex-
procedures and assisting human comparable with those of the long short- periments reported in this paper were
operators in time-consuming tasks. term memory unit, while figuring fewer extracted from different collections of
parameters to learn. The methodology of DDRs. Each DDR entry is a record con-
Methods these classifiers is detailed mathemati- taining a rich set of information about
Classification Tasks. fastText. This is cally in the complete paper. the event being reported, which could
a library discussed in the literature de- be an operation or an occurrence. Two
signed to learn word embeddings and Sequence Prediction. Sequential pat- different types of data sets were gener-
text classification. The technique imple- tern mining can be defined broadly by ated, the operations data sets and the
ments a simple linear model with rank the task of discovering interesting sub- cost data set. The former is used by both
constraint, and the text representation sequences in a set of sequences, where classification and sequence prediction
is a hidden state that is used to feed the level of interest can be measured in tasks, whereas the latter is only used
classifiers. A softmax function computes terms of various criteria such as occur- for classification.
the probability distribution over pre- rence frequency, length, and profit, ac- Operations Data Sets. The opera-
defined classes. cording to the application. The authors tions data sets were extracted from DDRs
Conditional Random Fields (CRFs). focus in this paper on the specific task of of 119 different wellbores, which com-
CRFs are a category of undirected graph- sequence prediction. prise more than 90,000 entries. The
ical models that allow combination of In the scenario considered, the alpha- DDR fields of most interest for the ex-
features from each timestep of the se- bet is given by an ontology of operations periments applied on this collection are
quence, with the ability to transit be- of drilling activities. The sequence is de- the description and the operation name.
tween labels for each episode in the fined according to data stored in DDRs. The former is a special field used by the
input sequence. They were proposed The proposed methodology considers reporter to fill in important details about
to overcome the problem of bias that various sequence prediction algorithms, the event in a free-text format. The lat-
existed in techniques such as hidden specifically the following: ter is selected by the reporter from a pre-
defined list of operation names.
For the sequence-mining tasks, only
the operation name is used. The data set
paper OTC 29815, “Discovering Patterns Within Drilling Reports by Use of Artificial
is viewed as a set of sequences of opera-
Intelligence for Operation Monitoring,” by Danilo Colombo, Petrobras, and Daniel tions, one for each wellbore. For the clas-
Carlos Guimarães Pedronette and Ivan Rizzo Guilherme, UNESP, et al., prepared sification tasks, both fields are used for
for the 2019 Offshore Technology Conference Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, 29–31 October. The supervised learning, with the descrip-
paper has not been peer reviewed. Copyright 2020 Offshore Technology Conference. tion as input object and the operation
Reproduced by permission. name as label.

K (Sequence Size) model to label each entry in the seg-
5 6 7 8 9 10 ment not only based on its extracted
CPT+ 69.56 68.43 67.43 66.49 65.64 64.81
characteristics but also with respect to
the operations ordering. This allows the
DG 78.58 78.58 78.59 78.59 78.60 78.60
model to improve the baseline accuracy
AKOM 78.42 78.43 78.43 78.43 78.44 78.45 by 10.94 and 3.85% in the cost and op-
LZ78 78.56 78,55 78.56 78.56 78.57 78.57 erations data sets, respectively. The pro-
posed model learns not only the most
PPM 78.55 78,55 78.56 78.56 78.57 78.57
relevant characteristics from each sam-
TDAG 78.08 18.50 78.18 78.19 78.20 78.21 ple but also the patterns in the sequence
Table 1—Experimental results (% accuracy) of sequence-prediction algorithm without of operations performed in a well-
removing consecutive duplicates. drilling project.
K (Sequence Size)
Sequence-Mining Results. The data set
5 6 7 8 9 10 was divided into 10 segments, and the
CPT+ 23.81 23.49 23.17 22.62 22.17 21.76 methods were evaluated according to
DG 20.07 20.08 20.08 20.09 20.08 20.07 a cross-validation protocol. The cross-
AKOM 41.48 41.48 41.48 41.47 41.48 41.46
validation protocol varies the training
and testing data through various exe-
LZ78 36.55 36.53 36.52 36.53 36.53 36.49
cutions in order to reduce any bias in
PPM 27.66 27.68 27.68 27.69 27.66 27.61 the results. For the classification tasks,
TDAG 40.07 27.84 41.29 41.28 41.28 41.26 approaches based on word embeddings
and CRFs are exploited. Evaluations were
Table 2ÑExperimental results (% accuracy), removing consecutive duplicates.
made considering sequences from size 5
to 10 in the data set, using the sequence-
The DDRs were preprocessed by an in the entry and a number pointing to a prediction methods to predict the next
industry specialist with the objective of, diameter value. drilling operation.
first, removing the inconsistencies and, As opposed to the operations data set, Table 1 presents the accuracy ob-
second, normalizing operation names the target field was filled on land by a tained when considering the sequences
to unify operations that shared seman- small group of employees trained spe- of operations as presented in the data
tics. Given the large number of docu- cifically for this task. Nevertheless, the set. Table 2 shows the accuracy obtained
ments, the strategy used for the former costs data set still had to be preprocessed when removing consecutive drilling op-
objective was to remove entries with the before use in the experiments. erations from the data. The data set con-
wrong operation name (instead of fixing tains multiple repetitions of operations,
each one, which would be a much harder Classification Results. Before evaluat- contiguous to one another. This makes
task). As for the second objective, after ing the models, the best values for each the data more predictable to the se-
an analysis of the list of operation names hyperparameter are determined using quence prediction model and explains
and samples of descriptions, each group the validation set through a grid search. the higher accuracy obtained in experi-
of overlapping operations was trans- The proposed models are trained for ments shown in Table 1.
formed into a single operation. 30 epochs.
This process yielded a resulting data The experimental results regarding DDR Processing Framework. To make
set containing more than 38,000 sam- accuracy and macro-F1 measures for the models discussed available for use
ples and 39 operation types for the the costs and operations data sets are in a real-world scenario, a framework is
classification task and another con- presented in the complete paper. In proposed that allows the end user to up-
taining more than 51,000 samples and both cases, the fastText classifier, de- load DDRs and analyze them by different
41 operations types for the sequence- spite being quite simple, yields signifi- applications, one for each specific pur-
prediction task. cant results, posing a strong baseline pose. One great advantage of using this
Costs Data Sets. The costs data set is for the proposed models. Nevertheless, framework is that the user feeds data
a collection of DDRs with an extra field one should recall that the word vectors once and then has access to several tools
(the target field) meant to be used for learned by this first classifier are used as for analyzing them.
calculating the cost of each operation the proposed model embeddings as well. Currently, a working version of an
performed in a wellbore project. That The other neural networks also con- application for performing the classi-
field usually is multivalued because more sider the complete word ordering in fication tasks already has been im-
than one activity of interest being de- the samples, allowing them to achieve plemented. It encapsulates the classi-
scribed might exist in the free-text field results better than the baseline. Such fication models generated with the
of a DDR entry. Each value in that list is metrics are further improved by replac- experiments and allows the processing
a pair containing two types of informa- ing the traditional Softmax layer in the of a large number of DDRs, either for op-
tion: a label for the activity described output layer by a CRF. This allows the eration or cost classification. JPT

TECHNOLOGY FOCUS
Sand Management
Imran Abbasy, SPE, Vice President, Wells and Facilities, Heritage Oil
Our industry currently is challenged Keep your sand control be engineered as such. Job planning
with developing more and more com- is the key.
plex and difficult-to-produce reservoirs. simple if you can. Technology trends that hold promise
Exploration and production companies Complex is not include materials that conform to the
are now compelled to develop assets
necessarily better. borehole behind screens (i.e., shape-
that were not deemed viable in the past. memory polymer) and downhole wire-
Deepwater, remote, deep, hot, and vis- line logs to identify sand-producing
cous oil comes to mind; however, sand- a good overview. Testing remains a key intervals. To date, these technologies
producing reservoirs also rank high on element of any sand-control endeavor. are not as mature as one would like.
this list. As reservoirs age, sand produc- Several derivatives of screens are now During my time as a production tech-
tion becomes more difficult to manage, on the market; however, the original nologist, I craved these tools and did not
and is perhaps one of the most-difficult wire-wrapped screens are still used have them. I’m glad to see this is begin-
tasks engineers face today. extensively. The so-called segmented ning to change.
Sand control has evolved over the completions are a relatively new addi- A final thought: Keep your sand con-
years; however, the fundamentals tion to the engineer’s arsenal. Splitting trol simple if you can. Complex is not
of screen sizing have not changed. the wellbore into several sections, along necessarily better. I have managed to
Particle-size distribution remains the with flow-control devices, offers ben- flow unconsolidated sands with simple
basis for most designs. Laser diffrac- efits where heterogeneities are preva- slotted liners with great success. JPT
tion has provided better definition of lent. Several operators have attempted
fines, and greater focus is placed now through-tubing sand remediations—
on particle-shape characterization. For consolidation, gravel pack, straddle Recommended additional reading
those of you interested in delving into screens—with mixed results. Suffice at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
these topics, paper SPE 199335 provides to say, every job is unique and must
SPE 196250 Unlocking Potential of
Handil Shallow Oil Reservoir by Using
Resin Sand Consolidation Technique
Imran Abbasy, SPE, has 35 years of industry experience with a by Aen Nuril Hadi, Pertamina, et al.
major service company and several midsized and large operating
SPE 197351 The First Application of a
companies. He has held technical and leadership roles in produc- Novel Cased Hole Selective Multizone
tion technology, drilling, completion engineering, and operations. Sand-Control Completion in the Gulf of
Abbasy has worked in the North Sea, Middle East, Australia, Thailand by Thanudcha Khunmek,
Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea, supporting completion design, Mubadala Petroleum, et al.
artificial lift, well integrity, and production optimization. Currently,
SPE 199062 Sand-Control Optimization
he is managing a mature producing asset in west Africa. Abbasy for Rubiales Field: Tradeoff Between
has authored several SPE papers and participated in SPE Applied Technology Sand Control, Flow Performance, and
Workshops. He holds a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering and a master’s Mechanical Integrity by Edgar Alberto
degree in aerospace engineering. Mayorga Cespedes, Ecopetrol, et al.

Transient Multiphase-Flow Simulation
Enables Slugging Mitigation Solution
T he complete paper discuses a well

with a history of sand production
that exhibits long cyclic slugging
temporal and spatial variations of phase
fractions, velocities, pressure, and tem-
perature. These mass, momentum, and
0.5 to 1.4 STB/D/psi was considered. Res-
ervoir temperature and pressure were
210°F and 5,782 psia, respectively. The
behavior. Whether the slugging is energy equations are solved rigorously analysis covers sand-particle size ranging
caused by the gap at the well’s lower in the transient multiphase simulator between D10, D50, and D90 size as 36.22,
completion, by sand transportation, or model with the appropriate closure laws 265.9, and 591.3 µm, respectively, based
by both is not fully understood. Dynamic defining interfacial and wall friction, de- on the available sand-size-distribution
wellbore modeling with sand-particle position and entrainment of droplets, information. Sand-particle densities of
transport is essential in modeling the and bubble entrainment. The model is 2650 and 2100 kg/m3 were considered.
complex slugging behavior. Transient suited to well-simulation applications
simulations successfully produced the because it can simulate complex trajec- Stage 1: Lumped Inflow
slugging behavior observed in the field. tories, smart completions, and the tran- Without Sand Transport
Cyclic slugging was determined to be sient heat transfer in wells by accounting The gap between the mule shoe and the
caused by the flow dynamics generated for all the applicable modes of heat trans- packer, which is exposed to the 7-in. liner,
by particles of small to medium size. fer (conduction, convection, and radia- is believed to be a possible cause of liquid
tion) between the tubing, casing, and for- accumulation in cycles and may produce
Introduction mation. The model is capable of handling the observed slugging behavior. From the
Well X1 exhibited long cyclic slugging sand-particle transport. simulation, unstable flow with small fluc-
behavior, as seen from the tubinghead The fluid is characterized in a pressure/ tuations was observed, which does not
pressure (THP) and downhole pressure volume/temperature package using the match the pattern of long cyclic slugs ob-
measured for 1 month (i.e., 0 to 30 days) Soave-Redlich-Kwong equation of state. served in the field. The average bottom-
(Fig. 1). Surface rate measurements from The well extends to a true vertical depth hole pressure (BHP) is significantly lower
the rate test are available for 1 week (i.e., of 9,635 ft, corresponding to a measured than field-measured BHP, possibly be-
from Days 23 to 30); these are shown in depth of 13,162 ft rotary table elevation. cause of the absence of sand in the fluid
Fig. 1 along with downhole pressure. For There is a 2,000-ft gap between the mule column, which is not considered in the
this period, downhole pressure decline is shoe and the packer, where the fluid flow present analysis.
observed as the rate builds. The objective is exposed to the 7-in. liner. The various
of this analysis is to understand the long restrictions to flow, such as the tubing- Stage 2: Inclusion of Zone
cyclic slugging behavior of the well by an- retrievable, surface-controlled, subsea With Sand Production
alyzing and simulating historical produc- safety valve and nipple, were considered at High Drawdown
tion data and to arrive at a potential miti- in the wellbore modeling. In the second stage, the model built in
gation solution. For the initial stage, inflow from the first stage was extended to include
the reservoir to the wellbore is mod- inflow from contributing layers, which
Wellbore Modeling eled using a lumped linear productivity were represented by their respective in-
The multiphase-flow model incorporated index (PI) at the top of the perforation flow models. Constant reservoir pres-
in the commercial transient multiphase at 12,257 ft measured depth. For Stage sure of 5,782 psia was considered for
simulator used in this study is based on 2 modeling, two zones were included in both the zones. Sand particles were as-
first principles whereby the equations the model and sand inflow was consid- sumed to be produced from the reser-
of mass, momentum, and energy are ered mainly from the upper zone. For voir at high drawdown. In reality, the
solved in time and space to arrive at reservoir inflow, a range in liquid PI from large-diameter particles (D90 or higher)
would be immobile at the gap between
the mule shoe and the packer at the
current operating rates. The transient
paper SPE 195740, “Long Cyclic Well-Slugging Behavior Induced by Sand Production; multiphase-flow simulator can only han-
Analysis and Mitigation Solution Enabled by Transient Multiphase-Flow Simulation,” dle a single-diameter particle for a par-
by Kapil Kumar Thakur, SPE, Schlumberger; Kia Katoozi, SPE, TAQA Bratani; and ticular simulation. As a workaround,
Ali Hamid, SPE, Schlumberger, prepared for the 2019 SPE Offshore Europe Conference larger-diameter sand particles, which
and Exhibition, Aberdeen, 3–6 September. The paper has not been peer reviewed. are not mobile at current rates, are

210 18 200 208
208 180 207
Oil and Water Rates (Sm3/d)

17
Downhole Pressure (barg)

206 160
206
204 140
16 205
THP (barg)
202 120
200 15 100 204
198 80 203
14
196 60
202
194 40
13
201
192 20
190 12 0 200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(a) Time (days) (b) Time (days)
Downhole Pressure (barg) THP (barg) Dry Oil Flowrate (Sm3/d) Total Water (Sm3/d)
Fig. 1—(a) Measured downhole pressure and TBH pressure for 1 month. (b) Measured oil and water rates and downhole
pressure between Days 23 and 30.
a ssumed to occupy the gap between the to medium rates, and mobile at higher the slugging cycle, elaborated upon in
mule shoe and the packer and, therefore, rates during the slugging cycle. Choos- Fig. 6 of the complete paper.
reduce the effective diameter of the gap. ing a larger-diameter particle would re-
This analysis was conducted on sev- sult in immobility leading to permanent Slugging Mechanism
eral combinations of sand-particle sizes, particle blockage because the particles On the basis of the study’s findings, the
sand-particle densities, and PI values. would accumulate and would not be pro- cyclic slugging mechanism is better un-
For each combination of sand-particle duced. On the other hand, choosing a derstood and is explained by the follow-
density and PI, certain particle sizes re- very-small-diameter particle causes the ing process:
sulted in slugging dynamics similar to particles to be produced at the wellhead 1. Production declines as the particle
those observed in the field with parti- without causing slugging. The complete gradually builds up, leading to a
cles being immobile or less mobile at low paper provides a detailed discussion of packed state with small flow through
DUNEFRONT
SAND CONTROL SERVICES
PACKPRO SOFTWARE
COMPLETE SOLUTION FOR SAND CONTROL
SIMULATION, EVALUATION AND OPTIMIZATION
CONSULTING
IMPARTIAL ADVICE ON SAND CONTROL TECHNIQUE
SELECTION, DESIGN AND EVALUATION
TRAINING
BUILD AND MAINTAIN IN-HOUSE SAND CONTROL
EXPERTISE
www.dunefront.com|info@dunefront.com @DuneFront
the porous blockage (35% porosity s imulator for Well X1, which exhibits long the lower completion section together
was used in simulations). cyclic slugging behavior. A scenario ac- with either tubing-size reduction or
2. BHP builds up as the pressure counting for flow from both the zones at electrical-submersible-pump (ESP) in-
behind the blockage builds up, which constant PI and sand production at high stallation] or implementing an appropri-
is gradually transferred downstream drawdown predicts slugging behavior ate sand-control or sand-consolidation
because of porous blockage. very similar to that observed in the field. method. Reducing the tubing size and
3. Particles slowly move up the tubing Cyclic slugging is believed to be caused the gap between the mule shoe and the
at medium rate (200 to 250 Sm3/d by the flow dynamics generated by par- packer (for both 3-in. or 2.441-in. inner
liquid) but are still not produced; ticles of small to medium size. Slugging is diameter) could be a potential solu-
thus, BHP is relatively high. a result of complete blockage by particles tion because the well would able to lift
4. BHP falls because of reduced head at the gap between the mule shoe and the larger-diameter particles than the ones
as particles are eventually produced packer and subsequent pressure buildup that the well produces from the sand-
(also, increasing THP indicates behind to gradually release the block- face in cycles. Reduction of the gap be-
increased flow rate). age. The particle bed is not mobile at low tween the mule shoe and the packer to
5. Fresh particles are produced rates (50 to 100 Sm3/d), moves very slow- 4-in., in combination with ESP installa-
from the reservoir at increased ly to the 4.5-in. tubing section at medium tion, could be another potential solution.
drawdown at higher rates of rates (200 to 250 Sm3/d), and eventually The ESP should be able to deliver a liquid
approximately 400 Sm3/d liquid). produces out of the tubing at higher rates rate of 1115 Sm3/d to ensure continuous
6. BHP falls further as the blockage (400 to 450 Sm3/d). Fresh particles are lifting of D90-size particles (591.3 µm)
builds up. Thus, for the downstream produced from the reservoir at increased being produced from the reservoir. Also,
section where the gauge is located, drawdown, and the cycle repeats itself. successful implementation of a sand-
flow is disconnected gradually with Measured data from the sand detector control or sand-consolidation method
the upstream section of the blockage, confirm the production of sand, particu- could lead to significant improvement
with pressure drop across the larly around the period of high THP (or in well production with the current well
blockage and rate gradually falling. high drawdown), which is also predicted design, assuming that any existing sand
by simulation. in the 2,000-ft gap section could be
Summary Potential slugging-mitigation solu- cleaned up. However, considering the
Several simulations were conducted tions could include higher flow veloc- high cost and risk factor, no future work-
with a commercial multiphase transient ity [achieved by reducing the gap size at over is planned. JPT
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Wireline Sand-Detection Tool Locates,
Quantifies Downhole Sand Production
M ost of the wells in the Dzheitune

(Lam) field in the Caspian Sea
were completed with dual tubing.
cement-bond-log and variable-density-
log data.
This change in completion strategy
the sand-producing interval. Interpre-
tation algorithms discriminate particles
by their size and energy, apply smart
Depletion in reservoir pressure caused helped prevent sand production to the thresholds, conduct a quality check of the
formation failure in the A sand reservoir, surface, but, eventually, several wells count and detection rates, and determine
and wells producing from this formation completed with sand screens across the sand-production rates with confidence.
began to produce sand. Field examples A reservoir began to produce sand on The combination of the sand-detection
presented in the complete paper the surface, damaging production facili- tool and the production logging tool-
describe principles of data acquisition ties and plugging separators, which had string is conveyed downhole on wireline
with a sand-detection tool when run in to be cleaned periodically. To identify the for real-time data acquisition as the well
combination with a production logging source of sand production downhole and produces at one or multiple rates. Dur-
string and results of logging in slightly to verify the integrity of sand screens, a ing the logging job, data are acquired as
deviated wells completed with sand sand-detection tool was run on wireline the toolstring moves across logging in-
screens. Comparison of multiphase- in a few such wells. terval at various speeds. Then, these data
inflow profiles with sources of sand are analyzed for identification of produc-
production showed that most sand was Overview of the Wireline ing intervals and location of sand-entry
produced through eroded intervals in Sand-Detection Tool points. By use of these analysis results,
the sand screens. The sand-detection tool, run on wireline, depths for stationary measurements are
allows detection of sand-entry points selected such that the detector element of
Introduction downhole and determination of sand- the sand-detection tool is placed above,
Most Lam wells were completed with production rates. The tool has a 360° across, and below sand-producing in-
9.625-in. casing and 7-in. liner across detector element, as shown in Fig. 1, tervals for quantifying sand-production
the reservoir section. The A sand reser- acoustically isolated from the rest of rates precisely. Stationary measurements
voir, located at depths between approxi- the tool housing by special elastomers. might be repeated for verifying amounts
mately 1500 and 1800 m, and the CH Thus, the wireline sand-detection tool is of sand production.
sand reservoir, located below 2000 m, immune to background noise from tool
are produced separately by using dual- motion, surface interference, and the ef- Field Examples
string tubing to avoid crossflow from the fects of fluid and gas jetting. The detec- Run in combination with the wireline
high-pressure CH reservoir into the low- tor element is very sensitive and can de- sand-detection tool, the production log-
pressure A reservoir. tect the impact of single sand particles ging toolstring was run for determining
When wells in the A reservoir began to as small as 0.1 mm in diameter and can the multiphase-inflow profile with the
produce sand, the operator had to change measure up to 1,500 sand-grain impacts following sensors:
the completion strategy for newly drilled per second. ◗ Fullbore and in-line spinners for
wells and had to recomplete some old The digital downhole detection and fluid-velocity measurements
wells by pulling out of hole dual-string processing system provides enhanced ◗ Electrical probes for water-holdup
completions and running in hole single sensitivity for sand entry within a well- measurements
tubing with sand screens across exist- bore, allowing data acquisition while ◗ Optical probes for gas-holdup
ing perforations. The top of sand ac- moving the tool across the logging in- measurements
cumulation in the annulus was identi- terval. Once sand entry points are locat- ◗ Four-arm caliper for measuring
fied with a slim sonic tool that measures ed, the detector element is placed across inner diameter
◗ Gradiomanometer tool for
downhole density measurements
◗ Quartz pressure gauge for downhole
of paper SPE 198566, “Locating and Quantifying Downhole Sand Production With pressure measurements
Wireline Sand-Detection Tool and Examples of Application in Wells Offshore Caspian ◗ Temperature sensor for downhole
Sea,” by Andrey Timonin, Schlumberger, and Eldar Mollaniyazov, Dragon Oil, temperature measurements
prepared for the 2019 SPE Gas and Oil Technology Showcase and Conference, Dubai, ◗ Gamma ray and casing-collar
21–23 October. The paper has not been peer reviewed. locator for data correlation

Tool centralizer Tool centralizer
Detector Electronics
Fig. 1—Sand-detection tool run downhole on wireline. The tool is run centered to locate sand-entry points accurately
from any direction with a 360° detector element.
The complete paper presents three sand screens because of improper selec- of the sand particles have medium and
field examples, the first two of which tion of sand-screen type. small sizes.
are not included in this synopsis in de- Production logging data analysis
tail. The first example shows application Well C. In the third example, Well C was showed two producing intervals in this
of the sand-detection tool and the pro- completed with 4.5-in. liner across the well: 4018–4025 m and 4032–4036 m;
duction logging toolstring in a well com- CH sand reservoir and perforated across the topmost perforated interval was not
pleted with dual tubing at the beginning three intervals: 3994–3998 m, 4018– producing. Most of the fluid (95%) came
of its life to produce hydrocarbons from 4025 m, and 4032–4036 m. The well from the middle perforation, and the re-
the CH sand reservoir by long string and was producing hydrocarbons through maining fluid was from the bottom perfo-
from the A sand reservoir by short string. 3.5-in. tubing with the tubing shoe lo- ration. Water was breaking through both
The well was later recompleted with sin- cated at 2509 m. In September of 2018, producing intervals.
gle tubing, with sand screens across the the well began to produce hydrocarbons The results of stationary measure-
A reservoir and a bridge plug set above with 88% water cut and some traces of ments with the wireline sand-detection
the CH reservoir. sand particles on the surface. tool showed that more than 99% of sand
The second example discusses applica- The production logging toolstring was produced from a depth of 4025 m; a
tion of these technologies in a well com- with the wireline sand-detection tool remaining negligible amount of sand was
pleted with single tubing, having sand was run across the CH reservoir to quan- produced from 4022 m. Per measured
screens set across the A reservoir from tify the multiphase flow profile, identify impact energy, half of the produced sand
the beginning of well life. The main log- sources of water production, and locate particles were medium in size and half
ging objectives for running the sand- sand-producing intervals. Data acquired were small.
detection tool in wells completed with with the wireline sand-detection tool Based on production logging re-
sand screens in the field are to locate while moving the toolstring showed two sults and depths of sand-producing in-
sources of sand production and to verify sand-producing intervals, one at ap- tervals, these three perforations were
if sand is being produced through eroded proximately 4022 m and another one isolated with bridge plugs and the
intervals in the sand screen, as shown in at approximately 4025 m. The energy layers containing hydrocarbons located
Fig. 2, or through the entire length of the of sand-grain impacts showed that most above were perforated. The plug was suc-
cessfully set at 3973 m. As the result of re-
medial operation in Well C, the water rate
decreased from 520 to 150 B/D and the
well stopped producing sand.
Conclusions
In the Lam field, the wireline sand-
detection tool was run to determine
the root cause of sand production—to
confirm if sand was produced through
eroded holes in the sand screens, as in
the first field example, or through sand
screens that are not damaged, as shown
in the second field example.
In addition, comparison of multiphase-
inflow profiles with sources of sand pro-
duction showed that most sand was pro-
duced through intervals located across
the topmost section of the sand screens,
marking that part of the sand screens as
the point most prone to erosion. Logging
results were then used for planning reme-
Fig. 2—Eroded hole in a sand screen retrieved from one of the wells in the dial operations to pull tubing out of hole
Lam field. and to replace damaged screens. JPT

Analysis of Sand-Control-Installation Failures
Provides Insights, Paths Forward
S and-control-installation failures
range from minor issues that can be
remedied easily to catastrophic events
Potential leak site
Potential erosion site
that put the entire well and investment

at risk. The complete paper introduces
several case studies of such failures
and details the investigative process
and techniques used to identify root
causes. A commercial software tool
incorporating data-analysis techniques
Jumper tube
and a methodical evaluation work flow bridges gap
were used to understand the cause of
the failures and determine how they
can be prevented in future operations. Connector with
internal O-ring seals
Examples include events such as screen Fig. 1—Shunt-tube leakoff and erosion sites.
and washpipe damage, bridging, hole
collapse, and packer-seal failure. packing mechanisms. Attempts have presents seven examples from openhole
been made to develop logging techniques completions, but the concepts and prin-
Introduction to obtain a clearer picture of the outcome ciples covered are equally applicable to
Potential modes of failure traditionally of a gravel pack. While this effort has met cased-hole completions. For reasons
have been investigated with material- with some success in cased holes, it has of space, only one of these case studies
balance calculations and surface- proved to be difficult to apply in open is discussed in this synopsis. The case
pressure measurements. However, this holes. Regardless, identification of the studies address the following failures:
simple approach is unable to diagnose presence of voids in a gravel pack does ◗ Stuck string during run in hole
clearly the specific failure mode and not provide a clear explanation of why ◗ Bridging during viscous gravel
often is insufficiently precise to be con- they formed and how they may be pre- packing
clusive, especially for high-value wells. vented in the future. ◗ Bridging during water packing
While surface data provide an overview of Operators need to understand failures ◗ Gravel pack carrier-fluid failure
the operation, the data are influenced by in detail: where open holes have col- ◗ Shunt failure
many factors involving the entire system, lapsed, how viscous carrier fluids have ◗ Screen and washpipe erosion
making it difficult to differentiate mul- performed in the well, where shunt fail- damage
tiple events and locate them in the flow ures have occurred, where alpha waves ◗ Openhole packer-seal failure
path. Mass-balance calculation is also have stalled, which perforations have
a rudimentary analysis with many in- packed and to what extent, and where Principles of Analysis
herent assumptions. Often, estimations and when screens and washpipes have While the trends in the measured down-
of perforation or openhole volumes are been damaged. As illustrated by the case hole pressures can provide insights, sec-
inaccurate, location of voids cannot be studies in the complete paper, detailed tion friction pressure analysis provides
identified in the event of an incomplete analysis of downhole pressure and tem- much more detail. This method relies
pack, and gravel volume and mass mea- perature gauges can provide answers on the fact that, in a circulating system,
surements do not help in understanding to these questions. The complete paper the pressure recorded by any downhole
gauge is the sum of the hydrostatic and
friction pressures. Removing the hydro-
This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Judy Feder, contains highlights of
static from a gauge pressure enables the
paper SPE 199251, “Understanding Sand-Control-Installation Failures,” by Raymond calculation of the friction-pressure com-
Tibbles, SPE, Kesavan Govinathan, SPE, and Ian Mickelburgh, SPE, DuneFront, ponent attributed to the flow path down-
et al., prepared for the 2020 SPE International Conference and Exhibition on stream of that gauge. Taking the differ-
Formation Damage Control, 19–21 February, Lafayette, Louisiana. The paper has not ence between the friction pressure at
been peer reviewed. subsequent gauges isolates the friction

pressure for the portion of the flow path and commences down the well. Similarly, Software for Continuous-
between them, the response of which section numbering starts from the work- Improvement Strategy
is independent of events in the remain- string gauge above the service tool and The analysis of the various case studies
der of the system. Therefore, the fric- works toward the bottom of the well. The was performed with a commercially avail-
tion trends observed can be attribut- charts display all data in dimensionless able software tool that, according to the
ed to events occurring between the two form. This hides the magnitude of the authors, has the following capabilities:
gauges, enabling events to be located and data, but the scale and trends are fully ◗ Allows the model to be easily
tracked accurately through the system. representative of actual events. validated and calibrated, providing
Downhole temperature measurements more-accurate predictions for
can also be used to determine fluid arrival Case History: Shunt Failure better planning of future operations
and displacement through the system. Shunt failure can result in a leak that by- ◗ Enables any discrepancies between
Fluids with different thermal properties passes the shunt packing tube and noz- the model and reality to be
conduct heat differently during displace- zles, causing incomplete wellbore pack- identified quickly and located in
ment, creating different temperature ing and possible screen erosion or failure. the system, helping to pinpoint the
signatures as they pass the downhole It can be caused by failure of the jumper potential cause
gauges in the system. tube seals (blue circles in Fig. 1) or by ◗ Provides a means of investigating
erosion. Erosion has been observed at root causes by applying each to the
Post-Job Evaluation Work Flow various locations in testing and in screen model and determining if the results
A detailed post-job evaluation work flow retrieved from wells. The two main loca- match the observed trends
coupled with an appropriate software tions where it may occur are at the junc- ◗ Facilitates the implementation of
modeling tool can be used to compare tion between the transport and packing new technology or processes to
measured data with simulated data and tubes and the entrance to the nozzles determine the benefit they may have
validate the placement model. After the (red circles in Fig. 1). in resolving identified issues
treatment is completed, surface and Shunt-tube failure occurs after shunt
downhole data must be obtained from activation and can be identified by a re- Conclusions
the gauges, then processed and pre- duction in the observed shunt friction at The complete paper presented several
pared for analysis. First the surface and a constant rate. After shunt activation, all case histories that summarize the impor-
downhole data files are imported into the flow should exit the shunts below the tance of understanding the root cause
a software tool and time-synchronized. annular bridge through a limited num- of sand-control-installation failures. The
Data offsets and noise are corrected, ber of nozzles. Erosion of either the noz- case studies included the following:
and the data is parsed into appropri- zles themselves or the shunt tubes above ◗ One case in which the string
ate data ranges that describe the job. them results in flowpath-enlargement became stuck during run in hole,
The initial conditions for each range reduced friction. The magnitude of the and data analysis determined it was
must be defined or hydrostatic correc- pressure drop depends on the number the result of shale collapse, a cause
tions made, depending on the evalu- of nozzles taking fluid and the extent of confirmed by the model
ation mode chosen. Once these steps the erosion. ◗ Two cases of bridging during
are complete, analysis calculations can This type of failure can be prevented gravel-pack treatments in which
be performed to generate the friction by minimizing shunt erosion, which can data analysis narrowed the
and temperature curves that are used to be accomplished by reducing the rate as potential causes and the model
identify the events that have occurred much as practically possible (generally was used to identify the effect of
during the job. less than 1.5 bbl/min per shunt tube). each incident individually and
Some of the newer high-pressure shunt collectively
Failure Investigation systems have been designed with ero- ◗ One case of viscous carrier-fluid
and Lessons Learned sion tolerance in mind and would be a failure wherein data clearly showed
Understanding sand-control failures is good choice for any long-shunted inter- alpha wave deposition when it was
the first and most critical step to avoid- val in which the potential of a significant not expected
ing them in the future. The authors dem- volume of slurry being pumped through ◗ Multiple hardware issues from
onstrate how the work flow presented tubes exists, or in deepwater or high- which data analysis identified
in a previous paper can be used to un- value completions in which the cost of shunt failure
derstand catastrophic events, including failure is significant. Where shunt fail- ◗ Screen and washpipe erosion and
shunt failure, screen and washpipe ero- ure does occur, remediation depends on a partially set packer confirmed
sion, openhole collapse, annular bridg- the severity of the failure. If the failure by the model
ing, and openhole packer failure. leads only to an incomplete pack, the un- A commercial software tool incorpo-
The case histories use the standard- packed section of the well can be isolated rating data-analysis techniques and a me-
ized gauge locations and section layouts and the remainder of the interval pro- thodical evaluation work flow was used
described in Fig. 1 of the complete paper. duced normally. However, if failure leads to understand the cause of the failures
Washpipe-gauge numbering starts from to more-significant issues, remediation and to determine how they may be pre-
the first gauge below the service tool becomes much more difficult. vented in future operations. JPT

SPE HONOREES
Legion of Honor Inductees

SPE welcomes 132 members into the Legion of Honor, which observes 50 years of consecutive
membership in the Society. Each honoree becomes dues-exempt and receives a commemorative
plaque marking the milestone. The honorees are listed below under their respective sections.
Alaska Section Alan C. O’Hare Gary W. Priddy Northern West Virginia

Phillip R. Hooker Ronald E. Schuyler Jesse L. Roberts Section
William D. Van Dyke Hugh E. Harvey Fernando H. Rodriguez Richard S. Wilson
Harry C. Sager
Appalachian Section East Kentucky Section Oklahoma City Section
Richard M. Bateman Floyd J. Hoffer Norman R. Smith
Leland E. Tate Clyde L. Finch
Jim M. Kirksey Steven K. Hatfield
East Texas Section Ganesh C. Thakur
Argentine Petroleum Donald J. DeMoss Jawaid Saeedi Ronald J. Miller
Section Timothy D. Taylor Tommy M. Warren
Alejandro R. Luppi Illinois Basin Section Edwin C. Womack
Evangeline Section Perry L. Hughes Steve R. Messer
Austin Section Donald L. Biggs
Kenneth C. Nelson Frank A. Cormier Los Angeles Basin Pacific Northwest
J.A. Spiller Clarence J. Duhon Section Section
Gary P. Ross Xenophon C. Colazas Larry Wolfson
Balcones Section Glenn C. Shackell
Robert H. Ward
Boris Patricio Abad-Guerra Permian Basin Section
John H. Dale Fort Worth Section Lou-Ark Section Roy F. Armstrong
Isaias Ortiz Jr. Richard J. Bowman Bill Chaney David L. Divine
Walter A. Willoughby Naresh Vashisht Michael R. McCrary Gary L. Feist
Gordon E. Sommers Mexico Section Ross D. Roberts
Calgary Section
Kenneth M. Baher Four Corners Petroleum Jose L. Bashbush Pittsburgh Section
Roger C. Bowles Section Mid-Continent Section Paul J. Dudenas
Stephen A. Davis Craig S. Bartels Robert M. Beirute
W.M. Koster Poland Section
Vincent D. Zral Golden Gate Section James W. Johnston
Jakub Siemek
Joseph W. Ault Alan Glen Mikell
California Coastal Jean Pierre Camy Alvis E. Smith Jr. San Joaquin Valley
Section Donald G. Hill Paul D. Storts Section
Philip E. Sheehan Donald Steven Tipton John M. Allen
Gulf Coast Section Philip J. Wade
Dallas Section Jeffrey B. Williams
Gary E. Aho Paul J. Woodul
John J. Ciavarra Jr. Douglas W. Blaskowsky Southwest Texas Section
Davis A. Coppedge Ralph K. Brezger Ii Mississippi Section Frank Armstrong
Michael S. Daugherty Michael Cloud Richard H. Stechmann Gaylor H. Heemink
Paul D. Ching James M. Davis
Carl R. Herber Henry A. Escontrias National Capital Section Turkey Section
Edward J. Hutlas Raymond W. Flumerfelt Sr. Fred R. Newbold Abdurrahman Satman
William M. Kazmann Richmond D. Garrett Netherlands Section Western Australian
John M. McCarthy John L. Glaeser Dick Swart Section
James L. Menke Rick L. Graff
Hamid M. Al-Rikabi Robert G. Howard Jr. New York and New Wayne A. Needoba
Dan P. Smith Delores J. Hinkle England Petroleum Wichita Petroleum
Harold R. Warner Jr Richard Z. Klauzinski Section Section
William D. Weege Eugene G. Kubelka Julio J. Diaz Victor H. Dyal
Delta Section John T. Kulha No Established Section Randall W. Koudele
Francis X. Deblanc Jr. John Martinez Larry G. Toombs Lloyd K. Parrish Jr.
John A. Pope Darrell G. Molnar Steven R. Shaw Gary L. Reed
David P. Murphy David H. Penrose
Denver Section Edward A. Nash Wyoming Petroleum
Lawrence T. Hartnett
William A. Abbott Kent W. Nicholson Section
Reed W. Ferrill Jr. Robert R. Otuomagie North Texas Section Thomas E. Doll
Charles A. Martin Richard L. Paynter Robert L. McMillan Donald J. Walters

PEOPLE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND CIRCULATION
(Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685). 1. Title of publication, Journal of Petroleum
Technology. 2. Publication No. 0028-1960. 3. Date of filing, September 14,
In Memoriam 2020. 4. Frequency of issue, monthly. 5. No. of issues published annually, 12.
6. Annual subscription price, $4.50. 7. Complete mailing address of known
This section lists with regret SPE members who recently office of publication, SPE, 222 Palisades Creek Drive, Richardson, TX 75080-
passed away. If you would like to report the passing of a 2040, Dallas County. 8. Complete mailing address of the headquarters or
general business offices of the publishers, SPE, 222 Palisades Creek Drive,
family member who was an SPE member, please write to
Richardson, TX 75080-2040. 9. Name and address of publisher, Glenda
service@spe.org. Smith, 222 Palisades Creek Drive, Richardson, TX 75080-2040. Name and
Kenneth J. Barr, Tampa, Florida address of editor, Pam Boschee, 10777 Westheimer, Suite 1075, Houston, TX
Jon R. Carlson, Lakewood, Colorado 77042-3455. 10. Owner, Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), 222 Palisades
Creek Drive, Richardson, TX 75080-2040. 11. Known bondholders, mort-
David F. Finch, Parkersburg, West Virginia
gagees, and other security holders owning or holding 1 percent or more
Juan L. Korszyk, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities (none). 12. The
Richard McDill, Crosby, Texas purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt
Laszlo K. Nemeth, Houston, Texas status for Federal income tax purposes have not changed during preceding
Ronald S. Schraeder, Wichita, Kansas 12 months. 13. Publication name: Journal of Petroleum Technology. 14. Issue
Genevieve B. Young, Denver, Colorado date for circulation data below: September 2020. 15. Extent and nature
of circulation:
Average Number Number Copies

Copies Each of Single Issue
Issue During Published Nearest
Preceding 12 months to Filing Date
A. Total number of copies

(net press run) 59,349 59,542
B. Paid circulation (by mail and

outside the mail)
1. Mailed outside-county paid
subscriptions stated on Form 3541 22,735 22,176
2. Mailed in-county paid
subscriptions stated on Form 3541 0 0
3. Paid distribution outside the
mails including sales through
dealers and carriers, street vendors,
counter sales, and other paid
distribution outside USPS 35,811 36,791
4. Paid distribution by other classes
SPE Virtual Artificial Lift Conference of mail through the USPS 0 0
and Exhibition—Americas C. Total paid distribution 58,546 58,967
10–12 November 2020 D. Free or nominal rate distribution
(by mail and outside the mail)
1. Free or nominal rate outside-
Knowledge Unbound by Distance county copies included on Form 3541 0 0
2. Free or nominal rate in-county
copies included on Form 3541 0 0
The exchange of scientific knowledge
3. Free or nominal rate copies mailed
has no barrier. Let’s continue at other classes through the USPS 0 0
advancing this sector in November
4. Free or nominal rate distribution
as artificial lift takes to a virtual outside the mail 252 10
platform, giving you the latest
on applications relevant to E. Total free or nominal rate distribution 252 10
unconventional shale F. Total distribution 58,798 58,977
developments in a
G. Copies not distributed 551 565
three-day event.
H. Total 59,349 59,542
I. Percent paid 99.57% 99.98%
I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete, Mary
Register at go.spe.org/Attend20ALCE. Jane Touchstone, Print Publishing Manager.

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SPE EVENTS The ongoing global government
and company responses to the
COVID-19 pandemic remain varied.
SPE is offering in-person and
VIRTUAL EVENTS 10–12 November ◗ SPE Virtual Workshop: virtual conferences, workshops,
Sand Control Management symposiums, and forums. Visit
13–15 October ◗ SPE/VPI Virtual Workshop:
10–12 November ◗ SEG/SPE Advanced www.spe.org/events for updates
Mature Field Development and IOR/EOR
Geoscience Virtual Workshop: Applications and registration information.
Technology
in Drilling and Well Placement
20–22 October ◗ SPE Virtual Workshop:
Artificial Lift and Production Enhancement 11–12 November ◗ SPE Virtual Upstream
2–3 December ◗ Rio de Janeiro—SPE Brazil
Through Electrical Submersible Pump Finance and Investments Conference
Section/SPE Macae Section: Brazil FPSO
16–18 November ◗ Virtual SPE/AAPG/SEG Symposium
21–22 October ◗ SPE Virtual Annual Caspian
Technical Conference Unconventional Resources Technology
Conference (URTeC)
22 October ◗ Symposium: Caspian Health,
17–19 November ◗ SPE Virtual Asia Pacific
WORKSHOPS
Safety, Security, Environment and Social
Responsibility Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition
7–9 December ◗ Abu Dhabi—SEG/SPE
24–26 November ◗ SPE Virtual Workshop: Workshop: Multi-Scale Reservoir Surveillance
26–29 October ◗ SPE Virtual Annual
Asia Pacific Digital Week–Digital and Data and Monitoring
Technical Conference and Exhibition
Driven Oilfields
8–10 December ◗ Galveston—SPE
26–29 October ◗ SPE Russian Petroleum
30 November–3 December ◗ SPE Virtual Workshop: Rate/Pressure Transient Analysis
Technology Conference
Thermal Well Integrity and Design in Unconventional Reservoirs–Solutions for
29–30 October ◗ SPE/IADC Virtual Managed Symposium Practical Problems
Pressure Drilling and Underbalanced
1–3 December ◗ SPE Virtual Workshop: 8–11 December ◗ Amsterdam—SPE Europec
Operations Conference and Exhibition
Monetizing Marginal Resources: Winning in featured at 82nd EAGE Conference and
2–3 November ◗ SPE Virtual Norway the New Norm Exhibition
Subsurface Conference
7–9 December ◗ SPE Virtual Workshop: Lost
2–6 November ◗ Offshore Technology
Conference Asia (OTC Asia)
Circulation—Revisiting a Familiar Challenge
With the Latest Solutions
CALL FOR PAPERS
2–19 November ◗ SPE Virtual Forum: Is 7–9 December ◗ SPE Virtual Symposium:
SPE International Hydraulic Fracturing
Cyclic Gas Injection EOR the Future for CCUS and Contaminants Management
Technology Conference and Exhibition ◗
Unconventional Resources?
Muscat, Sultanate of Oman
9–12 November ◗ The Abu Dhabi Deadline: 26 October
International Petroleum Exhibition & SYMPOSIUMS
SPE/IATMI Asia Pacific Oil and Gas
Conference (ADIPEC)
17–18 November ◗ Rio de Janeiro—SPE Brazil Conference and Exhibition ◗ Bali
10–12 November ◗ SPE Virtual Artificial Lift Section/SPE Macae Section: Brazil Subsea Deadline: 2 December
Conference and Exhibition–Americas Symposium
ADVERTISERS IN THIS ISSUE

JPT SALES
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Pages 20–21, Cover 4 Page 17
DuneFront Limited ROSNEFT Mike Buckley Mitch Duffy
Page 71 Page 61 Media Accounts Manager Media Accounts Manager
Companies (A–H) Companies (S–Z)
ESK GmbH Seismos
Tel: +1.713.457.6828 Tel: +1.713.457.6823
Page 9 Page 4, Cover 1 Tip-On
mbuckley@spe.org mduffy@spe.org
Greatwall Drilling Company SPE Awards Program
Page 2 Page 33 Dana Griffin Jim Klingele
KAPPA Engineering SPE Distinguished Lecturer Media Accounts Manager Director of Sales, America
Cover 2 Program Companies (I–R) Tel: +1.713.457.6888
Page 41 Tel: +1.713.457.6857 jklingele@spe.org
NETZSCH Pumps & Systems
dgriffin@spe.org
Page 5 Texas A&M University
Page 29

go.spe.org/20ATCEregister
27–29 October 2020

26 October | Member Monday
Register for ATCE 2020
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O C TO B E R 2 02 0 • VO LU M E 72 , N U M B E R 1 0 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

KAPPA | Carbone - Fluid Modeling

A new, intuitive, web-based fluid modeling

Learn more: kappaeng.com/pvt

12 GUEST EDITORIAL • DIGITALLY TRANSFORMING OIL FIELDS

22 BRINGING THE HEAT: ARAMCO FIELD TESTS HIGH-

26 WHEN FRACTURING, HEED THE PLUGS

35 PILOT LESSONS: CHESAPEAKE’S SHALE EOR PROGRAM

48 OFFSHORE DRILLING AND COMPLETION

56 Study Quantifies Stress Sensitivity of Fractured Tight Reservoirs

67 Artificial Intelligence in Operation Monitoring Discovers Patterns Within

SPE RESERVOIR EVALUATION

<: +/2(07: 5!44753/!4: 3!: 3 7: -700 7,*: /4/3/,37*: 3 7:

REGIONAL DIRECTORS TECHNICAL DIRECTORS

ASIA PACIFIC DRILLING

EUROPE HSE AND SUSTAINABILITY

LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION

JPT STAFF The Journal of Petroleum Technology® magazine is a

Saudi Aramco Announces Two New Fields,

Shell and Baker Hughes Venture Going Big

As the company aims to become carbon net zero by 2050, it is

Range Resources Among First Shale Producers

6 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

A Petroleum Engineer’s Role in Reducing Carbon

US LNG Construction Needed To Fuel Energy

The engineering simulation firm announced the successful

Oxy Forms New Company To Pull Carbon Dioxide

JPT • OCTOBER 2020 7

Chapter 1: In the Storm

8 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

Wellbore Software Solutions

Changes Coming to JPT William Bailey, Schlumberger

to give back to their profession. Luigi A. Saputelli, Frontender Corporation

10 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

Changes Coming to JPT

Digitally Transforming Oil Fields

12 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

JPT • OCTOBER 2020 13

Chris Carpenter, JPT Technology Editor

Fig. 2—The Lucida rotary steerable service from Baker

14 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

JPT • OCTOBER 2020 15

Equinor Drilling New Wells in Norwegian

16 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

NexTier delivers dependable, fit-for-purpose completion services across

Make NexTier your next call.

Innovate. Integrate. Accelerate.

18 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

Vietnam Approves Pharos

CNOOC Begins Production

JPT • OCTOBER 2020 19

B y turning up the temperatures

22 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

JPT • OCTOBER 2020 23

24 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

JPT • OCTOBER 2020

Heed the Plugs fracturing. The small

P lugs used in fracturing do more

26 JPT • OCTOBER 2020

<: +/2(07: 5!44753/!4: 3!: 3 7: -700 7,: /4/3/,37: 3 7:

roduction, with the highest emissions